human
***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: Publication bias , sometimes known as the " file-drawer problem " or " funnel-plot asymmetry , " is common in empirical research . The authors review the implication s of publication bias for quantitative research synthesis ( meta- analysis ) and describe existing techniques for detecting and correcting it . A new approach is proposed that is suitable for application to meta-analytic data sets that are too small for the application of existing methods . The model estimates parameters relevant to fixed-effects , mixed-effects or r and om-effects meta- analysis contingent on a hypothetical pattern of bias that is fixed independently of the data . The authors illustrate this approach for sensitivity analysis using 3 data sets adapted from a commonly cited reference work on research synthesis ( H. M. Cooper & L. V. Hedges , 1994 ) Studies have shown that aerobic exercise has the potential to improve cognition and reduce brain atrophy in older adults . However , the literature is equivocal with regards to the specificity or generality of these effects . To this end , we report results on cognitive function and brain structure from a 6-month training intervention with 60 sedentary adults ( 64–78 years ) r and omized to either aerobic training or stretching and toning control training .  Cognitive functions were assessed with a neuropsychological test battery in which cognitive constructs were measured using several different tests . Freesurfer was used to estimate cortical thickness in frontal regions and hippocampus volume . Results showed that aerobic exercisers , compared to controls , exhibited a broad , rather than specific , improvement in cognition as indexed by a higher “ Cognitive score , ” a composite including episodic memory , processing speed , updating , and executive function tasks ( p = 0.01 ) . There were no group differences in cortical thickness , but additional analyses revealed that aerobic fitness at baseline was specifically related to larger thickness in dorsolateral prefrontal cortex ( dlPFC ) , and hippocampus volume was positively associated with increased aerobic fitness over time . Moreover , “ Cognitive score ” was related to dlPFC thickness at baseline , but changes in “ Cognitive score ” and dlPFC thickness were associated over time in the aerobic group only . However , aerobic fitness did not predict dlPFC change , despite the improvement in “ Cognitive score ” in aerobic exercisers . Our interpretation of these observations is that potential exercise-induced changes in thickness are slow , and may be undetectable within 6-months , in contrast to change in hippocampus volume which in fact was predicted by the change in aerobic fitness . To conclude , our results add to a growing literature suggesting that aerobic exercise has a broad influence on cognitive functioning , which may aid in explaining why studies focusing on a narrower range of functions have sometimes reported mixed results Physical exercise has been shown to increase brain volume and improve cognition in r and omized trials of non-demented elderly . Although greater social engagement was found to reduce dementia risk in observational studies , r and omized trials of social interventions have not been reported . A representative sample of 120 elderly from Shanghai , China was r and omized to four groups ( Tai Chi , Walking , Social Interaction , No Intervention ) for 40 weeks . Two MRIs were obtained , one before the intervention period , the other after . A neuropsychological battery was administered at baseline , 20 weeks , and 40 weeks . Comparison of changes in brain volumes in intervention groups with the No Intervention group were assessed by t-tests . Time-intervention group interactions for neuropsychological measures were evaluated with repeated- measures mixed models . Compared to the No Intervention group , significant increases in brain volume were seen in the Tai Chi and Social Intervention groups ( p < 0.05 ) . Improvements also were observed in several neuropsychological measures in the Tai Chi group , including the Mattis Dementia Rating Scale score ( p = 0.004 ) , the Trailmaking Test A ( p = 0.002 ) and B ( p = 0.0002 ) , the Auditory Verbal Learning Test ( p = 0.009 ) , and verbal fluency for animals ( p = 0.01 ) . The Social Interaction group showed improvement on some , but fewer neuropsychological indices . No differences were observed between the Walking and No Intervention groups . The findings differ from previous clinical trials in showing increases in brain volume and improvements in cognition with a largely non-aerobic exercise ( Tai Chi ) . In addition , intellectual stimulation through social interaction was associated with increases in brain volume as well as with some cognitive improvements This report evaluates whether a program for older volunteers  , design ed for both benerativity and health promotion , leads to short-term improvements inmultiple behavioral risk factors and positive effects on intermediary risk factors for disability and other morbidities . The Experience Corps ® places  older volunteers  in