human
***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: High doses of n-3 PUFA found in fish oils can reduce the circulating concentration of triacylglycerol ( TG ) , which may contribute to the positive impact of these fatty acids on the risk of CVD . The present study aim ed to establish the differential impact of EPA and docosahexaenoic ( DHA ) on plasma lipids and apo in adults . Forty-two normolipidaemic adult subjects completed a double-blind placebo controlled parallel study , receiving an EPA-rich oil ( 4.8 g EPA/d ) , DHA-rich oil ( 4.9 g DHA/d ) or olive oil as control , for a period of 4 weeks . No effects of treatment on total cholesterol , LDL-cholesterol or HDL-cholesterol were evident . There was a significant 22 % reduction in TG level relative to the control value following the DHA treatment ( P=0.032 ) , with the 15 % decrease in the EPA group failing to reach significance ( P=0.258 ) . There were no significant inter-group differences in response to treatment for plasma apoA1 , -C3 or -E levels , although a significant 15 % within-group increase in apoE was evident in the EPA ( P=0.006 ) and DHA ( P=0.003 ) groups . In addition , a within-group decrease in the apoA1:HDL-cholesterol ratio was observed in the DHA group , suggesting a positive impact of DHA on HDL particle size . The DHA intervention result ed in a significant increase in the proportion of EPA P=0.000 and DHA P=0.000 in plasma phospholipids , whilst significant increases in EPA P=0.000 and docosapentaenoic acid P=0.002 , but not DHA P=0.193 , were evident following EPA supplementation ( P<0.05 ) . Our present results indicate that DHA may be more efficacious than EPA in improving the plasma lipid profile Studies on animal and human subjects have shown that greatly increasing the amount of linseed ( also known as flaxseed ) oil ( rich in the n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid ( PUFA ) alpha-linolenic acid ( ALNA ) ) or fish oil ( FO ; rich in the long-chain n-3 PUFA eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) and docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) ) in the diet can decrease a number of markers of immune function . The immunological effects of more modest doses of n-3 PUFA in human subjects are unclear , dose-response relationships between n-3 PUFA supply and immune function have not been established and whether ALNA has the same effects as its long-chain derivatives is not known . Therefore , the objective of the present study was to determine the effect of enriching the diet with different doses of FO or with a modest dose of ALNA on a range of functional responses of human monocytes and lymphocytes . In a r and omised , placebo-controlled , double-blind , parallel study , forty healthy males aged 18 - 39 years were r and omised to receive placebo or 3.5 g ALNA/d or 0.44 , 0.94 or 1.9 g (EPA+DHA)/d in capsules for 12 weeks . The EPA : DHA ratio in the FO used was 1.0:2.5 . ALNA supplementation increased the proportion of EPA but not DHA in plasma phospholipids . FO supplementation decreased the proportions of linoleic acid and arachidonic acid and increased the proportions of EPA and DHA in plasma phospholipids . The interventions did not alter circulating mononuclear cell subsets or the production of tumour necrosis factor-alpha , interleukin ( IL ) 1beta , IL-2 , IL-4 , IL-10 or interferon-gamma by stimulated mononuclear cells . There was little effect of the interventions on lymphocyte proliferation . The two higher doses of FO result ed in a significant decrease in IL-6 production by stimulated mononuclear cells . It is concluded that , with the exception of IL-6 production , a modest increase in intake of either ALNA or EPA+DHA does not influence the functional activity of mononuclear cells . The threshold of EPA+DHA intake that results in decreased IL-6 production is between 0.44 and 0.94 g/d Low red blood cell ( RBC ) membrane content of FPA+DHA ( hereafter called omega-3 index ) has recently been described as an indicator for increased risk of death from coronary heart disease . The relationship between plasma and RBC FA , focusing on omega-3 index , and the response to DHA supplementation were investigated in a double-blind , r and omized , placebo-controlled , intervention study . Healthy vegetarians ( 87 f , 17 m ) consumed daily a microalgae oil from Ulkenia sp. ( 0.94 g DHA/d ) or olive oil ( placebo ) for 8 wk . DHA supplementation significantly increased DHA in RBC total lipids ( 7.9 vs. 4.4 wt% ) , in RBC PE ( 12.1 vs. 6.5 wt% ) , in RBC PC ( 3.8 vs. 1.4 wt% ) , and in plasma phospholipids ( PL ) ( 7.4 vs. 2.8 wt% ) , whereas EPA levels rose to a much lesser extent . Microalgae oil supplementation increased the omega-3 index from 4.8 to 8.4 wt% . After intervention , 69 % of