human
***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: BACKGROUND The reason for the low life expectancy in Russian men and large fluctuations in mortality are unknown . We investigated the contribution of alcohol , and hazardous drinking in particular , to male mortality in a typical Russian city . METHODS Cases were all deaths in men aged 25 - 54 years living in Izhevsk occurring between Oct 20 , 2003 , to Oct 3 , 2005 . Controls were selected at r and om from the city population and were frequency matched to deaths by age . Interviews with proxy informants living in the same household as cases were done between Dec 11 , 2003 , and Nov , 16 2005 , and were obtained for 62 % ( 1750/2835 ) of cases and 57 % ( 1750/3078 ) of controls . We ascertained frequency and usual amount of beer , wine , and spirits consumed and frequency of consumption of manufactured ethanol-based liquids not intended to be drunk ( non-beverage alcohol ) , and markers of problem drinking . Complete information on markers of problem drinking , frequency of alcohol consumption , education , and smoking was available for 1468 cases and 1496 controls . FINDINGS 751 ( 51 % ) cases were classed as problem drinkers or drank non-beverage alcohol , compared with 192 ( 13 % ) controls . The mortality odds ratio ( OR ) for these men , compared with those who either abstained or were non-problematic beverage drinkers , was 6.0 ( 95 % CI 5.0 - 7.3 ) after adjustment for smoking and education . The mortality ORs for drinking non-beverage alcohol in the past year ( yes vs no ) was 9.2 ( 7.2 - 11.7 ) after adjustment for age . Adjustment for volume of ethanol consumed from beverages lowered the OR to 8.3 ( 6.5 - 10.7 ) , and further adjustment for education and smoking reduced it to 7.0 ( 5.5 - 9.0 ) . A strong direct gradient with mortality was seen for frequency of non-beverage alcohol drinking independent of volume of beverage ethanol consumed . 43 % of mortality was attributable to hazardous drinking ( problem drinking or non-beverage alcohol consumption , or both ) adjusted for smoking and education . INTERPRETATION Almost half of all deaths in working age men in a typical Russian city may be accounted for by hazardous drinking . Our analyses provide indirect support for the contention that the sharp fluctuations seen in Russian mortality in the early 1990s could be related to hazardous drinking as indicated by consumption of non-beverage alcohol Evidence about the relationship between context ual variables and substance use is conflicting . Relationships between neighborhood income and income distribution and the prevalence and frequency of substance use in 59 New York City ( NYC ) neighborhoods were assessed while accounting for individual income and other socio-demographic variables . Measures of current substance use ( in the 30 days prior to the survey ) were obtained from a r and om-digit-dial phone survey of adult residents of NYC and data from the 2000 U.S. Census  to calculate median neighborhood income and income distribution ( assessed using the Gini coefficient ) . Among 1355 respondents analyzed ( female=56.2 % , mean age=40.4 ) , 23.9 % reported cigarette , 40.0 % alcohol , and 5.4 % marijuana use in the previous 30 days . In ecologic assessment , neighborhoods with both the highest income and the highest income maldistribution had the highest prevalence of drinking alcohol ( 69.0 % ) and of smoking marijuana ( 10.5 % ) but not of cigarette use ; there was no clear ecologic association between neighborhood income , income distribution , and cigarette use . In multilevel multivariable models adjusting for individual income , age , race , sex , and education , high neighborhood median income and maldistributed neighborhood income were both significantly associated with a greater likelihood of alcohol and marijuana use but not of cigarette use . Both high neighborhood income and maldistributed income also were associated with greater frequency of alcohol use among current alcohol drinkers . These observations suggest that neighborhood income and income distribution may play more important roles in determining population use of alcohol and marijuana than individual income , and that determinants of substance use may vary by potential for drug dependence . Further research should investigate specific pathways that may explain the relationship between neighborhood characteristics and use of different substances AIM This study examines the relationship between physical , socio-economic and social environments and  alcohol consumption and drunkenness among a general population sample of drinkers aged 12 - 17 years . DESIGN , SETTING , PARTICIPANTS AND MEASURES : The study was conducted in Auckl and , New Zeal and . The design comprised two components : ( i ) environmental measures including alcohol outlet density , locality-based measure of willingness to sell alcohol ( derived from purchase surveys of outlets ) and a locality-based neighbourhood deprivation measure calculated routinely in New Zeal and ( known as NZDEP ) ; and ( ii ) the