public elementary schools in roles design ed to meet schools ’ needs and increase the social , physical , and cognitive activity of the volunteers . This article reports on a pilot r and omized trial in Baltimore , Maryl and . The 128 volunteers were 60–86 years old ; 95 % were African American . At follow-up of 4–8 months , physical activity , strength , people one could turn to for help , and cognitive activity increased significantly , and walking speed decreased significantly less , in participants compared to controls . In this pilot trial , physical , cognitive , and social activity increased , suggesting the potential for the Experience Corps to improve health for an aging population and simultaneously improve educational outcomes for children Purpose To assess the effects of creatine supplementation , associated or not with strength training , upon emotional and cognitive measures in older woman . Methods This is a 24-week , parallel-group , double-blind , r and omized , placebo-controlled trial . The individuals were r and omly allocated into one of the following groups ( n=14 each ) : 1 ) placebo , 2 ) creatine supplementation , 3 ) placebo associated with strength training or 4 ) creatine supplementation associated with strength training . According to their allocation , the participants were given creatine ( 4 x 5 g/d for 5 days followed by 5 g/d ) or placebo ( dextrose at the same dosage ) and were strength trained or not .  Cognitive function , assessed by a comprehensive battery of tests involving memory , selective attention , and inhibitory control , and emotional measures , assessed by the Geriatric Depression Scale , were evaluated at baseline , after 12 and 24 weeks of the intervention . Muscle strength and food intake were evaluated at baseline and after 24 weeks . Results After the 24-week intervention , both training groups ( ingesting creatine supplementation and placebo ) had significant reductions on the Geriatric Depression Scale scores when compared with the non-trained placebo group ( p = 0.001 and p = 0.01 , respectively ) and the non-trained creatine group ( p < 0.001 for both comparison ) . However , no significant differences were observed between the non-trained placebo and creatine ( p = 0.60 ) groups , or between the trained placebo and creatine groups ( p = 0.83 ) . Both trained groups , irrespective of creatine supplementation , had better muscle strength performance than the non-trained groups . Neither strength training nor creatine supplementation altered any parameter of cognitive performance . Food intake remained unchanged . Conclusion Creatine supplementation did not promote any significant change in cognitive function and emotional parameters in apparently healthy older individuals . In addition , strength training per se improved emotional state and muscle strength , but not cognition , with no additive effects of creatine supplementation . Trial Registration Clinical trials.gov This study evaluates transfer from domain-specific , sensorimotor training to cognitive abilities associated with executive function . We examined Individualized Piano Instruction ( IPI ) as a potential cognitive intervention to mitigate normal age-related cognitive decline in older adults . Thirty-one musically naïve community-dwelling older adults ( ages 60–85 ) were r and omly assigned to either the experimental group ( n = 16 ) or control group ( n = 15 ) . Neuropsychological assessment  s were administered at three time points : pre-training , following six months of intervention , and following a three-month delay . The experimental group significantly improved performance on the Trail Making Test and Digit Symbol measures as compared to healthy controls . Results of this study suggest that IPI may serve as an effective cognitive intervention for age-related cognitive decline Background Although basic research has uncovered biological mechanisms by which exercise could maintain and enhance adult brain health , experimental human studies with older adults have produced equivocal results . Purpose This r and omized clinical trial aim ed to investigate the hypotheses that ( a ) the effects of exercise training on the performance of neurocognitive tasks in older adults is selective , influencing mainly tasks with a substantial executive control component and ( b ) performance in neurocognitive tasks is related to cardiorespiratory fitness . Methods Fifty-seven older adults ( 65–79 years ) participated in aerobic or strength- and -flexibility exercise training for 10 months . Neurocognitive tasks were selected to reflect a range from little ( e.g. , simple reaction time ) to substantial ( i.e. , Stroop Word – Color conflict ) executive control . Results Performance in tasks requiring little executive control was unaffected by participating in aerobic exercise .  