human
***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: Publication bias , sometimes known as the " file-drawer problem " or " funnel-plot asymmetry , " is common in empirical research . The authors review the implication s of publication bias for quantitative research synthesis ( meta- analysis ) and describe existing techniques for detecting and correcting it . A new approach is proposed that is suitable for application to meta-analytic data sets that are too small for the application of existing methods . The model estimates parameters relevant to fixed-effects , mixed-effects or r and om-effects meta- analysis contingent on a hypothetical pattern of bias that is fixed independently of the data . The authors illustrate this approach for sensitivity analysis using 3 data sets adapted from a commonly cited reference work on research synthesis ( H. M. Cooper & L. V. Hedges , 1994 ) A multiyear , multi context aggression prevention intervention was provided during the early or late elementary school years in an inner-city and an urban poor community . Sixteen schools were r and omly assigned to 1 of 4 conditions : ( a ) no-treatment control , ( b ) general enhancement classroom program , ( c ) general enhancement plus small-group peer-skills training , or ( d ) general enhancement plus small-group peer-skills training plus family intervention . This article reports on results for the high-risk sub sample of 1,500 children . Results from hierarchical linear modeling indicate that comprehensive interventions , if provided in early grade s , can be effective for children in schools in setting s with re sources adequate to support learning and development , but some unintended effects can occur in schools in the most distressed communities when delivered too late in development The study reports social-cognitive outcomes of interventions in a cluster-r and omized school-based aggression prevention trial in low and moderate re source urban communities . Targeted social cognitions were aggressive responses , aggressive/prosocial fantasy , and normative beliefs supporting aggression . Participants were 1,484 early elementary school-age children selected for aggression above school medians . Schools received no treatment , curriculum plus teacher consultation ( Level A ) , or Level A plus small-group training ( Level B ) over 2 years . The Level A condition changed the social cognitions supporting aggression in the desired direction but only in the moderate re source communities . The small-group component did not appear to add to the effect of the Level A condition . Findings suggest that early prevention can modify children 's social cognitions in moderate re source communities This study reports on aggressive outcomes from a cluster r and omized trial of the Promoting Alternative Thinking Strategies ( PATHS ) curriculum .  Fourteen elementary schools were r and omly assigned to intervention or control condition and third grade students were followed through the fifth grade .  Teacher and self-reports of student aggression , conduct problems , delinquency , acting out problems , and social information processing ( SIP ) variables were collected . Linear change for each of the SIP variables was noted with control students demonstrating increased normative beliefs about aggression , increased aggressive social problem solving , increased hostile attribution bias , and increased aggressive interpersonal negotiation strategies over time while PATHS students remained relatively stable . Teachers reported significant curvilinear change in student aggression , conduct problems , and acting out behavior problems ; all favoring PATHS students This study reports findings on a combined family and school-based competency-training intervention from an in-school assessment 2.5 years past baseline , as a follow-up to an earlier study of substance initiation . Increased rates of observed alcohol use and an additional wave of data allowed evaluation of regular alcohol use and weekly drunkenness , with both point-in-time and growth curve analyses . Thirty-six rural schools were r and omly assigned to ( a ) a combined family and school intervention condition , ( b ) a school-only condition , or ( c ) a control condition . The earlier significant outcome on a substance initiation index was replicated , and positive point-in-time results for weekly drunkenness were observed , but there were no statistically significant outcomes for regular alcohol use . Discussion focuses on factors relevant to the mix of significant longitudinal results within a consistent general pattern of positive intervention-control differences Flaws in the design , conduct , analysis , and reporting of r and omised trials can cause the effect of an intervention to be underestimated or overestimated . The Cochrane Collaboration ’s tool for assessing risk of bias aims to make the process clearer and more The authors investigated the effectiveness and specificity of the Penn Resiliency Program ( PRP ; J. E. Gillham , L. H. Jaycox , K. J. Reivich , M. E. P. Seligman , & T. Silver , 1990 ) , a cognitive-behavioral depression prevention program . Children ( N = 697 ) from 3 middle schools were r and omly assigned to PRP , Control ( CON ) , or the Penn Enhancement Program ( PEP ; K. J. Reivich , 1996 ; A. J. Shatté , 