human
***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: In a double-blind , placebo-controlled study we investigated the effects of dietary fish oil supplementation on arterial wall characteristics in 20 patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus . Estimates reflecting compliance values in the large arteries and more peripheral vasculature , as measured by pulse-contour analysis , improved significantly after 6 weeks of fish oil therapy compared with values recorded at baseline and after 6 weeks ' administration of olive oil . The large-artery compliance estimate increased from 1.50 ( confidence interval [ CI ] , 1.31 to 1.69 ) mL/mm Hg at baseline to 1.68 ( CI , 1.52 to 1.84 ) mL/mm Hg after fish oil administration ( P < .01 ) . The oscillatory compliance value increased from 0.015 ( CI , 0.011 to 0.019 ) mL/mm Hg at baseline to 0.022 ( CI , 0.016 to 0.028 ) mL/mm Hg after fish oil ingestion ( P < .05 ) . No changes occurred in arterial blood pressure , cardiac output , stroke volume , or systemic vascular resistance with either intervention . The improved compliance estimates with fish oil ingestion occurred without altering fasting blood glucose and cholesterol concentrations . These results support the hypothesis that fish oils alter vascular reactivity and favorably influence arterial wall characteristics in patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus . These direct vascular effects , expressed at the level of the vessel wall , may contribute to the cardioprotective actions of fish oil in humans Animal studies suggest that the 2 major omega3 fatty acids found in fish , eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) and docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) , may have differential effects on blood pressure ( BP ) and heart rate ( HR ) . The aim of this study was to determine whether there were significant differences in the effects of purified EPA or DHA on ambulatory BP and HR in humans . In a double-blind , placebo-controlled trial of parallel design , 59 overweight , mildly hyperlipidemic men were r and omized to 4 g/d of purified EPA , DHA , or olive oil ( placebo ) capsules and continued their usual diets for 6 weeks . Fifty-six subjects completed the study . Only DHA reduced 24-hour and daytime ( awake ) ambulatory BP ( P<0.05 ) . Relative to the placebo group , 24-hour BP fell 5.8/3.3 ( systolic/diastolic ) mm Hg and daytime BP fell 3.5/2.0 mm Hg with DHA . DHA also significantly reduced 24-hour , daytime , and nighttime ( asleep ) ambulatory HRs ( P=0 . 001 ) . Relative to the placebo group , DHA reduced 24-hour HR by 3 . 5+/-0.8 bpm , daytime HR by 3.7+/-1.2 bpm , and nighttime HR by 2 . 8+/-1.2 . EPA had no significant effect on ambulatory BP or HR . Supplementation with EPA increased plasma phospholipid EPA from 1 . 66+/-0.07 % to 9.83+/-0.06 % ( P<0.0001 ) but did not change DHA levels . Purified DHA capsules increased plasma phospholipid DHA levels from 4.00+/-0.27 % to 10.93+/-0.62 % ( P<0.0001 ) and led to a small , nonsignificant increase in EPA ( 1.52+/-0.12 % to 2.26+/-0.16 % ) . Purified DHA but not EPA reduced ambulatory BP and HR in mildly hyperlipidemic men . The results of this study suggest that DHA is the principal omega3 fatty acid in fish and fish oils that is responsible for their BP- and HR-lowering effects in humans . These results have important implication s for human nutrition and the food industry Fish oils containing both EPA and DHA have been shown to have beneficial cardiovascular effects , but less is known about the independent effects of DHA . This study was design ed to examine the effects of DHA on plasma lipid and lipoprotein concentrations and other biomarkers of cardiovascular risk in the absence of weight loss . In this r and omized , controlled , double-blind trial , 36 overweight or obese adults were treated with 2 g/d of algal DHA or placebo for 4.5 mo . Markers of cardiovascular risk were assessed before and after treatment . In the DHA-supplemented group , the decrease in mean VLDL particle size ( P ≤ 0.001 ) and increases in mean LDL ( P ≤ 0.001 ) and HDL ( P ≤ 0.001 ) particle sizes were significantly greater than changes in the placebo group . DHA supplementation also increased the concentrations of large LDL ( P ≤ 0.001 ) and large HDL particles ( P = 0.001 ) and decreased the concentrations of small LDL ( P = 0.009 ) and medium HDL particles ( P = 0.001 ) . As calculated using NMR-derived data , DHA supplementation reduced VLDL TG ( P = 0.009 ) and total TG concentrations ( P = 0.006 ) . Plasma IL-10 increased with DHA supplementation to a greater extent than placebo ( P = 0.021 ) , but no other significant changes were observed in glucose metabolism , insulin sensitivity , blood pressure , or markers of inflammation with DHA . In summary , DHA supplementation result ed in potentially beneficial changes in some markers of cardiometabolic risk , whereas other markers were unchanged A plant source of omega-3 fatty acid ( FA ) that can raise tissue eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) and /or docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) is needed . A soybean oil ( SBO ) containing approximately 20 % stearidonic acid [ SDA ; the delta-6 desaturase product of alpha-linolenic acid ( ALA ) ] derived from genetically modified soybeans is under development . This study compared the effects of EPA to SDA-SBO on erythrocyte EPA + DHA levels ( the omega-3 index ) . Overweight healthy volunteers ( n = 45 ) were r and omized to SDA-SBO ( 24 ml/day providing ~3.7 g SDA ) or to regular SBO ( control group ) without or with EPA ethyl esters ( ~1 g/day ) for 16 weeks . Serum lipids , blood pressure , heart rate , platelet function and safety laboratory tests were measured along with the omega-3 index . A per- protocol analysis was conducted on 33 subjects ( 11 per group ) . Compared to baseline , average omega-3 index levels increased 19.5 % in the SDA group and 25.4 % in the EPA group ( p < 0.05 for both , vs. control ) . DHA did not change in any group . Relative to EPA , SDA increased RBC EPA with about 17 % efficiency . No other clinical endpoints were affected by SDA or EPA treatment ( vs. control ) . In conclusion , SDA-enriched SBO significantly raised the omega-3 index . Since EPA supplementation has been shown to raise the omega-3 index and to lower risk for cardiac events , SDA-SBO may be a viable plant-based alternative for providing meaningful intakes of cardioprotective omega-3 FAs BACKGROUND Regular exercise and consuming long-chain n-3 fatty acids ( FAs ) from fish or fish oil can independently improve cardiovascular and metabolic health , but combining these lifestyle modifications may be more effective than either treatment alone . OBJECTIVE We examined the individual and combined effects of n-3 FA supplements and regular exercise on body composition and cardiovascular health . DESIGN Overweight volunteers [ body mass index ( BMI ; in kg/m(2 ) ) : > 25 ] with high blood pressure , cholesterol , or triacylglycerols were r and omly assigned to one of the following interventions : fish oil ( FO ) , FO and exercise ( FOX ) , sunflower oil ( SO ; control ) , or SO and exercise ( SOX ) . Subjects consumed 6 g tuna FO/d ( approximately 1.9 g n-3 FA ) or 6 g SO/d . The exercise groups walked 3 d/wk for 45 min at 75 % age-predicted maximal heart rate . Plasma lipids , blood pressure , and arterial function were assessed at 0 , 6 , and 12 wk . Body composition was assessed by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry at 0 and 12 wk only . RESULTS FO supplementation  lowered triacylglycerols , increased HDL cholesterol , and improved endothelium-dependent arterial vasodilation ( P<0.05 ) . Exercise improved arterial compliance ( P<0.05 ) . Both fish oil and exercise independently reduced body fat ( P<0.05 ) . CONCLUSIONS FO supplements and regular exercise both reduce body fat and improve cardiovascular and metabolic health . Increasing intake of n-3 FAs could be a useful adjunct to exercise programs aim ed at improving body composition and decreasing cardiovascular disease risk BACKGROUND The effects of docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) on the mean size and concentrations of VLDL , LDL , and HDL subclasses have not been previously studied . OBJECTIVE We determined the effects of DHA supplementation on the concentrations of apoproteins ; large , medium , and small VLDL , LDL , and HDL particles ; and the mean diameters of these particles in fasting and postpr and ial plasma . DESIGN Hypertriglyceridemic men aged 39 - 66 y ( n = 34 ) participated in a double-blind , r and omized , placebo-controlled parallel study . They received no supplements for the first 8 d and received either 7.5 g DHA oil/d ( 3 g DHA/d ) or olive oil ( placebo ) for the last 90 d. Lipoprotein particle diameters and concentrations were measured by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy . RESULTS DHA supplementation for 45 d significantly ( P < 0.05 ) decreased concentrations of fasting triacylglycerol ( 24 % ) , large VLDL ( 92 % ) , and intermediate-density lipoproteins ( 53 % ) and the mean diameter of VLDL particles ( 11.1 nm ) . It elevated concentrations of LDL cholesterol ( 12.6 % ) , small VLDL particles ( 133 % ) , and large LDL particles ( 120 % ) and the mean diameter of LDL particles ( 0.6 nm ) in fasting plasma . Similar changes were observed for area under the curve for postpr and ial sample s ( 0 - 6 h ) ; however , the number of small dense LDL particles decreased significantly ( 21 % ) , and the change in LDL cholesterol was not significant . Continued supplementation with DHA beyond 45 d caused no further changes ; placebo treatment altered none of the responses tested . CONCLUSION DHA supplementation may improve cardiovascular health by lowering concentrations of triacylglycerols and small , dense LDL particles BACKGROUND Dietary alpha-linolenic acid ( ALA ) can be converted to long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFAs ) in humans and may reproduce some of the beneficial effects of eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) and docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) on cardiovascular disease risk factors . OBJECTIVE This study aim ed to compare the effects of increased dietary intakes of ALA and EPA+DHA on a range of atherogenic risk factors . DESIGN This was a placebo-controlled , parallel study involving 150 moderately hyperlipidemic subjects r and omly assigned to 1 of 5 interventions :  0.8 or 1.7 g EPA+DHA/d  , 4.5 or 9.5 g ALA/d , or an n-6 PUFA control for 6 mo . Fatty acids were incorporated into 25 g of fat spread and 3 capsules to be consumed daily . RESULTS The change in fasting or postpr and ial lipid , glucose , or insulin concentrations or in blood pressure was not significantly different after any of the n-3 PUFA interventions compared with the n-6 PUFA control . The mean ( + /- SEM ) change in fasting triacylglycerols after the 1.7-g/d EPA+DHA intervention ( -7.7 + /- 4.99 % ) was significantly ( P < 0.05 ) different from the change after the 9.5-g/d ALA intervention ( 10.9 + /- 4.5 % ) . The ex vivo susceptibility of LDL to oxidation was higher after the 1.7-g/d EPA+DHA intervention than after the control and ALA interventions ( P < 0.05 ) . There was no significant change in plasma alpha-tocopherol concentrations or in whole plasma antioxidant status in any of the groups . CONCLUSION At estimated biologically equivalent intakes , dietary ALA and EPA+DHA have different physiologic effects BACKGROUND An increase in plasma n-3 fatty acid content , particularly eicosapentaenoic acid ( 20:5n-3 ; EPA ) and docosahexaenoic acid ( 22:6n-3 ; DHA ) , is observed after consumption of fish oil-enriched supplements . Because alpha-linolenic acid ( 18:3n-3 ; ALA ) is 
    Output:
    
agent
***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: In a double-blind , placebo-controlled study we investigated the effects of dietary fish oil supplementation on arterial wall characteristics in 20 patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus . Estimates reflecting compliance values in the large arteries and more peripheral vasculature , as measured by pulse-contour analysis , improved significantly after 6 weeks of fish oil therapy compared with values recorded at baseline and after 6 weeks ' administration of olive oil . The large-artery compliance estimate increased from 1.50 ( confidence interval [ CI ] , 1.31 to 1.69 ) mL/mm Hg at baseline to 1.68 ( CI , 1.52 to 1.84 ) mL/mm Hg after fish oil administration ( P < .01 ) . The oscillatory compliance value increased from 0.015 ( CI , 0.011 to 0.019 ) mL/mm Hg at baseline to 0.022 ( CI , 0.016 to 0.028 ) mL/mm Hg after fish oil ingestion ( P < .05 ) . No changes occurred in arterial blood pressure , cardiac output , stroke volume , or systemic vascular resistance with either intervention . The improved compliance estimates with fish oil ingestion occurred without altering fasting blood glucose and cholesterol concentrations . These results support the hypothesis that fish oils alter vascular reactivity and favorably influence arterial wall characteristics in patients with non-insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus . These direct vascular effects , expressed at the level of the vessel wall , may contribute to the cardioprotective actions of fish oil in humans Animal studies suggest that the 2 major omega3 fatty acids found in fish , eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) and docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) , may have differential effects on blood pressure ( BP ) and heart rate ( HR ) . The aim of this study was to determine whether there were significant differences in the effects of purified EPA or DHA on ambulatory BP and HR in humans . In a double-blind , placebo-controlled trial of parallel design , 59 overweight , mildly hyperlipidemic men were r and omized to 4 g/d of purified EPA , DHA , or olive oil ( placebo ) capsules and continued their usual diets for 6 weeks . Fifty-six subjects completed the study . Only DHA reduced 24-hour and daytime ( awake ) ambulatory BP ( P<0.05 ) . Relative to the placebo group , 24-hour BP fell 5.8/3.3 ( systolic/diastolic ) mm Hg and daytime BP fell 3.5/2.0 mm Hg with DHA . DHA also significantly reduced 24-hour , daytime , and nighttime ( asleep ) ambulatory HRs ( P=0 . 