Improvements in Stroop Word – Color task performance were found only for the aerobic exercise group . Changes in aerobic fitness were unrelated to changes in neurocognitive function . Conclusions Aerobic exercise in older adults can have a beneficial effect on the performance of speeded tasks that rely heavily on executive control . Improvements in aerobic fitness do not appear to be a prerequisite for this beneficial effect Objectives Research suggests that older adults who remain socially active and cognitively engaged have better cognitive function than those who are isolated and disengaged . This study examined the efficacy of learning and using an online social networking website , Facebook.com , as an intervention to maintain or enhance cognitive function in older adults . Method Forty-one older adults were assigned to learn and use Facebook ( n = 14 ) or an online diary website ( active control , n = 13 ) for 8 weeks or placed on a waitlist ( n = 14 ) . Outcome measures included neuropsychological tests of executive functions , memory , and processing speed and self-report question naires about social engagement . Results The Facebook group showed a significant increase in a composite measure of updating , an executive function factor associated with complex working memory tasks , compared to no significant change in the control groups . Other measures of cognitive function and social support showed no differential improvement in the Facebook group . Discussion Learning and using an online social networking site may provide specific benefits for complex working memory in a group of healthy older adults . This may reflect the particular cognitive dem and s associated with online social networking and /or the benefits of social engagement more generally Background The beneficial effects of brain training games are expected to transfer to other cognitive functions , but these beneficial effects are poorly understood . Here we investigate the impact of the brain training game ( Brain Age ) on cognitive functions in the elderly . Methods and Results Thirty-two elderly volunteers were recruited through an advertisement in the local newspaper and r and omly assigned to either of two game groups ( Brain Age , Tetris ) . This study was completed by 14 of the 16 members in the Brain Age group and 14 of the 16 members in the Tetris group . To maximize the benefit of the interventions , all participants were non-gamers who reported playing less than one hour of video games per week over the past 2 years . Participants in both the Brain Age and the Tetris groups played their game for about 15 minutes per day , at least 5 days per week , for 4 weeks . Each group played for a total of about 20 days . Measures of the cognitive functions were conducted before and after training . Measures of the cognitive functions fell into four categories ( global cognitive status , executive functions , attention , and processing speed ) . Results showed that the effects of the brain training game were transferred to executive functions and to processing speed . However , the brain training game showed no transfer effect on any global cognitive status nor attention . Conclusions Our results showed that playing Brain Age for 4 weeks could lead to improve cognitive functions ( executive functions and processing speed ) in the elderly . This result indicated that there is a possibility which the elderly could improve executive functions and processing speed in short term training . The results need replication in large sample s. Long-term effects and relevance for every-day functioning remain uncertain as yet . Trial Registration UMIN Clinical Trial Registry Objective To test the efficacy of a tablet computer training intervention to improve cognitive abilities of older adults . Design Prospect i ve r and omized controlled trial . Setting Community-based aging intervention study , Edinburgh , UK . Participants Forty-eight healthy older adults aged 65 to 76 years were recruited at baseline with no or minimal tablet experience ; 43 completed follow-up testing . Intervention Twenty-two participants attended a weekly 2-hour class for 10 weeks during which they learned how to use a tablet and various applications on it . Measurements A battery of cognitive tests from the WAIS-IV measuring the domains of Verbal Comprehension , Perceptual Processing , Working Memory , and Processing Speed , as well as health , psychological , and well-being measures . Results A 2 × 2 mixed model ANOVA suggested that the tablet intervention group ( N = 22 ) showed greater improvements in Processing Speed ( η2 = 0.10 ) compared with controls ( N = 21 ) , but did not differ in Verbal Comprehension , Perceptual Processing , or Working Memory ( η2 ranged from −0.03 to 0.04 ) . Conclusions Engagement in a new mentally challenging activity ( tablet training ) was associated with improved processing speed . Acquiring skills in later life , including those related to adopting new technologies , may therefore have the potential to reduce or delay cognitive changes associated with ageing . It is important to underst and how the development of these skills might further facilitate everyday activities , and also improve older adults ' quality of life Background Type 2 diabetes mellitus may alter the effect of physical activity on physical and cognitive function . Methods The Lifestyle Interventions and Independence for Elders ( LIFE ) trial r and omized 
    Output:
    