second component was a r and om telephone survey to collect individual-level information from respondents aged 12 - 17 years including ethnicity , frequency of alcohol supplied socially ( by parents , friends and others ) , young person 's income ; frequency of exposure to alcohol advertising ; recall of br and s of alcohol and self-reported purchase from alcohol outlets . A multi-level model was fitted to predict typical-occasion quantity , frequency of drinking and drunkenness in drinkers aged 12 - 17 years . FINDINGS Typical-occasion quantity was predicted by : frequency of social supply ( by parents , friends and others ) ; ethnicity and outlet density ; and self-reported purchasing approached significance . NZDEP was correlated highly with outlet density so could not be analysed in the same model . In a separate model , NZDEP was associated with quantity consumed on a typical drinking occasion . Annual frequency was predicted by : frequency of social supply of alcohol , self-reported purchasing from alcohol outlets and ethnicity . Feeling drunk was predicted by frequency of social supply of alcohol , self-reported purchasing from alcohol outlets and ethnicity ; outlet density approached significance . Age and gender also had effects in the models , but retailers ' willingness to sell to underage patrons had no effects on consumption , nor did the advertising measures . The young person 's income was influential on typical-occasion quantity once deprivation was taken into account . CONCLUSION Alcohol outlet density was associated with quantities consumed among teenage drinkers in this study , as was neighbourhood deprivation . Supply by family , friends and others also predicted quantities consumed among underage drinkers and both social supply and self-reported purchase were associated with frequency of drinking and drunkenness . The ethnic status of young people also had an effect on consumption AIMS Previous studies have found that stress contributes to problem drinking , while social support can buffer its effects . However , these studies are confined largely to middle-class and general population s. We extend what is known by examining how the unique stressors and forms of social support experienced by women in poverty impact  alcohol problems over a 4-year time-period . DESIGN , SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS This prospect i ve study used generalized estimating equations ( GEE ) transition modeling and four annual waves of survey data from 392 American mothers receiving Temporary Assistance for Needy Families ( TANF ) in a large Northern California county . MEASUREMENTS We examined the effects of neighborhood disorder , stressful life events and economic hardship on psychological distress and problem drinking over time , and whether social support moderated these relationships for women in poverty . FINDINGS Neighborhood disorder and stressful life events increased significantly the risk for problem drinking , largely through their effect on psychological distress . We found little evidence , however , that social support buffers poor women from the effects of these stressors . CONCLUSIONS Women in poverty are exposed to severe , chronic stressors within their communities and immediate social networks which increase vulnerability to psychological distress and problem drinking . The finding that social support does not buffer stress among these women may reflect their high level of exposure to stressors , as well as the hardships and scarce re sources within their networks . If the ' private safety net ' of the social network fails to provide a strong buffer , more effective environmental interventions that reduce exposure to stressors may be needed to prevent alcohol problems in poor women 's lives OBJECTIVES To examine the relations between characteristics of the neighborhood built environment and recent alcohol use . METHODS We recruited participants through a r and om digit dial telephone survey of New York City ( NYC ) residents .  Alcohol consumption was assessed using a structured interview . All respondents were assigned to neighborhood of residence . Data on the internal and external built environment in 59 NYC neighborhoods were collected from archival sources . Multilevel models were used to assess the adjusted relations between features of the built environment and alcohol use . RESULTS Of the 1355 respondents , 40 % reported any alcohol consumption in the past 30 days , and 3 % reported more than five drinks in one sitting ( heavy drinking ) in the past 30 days . Few characteristics of the built environment were associated with any alcohol use in the past 30 days . However , several features of the internal and external built environment were associated with recent heavy drinking . After adjustment , persons living in neighborhoods characterized by poorer features of the built environment were up to 150 % more likely to report heavy drinking in the last 30 days compared to persons living in neighborhoods characterized by a better built environment . CONCLUSIONS