human
***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: Abstract . Rationale : Previous investigations have demonstrated increased performance after the administration of a glucose-load on certain aspects of cognitive functioning in healthy young adults . Generally these studies have used a procedure where participants were tested in the morning after an overnight fast . Objective : The aim of the present study was , for the first time , to investigate the glucose cognitive facilitation effect under more natural testing times and with shorter duration of the previous fast . Methods : Measures of verbal and non-verbal memory performance were compared under different fasting intervals ( 2-h fast versus overnight fast ) , times ( morning versus afternoon ) and glycaemic conditions ( glucose versus aspartame drinks ) in healthy young participants . Results : There was a significant glucose facilitation effect on long-term verbal memory performance . In addition , glucose significantly enhanced long-term spatial memory performance . The effect of glucose was essentially equivalent whether it was given after an overnight fast or a 2-h fast following breakfast or lunch . There was no effect of drink and time of day on working memory performance . Conclusions : The results of this study further support the hypothesis that glucose administration can enhance certain aspects of memory performance in healthy young adults . More significantly , the findings indicate that this cognitive facilitation effect persists under more naturalistic conditions of glucose administration and is not restricted to long fast duration s or morning administration The macronutrient composition of a breakfast that could facilitate performance after an overnight fast remains unclear . As glucose is the brain 's major energy source , the interest is in investigating meals differing in their blood glucose-raising potential . Findings vary due to unaccounted differences in glucoregulation , arousal and cortisol secretion . We investigated the effects of meals differing in glycaemic index ( GI ) and glycaemic load ( GL ) on cognition and mood in school children . A total of seventy-four school children were matched and r and omly allocated either to the  high-GL or low-GL  group . Within each GL group , children received high-GI and low-GI breakfasts .  Cognitive function ( CF ) and mood were measured 95 - 140 min after breakfast . Blood glucose and salivary cortisol were measured at baseline , before and after the CF tests . Repeated- measures ANOVA was used to identify differences in CF , mood , glucose and cortisol levels between the breakfasts . Low-GI meals predicted feeling more alert and happy , and less nervous and thirsty ( P < 0·05 for each ) ; high-GL meals predicted feeling more confident , and less sluggish , hungry and thirsty ( P < 0·05 for each ) . High-GL ( P < 0·001 ) and high-GI ( P = 0·05 ) meals increased glucose levels 90 min after breakfast , and high-GI meals increased cortisol levels ( P < 0·01 ) . When baseline mood , glucose and cortisol levels were considered , low-GI meals predicted better declarative-verbal memory ( P = 0·03 ) , and high-GI meals better vigilance ( P < 0·03 ) ; observed GI effects were valid across GL groups . GI effects on cognition appear to be domain specific . On balance , it would appear that the low-GI high-GL breakfast may help to improve learning , and of potential value in informing government education policies relating to dietary recommendations and implementation concerning breakfast The determine the effect of different foods on the blood glucose , 62 commonly eaten foods and sugars were fed individually to groups of 5 to 10 healthy fasting volunteers .  Blood glucose levels were measured over 2 h , and expressed as a percentage of the area under the glucose response curve when the same amount of carbohydrate was taken as glucose . The largest rises were seen with vegetables ( 70 + /- 5 % ) , followed by breakfast cereals ( 65 + /- 5 % ) , cereals and biscuits ( 60 + /- 3 % ) , fruit ( 50 + /- 5 % ) , dairy products ( 35 + /- 1 % ) , and dried legumes ( 31 + /- 3 % ) . A significant negative relationship was seen between fat ( p less than 0.01 ) and protein ( p less than 0.001 ) and postpr and ial glucose rise but not with fiber or sugar content Effects of skipping breakfast on speed and accuracy of response in a number of problem solving tasks were assessed in 9- to 11-yr-old , well-nourished children . The conceptual framework for this study was derived from an experimental model of the effects of mild environmental stress , e.g. , noise , on human performance . Plasma glucose , beta-hydroxybutyrate , lactate , and free fatty acids were used as indicators of the induced metabolic stress , and the extent of their association with the behavioral measures was determined . Fasting had an adverse effect on the accuracy of responses in problem solving , but it had a beneficial effect on immediate recall in short-term memory . Both effects are explained by a heightened arousal level associated with the brief experimental fast Background / Objectives : Considering the importance of glucose as a brain substrate , the postpr and ial rate of glucose delivery to the blood could be expected to affect cognitive functions . The purpose was to evaluate to what extent the rate of glucose absorption affected measures of cognitive performance in the postpr and ial period . In addition , cognitive performance was evaluated in relation to individual glucoregulation . Subjects/ Methods : A white wheat bread ( WWB ) enriched with guar gum ( G-WWB ) with the capacity to produce a low but sustained blood glucose net increment was developed . The G-WWB was evaluated in the postpr and ial period after breakfast with respect to effects on cognitive function ( working memory and selective attention ( SA ) ) in 40 healthy adults ( 49–71 years , body mass index 20–29 kg/m2 ) , using a high glycaemic index WWB for comparison in a r and omised crossover design . Results : The G-WWB improved outcome in the cognitive tests ( SA test ) in the later postpr and ial period ( 75–225 min ) in comparison with the WWB ( P<0.01 ) . Subjects with better glucoregulation performed superior in cognitive tests compared with subjects with worse glucoregulation ( P<0.05 ) . Conclusions : Beneficial effects on cognitive performance were observed with the G-WWB in the late postpr and ial period . The positive effect is suggested to emanate from improved insulin sensitivity , possibly in a combination with an enhanced neural energy supply . The results highlight the importance of carbohydrate foods that induces a low but sustained blood glucose profile in enhancing postpr and ial cognitive functions Twenty-nine schoolchildren were tested throughout the morning on 4 successive days , having a different breakfast each day ( either of the cereals Cheerios or Shreddies , glucose drink or No breakfast ) . A series of computerised tests of attention , working memory and episodic secondary memory was conducted prior to breakfast and again 30 , 90 , 150 and 210 min later . The glucose drink and No breakfast conditions were followed by declines in attention and memory , but the declines were significantly reduced in the two cereal conditions . This study provides objective evidence that a typical breakfast of cereal rich in complex carbohydrates can help maintain mental performance over the morning Background / Objectives : The effect of Glycaemic Index ( GI ) and Load ( GL ) of breakfasts on satiety and aspects of cognitive function in children is inconclusive . We aim ed to assess if isocaloric breakfasts differing in GL ( by replacing high-GI carbohydrate foods with dairy protein foods ) acutely alter cognitive function and satiety in 10- to 12-year-old children . Subjects/ Methods : A total of 39 children , aged 11.6±0.7 years with body mass index 18.9±3.0 kg/m2 ( Mean±s.e . ) participated in a r and omised crossover trial of three isocaloric breakfasts ( 1.3 MJ ) : high GL ( HGL : 7 g protein , 9 g fat , 50 g carbohydrate , GL 33 ) ; medium GL ( MGL : 14 g protein , 9 g fat , 45 g carbohydrate , GL 24 ) and low GL ( LGL : 18 g protein , 10 g fat , 38 g carbohydrate , GL 18 ) . Blood glucose was recorded using a continuous glucose monitor . Subjective hunger and cognitive performance were measured before and hourly after consuming the test breakfast via a computer-delivered battery . Ad libitum intake at a buffet lunch meal was measured at 3 h at the end of testing . Results : Incremental area under the glucose curve ( iAUC ) was significantly different with HGL > MGL > LGL ( P<0.001 ) . Glucose concentrations fell below baseline after 83±6 min for HGL , 63±5 min ( MGL ) and 67±5 min (LGL)(P=0.009 ) . Breakfast GL did not significantly alter changes in cognitive function or self-reported satiety throughout testing . Energy intake at lunch was not significantly different between treatments ( HGL 2943±168 kJ ; MGL 2949±166 kJ ; LGL 2993±191 kJ ) . Conclusions : Reducing breakfast GL by replacing carbohydrate with protein does not alter satiety or cognition over 3 h in 10- to 12-year-old children The aim of the present study was to examine the combined effects of breakfast glycaemic index ( GI ) and a mid-morning bout of exercise on  adolescents ' cognitive