human
***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: Background — Evidence on economically efficient strategies to lower  blood pressure ( BP )  from low- and middle-income countries remains scarce . The Control of Blood Pressure and Risk Attenuation ( COBRA ) trial r and omized 1341 hypertensive subjects in 12 r and omly selected communities in Karachi , Pakistan , to 3 intervention programs : ( 1 ) combined home health education ( HHE ) plus trained general practitioner ( GP ) ; ( 2 ) HHE only ; and ( 3 ) trained GP only . The comparator was no intervention ( or usual care ) . The reduction in BP was most pronounced in the combined group . The present study examined the cost-effectiveness of these strategies . Methods and Results — Total costs were assessed at baseline and 2 years to estimate incremental cost-effectiveness ratios based on ( 1 ) intervention cost ; ( 2 ) cost of physician consultation , medications , diagnostics , changes in lifestyle , and productivity loss ; and ( 3 ) change in systolic BP . Precision of the incremental cost-effectiveness ratio estimates was assessed by 1000 bootstrapping replications . Bayesian probabilistic sensitivity analysis was also performed . The annual costs per participant associated with the combined HHE plus trained GP , HHE alone , and trained GP alone were $ 3.99 , $ 3.34 , and $ 0.65 , respectively . HHE plus trained GP was the most cost-effective intervention , with an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio of $ 23 ( 95 confidence interval , 6–99 ) per mm Hg reduction in systolic BP compared with usual care , and remained so in 97.7 of 1000 bootstrapped replications . Conclusions — The combined intervention of HHE plus trained GP is potentially affordable and more cost-effective for BP control than usual care or either strategy alone in some communities in Pakistan , and possibly other countries in Indochina with similar healthcare infrastructure . Clinical Trial Registration — http://www . clinical trials.gov . Unique identifier : NCT00327574 Background Intermittent preventive treatment of malaria in children ( IPTc ) involves the administration of a course of anti-malarial drugs at specified time intervals to children at risk of malaria regardless of whether or not they are known to be infected .  IPTc provides a high level of protection against uncomplicated and severe malaria , with monthly sulphadoxine-pyrimethamine plus amodiaquine ( SP&AQ ) and sulphadoxine-pyrimethamine plus piperaquine being the most efficacious regimens . A key challenge is the identification of a cost-effective delivery strategy . Methods A community r and omized trial was undertaken in Jasikan district , Ghana to assess IPTc effectiveness and costs using SP&AQ delivered in three different ways . Twelve villages were r and omly selected to receive IPTc from village health workers ( VHWs ) or facility-based nurses working at health centres ' outpatient departments ( OPD ) or EPI outreach clinics . Children aged 3 to 59 months-old received one IPT course ( three doses ) in May , June , September and October . Effectiveness was measured in terms of children covered and adherent to a course and delivery costs were calculated in financial and economic terms using an ingredient approach from the provider perspective . Results The economic cost per child receiving at least the first dose of all 4 courses was US$ 4.58 when IPTc was delivered by VHWs , US$ 4.93 by OPD nurses and US$ 5.65 by EPI nurses . The unit economic cost of receiving all 3 doses of all 4 courses was US$ 7.56 and US$ 8.51 when IPTc was delivered by VHWs or facility-based nurses respectively . The main cost driver for the VHW delivery was supervision , reflecting re sources used for travelling to more remote communities rather than more intense supervision , and for OPD and EPI delivery , it was the opportunity cost of the time spent by nurses in dispensing IPTc . Conclusions VHWs achieve higher IPTc coverage and adherence at lower costs than facility-based nurses in Jasikan district , Ghana . Trial Registration Clinical Trials.gov NCT00119132 Current World Health Organization ( WHO ) guidelines for severe pneumonia treatment of under-5 children recommend hospital referral . However , high treatment cost is a major barrier for communities . We compared household costs for referred cases with management by lady health workers ( LHWs ) using oral antibiotics . This study was nested within a cluster r and omized trial in Haripur , Pakistan . Data on direct and indirect costs were collected through interviews and record review s in the 14 intervention and 14 control clusters . The average household