agent
***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: Publication bias , sometimes known as the " file-drawer problem " or " funnel-plot asymmetry , " is common in empirical research . The authors review the implication s of publication bias for quantitative research synthesis ( meta- analysis ) and describe existing techniques for detecting and correcting it . A new approach is proposed that is suitable for application to meta-analytic data sets that are too small for the application of existing methods . The model estimates parameters relevant to fixed-effects , mixed-effects or r and om-effects meta- analysis contingent on a hypothetical pattern of bias that is fixed independently of the data . The authors illustrate this approach for sensitivity analysis using 3 data sets adapted from a commonly cited reference work on research synthesis ( H. M. Cooper & L. V. Hedges , 1994 ) Studies have shown that aerobic exercise has the potential to improve cognition and reduce brain atrophy in older adults . However , the literature is equivocal with regards to the specificity or generality of these effects . To this end , we report results on cognitive function and brain structure from a 6-month training intervention with 60 sedentary adults ( 64–78 years ) r and omized to either aerobic training or stretching and toning control training .  Cognitive functions were assessed with a neuropsychological test battery in which cognitive constructs were measured using several different tests . Freesurfer was used to estimate cortical thickness in frontal regions and hippocampus volume . Results showed that aerobic exercisers , compared to controls , exhibited a broad , rather than specific , improvement in cognition as indexed by a higher “ Cognitive score , ” a composite including episodic memory , processing speed , updating , and executive function tasks ( p = 0.01 ) . There were no group differences in cortical thickness , but additional analyses revealed that aerobic fitness at baseline was specifically related to larger thickness in dorsolateral prefrontal cortex ( dlPFC ) , and hippocampus volume was positively associated with increased aerobic fitness over time . Moreover , “ Cognitive score ” was related to dlPFC thickness at baseline , but changes in “ Cognitive score ” and dlPFC thickness were associated over time in the aerobic group only . However , aerobic fitness did not predict dlPFC change , despite the improvement in “ Cognitive score ” in aerobic exercisers . Our interpretation of these observations is that potential exercise-induced changes in thickness are slow , and may be undetectable within 6-months , in contrast to change in hippocampus volume which in fact was predicted by the change in aerobic fitness . To conclude , our results add to a growing literature suggesting that aerobic exercise has a broad influence on cognitive functioning , which may aid in explaining why studies focusing on a narrower range of functions have sometimes reported mixed results Physical exercise has been shown to increase brain volume and improve cognition in r and omized trials of non-demented elderly . Although greater social engagement was found to reduce dementia risk in observational studies , r and omized trials of social interventions have not been reported . A representative sample of 120 elderly from Shanghai , China was r and omized to four groups ( Tai Chi , Walking , Social Interaction , No Intervention ) for 40 weeks . Two MRIs were obtained , one before the intervention period , the other after . A neuropsychological battery was administered at baseline , 20 weeks , and 40 weeks . Comparison of changes in brain volumes in intervention groups with the No Intervention group were assessed by t-tests . Time-intervention group interactions for neuropsychological measures were evaluated with repeated- measures mixed models . Compared to the No Intervention group , significant increases in brain volume were seen in the Tai Chi and Social Intervention groups ( p < 0.05 ) . Improvements also were observed in several neuropsychological measures in the Tai Chi group , including the Mattis Dementia Rating Scale score ( p = 0.004 ) , the Trailmaking Test A ( p = 0.002 ) and B ( p = 0.0002 ) , the Auditory Verbal Learning Test ( p = 0.009 ) , and verbal fluency for animals ( p = 0.01 ) . The Social Interaction group showed improvement on some , but fewer neuropsychological indices . No differences were observed between the Walking and No Intervention groups . The findings differ from previous clinical trials in showing increases in brain volume and improvements in cognition with a largely non-aerobic exercise ( Tai Chi ) . In addition , intellectual stimulation through social interaction was associated with increases in brain volume as well as with some cognitive improvements This report evaluates whether a program for older volunteers  , design ed for both benerativity and health promotion , leads to short-term improvements inmultiple behavioral risk factors and positive effects on intermediary risk factors for disability and other morbidities . The Experience Corps ® places  older volunteers  in