human
***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: BACKGROUND AND AIMS Cardiovascular diseases are the major cause of mortality among diabetic patients . The concentration of malondialdehyde ( MDA ) and homocysteine is believed to play a role in cardiovascular diseases . Omega-3 fatty acid supplementation could be effective in some diabetes complications and in the control of the glycemic index . However , it may increase lipid peroxidation . The objective of this study was to determine the effect of omega-3 fatty acids on the concentration of homocysteine and MDA in diabetic patients . METHODS AND RESULTS A r and omized double-blind , placebo-controlled clinical trial was conducted on 81 patients with type 2 diabetes . The patients were r and omly assigned to either the treatment or control groups . Each subject received three capsules of omega-3 fatty acids or a placebo every day for a period of 2months . The two groups were similar in terms of body mass index and food intake . At the beginning of the study and after 2months of supplementation their levels of HbA(1)c , homocysteine , MDA , C-reactive protein ( CRP ) , total cholesterol , LDL-cholesterol and fasting blood sugar ( FBS ) were determined . Due to omega-3 fatty acid supplementation , homocysteine was changed significantly in both treatment and control groups up to -3.10mumol/L and 0.10mumol/L respectively , and HbA(1)c decreased by 0.75 % in the treatment group and increased by 0.26 % in the control group . However , the changes in fasting blood sugar ( FBS ) , malondialdehyde ( MDA ) , C-reactive protein ( CRP ) , total cholesterol and LDL-cholesterol levels were not significant . CONCLUSION The consumption of omega-3 fatty acid supplements ( 3g/day ) for 2months decreases the levels of homocysteine in diabetic patients with no change in FBS , MDA and CRP levels The aim of this study was to examine the effect of Max EPA ( a commercially available fish oil preparation ) on serum cholesterol lipoproteins and apolipoproteins in insulin-dependent diabetic ( IDDM ) men with dosages that were likely to be acceptable to patients . Twenty-two male IDDM patients aged 20–41 yr , 6 of whom had retinopathy , were recruited from the Royal Perth Hospital diabetic clinic . After screening , subjects were divided into three groups . Six of the subjects without retinopathy were r and omly selected and allocated to a control group . The remaining 16 patients ( 10 without and 6 with retinopathy ) received a fish oil supplement . All subjects were advised to maintain their usual dietary patterns . Sixteen patients , including the 6 with retinopathy , were instructed to take 15 Max EPA fish oil capsules/day with meals . Patients in the control group did not take Max EPA . Three weeks of Max EPA supplementation without other dietary modification led to a significant rise in total cholesterol ( P < 0.01 ) , which could be accounted for by increases in low-density lipoprotein ( LDL ) and high-density lipoprotein ( HDL ) cholesterol . The increase in HDL cholesterol was explained by a 33 % rise ( P < 0.001 ) in its HDL2 subclass . Changes in apolipoproteins were examined and showed that the level of apolipoprotein A-l increased after ingestion of fish oil and correlated significantly ( P < 0.05 ) with the rise in HDL cholesterol . Apolipoprotein A-ll showed a significant fall at the end of Max EPA intake in a subgroup of patients with retinopathy , and this correlated significantly ( P < 0.05 ) with the fall in HDL3 cholesterol observed at this time . A significant rise in apolipoprotein B ( P < 0.05 ) was correlated with the rise in LDL cholesterol . Possible adverse effects of the increase in both total and LDL cholesterol after 15 g/day Max EPA may be compensated for by a rise in the protective HDL2 subclass . However , in view of this hypercholesterolemic effect and evidence that suggests that LDL apolipoprotein B may be a risk factor for coronary heart disease , these findings raise questions regarding the safety of fish oils in patients with IDDM BACKGROUND Information is lacking on the potential effect of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFAs ) on the adipose tissue of patients with type 2 diabetes . OBJECTIVE We evaluated whether n-3 PUFAs have additional effects on adiposity , insulin sensitivity , adipose tissue function ( production of adipokines and inflammatory and atherogenic factors ) , and gene expression in type 2 diabetes . DESIGN Twenty-seven women with type 2 diabetes without hypertriglyceridemia were r and omly allocated in a double-blind parallel design to 2 mo of 3 g/d of either fish oil ( 