Quality of the neighborhood built environment may be associated with heavy alcohol consumption in urban population s , independent of individual characteristics . The role of the residential environment as a determinant of alcohol abuse warrants further examination BACKGROUND Although a short-term effect of neighborhood characteristics on individual alcohol abuse has been demonstrated by a quasi-experimental residential mobility study , the obversed effect of alcohol problem involvement on place of residence and residential character has not been studied . We test the alcoholism effect on place of residence , and we also attempt to replicate the neighborhood-to-alcoholism effect . METHODS A sample of 206 Caucasian men ( average age was 33 ) who were systematic ally recruited for alcoholism through a court record search of drunk driving offenses and door-to-door canvassing , in a 4-county-wide area were followed up at 3-year intervals in a prospect i ve study of the course and outcomes of alcoholism . Participants ' alcoholism diagnoses were made by semistructured diagnostic interviews . Residential addresses at baseline and at 12-year follow-up were geocoded . Corresponding census tract variables were used as indicators of neighborhood residential character . RESULTS The regression analysis shows that , the more alcohol problems a man has , the more likely he is going to remain in , or migrate into , a disadvantaged neighborhood . This effect is only evident when a number of relevant confounding variables , including initial level of socioeconomic status , age , antisocial symptomatology , and spousal alcohol-use disorder status at baseline are controlled . Alcoholics in remission tended to live in neighborhoods whose residential characteristics were not distinguishable from those of nonalcoholics . Unremitted alcoholics , however , tended to stay in or migrate into more disadvantaged neighborhoods . CONCLUSION Alcoholic involvement has long-term negative effects on place of residence ; involving an elevated likelihood of moving into or remaining in a disadvantaged neighborhood . Recovery from alcoholism is protective against downward social drift on the one h and , and is favorable to improvement in social conditions on the other OBJECTIVE There is conflicting evidence regarding the impact of neighborhood socioeconomic status ( SES ) on  adolescent alcohol use .  The current study tested whether the prospect i ve effects of neighborhood SES on adolescent alcohol outcomes varied across parental alcoholism subgroups . METHOD Data from a group of adolescents ( N=361 ) from an ongoing longitudinal study of children of alcoholics ( COAs ) and matched controls were collected at three initial annual assessment s. Latent growth models were estimated with a range of related time-invariant and time-varying predictors . RESULTS Among non-COAs , higher neighborhood SES predicted increased rates in alcohol use and consequences , whereas among COAs , lower neighborhood SES was predictive of increased rates in alcohol use and marginally predicted rates of consequences . There were also time-specific effects of family mobility on alcohol outcomes . CONCLUSIONS The current study provides evidence for differential effects of neighborhood SES on adolescent alcohol use and consequences for non-COAs and COAs . The group differences found in this study may help explain the equivocal findings from previous neighborhood studies , which may use sample s with an unmeasured mix of high- and low-risk adolescents . Future research should identify pathways to alcohol use and problems for high- and low-risk adolescents living in neighborhoods that span the range of the socioeconomic spectrum This study reports results from a quasi-experimental residential mobility study in Yonkers , NY , in which low-income minority families residing in public and private housing in high-poverty neighborhoods were r and omly assigned via  lottery to relocate to publicly funded attached rowhouses in seven middle-class neighborhoods . One hundred seventy-three Black and Latino families who moved and 142 demographically similar families who remained in the original high-poverty neighborhoods were interviewed approximately 2 years after movers relocated ; no baseline data were available . Multiple regression analyses controlling for individual- and family-level background characteristics revealed that adults who moved to low-poverty neighborhoods were less likely to be exposed to violence and disorder , experience health problems , abuse alcohol , receive cash assistance , and were more likely to report satisfaction with neighborhood re sources , experience higher housing quality , and be employed , when compared with adults who remained in high-poverty neighborhoods . Adults who moved to low-poverty neighborhoods were less likely than those who stayed in high-poverty neighborhoods to socialize informally with neighbors . No program effects were found on adults ' symptoms of depression and anxiety . These early program effects inform housing policy 
    Output:
    