public elementary schools in roles design ed to meet schools ’ needs and increase the social , physical , and cognitive activity of the volunteers . This article reports on a pilot r and omized trial in Baltimore , Maryl and . The 128 volunteers were 60–86 years old ; 95 % were African American . At follow-up of 4–8 months , physical activity , strength , people one could turn to for help , and cognitive activity increased significantly , and walking speed decreased significantly less , in participants compared to controls . In this pilot trial , physical , cognitive , and social activity increased , suggesting the potential for the Experience Corps to improve health for an aging population and simultaneously improve educational outcomes for children Purpose To assess the effects of creatine supplementation , associated or not with strength training , upon emotional and cognitive measures in older woman . Methods This is a 24-week , parallel-group , double-blind , r and omized , placebo-controlled trial . The individuals were r and omly allocated into one of the following groups ( n=14 each ) : 1 ) placebo , 2 ) creatine supplementation , 3 ) placebo associated with strength training or 4 ) creatine supplementation associated with strength training . According to their allocation , the participants were given creatine ( 4 x 5 g/d for 5 days followed by 5 g/d ) or placebo ( dextrose at the same dosage ) and were strength trained or not .  Cognitive function , assessed by a comprehensive battery of tests involving memory , selective attention , and inhibitory control , and emotional measures , assessed by the Geriatric Depression Scale , were evaluated at baseline , after 12 and 24 weeks of the intervention . Muscle strength and food intake were evaluated at baseline and after 24 weeks . Results After the 24-week intervention , both training groups ( ingesting creatine supplementation and placebo ) had significant reductions on the Geriatric Depression Scale scores when compared with the non-trained placebo group ( p = 0.001 and p = 0.01 , respectively ) and the non-trained creatine group ( p < 0.001 for both comparison ) . However , no significant differences were observed between the non-trained placebo and creatine ( p = 0.60 ) groups , or between the trained placebo and creatine groups ( p = 0.83 ) . Both trained groups , irrespective of creatine supplementation , had better muscle strength performance than the non-trained groups . Neither strength training nor creatine supplementation altered any parameter of cognitive performance . Food intake remained unchanged . Conclusion Creatine supplementation did not promote any significant change in cognitive function and emotional parameters in apparently healthy older individuals . In addition , strength training per se improved emotional state and muscle strength , but not cognition , with no additive effects of creatine supplementation . Trial Registration Clinical trials.gov This study evaluates transfer from domain-specific , sensorimotor training to cognitive abilities associated with executive function . We examined Individualized Piano Instruction ( IPI ) as a potential cognitive intervention to mitigate normal age-related cognitive decline in older adults . Thirty-one musically naïve community-dwelling older adults ( ages 60–85 ) were r and omly assigned to either the experimental group ( n = 16 ) or control group ( n = 15 ) . Neuropsychological assessment  s were administered at three time points : pre-training , following six months of intervention , and following a three-month delay . The experimental group significantly improved performance on the Trail Making Test and Digit Symbol measures as compared to healthy controls . Results of this study suggest that IPI may serve as an effective cognitive intervention for age-related cognitive decline Background Although basic research has uncovered biological mechanisms by which exercise could maintain and enhance adult brain health , experimental human studies with older adults have produced equivocal results . Purpose This r and omized clinical trial aim ed to investigate the hypotheses that ( a ) the effects of exercise training on the performance of neurocognitive tasks in older adults is selective , influencing mainly tasks with a substantial executive control component and ( b ) performance in neurocognitive tasks is related to cardiorespiratory fitness . Methods Fifty-seven older adults ( 65–79 years ) participated in aerobic or strength- and -flexibility exercise training for 10 months . Neurocognitive tasks were selected to reflect a range from little ( e.g. , simple reaction time ) to substantial ( i.e. , Stroop Word – Color conflict ) executive control . Results Performance in tasks requiring little executive control was unaffected by participating in aerobic exercise .  