1.8 g n-3 PUFAs ) or placebo ( paraffin oil ) . RESULTS Although body weight and energy intake measured by use of a food diary were unchanged , total fat mass ( P < 0.019 ) and subcutaneous adipocyte diameter ( P < 0.0018 ) were lower in the fish oil group than in the placebo group . Insulin sensitivity was not significantly different between the 2 groups ( measured by homeostasis model assessment in all patients and by euglycemic-hyperinsulinemic clamp in a subgroup of 5 patients per group ) . By contrast , atherogenic risk factors , including plasma triacylglycerol ( P < 0.03 ) , the ratio of triacylglycerol to HDL cholesterol ( atherogenic index , P < 0.03 ) , and plasma plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 ( P < 0.01 ) , were lower in the fish oil group than in the placebo group . In addition , a subset of inflammation-related genes was reduced in subcutaneous adipose tissue after the fish oil , but not the placebo , treatment . CONCLUSIONS A moderate dose of n-3 PUFAs for 2 mo reduced adiposity and atherogenic markers without deterioration of insulin sensitivity in subjects with type 2 diabetes . Some adipose tissue inflammation-related genes were also reduced . These beneficial effects could be linked to morphologic and inflammatory changes in adipose tissue . This trial was registered at clinical trials.gov as NCT0037 The effects of ( n-3 ) fatty acids on the postpr and ial state were investigated by monitoring the alimentary responses to identical test meals fed to adults [ n = 11 ; fasting triacylglycerol ( TG ) 2.55 + /- 0.24 mmol/L ; mean + /- SEM ] after a self-selected diet baseline period ( BLP ) and then after a 6-wk ( n-3 ) fatty acid period ( FOP ) [ approximately 5.2 g ( n-3 ) fatty acids ] and a 6-wk control oil period ( COP ) administered in r and om order . Sample s were drawn immediately prior to the test meal ( time 0 ) and then hourly from 2 to 6 h postmeal . Postpr and ial plasma triacylglycerol ( TG ) and TG-rich lipoprotein ( TRL ) TG apo B48 , and B100 absolute concentrations were significantly lower after FOP than after COP or BLP , while plasma cholesterol was unchanged . Normalizing the results as increments over time 0 eliminated the diet effect on all but plasma TG . Time remained a significant effect for plasma TG , TRL TG , and TRL TC . Finally , only absolute TRL B48 and absolute and incremental plasma TG concentrations displayed significant time-diet interactions . These results suggest that postpr and ial TRL apo B reductions are likely caused by ( n-3 ) fatty acid suppression of both hepatic and intestinal apoB secretion/ synthesis . Altered TRL metabolism , i.e. changes in postpr and ial TG , cholesterol , apo B48 , and increase in LDL particle size , may represent an additional mechanism for the reduced heart disease risk associated with fish [ ( n-3 ) fatty acid ] consumption BACKGROUND Plasma lipoproteins may be classified by their apolipoprotein composition . The lipoprotein subclass containing apolipoproteins B and C ( LpB : C ) is considered the most atherogenic . OBJECTIVE We evaluated the acute effects of individual fatty acids on apolipoprotein B ( apo B)-containing lipoproteins in adults with type 2 diabetes ( n = 15 ) . DESIGN We administered 3 meals in a r and omized , double-blind , crossover design . Treatments contained skim milk and 50 g fat from high-oleic acid safflower and canola oils ( monounsaturated fatty acid ; MUFA ) , MUFA + 3.5 g alpha-linolenic acid ( ALA ; MUFA + ALA ) from high-ALA canola oil , or MUFA + 4.0 g both eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) and docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ; MUFA + EPA/DHA ) from sardine oil .  Apo B , LpB , LpB : C , LpB : E + LpB : C : E , and LpA-II : B : C : D : E were measured at baseline and 2 and 4 h after the meal . Flow-mediated dilation was measured at baseline and 4 h after the meal . RESULTS The treatments significantly increased apo B and LpB postpr and ially ( P < 0.03 for both ) , but the magnitude of the changes did not differ significantly between the treatments . The postpr and ial change in LpB : C was 23 % lower after MUFA + EPA/DHA than after MUFA ( treatment x time interaction , P < 0.0001 ) . MUFA + ALA attenuated the increase in LpA-II : B : C : D : E in those with high triacylglycerols ( > /=1.69 mmol/L ) but was the only treatment to significantly increase this particle in those with low triacylglycerols ( treatment x group interaction , P < 0.0001 ) . Examination of change scores did not reveal the source of the interaction of treatment and time ( P < 0.007 ) for LpB : E + LpB : C : E. Furthermore , the subjects with the largest increases in LpB : C exhibited the largest impairment in endothelial function . CONCLUSIONS The results suggest that unsaturated fatty acids differentially affect concentrations of apo B-containing lipoprotein subclasses . A rise in LpB : C adversely affects endothelial function . Meals containing MUFA + EPA/DHA attenuated the postpr and ial rise in LpB : C and the impairment of endothelial function OBJECTIVE Dietary interventions can improve pregnancy outcomes in women with gestational diabetes mellitus ( GDM ) . We compared the effect of a low – glycemic index ( GI ) versus a conventional high-fiber ( HF ) diet on pregnancy outcomes , birth weight z score , and maternal metabolic profile in women at high risk of GDM . RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS One hundred thirty-nine women [ mean ( SD ) age 34.7 ( 0.4 ) years and prepregnancy BMI 25.2 ( 0.5 ) kg/m2 ] were r and omly assigned to a low-GI ( LGI ) diet ( n = 72 ; target GI ∼50 ) or a high-fiber , moderate-GI ( HF ) diet ( n = 67 ; target GI ∼60 ) at 14–20 weeks ’ gestation .  Diet was assessed by 3-day food records and infant body composition by air-displacement plethysmography , and pregnancy outcomes were assessed from medical records . RESULTS The LGI group achieved a lower GI than the HF group [ mean ( SD ) 50 ( 5 ) vs. 58 ( 5 ) ; P < 0.001 ] . There were no differences in glycosylated hemoglobin , fructosamine , or lipids at 36 weeks or differences in birth weight [ LGI 3.4 ( 0.4 ) kg vs. HF 3.4 ( 0.5 ) kg ; P = 0.514 ] , birth weight z score [ LGI 0.31 ( 0.90 ) vs. HF 0.24 ( 1.07 ) ; P = 0.697 ] , ponderal index [ LGI 2.71 ( 0.22 ) vs. HF 2.69 ( 0.23 ) kg/m3 ; P = 0.672 ] , birth weight centile [ LGI 46.2 ( 25.4 ) vs. HF 41.8 ( 25.6 ) ; P = 0.330 ] , % fat mass [ LGI 10 ( 4 ) vs. HF 10 ( 4 ) ; P = 0.789 ] , or incidence of GDM . CONCLUSIONS In intensively monitored women at risk for GDM , a low-GI diet and a healthy diet produce similar pregnancy outcomes Background Omega–3 fatty acids prevent cardiovascular disease ( CVD ) events in patients with myocardial infa rct ion or heart failure . Benefits in patients without overt CVD have not been demonstrated , though most studies did not use treatment doses (  
    Output:
    
agent
We conclude that omega-3 fatty acids may be associated with lower inflammatory biomarkers among diabetic and cardiovascular patients .
***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: BACKGROUND AND AIMS Cardiovascular diseases are the major cause of mortality among diabetic patients . The concentration of malondialdehyde ( MDA ) and homocysteine is believed to play a role in cardiovascular diseases . Omega-3 fatty acid supplementation could be effective in some diabetes complications and in the control of the glycemic index . However , it may increase lipid peroxidation . The objective of this study was to determine the effect of omega-3 fatty acids on the concentration of homocysteine and MDA in diabetic patients . METHODS AND RESULTS A r and omized double-blind , placebo-controlled clinical trial was conducted on 81 patients with type 2 diabetes . The patients were r and omly assigned to either the treatment or control groups . Each subject received three capsules of omega-3 fatty acids or a placebo every day for a period of 2months . The two groups were similar in terms of body mass index and food intake . At the beginning of the study and after 2months of supplementation their levels of HbA(1)c , homocysteine , MDA , C-reactive protein ( CRP ) , total cholesterol , LDL-cholesterol and fasting blood sugar ( FBS ) were determined . Due to omega-3 fatty acid supplementation , homocysteine was changed significantly in both treatment and control groups up to -3.10mumol/L and 0.10mumol/L respectively , and HbA(1)c decreased by 0.75 % in the treatment group and increased by 0.26 % in the control group . However , the changes in fasting blood sugar ( FBS ) , malondialdehyde ( MDA ) , C-reactive protein ( CRP ) , total cholesterol and LDL-cholesterol levels were not significant . CONCLUSION The consumption of omega-3 fatty acid supplements ( 3g/day ) for 2months decreases the levels of homocysteine in diabetic patients with no change in FBS , MDA and CRP levels The aim of this study was to examine the effect of Max EPA ( a commercially available fish oil preparation ) on serum cholesterol lipoproteins and apolipoproteins in insulin-dependent diabetic ( IDDM ) men with dosages that were likely to be acceptable to patients . Twenty-two male IDDM patients aged 20–41 yr , 6 of whom had retinopathy , were recruited from the Royal Perth Hospital