function . Participants were r and omly allocated to a high or low GI breakfast group in a mixed research design , where each participant completed two experimental trials ( exercise and resting ) . Forty-two adolescents ( 12.4±0.5 years old ) , undertook a bout of exercise ( ten repeats of level one of the multi-stage fitness test ; exercise trial ) or continued to rest ( resting trial ) following consumption of either a high or low GI breakfast . A battery of cognitive function tests ( visual search test , Stroop test and Sternberg paradigm ) was completed 30 min before and 45 min following the  exercise . Average heart rate during exercise was 170±15 beats·min(-1 ) . On the complex level of the Stroop test , response times improved across the morning following the low GI breakfast on both the exercise and resting trials , though the improvement was greatest on the exercise trial . However , response times only improved on the resting trial following the high GI breakfast ( p=0.012 ) . On the 5 letter level of the Sternberg paradigm , response times improved across the morning following the low GI breakfast ( regardless of exercise ) and only on the exercise trial following the high GI breakfast ( p=0.019 ) . The findings of the present study suggest that the combined effects of breakfast GI and exercise in adolescents depend upon the component of cognitive function examined . A low GI breakfast and mid-morning bout of exercise were individually beneficial for response times on the Sternberg paradigm , whereas they conferred additional benefits for response times on the Stroop test Rationale . Glucose is the main metabolic fuel of the brain . The rate of glucose delivery from food to the bloodstream depends on the nature of carbohydrates in the diet , which can be summarized as the glycaemic index ( GI ) . Objectives . To assess the benefit of a low versus high GI breakfast on cognitive performances within the following 4 h. Methods . The influence of the GI of the breakfast on verbal memory of young adults was measured throughout the morning in parallel to the assessment of blood glucose levels . The learning abilities of rats performing an operant-conditioning test 3 h after a breakfast-like meal of various GI was also examined . Results . A low GI rather than high GI diet improved memory in humans , especially in the late morning ( 150 and 210 min after breakfast ) . Similarly , rats displayed better learning performance 180 min after they were fed with a low rather than high GI diet . Conclusion . Although performances appeared to be only remotely related to blood glucose , our data provide evidence that a low GI breakfast allows better cognitive performances later in the morning Previously it has been found that both missing breakfast and having poorer glucose tolerance were associated with better memory . The present study therefore examined the impact of eight breakfasts , in a factorial design , that contained either high or low levels of carbohydrate , fat or protein . The meals were design ed to vary the rate of release of glucose into the blood stream . Memory , reaction times and vigilance were assessed 30 , 75 and 120 min following breakfast . Using fasting blood glucose levels as a measure of glucose tolerance , better memory was found to be associated with better glucose tolerance and the consumption of meals that more slowly release glucose into the blood . The effects of the meals on reaction times and vigilance were opposite to those with memory in that higher levels of blood glucose tended to be associated with better performance . It was concluded that individual differences in glucose tolerance interact with the glycaemic load of a meal to influence cognitive functioning There is evidence from animal studies that increased blood glucose levels are associated with improved memory and attention . Although previous studies have found human memory to be facilitated by the administration of glucose , attentional measures have been largely ignored . Therefore the impact of a glucose drink , or a placebo , on the Rapid Information Processing Task and the Stroop Task was examined . The reaction times of those taking the Rapid Information Processing Task were faster both during the baseline period and after a glucose drink if the blood glucose values were high . With the  Stroop task  the ability to perform the most cognitively dem and ing sub-test was selectively enhanced if blood glucose values were increasing prior to starting the test . The ability to recall words from a word list was greater if a glucose drink had been consumed , although primary and recency were not differentially influenced . 