agent
***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: BACKGROUND The reason for the low life expectancy in Russian men and large fluctuations in mortality are unknown . We investigated the contribution of alcohol , and hazardous drinking in particular , to male mortality in a typical Russian city . METHODS Cases were all deaths in men aged 25 - 54 years living in Izhevsk occurring between Oct 20 , 2003 , to Oct 3 , 2005 . Controls were selected at r and om from the city population and were frequency matched to deaths by age . Interviews with proxy informants living in the same household as cases were done between Dec 11 , 2003 , and Nov , 16 2005 , and were obtained for 62 % ( 1750/2835 ) of cases and 57 % ( 1750/3078 ) of controls . We ascertained frequency and usual amount of beer , wine , and spirits consumed and frequency of consumption of manufactured ethanol-based liquids not intended to be drunk ( non-beverage alcohol ) , and markers of problem drinking . Complete information on markers of problem drinking , frequency of alcohol consumption , education , and smoking was available for 1468 cases and 1496 controls . FINDINGS 751 ( 51 % ) cases were classed as problem drinkers or drank non-beverage alcohol , compared with 192 ( 13 % ) controls . The mortality odds ratio ( OR ) for these men , compared with those who either abstained or were non-problematic beverage drinkers , was 6.0 ( 95 % CI 5.0 - 7.3 ) after adjustment for smoking and education . The mortality ORs for drinking non-beverage alcohol in the past year ( yes vs no ) was 9.2 ( 7.2 - 11.7 ) after adjustment for age . Adjustment for volume of ethanol consumed from beverages lowered the OR to 8.3 ( 6.5 - 10.7 ) , and further adjustment for education and smoking reduced it to 7.0 ( 5.5 - 9.0 ) . A strong direct gradient with mortality was seen for frequency of non-beverage alcohol drinking independent of volume of beverage ethanol consumed . 43 % of mortality was attributable to hazardous drinking ( problem drinking or non-beverage alcohol consumption , or both ) adjusted for smoking and education . INTERPRETATION Almost half of all deaths in working age men in a typical Russian city may be accounted for by hazardous drinking . Our analyses provide indirect support for the contention that the sharp fluctuations seen in Russian mortality in the early 1990s could be related to hazardous drinking as indicated by consumption of non-beverage alcohol Evidence about the relationship between context ual variables and substance use is conflicting . Relationships between neighborhood income and income distribution and the prevalence and frequency of substance use in 59 New York City ( NYC ) neighborhoods were assessed while accounting for individual income and other socio-demographic variables . Measures of current substance use ( in the 30 days prior to the survey ) were obtained from a r and om-digit-dial phone survey of adult residents of NYC and data from the 2000 U.S. Census  to calculate median neighborhood income and income distribution ( assessed using the Gini coefficient ) . Among 1355 respondents analyzed ( female=56.2 % , mean age=40.4 ) , 23.9 % reported cigarette , 40.0 % alcohol , and 5.4 % marijuana use in the previous 30 days . In ecologic assessment , neighborhoods with both the highest income and the highest income maldistribution had the highest prevalence of drinking alcohol ( 69.0 % ) and of smoking marijuana ( 10.5 % ) but not of cigarette use ; there was no clear ecologic association between neighborhood income , income distribution , and cigarette use . In multilevel multivariable models adjusting for individual income , age , race , sex , and education , high neighborhood median income and maldistributed neighborhood income were both significantly associated with a greater likelihood of alcohol and marijuana use but not of cigarette use . Both high neighborhood income and maldistributed income also were associated with greater frequency of alcohol use among current alcohol drinkers . These observations suggest that neighborhood income and income distribution may play more important roles in determining population use of alcohol and marijuana than individual income , and that determinants of substance use may vary by potential for drug dependence . Further research should investigate specific pathways that may explain the relationship between neighborhood characteristics and use of different substances AIM This study examines the relationship between physical , socio-economic and social environments and  alcohol consumption and drunkenness among a general population sample of drinkers aged 12 - 17 years . DESIGN , SETTING , PARTICIPANTS AND MEASURES : The study was conducted in Auckl and , New Zeal and . The design comprised two components : ( i ) environmental measures including alcohol outlet density , locality-based measure of willingness to sell alcohol ( derived from purchase surveys of outlets ) and a locality-based neighbourhood deprivation measure calculated routinely in New Zeal and ( known as NZDEP ) ; and ( ii ) the