diabetic clinic . After screening , subjects were divided into three groups . Six of the subjects without retinopathy were r and omly selected and allocated to a control group . The remaining 16 patients ( 10 without and 6 with retinopathy ) received a fish oil supplement . All subjects were advised to maintain their usual dietary patterns . Sixteen patients , including the 6 with retinopathy , were instructed to take 15 Max EPA fish oil capsules/day with meals . Patients in the control group did not take Max EPA . Three weeks of Max EPA supplementation without other dietary modification led to a significant rise in total cholesterol ( P < 0.01 ) , which could be accounted for by increases in low-density lipoprotein ( LDL ) and high-density lipoprotein ( HDL ) cholesterol . The increase in HDL cholesterol was explained by a 33 % rise ( P < 0.001 ) in its HDL2 subclass . Changes in apolipoproteins were examined and showed that the level of apolipoprotein A-l increased after ingestion of fish oil and correlated significantly ( P < 0.05 ) with the rise in HDL cholesterol . Apolipoprotein A-ll showed a significant fall at the end of Max EPA intake in a subgroup of patients with retinopathy , and this correlated significantly ( P < 0.05 ) with the fall in HDL3 cholesterol observed at this time . A significant rise in apolipoprotein B ( P < 0.05 ) was correlated with the rise in LDL cholesterol . Possible adverse effects of the increase in both total and LDL cholesterol after 15 g/day Max EPA may be compensated for by a rise in the protective HDL2 subclass . However , in view of this hypercholesterolemic effect and evidence that suggests that LDL apolipoprotein B may be a risk factor for coronary heart disease , these findings raise questions regarding the safety of fish oils in patients with IDDM BACKGROUND Information is lacking on the potential effect of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFAs ) on the adipose tissue of patients with type 2 diabetes . OBJECTIVE We evaluated whether n-3 PUFAs have additional effects on adiposity , insulin sensitivity , adipose tissue function ( production of adipokines and inflammatory and atherogenic factors ) , and gene expression in type 2 diabetes . DESIGN Twenty-seven women with type 2 diabetes without hypertriglyceridemia were r and omly allocated in a double-blind parallel design to 2 mo of 3 g/d of either fish oil ( 1.8 g n-3 PUFAs ) or placebo ( paraffin oil ) . RESULTS Although body weight and energy intake measured by use of a food diary were unchanged , total fat mass ( P < 0.019 ) and subcutaneous adipocyte diameter ( P < 0.0018 ) were lower in the fish oil group than in the placebo group . Insulin sensitivity was not significantly different between the 2 groups ( measured by homeostasis model assessment in all patients and by euglycemic-hyperinsulinemic clamp in a subgroup of 5 patients per group ) . By contrast , atherogenic risk factors , including plasma triacylglycerol ( P < 0.03 ) , the ratio of triacylglycerol to HDL cholesterol ( atherogenic index , P < 0.03 ) , and plasma plasminogen activator inhibitor-1 ( P < 0.01 ) , were lower in the fish oil group than in the placebo group . In addition , a subset of inflammation-related genes was reduced in subcutaneous adipose tissue after the fish oil , but not the placebo , treatment . CONCLUSIONS A moderate dose of n-3 PUFAs for 2 mo reduced adiposity and atherogenic markers without deterioration of insulin sensitivity in subjects with type 2 diabetes . Some adipose tissue inflammation-related genes were also reduced . These beneficial effects could be linked to morphologic and inflammatory changes in adipose tissue . This trial was registered at clinical trials.gov as NCT0037 The effects of ( n-3 ) fatty acids on the postpr and ial state were investigated by monitoring the alimentary responses to identical test meals fed to adults [ n = 11 ; fasting triacylglycerol ( TG ) 2.55 + /- 0.24 mmol/L ; mean + /- SEM ] after a self-selected diet baseline period ( BLP ) and then after a 6-wk ( n-3 ) fatty acid period ( FOP ) [ approximately 5.2 g ( n-3 ) fatty acids ] and a 6-wk control oil period ( COP ) administered in r and om order . Sample s were drawn immediately prior to the test meal ( time 0 ) and then hourly from 2 to 6 h postmeal . Postpr and ial plasma triacylglycerol ( TG ) and TG-rich lipoprotein ( TRL ) TG apo B48 , and B100 absolute concentrations were significantly lower after FOP than after COP or BLP , while plasma cholesterol was unchanged . Normalizing the results as increments over time 0 eliminated the diet effect on all but plasma TG . Time remained a