    Output:
    
agent
In summary , GI breakfasts do not affect cognitive domains in children and adolescents
***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: Abstract . Rationale : Previous investigations have demonstrated increased performance after the administration of a glucose-load on certain aspects of cognitive functioning in healthy young adults . Generally these studies have used a procedure where participants were tested in the morning after an overnight fast . Objective : The aim of the present study was , for the first time , to investigate the glucose cognitive facilitation effect under more natural testing times and with shorter duration of the previous fast . Methods : Measures of verbal and non-verbal memory performance were compared under different fasting intervals ( 2-h fast versus overnight fast ) , times ( morning versus afternoon ) and glycaemic conditions ( glucose versus aspartame drinks ) in healthy young participants . Results : There was a significant glucose facilitation effect on long-term verbal memory performance . In addition , glucose significantly enhanced long-term spatial memory performance . The effect of glucose was essentially equivalent whether it was given after an overnight fast or a 2-h fast following breakfast or lunch . There was no effect of drink and time of day on working memory performance . Conclusions : The results of this study further support the hypothesis that glucose administration can enhance certain aspects of memory performance in healthy young adults . More significantly , the findings indicate that this cognitive facilitation effect persists under more naturalistic conditions of glucose administration and is not restricted to long fast duration s or morning administration The macronutrient composition of a breakfast that could facilitate performance after an overnight fast remains unclear . As glucose is the brain 's major energy source , the interest is in investigating meals differing in their blood glucose-raising potential . Findings vary due to unaccounted differences in glucoregulation , arousal and cortisol secretion . We investigated the effects of meals differing in glycaemic index ( GI ) and glycaemic load ( GL ) on cognition and mood in school children . A total of seventy-four school children were matched and r and omly allocated either to the  high-GL or low-GL  group . Within each GL group , children received high-GI and low-GI breakfasts .  Cognitive function ( CF ) and mood were measured 95 - 140 min after breakfast . Blood glucose and salivary cortisol were measured at baseline , before and after the CF tests . Repeated- measures ANOVA was used to identify differences in CF , mood , glucose and cortisol levels between the breakfasts . Low-GI meals predicted feeling more alert and happy , and less nervous and thirsty ( P < 0·05 for each ) ; high-GL meals predicted feeling more confident , and less sluggish , hungry and thirsty ( P < 0·05 for each ) . High-GL ( P < 0·001 ) and high-GI ( P = 0·05 ) meals increased glucose levels 90 min after breakfast , and high-GI meals increased cortisol levels ( P < 0·01 ) . When baseline mood , glucose and cortisol levels were considered , low-GI meals predicted better declarative-verbal memory ( P = 0·03 ) , and high-GI meals better vigilance ( P < 0·03 ) ; observed GI effects were valid across GL groups . GI effects on cognition appear to be domain specific . On balance , it would appear that the low-GI high-GL breakfast may help to improve learning , and of potential value in informing government education policies relating to dietary recommendations and implementation concerning breakfast The determine the effect of different foods on the blood glucose , 62 commonly eaten foods and sugars were fed individually to groups of 5 to 10 healthy fasting volunteers .  Blood glucose levels were measured over 2 h , and expressed as a percentage of the area under the glucose response curve when the same amount of carbohydrate was taken as glucose . The largest rises were seen with vegetables ( 70 + /- 5 % ) , followed by breakfast cereals ( 65 + /- 5 % ) , cereals and biscuits ( 60 + /- 3 % ) , fruit ( 50 + /- 5 % ) , dairy products ( 35 + /- 1 % ) , and dried legumes ( 31 + /- 3 % ) . A significant negative relationship was seen between fat ( p less than 0.01 ) and protein ( p less than 0.001 ) and postpr and ial glucose rise but not with fiber or sugar content Effects of skipping breakfast on speed and accuracy of response in a number of problem solving tasks were assessed in 9- to 11-yr-old , well-nourished children . The conceptual framework for this study was derived from an experimental model of the effects of mild environmental stress , e.g. , noise , on human performance . Plasma glucose , beta-hydroxybutyrate , lactate , and free fatty acids were used as indicators of the induced metabolic stress , and the extent of their association with the behavioral measures was determined . Fasting had an adverse effect on the accuracy of responses in problem solving , but it had a beneficial effect on immediate recall in short-term memory . Both effects are explained by a heightened arousal level associated with the brief experimental fast Background / Objectives : Considering the importance of glucose as a brain substrate , the postpr and ial rate of glucose delivery to the blood could be expected to affect cognitive functions . The purpose was to evaluate to what extent the rate of glucose absorption affected measures of cognitive performance in the postpr and ial period . In addition , cognitive performance was evaluated in relation to individual glucoregulation . Subjects/ Methods : A white wheat bread ( WWB ) enriched with guar gum ( G-WWB ) with the capacity to produce a low but sustained blood glucose net increment was developed . The G-WWB was evaluated in the postpr and ial period after breakfast with respect to effects on cognitive function ( working memory and selective attention ( SA ) ) in 40 healthy adults ( 49–71 years , body mass index 20–29 kg/m2 ) , using a high glycaemic index WWB for comparison in a r and omised crossover design . Results : The G-WWB improved outcome in the cognitive tests ( SA test ) in the later postpr and ial period ( 75–225 min ) in comparison with the WWB ( P<0.01 ) . Subjects with better glucoregulation performed superior in cognitive tests compared with subjects with worse glucoregulation ( P<0.05 ) . Conclusions : Beneficial effects on cognitive performance were observed with the G-WWB in the late postpr and ial period . The positive effect is suggested to emanate from improved insulin sensitivity , possibly in a combination with an enhanced neural energy supply . The results highlight the importance of carbohydrate foods that induces a low but sustained blood glucose profile in enhancing postpr and ial cognitive functions Twenty-nine schoolchildren were tested throughout the morning on 4 successive days , having a different breakfast each day ( either of the cereals Cheerios or Shreddies , glucose drink or No breakfast ) . A series of computerised tests of attention , working memory and episodic secondary memory was conducted prior to breakfast and again 30 , 90 , 150 and 210 min later . The glucose drink and No breakfast conditions were followed by declines in attention and memory , but the declines were significantly reduced in the two cereal conditions . This study provides objective evidence that a typical breakfast of cereal rich in complex carbohydrates can help maintain mental performance over the morning Background / Objectives : The effect of Glycaemic Index ( GI ) and Load ( GL ) of breakfasts on satiety and aspects of cognitive function in children is inconclusive . We aim ed to assess if isocaloric breakfasts differing in GL ( by replacing high-GI carbohydrate foods with dairy protein foods ) acutely alter cognitive function and satiety in 10- to 12-year-old children . Subjects/ Methods : A total of 39 children , aged 11.6±0.7 years with body mass index 18.9±3.0 kg/m2 ( Mean±s.e . ) participated in a r and omised crossover trial of three isocaloric breakfasts ( 1.3 MJ ) : high GL ( HGL : 7 g protein , 9 g fat , 50 g carbohydrate , GL 33 ) ; medium GL ( MGL : 14 g protein , 9 g fat , 45 g carbohydrate , GL 24 ) and low GL ( LGL : 18 g protein , 10 g fat , 38 g carbohydrate , GL 18 ) . Blood glucose was recorded using a continuous glucose monitor . Subjective hunger and cognitive performance were measured before and hourly after consuming the test breakfast via a computer-delivered battery . Ad libitum intake at a buffet lunch meal was measured at 3 h at the end of testing . Results : Incremental area under the glucose curve ( iAUC ) was significantly different with HGL > MGL > LGL ( P<0.001 ) . Glucose concentrations fell below baseline after 83±6 min for HGL , 63±5 min ( MGL ) and 67±5 min (LGL)(P=0.009 ) . Breakfast GL did not significantly alter changes in cognitive function or self-reported satiety throughout testing . Energy intake at lunch was not significantly different between treatments ( HGL 2943±168 kJ ; MGL 2949±166 kJ ; LGL 2993±191 kJ ) . Conclusions : Reducing breakfast GL by replacing carbohydrate with protein does not alter satiety or cognition over 3 h in 10- to 12-year-old children The aim of the present study was to examine the combined effects of breakfast glycaemic index ( GI ) and a mid-morning bout of exercise on  