second component was a r and om telephone survey to collect individual-level information from respondents aged 12 - 17 years including ethnicity , frequency of alcohol supplied socially ( by parents , friends and others ) , young person 's income ; frequency of exposure to alcohol advertising ; recall of br and s of alcohol and self-reported purchase from alcohol outlets . A multi-level model was fitted to predict typical-occasion quantity , frequency of drinking and drunkenness in drinkers aged 12 - 17 years . FINDINGS Typical-occasion quantity was predicted by : frequency of social supply ( by parents , friends and others ) ; ethnicity and outlet density ; and self-reported purchasing approached significance . NZDEP was correlated highly with outlet density so could not be analysed in the same model . In a separate model , NZDEP was associated with quantity consumed on a typical drinking occasion . Annual frequency was predicted by : frequency of social supply of alcohol , self-reported purchasing from alcohol outlets and ethnicity . Feeling drunk was predicted by frequency of social supply of alcohol , self-reported purchasing from alcohol outlets and ethnicity ; outlet density approached significance . Age and gender also had effects in the models , but retailers ' willingness to sell to underage patrons had no effects on consumption , nor did the advertising measures . The young person 's income was influential on typical-occasion quantity once deprivation was taken into account . CONCLUSION Alcohol outlet density was associated with quantities consumed among teenage drinkers in this study , as was neighbourhood deprivation . Supply by family , friends and others also predicted quantities consumed among underage drinkers and both social supply and self-reported purchase were associated with frequency of drinking and drunkenness . The ethnic status of young people also had an effect on consumption AIMS Previous studies have found that stress contributes to problem drinking , while social support can buffer its effects . However , these studies are confined largely to middle-class and general population s. We extend what is known by examining how the unique stressors and forms of social support experienced by women in poverty impact  alcohol problems over a 4-year time-period . DESIGN , SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS This prospect i ve study used generalized estimating equations ( GEE ) transition modeling and four annual waves of survey data from 392 American mothers receiving Temporary Assistance for Needy Families ( TANF ) in a large Northern California county . MEASUREMENTS We examined the effects of neighborhood disorder , stressful life events and economic hardship on psychological distress and problem drinking over time , and whether social support moderated these relationships for women in poverty . FINDINGS Neighborhood disorder and stressful life events increased significantly the risk for problem drinking , largely through their effect on psychological distress . We found little evidence , however , that social support buffers poor women from the effects of these stressors . CONCLUSIONS Women in poverty are exposed to severe , chronic stressors within their communities and immediate social networks which increase vulnerability to psychological distress and problem drinking . The finding that social support does not buffer stress among these women may reflect their high level of exposure to stressors , as well as the hardships and scarce re sources within their networks . If the ' private safety net ' of the social network fails to provide a strong buffer , more effective environmental interventions that reduce exposure to stressors may be needed to prevent alcohol problems in poor women 's lives OBJECTIVES To examine the relations between characteristics of the neighborhood built environment and recent alcohol use . METHODS We recruited participants through a r and om digit dial telephone survey of New York City ( NYC ) residents .  Alcohol consumption was assessed using a structured interview . All respondents were assigned to neighborhood of residence . Data on the internal and external built environment in 59 NYC neighborhoods were collected from archival sources . Multilevel models were used to assess the adjusted relations between features of the built environment and alcohol use . RESULTS Of the 1355 respondents , 40 % reported any alcohol consumption in the past 30 days , and 3 % reported more than five drinks in one sitting ( heavy drinking ) in the past 30 days . Few characteristics of the built environment were associated with any alcohol use in the past 30 days . However , several features of the internal and external built environment were associated with recent heavy drinking . After adjustment , persons living in neighborhoods characterized by poorer features of the built environment were up to 150 % more likely to report heavy drinking in the last 30 days compared to persons living in neighborhoods characterized by a better built environment . CONCLUSIONS