1997 ) , an alternate intervention that controls for nonspecific intervention ingredients . Children 's depressive symptoms were assessed through 3 years of follow-up . There was no intervention effect on average levels of depressive symptoms in the full sample . Findings varied by school . In 2 schools , PRP  significantly reduced depressive symptoms across the follow-up relative to both CON and PEP . In the 3rd school , PRP did not prevent depressive symptoms . The authors discuss the findings in relation to previous research on PRP and the dissemination of prevention programs This paper reports on the evaluation of a culturally grounded prevention intervention targeting substance use among urban middle-school students . The curriculum consists of 10 lessons promoting antidrug norms and teaching resistance and other social skills , reinforced by booster activities and a media campaign . Three versions were delivered : Mexican American , combined African American and European American , and Multicultural . Thirty-five middle schools were r and omly assigned to 1 of the 3 versions or the control . Students completed baseline and follow-up question naires over a 2-year period ( total 6,035 respondents ) . Analyses utilizing a generalized estimating equations approach assessed the overall effectiveness of cultural grounding and the cultural matching hypothesis . Support was found for the intervention 's overall effectiveness , with statistically significant effects on gateway drug use as well as norms , attitudes , and resistance strategies but with little support for the cultural matching hypothesis . Specific contrasts found the Mexican American and Multicultural versions impacted the most outcomes Six schools were r and omly assigned to a multilevel bullying intervention or a control condition .  Children in Grade s 3 - 6 ( N=1,023 ) completed pre- and posttest surveys of behaviors and beliefs and were rated by teachers . Observers coded playground behavior of a r and om sub sample ( n=544 ) . Hierarchical analyses of changes in playground behavior revealed declines in bullying and argumentative behavior among intervention-group children relative to control-group children , increases in agreeable interactions , and a trend toward reduced destructive byst and er behavior . Those in the intervention group reported enhanced byst and er responsibility , greater perceived adult responsiveness , and less acceptance of bullying/aggression than those in the control group . Self-reported aggression did not differ between the groups . Implication s for future research on the development and prevention of bullying are discussed OBJECTIVE To examine effects of a teacher consultation and coaching program delivered by school and community mental health professionals on change in observed classroom interactions and child functioning across one school year . METHOD Thirty-six classrooms within 5 urban elementary schools ( 87 % Latino , 11 % Black ) were r and omly assigned to intervention ( training + consultation/coaching ) and control ( training only ) conditions .  Classroom and child outcomes ( n = 364 ; 43 % girls ) were assessed in the fall and spring . RESULTS R and om effects regression models showed main effects of intervention on teacher-student relationship closeness , academic self-concept , and peer victimization . Results of multiple regression models showed levels of observed teacher emotional support in the fall moderated intervention impact on emotional support at the end of the school year . CONCLUSIONS Results suggest teacher consultation and coaching can be integrated within existing mental health activities in urban schools and impact classroom effectiveness and child adaptation across multiple domains The authors examined the effectiveness of a school-based prevention program on reducing binge drinking in a sample of minority , inner-city , middle-school students . Rates of binge drinking were compared among youth who received the program beginning in the 7th grade ( n = 1,713 ) and a control group ( n = 1,328 ) that did not . The prevention program had protective effects in terms of binge drinking at the 1-year ( 8th grade ) and 2-year ( 9th grade ) follow-up assessment s. The proportion of binge drinkers was over 50 % lower in the intervention group relative to the control group at the follow-up assessment s. There were also several significant program effects on proximal drinking variables , including drinking knowledge , pro-drinking attitudes , and peer drinking norms . These findings indicate that a school-based drug abuse prevention approach previously found to be effective among White youth significantly reduced binge drinking among urban minority youth Abstract . Despite recent research suggesting that relationally aggressive behaviors occur frequently and may lead to physically aggressive actions within urban school setting s , there has been little prior research to develop and evaluate relational aggression prevention efforts within the urban schools . The current article describes the development and preliminary evaluation of the Preventing Relational Aggression in Schools Everyday ( PRAISE ) Program . PRAISE is a 20-session classroom-based universal prevention program , design ed to be appropriate and responsive to the needs of youth within