DHA-supplemented subjects ( but no subject of the placebo group ) reached an omega-3 index above the desirable value of 8 wt% . Omega-3 index and EPA+DHA levels in RBC PE , RBC PC , and plasma PL were closely correlated ( r always > 0.9 ) . We conclude that an 8-wk supplementation with 0.94 g DHA/d from microalgae oil achieves a beneficial omega-3 index of ≥8 % in most subjects with low basal EPA+DHA status . RBC total FA analyses can be used instead of RBC lipid fraction analyses for assessing essential FA status , e.g. , in clinical studies Normal healthy male volunteers ( n=10 ) were fed diets ( high-AA ) containing 1.7 g/d of arachidonic acid ( AA ) for 50 d. The control ( low-AA ) diet contained 210 mg/d of AA . Dietary AA had no statistically significant effect on the blood cholesterol levels , lipoprotein distribution , or apoprotein levels . Adipose tissue fatty acid composition was not influenced by AA feeding . The plasma total fatty acid composition was markedly enriched in AA after 50 d ( P<0.005 ) . The fatty acid composition of plasma lipid fractions , cholesterol esters , triglycerides , free fatty acids , and phospholipid ( PL ) showed marked differences in the degree of enrichment in AA . The PL plasma fraction from the subjects consuming the low-AA diet contained 10.3 % AA while the subjects who consumed the high-AA diet had plasma PL fractions containing 19.0 % AA . The level of 22:4n-6 also was different ( 0.67 to 1.06 % ) in the plasma PL fraction after 50 d of AA feeding . After consuming the high-AA diet , the total red blood cell fatty acid composition was significantly enriched in AA which mainly replaced linoleic acid . These results indicate that dietary AA is incorporated into tissue lipids , but selectively into different tissues and lipid classes . Perhaps more importantly , the results demonstrate that dietary AA does not alter blood lipids or lipoprotein levels or have obvious adverse health effects at this level and duration of feeding Because human studies concerning the effects of stearic acid on thrombotic tendency are inconsistent , we compared the effects of stearic acid with those of its unsaturated derivatives , oleic acid and linoleic acid . In this r and omized , crossover study , 45 subjects ( 27 women and 18 men ) consumed , in r and om order , 3 experimental diets , each for 5 wk . Diets contained approximately 38 % of energy as fat . Dietary compositions were the same except for 7 % of energy from stearic , oleic , or linoleic acids . At the end of each period , ex vivo and in vitro platelet aggregation , and variables of coagulation , fibrinolysis , and hematology were evaluated . In men , ex vivo platelet aggregation time as measured by filtragometry ( P = 0.036 for diet effects ) was favorably prolonged during consumption of the linoleic acid diet compared with the stearic acid diet ( P = 0.040 ) , but there was no difference with consumption of the oleic acid diet ( P = 0.198 ) . In vitro platelet aggregation induced by collagen and ADP , and variables of coagulation ( factor VII amidolytic activity and concentrations of fibrinogen and prothrombin fragment 1 and 2 ) and fibrinolysis [ plasminogen activator inhibitor ( PAI ) activity and concentrations of tissue plasminogen activator (tPA)/PAI-1 complexes ] did not differ among the 3 diets . The mean platelet volume of the subjects decreased during consumption of the stearic acid diet by 0.32 fL compared with the oleic acid diet ( P < 0.001 ) and by 0.35 fL compared with the linoleic acid diet ( P < 0.001 ) . In conclusion , our results do not suggest that stearic acid is highly thrombogenic compared with oleic and linoleic acids BACKGROUND Dietary alpha-linolenic acid ( ALA ) can be converted to long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFAs ) in humans and may reproduce some of the beneficial effects of eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) and docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) on cardiovascular disease risk factors . OBJECTIVE This study aim ed to compare the effects of increased dietary intakes of ALA and EPA+DHA on a range of atherogenic risk factors . DESIGN This was a placebo-controlled , parallel study involving 150 moderately hyperlipidemic subjects r and omly assigned to 1 of 5 interventions :  0.8 or 1.7 g EPA+DHA/d  , 4.5 or 9.5 g ALA/d , or an n-6 PUFA control for 6 mo . Fatty acids were incorporated into 25 g of fat spread and 3 capsules to be consumed daily . RESULTS The change in fasting or postpr and ial lipid , glucose , or insulin concentrations or in blood pressure was not significantly different after any of the n-3 PUFA interventions compared with the n-6 PUFA control . The mean ( + /- SEM ) change in fasting triacylglycerols after the 1.7-g/d EPA+DHA intervention ( -7.7 + /- 