A 25-month-old male with a history of mild reactive airway disease and sickle cell trait was noted by his mother to be breathing slowly and erratically 2 h after being laid down for a nap. Emergency medical services were called and paramedics encountered a pulseless, apneic patient. Cardiopulmonary resuscitation was immediately initiated. Return of spontaneous circulation was achieved in the ambulance on route to our institution’s emergency department.\nOn arrival, physical examination revealed an afebrile toddler, unresponsive to voice or noxious stimulation with agonal respirations, a blood oxygen saturation of 93% with bag-mask-assisted ventilation, and a blood pressure of 99/65 mmHg (mean arterial pressure 76 mmHg). Neurologic examination demonstrated 3 mm, non-reactive pupils and global hyperreflexia. Orotracheal intubation was performed emergently. Initial laboratory evaluation revealed normal electrolytes (Na+ 138 mEq/L, K+ 4.9 mEq/L, Cl− 104 mEq/L, Ionized Ca2+ 5.2 mEq/L), leukocyte count (11,100/mm3), venous blood gases (pH 7.37, PvCO2 44, PvO2 47, 25.7), and serum lactate (0.9 mmol/L). Upon further interrogation, the patient’s mother reported the presence of prescription opiates (extended release morphine) in the household, which she uses for pain control secondary to frequent sickle cell anemia crises. A total of two doses of naloxone (0.1 mg/kg i.v. push each) were administered, after which the patient regained pupillary reactivity and began moving all four extremities spontaneously. A urine toxicology panel was obtained, which was positive for morphine.\nA non-contrast head CT was obtained (Figure B), which revealed acute hydrocephalus and extensive, symmetric bilateral cerebellar hemispheric hypoattenuation consistent with severe cerebellar edema that resulted in compression of the fourth ventricle and displacement of the midbrain and pons superiorly. Cervicomedullary junction compression secondary to cerebellar tonsillar herniation was also noted. Neurosurgery was consulted and the patient was emergently taken to the operating room for the placement of an external ventricular drain, suboccipital craniectomy, and a C1 laminectomy. A significant portion of the edematous and ischemic cerebellar hemispheres and tonsils were resected bilaterally, thereby decompressing the posterior fossa and cervicomedullary junction.\nA brain MRI obtained on postoperative day 1 demonstrated cerebellar and cervicomedullary junction decompression, with extensive restricted diffusion in the remaining cerebellar parenchyma (Figure B). Multifocal areas of diffusion restriction were also noted bilaterally in the anterior cerebral artery-middle cerebral artery and middle cerebral artery-posterior cerebral artery watershed territories involving portions of the frontal, occipital, and temporal lobe white matter. An MRA/MR venogram demonstrated no craniocervical or intracranial arterial abnormalities or evidence of cortical or dural venous sinus thrombosis. The patient was extubated on postoperative day 5. Assessment at postoperative day 18 demonstrated an easily arousable child, with spontaneous eye opening, equally round and reactive pupils, and with purposeful movements of all four extremities.\nOutpatient follow-up at 29 months of age (3 months after presentation) demonstrated an active child speaking in full sentences. He was able to ambulate independently, albeit with a slightly widened base of support, and mild left lower extremity spasticity which did not limit his ability to climb or descend stairs with rail support.
A 41-years-old-man addicted to chronic cocaine and alcohol abuse was admitted to our emergency department in a stuporous state and with urinary incontinence. In the previous 15 days he had developed dysarthria, mutism with a prominent drowsiness and psychomotor disturbances. A brain MRI, abdomen and chest computed tomography (CT) were performed in another hospital. MRI brain scan showed multiple roundish lesions in the periventricular cerebral white matter.\nOn admission, laboratory tests were within normal limits, and the virological screening together with the Quantiferon, HIV and Treponemal tests was negative. Only C-reactive protein value resulted higher than normal (1.18 mg/L).\nA cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) examination revealed a high albumin level, no oligoclonal bands and a normal immunoglobulin G index. The electroencephalogram (EEG) recorded low α and θ waves.\nUrine toxicologic screening test detected low level of cocaine and it was negative for benzodiazepines, barbiturates, oxycodone, amphetamine, methadone and cannabinoids. The patient’s urine samples were not tested for levamisole. No myelin-oligodendrocyte-glycoprotein (MOG) or aquaporin antibodies 4 were documented.\nFirst, the patient underwent a brain CT study which detected multiple hypointense circular lesions in the bihemispheric white matter surrounded by edema.\nBrain MRI revealed multiple well-circumscribed concentric lamellar lesions in the bihemispheric white matter involving the corpus callosum,; these lesions showed alternate bands of iso-/hypointensity on T1-weighted images and alternate hypo-/hyperintensity on T2-weighted/fluid attenuation inversion recovery (FLAIR) images and presented with a rim of restricted diffusion on diffusion-weighted imaging (DWI; b = 1000), more obvious on the edge of the lesions. Apparent diffusion coefficient (ADC) map confirms alternate bands of diffusion restriction, displaying low signal intensity.\nAfter gadolinium intravenous administration, all the lesions demonstrated an “onion-like” patchy enhancement on post-contrast T1-weighted images.\nDouble inversion recovery (DIR) sequences showed more detailed lamellar structure of the lesions than FLAIR images, thanks to high sensitivity in juxta and subcortical lesions detection.\nMR spectroscopy revealed elevated choline and lactate peaks and decreased N-acetylaspartate peak ().\nMRI of the spine showed no evidence of demyelinating lesions. Stereotactic biopsy obtained from frontal right paraventricular lesion showed gliosis and many swollen reactive eosinophilic astrocytes with perivascular cuffing. Axonal stain showed long stretches of intact axon. In addition, perivascular and periventricular macrophages were found (). These pathologic findings supported a possible inflammatory/immune-mediated etiology.\nThe patient was treated with high-dose oral methylprednisolone for 15 consecutive days, after which his clinical symptoms partially improved.