human
***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: Objectives To compare long term outcomes of a r and omised controlled trial of anti‐smoking education in pregnancy and to examine the same outcomes according to  maternal pregnancy smoking behaviour Maternal smoking is considered to be a risk factor for low birth weight . It is hypothesized that alteration in leptin concentration may be associated with reduced fetal growth . In this study , we assess the effect of smoking during pregnancy on maternal and neonatal serum leptin concentrations , and also on breast milk leptin levels . When the infants were brought to routine physical examination at 7 days old , blood sample s and breast milk specimens were taken for leptin measurement from mothers who smoked during pregnancy and their newborns . Nonsmoking mothers and their infants were recruited r and omly over the same period as a control group . Maternal age , number of pregnancy , weight of the mothers , birth weight , and gestational age of the infants were similar in both groups ( p > 0.05 ) . There was no significant difference between groups in maternal serum and breast milk leptin levels ( p = 0.14 and p = 0.96 , respectively ) . However , serum leptin levels were found significantly lower in neonates born to smoking mothers compared with infants born to nonsmoking mothers ( p = 0.02 ) . Our findings suggest that maternal smoking dose not have an effect on maternal serum and breast milk leptin levels but decreases neonatal serum leptin concentration independent of birth weight BACKGROUND Data from several studies indicate that children of mothers who smoked during pregnancy may be at a risk of overweight compared with children of non-smoking mothers . The size of this relation , however , is unclear , as is the age at which it becomes detectable . METHODS Prospect i ve data for 34 866 children enrolled in the US Collaborative Perinatal Project were analysed to examine  maternal pregnancy smoking in relation to weight , height , and body mass index ( BMI ) in offspring at ages 1 , 3 , 4 , 7 , and 8 years . RESULTS Compared with offspring of non-smokers , children of smokers had ( i ) weight that was lower at birth but then quickly equalled or exceeded that of non-smokers , ( ii ) consistently decreased height , and ( iii ) increased risk of overweight , particularly in girls . For example , at age 7 years , the adjusted odds ratio of BMI > or=85th percentile in boys of mothers who smoked on an average > or=20 cigarettes per day while pregnant was 1.22 ( 95 % confidence interval 1.03 - 1.46 ) , and in girls it was 1.30 ( 1.08 - 1.56 ) . CONCLUSIONS In these data , maternal smoking during pregnancy was associated with a modest increase in risk of overweight in children before the age of 8 years Abstract Objective To identify risk factors in early life ( up to 3 years of age ) for obesity in children in the United Kingdom . Design Prospect i ve cohort study . Setting Avon longitudinal study of parents and children , United Kingdom . Participants 8234 children in cohort aged 7 years and a sub sample of 909 children ( children in focus ) with data on additional early growth related risk factors for obesity . Main outcome measures Obesity at age 7 years , defined as a body mass index 3 95th centile relative to reference data for the UK population in 1990 . Results Eight of 25 putative risk factors were associated with a risk of obesity in the final models : parental obesity ( both parents : adjusted odds ratio , 10.44 , 95 % confidence interval 5.11 to 21.32 ) , very early ( by 43 months ) body mass index or adiposity rebound ( 15.00 , 5.32 to 42.30 ) , more than eight hours spent watching television per week at age 3 years ( 1.55 , 1.13 to 2.12 ) , catch-up growth ( 2.60 , 1.09 to 6.16 ) , st and ard deviation score for weight at age 8 months ( 3.13 , 1.43 to 6.85 ) and 18 months ( 2.65 , 1.25 to 5.59 ) ; weight gain in first year ( 1.06 , 1.02 to 1.10 per 100 g increase ) ; birth weight , per 100 g ( 1.05 , 1.03 to 1.07 ) ; and short ( < 10.5 hours ) sleep duration at age 3 years ( 1.45 , 1.10 to 1.89 ) . Conclusion Eight factors in early life are associated with an increased risk of obesity in childhood The effects of anti‐smoking health education during pregnancy on smoking behaviour and the subsequent infant 's size at birth were investigated