4.99 % ) was significantly ( P < 0.05 ) different from the change after the 9.5-g/d ALA intervention ( 10.9 + /- 4.5 % ) . The ex vivo susceptibility of LDL to oxidation was higher after the 1.7-g/d EPA+DHA intervention than after the control and ALA interventions ( P < 0.05 ) . There was no significant change in plasma alpha-tocopherol concentrations or in whole plasma antioxidant status in any of the groups . CONCLUSION At estimated biologically equivalent intakes , dietary ALA and EPA+DHA have different physiologic effects BACKGROUND Animal studies showed that dietary flaxseed oil [ rich in the n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid alpha-linolenic acid ( ALA ) ] , evening primrose oil [ rich in the n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid gamma-linolenic acid ( GLA ) ] , and fish oil [ rich in the long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) and docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) ] can decrease natural killer ( NK ) cell activity . There have been no studies of the effect on NK cell activity of adding these oils to the diet of humans . OBJECTIVE Our objective was to determine the effect of dietary supplementation with oil blends rich in ALA , GLA , arachidonic acid ( AA ) , DHA , or EPA plus DHA ( fish oil ) on the NK cell activity of human peripheral blood mononuclear cells . DESIGN A r and omized , placebo-controlled , double-blind , parallel study was conducted . Healthy subjects aged 55 - 75 y consumed 9 capsules/d for 12 wk ; the capsules contained placebo oil ( an 80:20 mix of palm and sunflower seed oils ) or blends of placebo oil and oils rich in ALA , GLA , AA , DHA , or EPA plus DHA . Subjects in these groups consumed 2 g ALA , 770 mg GLA , 680 mg AA , 720 mg DHA , or 1 g EPA plus DHA ( 720 mg EPA + 280 mg DHA ) daily , respectively . Total fat intake from the capsules was 4 g/d . RESULTS The fatty acid composition of plasma phospholipids changed significantly in the GLA , AA , DHA , and fish oil groups . NK cell activity was not significantly affected by the placebo , ALA , GLA , AA , or DHA treatment . Fish oil caused a significant reduction ( mean decline : 48 % ) in NK cell activity that was fully reversed by 4 wk after supplementation had ceased . CONCLUSION A moderate amount of EPA but not of other n-6 or n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids can decrease NK 
    Output:
    
agent
***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: High doses of n-3 PUFA found in fish oils can reduce the circulating concentration of triacylglycerol ( TG ) , which may contribute to the positive impact of these fatty acids on the risk of CVD . The present study aim ed to establish the differential impact of EPA and docosahexaenoic ( DHA ) on plasma lipids and apo in adults . Forty-two normolipidaemic adult subjects completed a double-blind placebo controlled parallel study , receiving an EPA-rich oil ( 4.8 g EPA/d ) , DHA-rich oil ( 4.9 g DHA/d ) or olive oil as control , for a period of 4 weeks . No effects of treatment on total cholesterol , LDL-cholesterol or HDL-cholesterol were evident . There was a significant 22 % reduction in TG level relative to the control value following the DHA treatment ( P=0.032 ) , with the 15 % decrease in the EPA group failing to reach significance ( P=0.258 ) . There were no significant inter-group differences in response to treatment for plasma apoA1 , -C3 or -E levels , although a significant 15 % within-group increase in apoE was evident in the EPA ( P=0.006 ) and DHA ( P=0.003 ) groups . In addition , a within-group decrease in the apoA1:HDL-cholesterol ratio was observed in the DHA group , suggesting a positive impact of DHA on HDL particle size . The DHA intervention result ed in a significant increase in the proportion of EPA P=0.000 and DHA P=0.000 in plasma phospholipids , whilst significant increases in EPA P=0.000 and docosapentaenoic acid P=0.002 , but not DHA P=0.193 , were evident following EPA supplementation ( P<0.05 ) . Our present results indicate that DHA may be more efficacious than EPA in improving the plasma lipid profile Studies on animal and human subjects have shown that greatly increasing the amount of linseed ( also known as flaxseed ) oil ( rich in the n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid ( PUFA ) alpha-linolenic acid ( ALNA ) ) or fish oil ( FO ; rich in the long-chain n-3 PUFA eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) and docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) ) in the diet can decrease a number of markers of immune function . The immunological effects of more modest doses of n-3 PUFA in human subjects are unclear , dose-response relationships between n-3 PUFA supply and immune function have not been established and whether ALNA