the urban school context . Results suggest strong acceptability for the program and feasibility of implementation . Further , the program was especially beneficial for girls . For instance , girls in classrooms r and omly assigned to the PRAISE Program demonstrated higher levels of knowledge for social information processing and anger management techniques and lower levels of relational aggression following treatment as compared to similar girls r and omly assigned to a no-treatment control condition . Further , relationally aggressive girls exhibited similar benefits from the program ( greater knowledge and lower levels of relational aggression ) plus lower levels of overt aggression following treatment as compared to relationally aggressive girls within the control classrooms . In contrast , the program was not associated with improvements for boys across most measures . The significance and implication s of the findings for research and practice are discussed Violence is an important public health problem among adolescents in the United States . Substance use and violence tend to co-occur among adolescents and appear to have similar etiologies . The present study examined the extent to which a comprehensive prevention approach targeting an array of individual-level risk and protective factors and previously found effective in preventing tobacco , alcohol , and illicit drug use is capable of decreasing violence and delinquency .  Schools ( N=41 ) were r and omly assigned to intervention and control conditions .  Participants in the 20 intervention schools received the Life Skills Training prevention program including material focusing on violence and the media , anger management , and conflict resolution skills . Survey data were collected from 4,858 sixth grade students prior to the intervention and three months later after the intervention . Findings showed significant reductions in violence and delinquency for intervention participants relative to controls . Stronger prevention effects were found for students who received at least half of the preventive intervention . These effects include less verbal and physical aggression , fighting , and delinquency . The results of this study indicate that a school-based prevention approach previously found to prevent tobacco , alcohol , and illicit drug use can also prevent violence and delinquency OBJECTIVE The psychological outcomes that the exposure to mass trauma has on children have been amply documented in the past decades . The objective of this study is to describe the effects of a universal , teacher-based preventive intervention implemented with Israeli students before the rocket attacks that occurred during Operation Cast Lead , compared with a nonintervention but exposed control group . METHOD The study sample consisted of 1,488 students study ing in fourth and fifth grade s in a city in southern Israel who were exposed to continuous rocket attacks during Operation Cast Lead .  The intervention group included about half ( 53.5 % ) of the children who studied in six schools where the teacher-led intervention was implemented 3 months before the traumatic exposure . The control group ( 46.5 % of the sample ) included six schools matched by exposure in which the preventive intervention was not implemented . Children filled out the UCLA-PTSD Reaction Index and the Stress/Mood Scale 3 months after the end of the rocket attacks . RESULTS The intervention group displayed significantly lower symptoms of posttrauma and stress/mood than the control group ( p < .001 ) . Control children had 57 % more detected cases of postraumatic stress disorder ( PTSD ) than participant children . This difference was significantly more pronounced among boys ( 10.2 % versus 4.4 % ) and less among girls ( 12.5 % versus 10.1 % ) . CONCLUSIONS The teacher-based , resilience-focused intervention is a universal , cost-effective approach to enhance the preparedness of communities of children to mass trauma and to prevent the development of PTSD after exposure Given the dramatic increase in depression that occurs during early adolescence in girls , interventions must address the needs of girls . The authors examined whether a depression prevention program , the Penn Resiliency Program , was more effective for girls in all-girls groups than in co-ed groups . Within co-ed groups , the authors also tested whether there were greater effects for boys than for girls . Participants were 20811-to 14-year-olds . Girls were r and omly assigned to all-girls groups , co-ed groups , or control . Boys were assigned to co-ed groups or control . Students completed question naires on depressive symptoms , hopelessness , and explanatory style before and after the intervention . Girls groups were better than co-ed groups in reducing girls ’ hopelessness and for session attendance rates but were similar to co-ed groups in reducing depressive symptoms .  Co-ed groups decreased depressive symptoms , but this did not differ by gender . Findings support prevention programs and suggest additional benefits of girls groups BACKGROUND In elementary grade s , comprehensive health education curricula mostly have demonstrated effectiveness in addressing singular health issues . The Michigan Model for Health ( MMH ) was implemented and evaluated to determine 
    Output:
    