in a controlled trial . It was found that the planned educational intervention was incompletely carried out and was given more effectively to primigravidae in whom subsequent reduction of smoking was more evident . The effects of educative intervention on size at birth were therefore analysed for first and later pregnancies separately . The differences in birthweight and length between the intervention and control groups were concentrated almost entirely among the first born infants who were 68 g heavier and 0–75 cm longer in the intervention group than the first born infants in the control group Background —We examined the associations of a range of parental and early life characteristics with  systolic blood pressure  at 5 years of age . Methods and Results —Information from 3864 children who were followed up prospect ively from their mother ’s first antenatal clinic assessment was used . Maternal age , body mass index , and smoking during pregnancy were all positively associated with offspring systolic blood pressure at 5 years of age . The systolic blood pressure of children whose mothers had smoked throughout pregnancy was on average 0.92 mm Hg ( 95 % CI 0.17 to 1.68 ) greater than that of children whose mothers had never smoked , after full adjustment . Children who had been breast fed until at least 6 months had lower systolic blood pressure than those who were breast fed for a shorter duration . Paternal body mass index and child ’s weight , height , and body mass index were all positively associated with blood pressure at age 5 . Conclusions —Because childhood blood pressure tracks into adulthood , interventions aim ed at early life risk factors , such as quitting smoking during pregnancy , breast feeding , and prevention of obesity in all family members , may be important for reducing the population distribution of blood pressure and thus cardiovascular disease risk The objective of this study was to examine a possible association between maternal smoking in pregnancy and childhood overweight . From a population -based cohort of 5722 women from Trondheim , Bergen ( Norway ) and Uppsala ( Sweden ) enrolled in early pregnancy during 1986 - 92 , a r and om sample of 482 women was selected for participation . They were followed up throughout pregnancy , and their children from birth until 5 years of age . Data on maternal smoking  and  diet  ,  socio-economic determinants and breast feeding were recorded prospect ively . During pregnancy and childhood , anthropometric measures were also recorded . Maternal smoking status was based on reported number of cigarettes smoked in week 17 of pregnancy . Child overweight was defined by body mass index ( BMI ) and sum of skinfold thickness ( SFT ) > or= 85th percentile at 5 years of age . Children of mothers who smoked in pregnancy had increased risk of overweight at 5 years of age ( RR 2.5 , 95 % CI 1.5 , 4.2 for BMI ; and RR 1.8 , 95 % CI 1.1 , 3.0 for SFT ) . Adjusting for maternal diet , breast feeding , maternal obesity and socio-economic status did not suggest confounding . However , adjustment for birthweight increased the observed risk . A linear increase in BMI and SFT was observed with increasing number of cigarettes smoked . In conclusion , smoking during pregnancy may be a risk factor for development of childhood overweight . This study may support the hypothesis of ' fetal origin of adult disease ' , but the risk of overweight associated with smoking during pregnancy was independent of intrauterine growth retardation , and may thus be attributed to specific effects of cigarette smoke Objective : To examine the association between  maternal smoking during pregnancy and the development of smoking behaviour patterns among young adult offspring . Method : Data were from the Mater-University of Queensl and Study of Pregnancy ( MUSP ) , a birth cohort of 7223 mothers and children enrolled in Brisbane , Australia , in 1981 . The development of smoking behaviours ( early or late onset , or combination of onset and prevalence patterns ) among offspring at age 21 years with different patterns of maternal smoking ( never  smoked , smoked before or after pregnancy but not during pregnancy , or smoked during pregnancy ) were compared . Maternal smoking information was derived from the prospect ively collected data from the beginning of pregnancy until the