has the same effects as its long-chain derivatives is not known . Therefore , the objective of the present study was to determine the effect of enriching the diet with different doses of FO or with a modest dose of ALNA on a range of functional responses of human monocytes and lymphocytes . In a r and omised , placebo-controlled , double-blind , parallel study , forty healthy males aged 18 - 39 years were r and omised to receive placebo or 3.5 g ALNA/d or 0.44 , 0.94 or 1.9 g (EPA+DHA)/d in capsules for 12 weeks . The EPA : DHA ratio in the FO used was 1.0:2.5 . ALNA supplementation increased the proportion of EPA but not DHA in plasma phospholipids . FO supplementation decreased the proportions of linoleic acid and arachidonic acid and increased the proportions of EPA and DHA in plasma phospholipids . The interventions did not alter circulating mononuclear cell subsets or the production of tumour necrosis factor-alpha , interleukin ( IL ) 1beta , IL-2 , IL-4 , IL-10 or interferon-gamma by stimulated mononuclear cells . There was little effect of the interventions on lymphocyte proliferation . The two higher doses of FO result ed in a significant decrease in IL-6 production by stimulated mononuclear cells . It is concluded that , with the exception of IL-6 production , a modest increase in intake of either ALNA or EPA+DHA does not influence the functional activity of mononuclear cells . The threshold of EPA+DHA intake that results in decreased IL-6 production is between 0.44 and 0.94 g/d Low red blood cell ( RBC ) membrane content of FPA+DHA ( hereafter called omega-3 index ) has recently been described as an indicator for increased risk of death from coronary heart disease . The relationship between plasma and RBC FA , focusing on omega-3 index , and the response to DHA supplementation were investigated in a double-blind , r and omized , placebo-controlled , intervention study . Healthy vegetarians ( 87 f , 17 m ) consumed daily a microalgae oil from Ulkenia sp. ( 0.94 g DHA/d ) or olive oil ( placebo ) for 8 wk . DHA supplementation significantly increased DHA in RBC total lipids ( 7.9 vs. 4.4 wt% ) , in RBC PE ( 12.1 vs. 6.5 wt% ) , in RBC PC ( 3.8 vs. 1.4 wt% ) , and in plasma phospholipids ( PL ) ( 7.4 vs. 2.8 wt% ) , whereas EPA levels rose to a much lesser extent . Microalgae oil supplementation increased the omega-3 index from 4.8 to 8.4 wt% . After intervention , 69 % of DHA-supplemented subjects ( but no subject of the placebo group ) reached an omega-3 index above the desirable value of 8 wt% . Omega-3 index and EPA+DHA levels in RBC PE , RBC PC , and plasma PL were closely correlated ( r always > 0.9 ) . We conclude that an 8-wk supplementation with 0.94 g DHA/d from microalgae oil achieves a beneficial omega-3 index of ≥8 % in most subjects with low basal EPA+DHA status . RBC total FA analyses can be used instead of RBC lipid fraction analyses for assessing essential FA status , e.g. , in clinical studies Normal healthy male volunteers ( n=10 ) were fed diets ( high-AA ) containing 1.7 g/d of arachidonic acid ( AA ) for 50 d. The control ( low-AA ) diet contained 210 mg/d of AA . Dietary AA had no statistically significant effect on the blood cholesterol levels , lipoprotein distribution , or apoprotein levels . Adipose tissue fatty acid composition was not influenced by AA feeding . The plasma total fatty acid composition was markedly enriched in AA after 50 d ( P<0.005 ) . The fatty acid composition of plasma lipid fractions , cholesterol esters , triglycerides , free fatty acids , and phospholipid ( PL ) showed marked differences in the degree of enrichment in AA . The PL plasma fraction from the subjects consuming the low-AA diet contained 10.3 % AA while the subjects who consumed the high-AA diet had plasma PL fractions containing 19.0 % AA . The level of 22:4n-6 also was different ( 0.67 to 1.06 % ) in the plasma PL fraction after 50 d of AA feeding . After consuming the high-AA diet , the total red blood cell fatty acid composition was significantly enriched in AA which mainly replaced linoleic acid . These results indicate that dietary AA is incorporated into tissue lipids , but selectively into different tissues and lipid classes . Perhaps more importantly , the results demonstrate that dietary AA does not alter blood lipids or lipoprotein levels or have obvious adverse health effects at this level and duration of feeding Because human studies concerning the effects of stearic acid on thrombotic tendency are inconsistent , we compared the effects of stearic acid with those of its unsaturated derivatives , oleic acid and linoleic acid . In this r and omized , crossover study , 45 subjects ( 27 women and 18 men ) consumed , in r and om order , 3 experimental diets , each for 5 wk . Diets contained approximately 38 % of