agent
***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: Publication bias , sometimes known as the " file-drawer problem " or " funnel-plot asymmetry , " is common in empirical research . The authors review the implication s of publication bias for quantitative research synthesis ( meta- analysis ) and describe existing techniques for detecting and correcting it . A new approach is proposed that is suitable for application to meta-analytic data sets that are too small for the application of existing methods . The model estimates parameters relevant to fixed-effects , mixed-effects or r and om-effects meta- analysis contingent on a hypothetical pattern of bias that is fixed independently of the data . The authors illustrate this approach for sensitivity analysis using 3 data sets adapted from a commonly cited reference work on research synthesis ( H. M. Cooper & L. V. Hedges , 1994 ) A multiyear , multi context aggression prevention intervention was provided during the early or late elementary school years in an inner-city and an urban poor community . Sixteen schools were r and omly assigned to 1 of 4 conditions : ( a ) no-treatment control , ( b ) general enhancement classroom program , ( c ) general enhancement plus small-group peer-skills training , or ( d ) general enhancement plus small-group peer-skills training plus family intervention . This article reports on results for the high-risk sub sample of 1,500 children . Results from hierarchical linear modeling indicate that comprehensive interventions , if provided in early grade s , can be effective for children in schools in setting s with re sources adequate to support learning and development , but some unintended effects can occur in schools in the most distressed communities when delivered too late in development The study reports social-cognitive outcomes of interventions in a cluster-r and omized school-based aggression prevention trial in low and moderate re source urban communities . Targeted social cognitions were aggressive responses , aggressive/prosocial fantasy , and normative beliefs supporting aggression . Participants were 1,484 early elementary school-age children selected for aggression above school medians . Schools received no treatment , curriculum plus teacher consultation ( Level A ) , or Level A plus small-group training ( Level B ) over 2 years . The Level A condition changed the social cognitions supporting aggression in the desired direction but only in the moderate re source communities . The small-group component did not appear to add to the effect of the Level A condition . Findings suggest that early prevention can modify children 's social cognitions in moderate re source communities This study reports on aggressive outcomes from a cluster r and omized trial of the Promoting Alternative Thinking Strategies ( PATHS ) curriculum .  Fourteen elementary schools were r and omly assigned to intervention or control condition and third grade students were followed through the fifth grade .  Teacher and self-reports of student aggression , conduct problems , delinquency , acting out problems , and social information processing ( SIP ) variables were collected . Linear change for each of the SIP variables was noted with control students demonstrating increased normative beliefs about aggression , increased aggressive social problem solving , increased hostile attribution bias , and increased aggressive interpersonal negotiation strategies over time while PATHS students remained relatively stable . Teachers reported significant curvilinear change in student aggression , conduct problems , and acting out behavior problems ; all favoring PATHS students This study reports findings on a combined family and school-based competency-training intervention from an in-school assessment 2.5 years past baseline , as a follow-up to an earlier study of substance initiation . Increased rates of observed alcohol use and an additional wave of data allowed evaluation of regular alcohol use and weekly drunkenness , with both point-in-time and growth curve analyses . Thirty-six rural schools were r and omly assigned to ( a ) a combined family and school intervention condition , ( b ) a school-only condition , or ( c ) a control condition . The earlier significant outcome on a substance initiation index was replicated , and positive point-in-time results for weekly drunkenness were observed , but there were no statistically significant outcomes for regular alcohol use . Discussion focuses on factors relevant to the mix of significant longitudinal results within a consistent general pattern of positive intervention-control differences Flaws in the design , conduct , analysis , and reporting of r and omised trials can cause the effect of an intervention to be underestimated or overestimated . The Cochrane Collaboration ’s tool for assessing risk of bias aims to make the process clearer and more The authors investigated the effectiveness and specificity of the Penn Resiliency Program ( PRP ; J. E. Gillham , L. H. Jaycox , K. J. Reivich , M. E. P. Seligman , & T. Silver , 1990 ) , a cognitive-behavioral depression prevention program . Children ( N = 697 ) from 3 middle schools were r and omly assigned to PRP , Control ( CON ) , or the Penn Enhancement Program ( PEP ; K. J. Reivich , 1996 ; A. J. Shatté , 1997 ) , an alternate intervention that controls for nonspecific intervention ingredients . Children 's depressive symptoms were assessed through 3 years of follow-up . There was no intervention effect on average levels of depressive symptoms in the full sample . Findings varied by school . In 2 schools , PRP  significantly reduced depressive symptoms across the follow-up relative to both CON and PEP . In the 3rd school , PRP did not prevent depressive symptoms . The authors discuss the findings in relation to previous research on PRP and the dissemination of prevention programs This paper reports on the evaluation of a culturally grounded prevention intervention targeting substance use among urban middle-school students . The curriculum consists of 10 lessons promoting antidrug norms and teaching resistance and other social skills , reinforced by booster activities and a media campaign . Three versions were delivered : Mexican American , combined African American and European American , and Multicultural . Thirty-five middle schools were r and omly assigned to 1 of the 3 versions or the control . Students completed baseline and follow-up question naires over a 2-year period ( total 6,035 respondents ) . Analyses utilizing a generalized estimating equations approach assessed the overall effectiveness of cultural grounding and the cultural matching hypothesis . Support was found for the intervention 's overall effectiveness , with statistically significant effects on gateway drug use as well as norms , attitudes , and resistance strategies but with little support for the cultural matching hypothesis . Specific contrasts found the Mexican American and Multicultural versions impacted the most outcomes Six schools were r and omly assigned to a multilevel bullying intervention or a control condition .  Children in Grade s 3 - 6 ( N=1,023 ) completed pre- and posttest surveys of behaviors and beliefs and were rated by teachers . Observers coded playground behavior of a r and om sub sample ( n=544 ) . Hierarchical analyses of changes in playground behavior revealed declines in bullying and argumentative behavior among intervention-group children relative to control-group children , increases in agreeable interactions , and a trend toward reduced destructive byst and er behavior . Those in the intervention group reported enhanced byst and er responsibility , greater perceived adult responsiveness , and less acceptance of bullying/aggression than those in the control group . Self-reported aggression did not differ between the groups . Implication s for future research on the development and prevention of bullying are discussed OBJECTIVE To examine effects of a teacher consultation and coaching program delivered by school and community mental health professionals on change in observed classroom interactions and child functioning across one school year . METHOD Thirty-six classrooms within 5 urban elementary schools ( 87 % Latino , 11 % Black ) were r and omly assigned to intervention ( training + consultation/coaching ) and control ( training only ) conditions .  Classroom and child outcomes ( n = 364 ; 43 % girls ) were assessed in the fall and spring . RESULTS R and om effects regression models showed main effects of intervention on teacher-student relationship closeness , academic self-concept , and peer victimization . Results of multiple regression models showed levels of observed teacher emotional support in the fall moderated intervention impact on emotional support at the end of the school year . CONCLUSIONS Results suggest teacher consultation and coaching can be integrated within existing mental health activities in urban schools and impact classroom effectiveness and child adaptation across multiple domains The authors examined the effectiveness of a school-based prevention program on reducing binge drinking in a sample of minority , inner-city , middle-school students . Rates of binge drinking were compared among youth who received the program beginning in the 7th grade ( n = 1,713 ) and a control group ( n = 1,328 ) that did not . The prevention program had protective effects in terms of binge drinking at the 1-year ( 8th grade ) and 2-year ( 9th grade ) follow-up assessment s. The proportion of binge drinkers was over 50 % lower in the intervention group relative to the control group at the follow-up assessment s. There were also several significant program effects on proximal drinking variables , including drinking knowledge , pro-drinking attitudes , and peer drinking norms . These findings indicate that a school-based drug abuse prevention approach previously found to be effective among White youth significantly reduced binge drinking among urban minority youth Abstract . Despite recent research suggesting that relationally aggressive behaviors occur frequently and may lead to physically aggressive actions within urban school setting s , there has been little prior research to develop and evaluate relational aggression prevention efforts within the urban schools . The current article describes the development and preliminary evaluation of the Preventing Relational Aggression in Schools Everyday ( PRAISE ) Program . PRAISE is a 20-session classroom-based universal prevention program , design ed to be appropriate and responsive to the needs of youth within