child was 14 years of age . Analyses were restricted to the 3058 mothers and children whose smoking status was reported . Results : The proportion of young adults who smoked regularly , either with early onset or late onset , was greater among those whose mothers had smoked during pregnancy compared with those whose mothers had never smoked . The smoking patterns among those adolescent offspring whose mothers stopped smoking during pregnancy , but who then smoked at other times during the child ’s life , were similar to those whose mothers had never smoked . This association was robust to adjustment for a variety of potential covariates . Conclusions : The findings provide some evidence for a direct effect of maternal smoking in utero on the development of smoking behaviour patterns of offspring and provide yet another incentive to persuade pregnant women not to smoke This is a prospect i ve study of prenatal substance use . Women were interviewed during their fourth and seventh months of pregnancy , at delivery , and at 8 , 18 , and 36 months postpartum . At birth , there were 763 liveborn , singleton offspring in the sample . At each phase , the offspring were examined and measured for growth . Data are presented on the relationship between tobacco and marijuana use and the size of the offspring  at birth , 8 , 18 , and 36 months of age . At birth , there was a significant inverse relationship between tobacco use and weight , length , and head circumference . At 8 months of age , only length continued to be associated with prenatal tobacco exposure . By 18 months of age , there was no relationship between prenatal tobacco exposure and size of the offspring . Prenatal marijuana exposure was only associated with decreased length at birth . Neither tobacco nor marijuana use predicted gestational age or morphological abnormalities Leptin , a hormone produced in adipose tissue and placenta , is potentially important in relation to energy metabolism and growth . We investigated the effect of cigarette smoking on maternal plasma leptin concentration during pregnancy , and on plasma leptin concentration and weight among infants up to 13 wk of age . Plasma leptin concentration was measured in women in week 18 ( n= 203 ) and week 35 ( n=164 ) of pregnancy , while cotinine ( nicotine metabolite ) was measured in plasma sample d from mothers in week 35 of pregnancy ( n= 159 ) . Leptin concentration was also measured in plasma from the umbilical cord ( n= 133 ) and from 4‐wk‐old ( n= 129 ) and 13‐wk‐old ( n= 130 ) infants . There was no difference in plasma leptin concentration between smoking and non‐smoking mothers at 18 wk and at 35 wk of pregnancy . Plasma cotinine concentration was higher in smoking than in non‐smoking mothers , and a negative correlation between plasma cotinine and leptin concentrations was found . The leptin concentrations in umbilical cord plasma were similar , although the birthweights of newborns from smoking mothers were significantly lower than those from non‐smoking mothers . The plasma leptin concentrations were similar between the two groups also at 4 wk of age . At 13 wk of age , infants of smoking mothers had significantly higher plasma leptin concentrations than infants of non‐smoking mothers OBJECTIVE To examine the extent to which  maternal prenatal smoking  is associated with adiposity , central adiposity , and blood pressure in 3-year-old children . RESEARCH METHODS AND PROCEDURES We studied 746 mother-child pairs in Project Viva , a prospect i ve cohort study , and categorized mothers as never , early pregnancy , or former smokers . Main outcome measures were overweight ( BMI for age and sex > 85th percentile ) , BMI z-score , sum of subscapular ( SS ) and triceps ( TR ) skinfolds , SS : TR skinfold ratio , and systolic blood pressure ( SBP ) . RESULTS One hundred sixty-one ( 22 % ) mothers quit smoking before pregnancy , 71 ( 10 % ) smoked in early pregnancy , and 514 ( 69 % ) never smoked . At age 3 years , 204 ( 27 % ) children were overweight . On multivariable analysis , compared with children of never smokers , children of early pregnancy smokers had an elevated risk for overweight [ odds ratio ( OR ) , 2.2 ; 95 % confidence interval ( CI ) , 1.2 , 3.9 ] and higher BMI z-score ( 0.30 units ; 95 % CI , 0.05 , 0.55 ) , SS + TR ( 2.0 mm ; 95 % CI , 0.9 , 3 
    Output:
    