Quality of the neighborhood built environment may be associated with heavy alcohol consumption in urban population s , independent of individual characteristics . The role of the residential environment as a determinant of alcohol abuse warrants further examination BACKGROUND Although a short-term effect of neighborhood characteristics on individual alcohol abuse has been demonstrated by a quasi-experimental residential mobility study , the obversed effect of alcohol problem involvement on place of residence and residential character has not been studied . We test the alcoholism effect on place of residence , and we also attempt to replicate the neighborhood-to-alcoholism effect . METHODS A sample of 206 Caucasian men ( average age was 33 ) who were systematic ally recruited for alcoholism through a court record search of drunk driving offenses and door-to-door canvassing , in a 4-county-wide area were followed up at 3-year intervals in a prospect i ve study of the course and outcomes of alcoholism . Participants ' alcoholism diagnoses were made by semistructured diagnostic interviews . Residential addresses at baseline and at 12-year follow-up were geocoded . Corresponding census tract variables were used as indicators of neighborhood residential character . RESULTS The regression analysis shows that , the more alcohol problems a man has , the more likely he is going to remain in , or migrate into , a disadvantaged neighborhood . This effect is only evident when a number of relevant confounding variables , including initial level of socioeconomic status , age , antisocial symptomatology , and spousal alcohol-use disorder status at baseline are controlled . Alcoholics in remission tended to live in neighborhoods whose residential characteristics were not distinguishable from those of nonalcoholics . Unremitted alcoholics , however , tended to stay in or migrate into more disadvantaged neighborhoods . CONCLUSION Alcoholic involvement has long-term negative effects on place of residence ; involving an elevated likelihood of moving into or remaining in a disadvantaged neighborhood . Recovery from alcoholism is protective against downward social drift on the one h and , and is favorable to improvement in social conditions on the other OBJECTIVE There is conflicting evidence regarding the impact of neighborhood socioeconomic status ( SES ) on  adolescent alcohol use .  The current study tested whether the prospect i ve effects of neighborhood SES on adolescent alcohol outcomes varied across parental alcoholism subgroups . METHOD Data from a group of adolescents ( N=361 ) from an ongoing longitudinal study of children of alcoholics ( COAs ) and matched controls were collected at three initial annual assessment s. Latent growth models were estimated with a range of related time-invariant and time-varying predictors . RESULTS Among non-COAs , higher neighborhood SES predicted increased rates in alcohol use and consequences , whereas among COAs , lower neighborhood SES was predictive of increased rates in alcohol use and marginally predicted rates of consequences . There were also time-specific effects of family mobility on alcohol outcomes . CONCLUSIONS The current study provides evidence for differential effects of neighborhood SES on adolescent alcohol use and consequences for non-COAs and COAs . The group differences found in this study may help explain the equivocal findings from previous neighborhood studies , which may use sample s with an unmeasured mix of high- and low-risk adolescents . Future research should identify pathways to alcohol use and problems for high- and low-risk adolescents living in neighborhoods that span the range of the socioeconomic spectrum This study reports results from a quasi-experimental residential mobility study in Yonkers , NY , in which low-income minority families residing in public and private housing in high-poverty neighborhoods were r and omly assigned via  lottery to relocate to publicly funded attached rowhouses in seven middle-class neighborhoods . One hundred seventy-three Black and Latino families who moved and 142 demographically similar families who remained in the original high-poverty neighborhoods were interviewed approximately 2 years after movers relocated ; no baseline data were available . Multiple regression analyses controlling for individual- and family-level background characteristics revealed that adults who moved to low-poverty neighborhoods were less likely to be exposed to violence and disorder , experience health problems , abuse alcohol , receive cash assistance , and were more likely to report satisfaction with neighborhood re sources , experience higher housing quality , and be employed , when compared with adults who remained in high-poverty neighborhoods . Adults who moved to low-poverty neighborhoods were less likely than those who stayed in high-poverty neighborhoods to socialize informally with neighbors . No program effects were found on adults ' symptoms of depression and anxiety . These early program effects inform housing policy 
    Output:
    