adolescents ' cognitive function . Participants were r and omly allocated to a high or low GI breakfast group in a mixed research design , where each participant completed two experimental trials ( exercise and resting ) . Forty-two adolescents ( 12.4±0.5 years old ) , undertook a bout of exercise ( ten repeats of level one of the multi-stage fitness test ; exercise trial ) or continued to rest ( resting trial ) following consumption of either a high or low GI breakfast . A battery of cognitive function tests ( visual search test , Stroop test and Sternberg paradigm ) was completed 30 min before and 45 min following the  exercise . Average heart rate during exercise was 170±15 beats·min(-1 ) . On the complex level of the Stroop test , response times improved across the morning following the low GI breakfast on both the exercise and resting trials , though the improvement was greatest on the exercise trial . However , response times only improved on the resting trial following the high GI breakfast ( p=0.012 ) . On the 5 letter level of the Sternberg paradigm , response times improved across the morning following the low GI breakfast ( regardless of exercise ) and only on the exercise trial following the high GI breakfast ( p=0.019 ) . The findings of the present study suggest that the combined effects of breakfast GI and exercise in adolescents depend upon the component of cognitive function examined . A low GI breakfast and mid-morning bout of exercise were individually beneficial for response times on the Sternberg paradigm , whereas they conferred additional benefits for response times on the Stroop test Rationale . Glucose is the main metabolic fuel of the brain . The rate of glucose delivery from food to the bloodstream depends on the nature of carbohydrates in the diet , which can be summarized as the glycaemic index ( GI ) . Objectives . To assess the benefit of a low versus high GI breakfast on cognitive performances within the following 4 h. Methods . The influence of the GI of the breakfast on verbal memory of young adults was measured throughout the morning in parallel to the assessment of blood glucose levels . The learning abilities of rats performing an operant-conditioning test 3 h after a breakfast-like meal of various GI was also examined . Results . A low GI rather than high GI diet improved memory in humans , especially in the late morning ( 150 and 210 min after breakfast ) . Similarly , rats displayed better learning performance 180 min after they were fed with a low rather than high GI diet . Conclusion . Although performances appeared to be only remotely related to blood glucose , our data provide evidence that a low GI breakfast allows better cognitive performances later in the morning Previously it has been found that both missing breakfast and having poorer glucose tolerance were associated with better memory . The present study therefore examined the impact of eight breakfasts , in a factorial design , that contained either high or low levels of carbohydrate , fat or protein . The meals were design ed to vary the rate of release of glucose into the blood stream . Memory , reaction times and vigilance were assessed 30 , 75 and 120 min following breakfast . Using fasting blood glucose levels as a measure of glucose tolerance , better memory was found to be associated with better glucose tolerance and the consumption of meals that more slowly release glucose into the blood . The effects of the meals on reaction times and vigilance were opposite to those with memory in that higher levels of blood glucose tended to be associated with better performance . It was concluded that individual differences in glucose tolerance interact with the glycaemic load of a meal to influence cognitive functioning There is evidence from animal studies that increased blood glucose levels are associated with improved memory and attention . Although previous studies have found human memory to be facilitated by the administration of glucose , attentional measures have been largely ignored . Therefore the impact of a glucose drink , or a placebo , on the Rapid Information Processing Task and the Stroop Task was examined . The reaction times of those taking the Rapid Information Processing Task were faster both during the baseline period and after a glucose drink if the blood glucose values were high . With the  Stroop task  the ability to perform the most cognitively dem and ing sub-test was selectively enhanced if blood glucose values were increasing prior to starting the test . The ability to recall words from a word list was greater if a glucose drink had been consumed , although primary and recency were not differentially influenced . 
    Output:
    