agent
***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: Objectives To compare long term outcomes of a r and omised controlled trial of anti‐smoking education in pregnancy and to examine the same outcomes according to  maternal pregnancy smoking behaviour Maternal smoking is considered to be a risk factor for low birth weight . It is hypothesized that alteration in leptin concentration may be associated with reduced fetal growth . In this study , we assess the effect of smoking during pregnancy on maternal and neonatal serum leptin concentrations , and also on breast milk leptin levels . When the infants were brought to routine physical examination at 7 days old , blood sample s and breast milk specimens were taken for leptin measurement from mothers who smoked during pregnancy and their newborns . Nonsmoking mothers and their infants were recruited r and omly over the same period as a control group . Maternal age , number of pregnancy , weight of the mothers , birth weight , and gestational age of the infants were similar in both groups ( p > 0.05 ) . There was no significant difference between groups in maternal serum and breast milk leptin levels ( p = 0.14 and p = 0.96 , respectively ) . However , serum leptin levels were found significantly lower in neonates born to smoking mothers compared with infants born to nonsmoking mothers ( p = 0.02 ) . Our findings suggest that maternal smoking dose not have an effect on maternal serum and breast milk leptin levels but decreases neonatal serum leptin concentration independent of birth weight BACKGROUND Data from several studies indicate that children of mothers who smoked during pregnancy may be at a risk of overweight compared with children of non-smoking mothers . The size of this relation , however , is unclear , as is the age at which it becomes detectable . METHODS Prospect i ve data for 34 866 children enrolled in the US Collaborative Perinatal Project were analysed to examine  maternal pregnancy smoking in relation to weight , height , and body mass index ( BMI ) in offspring at ages 1 , 3 , 4 , 7 , and 8 years . RESULTS Compared with offspring of non-smokers , children of smokers had ( i ) weight that was lower at birth but then quickly equalled or exceeded that of non-smokers , ( ii ) consistently decreased height , and ( iii ) increased risk of overweight , particularly in girls . For example , at age 7 years , the adjusted odds ratio of BMI > or=85th percentile in boys of mothers who smoked on an average > or=20 cigarettes per day while pregnant was 1.22 ( 95 % confidence interval 1.03 - 1.46 ) , and in girls it was 1.30 ( 1.08 - 1.56 ) . CONCLUSIONS In these data , maternal smoking during pregnancy was associated with a modest increase in risk of overweight in children before the age of 8 years Abstract Objective To identify risk factors in early life ( up to 3 years of age ) for obesity in children in the United Kingdom . Design Prospect i ve cohort study . Setting Avon longitudinal study of parents and children , United Kingdom . Participants 8234 children in cohort aged 7 years and a sub sample of 909 children ( children in focus ) with data on additional early growth related risk factors for obesity . Main outcome measures Obesity at age 7 years , defined as a body mass index 3 95th centile relative to reference data for the UK population in 1990 . Results Eight of 25 putative risk factors were associated with a risk of obesity in the final models : parental obesity ( both parents : adjusted odds ratio , 10.44 , 95 % confidence interval 5.11 to 21.32 ) , very early ( by 43 months ) body mass index or adiposity rebound ( 15.00 , 5.32 to 42.30 ) , more than eight hours spent watching television per week at age 3 years ( 1.55 , 1.13 to 2.12 ) , catch-up growth ( 2.60 , 1.09 to 6.16 ) , st and ard deviation score for weight at age 8 months ( 3.13 , 1.43 to 6.85 ) and 18 months ( 2.65 , 1.25 to 5.59 ) ; weight gain in first year ( 1.06 , 1.02 to 1.10 per 100 g increase ) ; birth weight , per 100 g ( 1.05 , 1.03 to 1.07 ) ; and short ( < 10.5 hours ) sleep duration at age 3 years ( 1.45 , 1.10 to 1.89 ) . Conclusion Eight factors in early life are associated with an increased risk of obesity in childhood The effects of anti‐smoking health education during pregnancy on smoking behaviour and the subsequent infant 's size at birth were investigated