energy as fat . Dietary compositions were the same except for 7 % of energy from stearic , oleic , or linoleic acids . At the end of each period , ex vivo and in vitro platelet aggregation , and variables of coagulation , fibrinolysis , and hematology were evaluated . In men , ex vivo platelet aggregation time as measured by filtragometry ( P = 0.036 for diet effects ) was favorably prolonged during consumption of the linoleic acid diet compared with the stearic acid diet ( P = 0.040 ) , but there was no difference with consumption of the oleic acid diet ( P = 0.198 ) . In vitro platelet aggregation induced by collagen and ADP , and variables of coagulation ( factor VII amidolytic activity and concentrations of fibrinogen and prothrombin fragment 1 and 2 ) and fibrinolysis [ plasminogen activator inhibitor ( PAI ) activity and concentrations of tissue plasminogen activator (tPA)/PAI-1 complexes ] did not differ among the 3 diets . The mean platelet volume of the subjects decreased during consumption of the stearic acid diet by 0.32 fL compared with the oleic acid diet ( P < 0.001 ) and by 0.35 fL compared with the linoleic acid diet ( P < 0.001 ) . In conclusion , our results do not suggest that stearic acid is highly thrombogenic compared with oleic and linoleic acids BACKGROUND Dietary alpha-linolenic acid ( ALA ) can be converted to long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFAs ) in humans and may reproduce some of the beneficial effects of eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) and docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) on cardiovascular disease risk factors . OBJECTIVE This study aim ed to compare the effects of increased dietary intakes of ALA and EPA+DHA on a range of atherogenic risk factors . DESIGN This was a placebo-controlled , parallel study involving 150 moderately hyperlipidemic subjects r and omly assigned to 1 of 5 interventions :  0.8 or 1.7 g EPA+DHA/d  , 4.5 or 9.5 g ALA/d , or an n-6 PUFA control for 6 mo . Fatty acids were incorporated into 25 g of fat spread and 3 capsules to be consumed daily . RESULTS The change in fasting or postpr and ial lipid , glucose , or insulin concentrations or in blood pressure was not significantly different after any of the n-3 PUFA interventions compared with the n-6 PUFA control . The mean ( + /- SEM ) change in fasting triacylglycerols after the 1.7-g/d EPA+DHA intervention ( -7.7 + /- 4.99 % ) was significantly ( P < 0.05 ) different from the change after the 9.5-g/d ALA intervention ( 10.9 + /- 4.5 % ) . The ex vivo susceptibility of LDL to oxidation was higher after the 1.7-g/d EPA+DHA intervention than after the control and ALA interventions ( P < 0.05 ) . There was no significant change in plasma alpha-tocopherol concentrations or in whole plasma antioxidant status in any of the groups . CONCLUSION At estimated biologically equivalent intakes , dietary ALA and EPA+DHA have different physiologic effects BACKGROUND Animal studies showed that dietary flaxseed oil [ rich in the n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid alpha-linolenic acid ( ALA ) ] , evening primrose oil [ rich in the n-6 polyunsaturated fatty acid gamma-linolenic acid ( GLA ) ] , and fish oil [ rich in the long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) and docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) ] can decrease natural killer ( NK ) cell activity . There have been no studies of the effect on NK cell activity of adding these oils to the diet of humans . OBJECTIVE Our objective was to determine the effect of dietary supplementation with oil blends rich in ALA , GLA , arachidonic acid ( AA ) , DHA , or EPA plus DHA ( fish oil ) on the NK cell activity of human peripheral blood mononuclear cells . DESIGN A r and omized , placebo-controlled , double-blind , parallel study was conducted . Healthy subjects aged 55 - 75 y consumed 9 capsules/d for 12 wk ; the capsules contained placebo oil ( an 80:20 mix of palm and sunflower seed oils ) or blends of placebo oil and oils rich in ALA , GLA , AA , DHA , or EPA plus DHA . Subjects in these groups consumed 2 g ALA , 770 mg GLA , 680 mg AA , 720 mg DHA , or 1 g EPA plus DHA ( 720 mg EPA + 280 mg DHA ) daily , respectively . Total fat intake from the capsules was 4 g/d . RESULTS The fatty acid composition of plasma phospholipids changed significantly in the GLA , AA , DHA , and fish oil groups . NK cell activity was not significantly affected by the placebo , ALA , GLA , AA , or DHA treatment . Fish oil caused a significant reduction ( mean decline : 48 % ) in NK cell activity that was fully reversed by 4 wk after supplementation had ceased . CONCLUSION A moderate amount of EPA but not of other n-6 or n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids can decrease NK 
    Output:
    