significant effect for plasma TG , TRL TG , and TRL TC . Finally , only absolute TRL B48 and absolute and incremental plasma TG concentrations displayed significant time-diet interactions . These results suggest that postpr and ial TRL apo B reductions are likely caused by ( n-3 ) fatty acid suppression of both hepatic and intestinal apoB secretion/ synthesis . Altered TRL metabolism , i.e. changes in postpr and ial TG , cholesterol , apo B48 , and increase in LDL particle size , may represent an additional mechanism for the reduced heart disease risk associated with fish [ ( n-3 ) fatty acid ] consumption BACKGROUND Plasma lipoproteins may be classified by their apolipoprotein composition . The lipoprotein subclass containing apolipoproteins B and C ( LpB : C ) is considered the most atherogenic . OBJECTIVE We evaluated the acute effects of individual fatty acids on apolipoprotein B ( apo B)-containing lipoproteins in adults with type 2 diabetes ( n = 15 ) . DESIGN We administered 3 meals in a r and omized , double-blind , crossover design . Treatments contained skim milk and 50 g fat from high-oleic acid safflower and canola oils ( monounsaturated fatty acid ; MUFA ) , MUFA + 3.5 g alpha-linolenic acid ( ALA ; MUFA + ALA ) from high-ALA canola oil , or MUFA + 4.0 g both eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) and docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ; MUFA + EPA/DHA ) from sardine oil .  Apo B , LpB , LpB : C , LpB : E + LpB : C : E , and LpA-II : B : C : D : E were measured at baseline and 2 and 4 h after the meal . Flow-mediated dilation was measured at baseline and 4 h after the meal . RESULTS The treatments significantly increased apo B and LpB postpr and ially ( P < 0.03 for both ) , but the magnitude of the changes did not differ significantly between the treatments . The postpr and ial change in LpB : C was 23 % lower after MUFA + EPA/DHA than after MUFA ( treatment x time interaction , P < 0.0001 ) . MUFA + ALA attenuated the increase in LpA-II : B : C : D : E in those with high triacylglycerols ( > /=1.69 mmol/L ) but was the only treatment to significantly increase this particle in those with low triacylglycerols ( treatment x group interaction , P < 0.0001 ) . Examination of change scores did not reveal the source of the interaction of treatment and time ( P < 0.007 ) for LpB : E + LpB : C : E. Furthermore , the subjects with the largest increases in LpB : C exhibited the largest impairment in endothelial function . CONCLUSIONS The results suggest that unsaturated fatty acids differentially affect concentrations of apo B-containing lipoprotein subclasses . A rise in LpB : C adversely affects endothelial function . Meals containing MUFA + EPA/DHA attenuated the postpr and ial rise in LpB : C and the impairment of endothelial function OBJECTIVE Dietary interventions can improve pregnancy outcomes in women with gestational diabetes mellitus ( GDM ) . We compared the effect of a low – glycemic index ( GI ) versus a conventional high-fiber ( HF ) diet on pregnancy outcomes , birth weight z score , and maternal metabolic profile in women at high risk of GDM . RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS One hundred thirty-nine women [ mean ( SD ) age 34.7 ( 0.4 ) years and prepregnancy BMI 25.2 ( 0.5 ) kg/m2 ] were r and omly assigned to a low-GI ( LGI ) diet ( n = 72 ; target GI ∼50 ) or a high-fiber , moderate-GI ( HF ) diet ( n = 67 ; target GI ∼60 ) at 14–20 weeks ’ gestation .  Diet was assessed by 3-day food records and infant body composition by air-displacement plethysmography , and pregnancy outcomes were assessed from medical records . RESULTS The LGI group achieved a lower GI than the HF group [ mean ( SD ) 50 ( 5 ) vs. 58 ( 5 ) ; P < 0.001 ] . There were no differences in glycosylated hemoglobin , fructosamine , or lipids at 36 weeks or differences in birth weight [ LGI 3.4 ( 0.4 ) kg vs. HF 3.4 ( 0.5 ) kg ; P = 0.514 ] , birth weight z score [ LGI 0.31 ( 0.90 ) vs. HF 0.24 ( 1.07 ) ; P = 0.697 ] , ponderal index [ LGI 2.71 ( 0.22 ) vs. HF 2.69 ( 0.23 ) kg/m3 ; P = 0.672 ] , birth weight centile [ LGI 46.2 ( 25.4 ) vs. HF 41.8 ( 25.6 ) ; P = 0.330 ] , % fat mass [ LGI 10 ( 4 ) vs. HF 10 ( 4 ) ; P = 0.789 ] , or incidence of GDM . CONCLUSIONS In intensively monitored women at risk for GDM , a low-GI diet and a healthy diet produce similar pregnancy outcomes Background Omega–3 fatty acids prevent cardiovascular disease ( CVD ) events in patients with myocardial infa rct ion or heart failure . Benefits in patients without overt CVD have not been demonstrated , though most studies did not use treatment doses (  
    Output:
    