Improvements in Stroop Word – Color task performance were found only for the aerobic exercise group . Changes in aerobic fitness were unrelated to changes in neurocognitive function . Conclusions Aerobic exercise in older adults can have a beneficial effect on the performance of speeded tasks that rely heavily on executive control . Improvements in aerobic fitness do not appear to be a prerequisite for this beneficial effect Objectives Research suggests that older adults who remain socially active and cognitively engaged have better cognitive function than those who are isolated and disengaged . This study examined the efficacy of learning and using an online social networking website , Facebook.com , as an intervention to maintain or enhance cognitive function in older adults . Method Forty-one older adults were assigned to learn and use Facebook ( n = 14 ) or an online diary website ( active control , n = 13 ) for 8 weeks or placed on a waitlist ( n = 14 ) . Outcome measures included neuropsychological tests of executive functions , memory , and processing speed and self-report question naires about social engagement . Results The Facebook group showed a significant increase in a composite measure of updating , an executive function factor associated with complex working memory tasks , compared to no significant change in the control groups . Other measures of cognitive function and social support showed no differential improvement in the Facebook group . Discussion Learning and using an online social networking site may provide specific benefits for complex working memory in a group of healthy older adults . This may reflect the particular cognitive dem and s associated with online social networking and /or the benefits of social engagement more generally Background The beneficial effects of brain training games are expected to transfer to other cognitive functions , but these beneficial effects are poorly understood . Here we investigate the impact of the brain training game ( Brain Age ) on cognitive functions in the elderly . Methods and Results Thirty-two elderly volunteers were recruited through an advertisement in the local newspaper and r and omly assigned to either of two game groups ( Brain Age , Tetris ) . This study was completed by 14 of the 16 members in the Brain Age group and 14 of the 16 members in the Tetris group . To maximize the benefit of the interventions , all participants were non-gamers who reported playing less than one hour of video games per week over the past 2 years . Participants in both the Brain Age and the Tetris groups played their game for about 15 minutes per day , at least 5 days per week , for 4 weeks . Each group played for a total of about 20 days . Measures of the cognitive functions were conducted before and after training . Measures of the cognitive functions fell into four categories ( global cognitive status , executive functions , attention , and processing speed ) . Results showed that the effects of the brain training game were transferred to executive functions and to processing speed . However , the brain training game showed no transfer effect on any global cognitive status nor attention . Conclusions Our results showed that playing Brain Age for 4 weeks could lead to improve cognitive functions ( executive functions and processing speed ) in the elderly . This result indicated that there is a possibility which the elderly could improve executive functions and processing speed in short term training . The results need replication in large sample s. Long-term effects and relevance for every-day functioning remain uncertain as yet . Trial Registration UMIN Clinical Trial Registry Objective To test the efficacy of a tablet computer training intervention to improve cognitive abilities of older adults . Design Prospect i ve r and omized controlled trial . Setting Community-based aging intervention study , Edinburgh , UK . Participants Forty-eight healthy older adults aged 65 to 76 years were recruited at baseline with no or minimal tablet experience ; 43 completed follow-up testing . Intervention Twenty-two participants attended a weekly 2-hour class for 10 weeks during which they learned how to use a tablet and various applications on it . Measurements A battery of cognitive tests from the WAIS-IV measuring the domains of Verbal Comprehension , Perceptual Processing , Working Memory , and Processing Speed , as well as health , psychological , and well-being measures . Results A 2 × 2 mixed model ANOVA suggested that the tablet intervention group ( N = 22 ) showed greater improvements in Processing Speed ( η2 = 0.10 ) compared with controls ( N = 21 ) , but did not differ in Verbal Comprehension , Perceptual Processing , or Working Memory ( η2 ranged from −0.03 to 0.04 ) . Conclusions Engagement in a new mentally challenging activity ( tablet training ) was associated with improved processing speed . Acquiring skills in later life , including those related to adopting new technologies , may therefore have the potential to reduce or delay cognitive changes associated with ageing . It is important to underst and how the development of these skills might further facilitate everyday activities , and also improve older adults ' quality of life Background Type 2 diabetes mellitus may alter the effect of physical activity on physical and cognitive function . Methods The Lifestyle Interventions and Independence for Elders ( LIFE ) trial r and omized 
    Output:
    