in a controlled trial . It was found that the planned educational intervention was incompletely carried out and was given more effectively to primigravidae in whom subsequent reduction of smoking was more evident . The effects of educative intervention on size at birth were therefore analysed for first and later pregnancies separately . The differences in birthweight and length between the intervention and control groups were concentrated almost entirely among the first born infants who were 68 g heavier and 0–75 cm longer in the intervention group than the first born infants in the control group Background —We examined the associations of a range of parental and early life characteristics with  systolic blood pressure  at 5 years of age . Methods and Results —Information from 3864 children who were followed up prospect ively from their mother ’s first antenatal clinic assessment was used . Maternal age , body mass index , and smoking during pregnancy were all positively associated with offspring systolic blood pressure at 5 years of age . The systolic blood pressure of children whose mothers had smoked throughout pregnancy was on average 0.92 mm Hg ( 95 % CI 0.17 to 1.68 ) greater than that of children whose mothers had never smoked , after full adjustment . Children who had been breast fed until at least 6 months had lower systolic blood pressure than those who were breast fed for a shorter duration . Paternal body mass index and child ’s weight , height , and body mass index were all positively associated with blood pressure at age 5 . Conclusions —Because childhood blood pressure tracks into adulthood , interventions aim ed at early life risk factors , such as quitting smoking during pregnancy , breast feeding , and prevention of obesity in all family members , may be important for reducing the population distribution of blood pressure and thus cardiovascular disease risk The objective of this study was to examine a possible association between maternal smoking in pregnancy and childhood overweight . From a population -based cohort of 5722 women from Trondheim , Bergen ( Norway ) and Uppsala ( Sweden ) enrolled in early pregnancy during 1986 - 92 , a r and om sample of 482 women was selected for participation . They were followed up throughout pregnancy , and their children from birth until 5 years of age . Data on maternal smoking  and  diet  ,  socio-economic determinants and breast feeding were recorded prospect ively . During pregnancy and childhood , anthropometric measures were also recorded . Maternal smoking status was based on reported number of cigarettes smoked in week 17 of pregnancy . Child overweight was defined by body mass index ( BMI ) and sum of skinfold thickness ( SFT ) > or= 85th percentile at 5 years of age . Children of mothers who smoked in pregnancy had increased risk of overweight at 5 years of age ( RR 2.5 , 95 % CI 1.5 , 4.2 for BMI ; and RR 1.8 , 95 % CI 1.1 , 3.0 for SFT ) . Adjusting for maternal diet , breast feeding , maternal obesity and socio-economic status did not suggest confounding . However , adjustment for birthweight increased the observed risk . A linear increase in BMI and SFT was observed with increasing number of cigarettes smoked . In conclusion , smoking during pregnancy may be a risk factor for development of childhood overweight . This study may support the hypothesis of ' fetal origin of adult disease ' , but the risk of overweight associated with smoking during pregnancy was independent of intrauterine growth retardation , and may thus be attributed to specific effects of cigarette smoke Objective : To examine the association between  maternal smoking during pregnancy and the development of smoking behaviour patterns among young adult offspring . Method : Data were from the Mater-University of Queensl and Study of Pregnancy ( MUSP ) , a birth cohort of 7223 mothers and children enrolled in Brisbane , Australia , in 1981 . The development of smoking behaviours ( early or late onset , or combination of onset and prevalence patterns ) among offspring at age 21 years with different patterns of maternal smoking ( never  smoked , smoked before or after pregnancy but not during pregnancy , or smoked during pregnancy ) were compared . Maternal smoking information was derived from the prospect ively collected data from the beginning of pregnancy until the