the urban school context . Results suggest strong acceptability for the program and feasibility of implementation . Further , the program was especially beneficial for girls . For instance , girls in classrooms r and omly assigned to the PRAISE Program demonstrated higher levels of knowledge for social information processing and anger management techniques and lower levels of relational aggression following treatment as compared to similar girls r and omly assigned to a no-treatment control condition . Further , relationally aggressive girls exhibited similar benefits from the program ( greater knowledge and lower levels of relational aggression ) plus lower levels of overt aggression following treatment as compared to relationally aggressive girls within the control classrooms . In contrast , the program was not associated with improvements for boys across most measures . The significance and implication s of the findings for research and practice are discussed Violence is an important public health problem among adolescents in the United States . Substance use and violence tend to co-occur among adolescents and appear to have similar etiologies . The present study examined the extent to which a comprehensive prevention approach targeting an array of individual-level risk and protective factors and previously found effective in preventing tobacco , alcohol , and illicit drug use is capable of decreasing violence and delinquency .  Schools ( N=41 ) were r and omly assigned to intervention and control conditions .  Participants in the 20 intervention schools received the Life Skills Training prevention program including material focusing on violence and the media , anger management , and conflict resolution skills . Survey data were collected from 4,858 sixth grade students prior to the intervention and three months later after the intervention . Findings showed significant reductions in violence and delinquency for intervention participants relative to controls . Stronger prevention effects were found for students who received at least half of the preventive intervention . These effects include less verbal and physical aggression , fighting , and delinquency . The results of this study indicate that a school-based prevention approach previously found to prevent tobacco , alcohol , and illicit drug use can also prevent violence and delinquency OBJECTIVE The psychological outcomes that the exposure to mass trauma has on children have been amply documented in the past decades . The objective of this study is to describe the effects of a universal , teacher-based preventive intervention implemented with Israeli students before the rocket attacks that occurred during Operation Cast Lead , compared with a nonintervention but exposed control group . METHOD The study sample consisted of 1,488 students study ing in fourth and fifth grade s in a city in southern Israel who were exposed to continuous rocket attacks during Operation Cast Lead .  The intervention group included about half ( 53.5 % ) of the children who studied in six schools where the teacher-led intervention was implemented 3 months before the traumatic exposure . The control group ( 46.5 % of the sample ) included six schools matched by exposure in which the preventive intervention was not implemented . Children filled out the UCLA-PTSD Reaction Index and the Stress/Mood Scale 3 months after the end of the rocket attacks . RESULTS The intervention group displayed significantly lower symptoms of posttrauma and stress/mood than the control group ( p < .001 ) . Control children had 57 % more detected cases of postraumatic stress disorder ( PTSD ) than participant children . This difference was significantly more pronounced among boys ( 10.2 % versus 4.4 % ) and less among girls ( 12.5 % versus 10.1 % ) . CONCLUSIONS The teacher-based , resilience-focused intervention is a universal , cost-effective approach to enhance the preparedness of communities of children to mass trauma and to prevent the development of PTSD after exposure Given the dramatic increase in depression that occurs during early adolescence in girls , interventions must address the needs of girls . The authors examined whether a depression prevention program , the Penn Resiliency Program , was more effective for girls in all-girls groups than in co-ed groups . Within co-ed groups , the authors also tested whether there were greater effects for boys than for girls . Participants were 20811-to 14-year-olds . Girls were r and omly assigned to all-girls groups , co-ed groups , or control . Boys were assigned to co-ed groups or control . Students completed question naires on depressive symptoms , hopelessness , and explanatory style before and after the intervention . Girls groups were better than co-ed groups in reducing girls ’ hopelessness and for session attendance rates but were similar to co-ed groups in reducing depressive symptoms .  Co-ed groups decreased depressive symptoms , but this did not differ by gender . Findings support prevention programs and suggest additional benefits of girls groups BACKGROUND In elementary grade s , comprehensive health education curricula mostly have demonstrated effectiveness in addressing singular health issues . The Michigan Model for Health ( MMH ) was implemented and evaluated to determine 
    Output:
    