001 ) . Relative to the placebo group , DHA reduced 24-hour HR by 3 . 5+/-0.8 bpm , daytime HR by 3.7+/-1.2 bpm , and nighttime HR by 2 . 8+/-1.2 . EPA had no significant effect on ambulatory BP or HR . Supplementation with EPA increased plasma phospholipid EPA from 1 . 66+/-0.07 % to 9.83+/-0.06 % ( P<0.0001 ) but did not change DHA levels . Purified DHA capsules increased plasma phospholipid DHA levels from 4.00+/-0.27 % to 10.93+/-0.62 % ( P<0.0001 ) and led to a small , nonsignificant increase in EPA ( 1.52+/-0.12 % to 2.26+/-0.16 % ) . Purified DHA but not EPA reduced ambulatory BP and HR in mildly hyperlipidemic men . The results of this study suggest that DHA is the principal omega3 fatty acid in fish and fish oils that is responsible for their BP- and HR-lowering effects in humans . These results have important implication s for human nutrition and the food industry Fish oils containing both EPA and DHA have been shown to have beneficial cardiovascular effects , but less is known about the independent effects of DHA . This study was design ed to examine the effects of DHA on plasma lipid and lipoprotein concentrations and other biomarkers of cardiovascular risk in the absence of weight loss . In this r and omized , controlled , double-blind trial , 36 overweight or obese adults were treated with 2 g/d of algal DHA or placebo for 4.5 mo . Markers of cardiovascular risk were assessed before and after treatment . In the DHA-supplemented group , the decrease in mean VLDL particle size ( P ≤ 0.001 ) and increases in mean LDL ( P ≤ 0.001 ) and HDL ( P ≤ 0.001 ) particle sizes were significantly greater than changes in the placebo group . DHA supplementation also increased the concentrations of large LDL ( P ≤ 0.001 ) and large HDL particles ( P = 0.001 ) and decreased the concentrations of small LDL ( P = 0.009 ) and medium HDL particles ( P = 0.001 ) . As calculated using NMR-derived data , DHA supplementation reduced VLDL TG ( P = 0.009 ) and total TG concentrations ( P = 0.006 ) . Plasma IL-10 increased with DHA supplementation to a greater extent than placebo ( P = 0.021 ) , but no other significant changes were observed in glucose metabolism , insulin sensitivity , blood pressure , or markers of inflammation with DHA . In summary , DHA supplementation result ed in potentially beneficial changes in some markers of cardiometabolic risk , whereas other markers were unchanged A plant source of omega-3 fatty acid ( FA ) that can raise tissue eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) and /or docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) is needed . A soybean oil ( SBO ) containing approximately 20 % stearidonic acid [ SDA ; the delta-6 desaturase product of alpha-linolenic acid ( ALA ) ] derived from genetically modified soybeans is under development . This study compared the effects of EPA to SDA-SBO on erythrocyte EPA + DHA levels ( the omega-3 index ) . Overweight healthy volunteers ( n = 45 ) were r and omized to SDA-SBO ( 24 ml/day providing ~3.7 g SDA ) or to regular SBO ( control group ) without or with EPA ethyl esters ( ~1 g/day ) for 16 weeks . Serum lipids , blood pressure , heart rate , platelet function and safety laboratory tests were measured along with the omega-3 index . A per- protocol analysis was conducted on 33 subjects ( 11 per group ) . Compared to baseline , average omega-3 index levels increased 19.5 % in the SDA group and 25.4 % in the EPA group ( p < 0.05 for both , vs. control ) . DHA did not change in any group . Relative to EPA , SDA increased RBC EPA with about 17 % efficiency . No other clinical endpoints were affected by SDA or EPA treatment ( vs. control ) . In conclusion , SDA-enriched SBO significantly raised the omega-3 index . Since EPA supplementation has been shown to raise the omega-3 index and to lower risk for cardiac events , SDA-SBO may be a viable plant-based alternative for providing meaningful intakes of cardioprotective omega-3 FAs BACKGROUND Regular exercise and consuming long-chain n-3 fatty acids ( FAs ) from fish or fish oil can independently improve cardiovascular and metabolic health , but combining these lifestyle modifications may be more effective than either treatment alone . OBJECTIVE We examined the individual and combined effects of n-3 FA supplements and regular exercise on body composition and cardiovascular health . DESIGN Overweight volunteers [ body mass index ( BMI ; in kg/m(2 ) ) : > 25 ] with high blood pressure , cholesterol , or triacylglycerols were r and omly assigned to one of the following interventions : fish oil ( FO ) , FO and exercise ( FOX ) , sunflower oil ( SO ; control ) , or SO and exercise ( SOX ) . Subjects consumed 6 g tuna FO/d ( approximately 1.9 g n-3 FA ) or 6 g SO/d . The exercise groups walked 3 d/wk for 45 min at 75 % age-predicted maximal heart rate . Plasma lipids , blood pressure , and arterial function were assessed at 0 , 6 , and 12 wk . Body composition was assessed by dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry at 0 and 12 wk only . RESULTS FO supplementation  lowered triacylglycerols , increased HDL cholesterol , and improved endothelium-dependent arterial vasodilation ( P<0.05 ) . Exercise improved arterial compliance ( P<0.05 ) . Both fish oil and exercise independently reduced body fat ( P<0.05 ) . CONCLUSIONS FO supplements and regular exercise both reduce body fat and improve cardiovascular and metabolic health . Increasing intake of n-3 FAs could be a useful adjunct to exercise programs aim ed at improving body composition and decreasing cardiovascular disease risk BACKGROUND The effects of docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) on the mean size and concentrations of VLDL , LDL , and HDL subclasses have not been previously studied . OBJECTIVE We determined the effects of DHA supplementation on the concentrations of apoproteins ; large , medium , and small VLDL , LDL , and HDL particles ; and the mean diameters of these particles in fasting and postpr and ial plasma . DESIGN Hypertriglyceridemic men aged 39 - 66 y ( n = 34 ) participated in a double-blind , r and omized , placebo-controlled parallel study . They received no supplements for the first 8 d and received either 7.5 g DHA oil/d ( 3 g DHA/d ) or olive oil ( placebo ) for the last 90 d. Lipoprotein particle diameters and concentrations were measured by nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy . RESULTS DHA supplementation for 45 d significantly ( P < 0.05 ) decreased concentrations of fasting triacylglycerol ( 24 % ) , large VLDL ( 92 % ) , and intermediate-density lipoproteins ( 53 % ) and the mean diameter of VLDL particles ( 11.1 nm ) . It elevated concentrations of LDL cholesterol ( 12.6 % ) , small VLDL particles ( 133 % ) , and large LDL particles ( 120 % ) and the mean diameter of LDL particles ( 0.6 nm ) in fasting plasma . Similar changes were observed for area under the curve for postpr and ial sample s ( 0 - 6 h ) ; however , the number of small dense LDL particles decreased significantly ( 21 % ) , and the change in LDL cholesterol was not significant . Continued supplementation with DHA beyond 45 d caused no further changes ; placebo treatment altered none of the responses tested . CONCLUSION DHA supplementation may improve cardiovascular health by lowering concentrations of triacylglycerols and small , dense LDL particles BACKGROUND Dietary alpha-linolenic acid ( ALA ) can be converted to long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFAs ) in humans and may reproduce some of the beneficial effects of eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) and docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) on cardiovascular disease risk factors . OBJECTIVE This study aim ed to compare the effects of increased dietary intakes of ALA and EPA+DHA on a range of atherogenic risk factors . DESIGN This was a placebo-controlled , parallel study involving 150 moderately hyperlipidemic subjects r and omly assigned to 1 of 5 interventions :  0.8 or 1.7 g EPA+DHA/d  , 4.5 or 9.5 g ALA/d , or an n-6 PUFA control for 6 mo . Fatty acids were incorporated into 25 g of fat spread and 3 capsules to be consumed daily . RESULTS The change in fasting or postpr and ial lipid , glucose , or insulin concentrations or in blood pressure was not significantly different after any of the n-3 PUFA interventions compared with the n-6 PUFA control . The mean ( + /- SEM ) change in fasting triacylglycerols after the 1.7-g/d EPA+DHA intervention ( -7.7 + /- 4.99 % ) was significantly ( P < 0.05 ) different from the change after the 9.5-g/d ALA intervention ( 10.9 + /- 4.5 % ) . The ex vivo susceptibility of LDL to oxidation was higher after the 1.7-g/d EPA+DHA intervention than after the control and ALA interventions ( P < 0.05 ) . There was no significant change in plasma alpha-tocopherol concentrations or in whole plasma antioxidant status in any of the groups . CONCLUSION At estimated biologically equivalent intakes , dietary ALA and EPA+DHA have different physiologic effects BACKGROUND An increase in plasma n-3 fatty acid content , particularly eicosapentaenoic acid ( 20:5n-3 ; EPA ) and docosahexaenoic acid ( 22:6n-3 ; DHA ) , is observed after consumption of fish oil-enriched supplements . Because alpha-linolenic acid ( 18:3n-3 ; ALA ) is 
    Output:
    