child was 14 years of age . Analyses were restricted to the 3058 mothers and children whose smoking status was reported . Results : The proportion of young adults who smoked regularly , either with early onset or late onset , was greater among those whose mothers had smoked during pregnancy compared with those whose mothers had never smoked . The smoking patterns among those adolescent offspring whose mothers stopped smoking during pregnancy , but who then smoked at other times during the child ’s life , were similar to those whose mothers had never smoked . This association was robust to adjustment for a variety of potential covariates . Conclusions : The findings provide some evidence for a direct effect of maternal smoking in utero on the development of smoking behaviour patterns of offspring and provide yet another incentive to persuade pregnant women not to smoke This is a prospect i ve study of prenatal substance use . Women were interviewed during their fourth and seventh months of pregnancy , at delivery , and at 8 , 18 , and 36 months postpartum . At birth , there were 763 liveborn , singleton offspring in the sample . At each phase , the offspring were examined and measured for growth . Data are presented on the relationship between tobacco and marijuana use and the size of the offspring  at birth , 8 , 18 , and 36 months of age . At birth , there was a significant inverse relationship between tobacco use and weight , length , and head circumference . At 8 months of age , only length continued to be associated with prenatal tobacco exposure . By 18 months of age , there was no relationship between prenatal tobacco exposure and size of the offspring . Prenatal marijuana exposure was only associated with decreased length at birth . Neither tobacco nor marijuana use predicted gestational age or morphological abnormalities Leptin , a hormone produced in adipose tissue and placenta , is potentially important in relation to energy metabolism and growth . We investigated the effect of cigarette smoking on maternal plasma leptin concentration during pregnancy , and on plasma leptin concentration and weight among infants up to 13 wk of age . Plasma leptin concentration was measured in women in week 18 ( n= 203 ) and week 35 ( n=164 ) of pregnancy , while cotinine ( nicotine metabolite ) was measured in plasma sample d from mothers in week 35 of pregnancy ( n= 159 ) . Leptin concentration was also measured in plasma from the umbilical cord ( n= 133 ) and from 4‐wk‐old ( n= 129 ) and 13‐wk‐old ( n= 130 ) infants . There was no difference in plasma leptin concentration between smoking and non‐smoking mothers at 18 wk and at 35 wk of pregnancy . Plasma cotinine concentration was higher in smoking than in non‐smoking mothers , and a negative correlation between plasma cotinine and leptin concentrations was found . The leptin concentrations in umbilical cord plasma were similar , although the birthweights of newborns from smoking mothers were significantly lower than those from non‐smoking mothers . The plasma leptin concentrations were similar between the two groups also at 4 wk of age . At 13 wk of age , infants of smoking mothers had significantly higher plasma leptin concentrations than infants of non‐smoking mothers OBJECTIVE To examine the extent to which  maternal prenatal smoking  is associated with adiposity , central adiposity , and blood pressure in 3-year-old children . RESEARCH METHODS AND PROCEDURES We studied 746 mother-child pairs in Project Viva , a prospect i ve cohort study , and categorized mothers as never , early pregnancy , or former smokers . Main outcome measures were overweight ( BMI for age and sex > 85th percentile ) , BMI z-score , sum of subscapular ( SS ) and triceps ( TR ) skinfolds , SS : TR skinfold ratio , and systolic blood pressure ( SBP ) . RESULTS One hundred sixty-one ( 22 % ) mothers quit smoking before pregnancy , 71 ( 10 % ) smoked in early pregnancy , and 514 ( 69 % ) never smoked . At age 3 years , 204 ( 27 % ) children were overweight . On multivariable analysis , compared with children of never smokers , children of early pregnancy smokers had an elevated risk for overweight [ odds ratio ( OR ) , 2.2 ; 95 % confidence interval ( CI ) , 1.2 , 3.9 ] and higher BMI z-score ( 0.30 units ; 95 % CI , 0.05 , 0.55 ) , SS + TR ( 2.0 mm ; 95 % CI , 0.9 , 3 
    Output:
    