cost/case for a LHW managed case was $ 1.46 compared with $ 7.60 for referred cases . When the cost of antibiotics provided by the LHW program was excluded from the estimates , the cost/case came to $ 0.25 and $ 7.51 for the community managed and referred cases , respectively , a 30-fold difference . Exp and ing severe pneumonia treatment with oral amoxicillin to community level could significantly reduce household costs and improve access to the underprivileged population , preventing many child deaths Background We assessed overall annual and unit cost of delivering package of services and specific services at sub-centre level by CHWs and cost effectiveness of Government of India ’s policy of introducing a second auxiliary nurse midwife ( ANM ) at the sub-centre compared to scenario of single ANM sub-centre . Methods We undertook an economic costing of health services delivered by CHWs , from a health system perspective . Bottom-up costing method was used to collect data on re sources spent in 50 r and omly selected sub-centres selected from 4 districts .  Mean unit cost along with its 95 % confidence intervals were estimated using bootstrap method . Multiple linear regression model was used to st and ardize cost and assess its determinants . Results Annually it costs INR 1.03 million ( USD 19,381 ) , or INR 187 ( USD 3.5 ) per capita per year , to provide a package of preventive , curative and promotive services through community health workers . Unit costs for antenatal care , postnatal care , DOTS treatment and immunization  were INR 525 ( USD 10 ) per full ANC care , INR 767 ( USD 14 ) per PNC case registered , INR 974 ( USD 18 ) per DOTS treatment completed and INR 97 ( USD 1.8 ) per child immunized in routine immunization respectively . A 10 % increase in human re source costs results in 6 % rise in per capita cost . Similarly , 10 % increment in the ANC case registered per provider through-put results in a decline in unit cost ranging from 2 % in the event of current capacity utilization to 3 % reduction in case of full capacity utilization . Incremental cost of introducing 2nd ANM at sub-centre level per unit percent increase ANC coverage was INR 23,058 ( USD 432 ) . Conclusion Our estimates would be useful in undertaking full economic evaluations or equity analysis of CHW programs . Government of India ’s policy of hiring 2nd ANM at sub-centre level is very cost effective from Indian health system perspective BACKGROUND AND METHODS In the setting of a cluster r and omized study to assess impact of the  Integrated Management of Neonatal and Childhood Illnesses ( IMNCI ) program in the district of Faridabad in India , we r and omly selected auxiliary nurse midwives ( ANM ) , anganwadi workers ( AWW ) and accredited social health activists ( ASHA ) from intervention and control areas to collect cost data using an economic perspective . Bootstrap method was used to estimate 95 % confidence interval . RESULTS The annual per-child cost of providing health services through an ANM , AWW and ASHA is INR 348 ( USD 7.7 ) , INR 588 ( USD 13.1 ) and INR 87 ( USD 1.9 ) , respectively . The annual per-child incremental cost of delivering IMNCI is INR 124.8 ( USD 2.77 ) , INR 26 ( USD 0.6 ) and INR 31 ( USD 0.7 ) at the ANM , AWW and ASHA level , respectively . CONCLUSION Implementation of IMNCI imposes additional costs to the health system . A comprehensive economic evaluation of the IMNCI is imperative to estimate the net cost implication s in India We did a cost-effectiveness analysis alongside a cluster-r and omised controlled trial of a participatory intervention with women 's groups  to improve birth outcomes in rural Nepal . The average provider cost of the women 's group intervention was US0.75 dollars per person per year ( 0.90 dollars with health-service strengthening ) in a population of 86,704 . The incremental cost per life-year saved ( LYS ) was 211 dollars ( 251 dollars ) , and expansion could rationalise on start-up costs and technical assistance , reducing the cost per LYS to 138 dollars ( 179 dollars ) . Sensitivity analysis showed a variation from 83 dollars to 263 dollars per LYS for most variables . This intervention could provide a cost-effective way of reducing neonatal deaths OBJECTIVE To carry out an economic evaluation of a task-shifting intervention for the treatment of depressive and anxiety disorders in primary -care setting s in Goa , India . METHODS Cost-utility and cost-effectiveness analyses based on generalized linear models were performed within a trial set in 24 public and private primary -care facilities . Subjects were r and omly assigned to an intervention or a control arm . Eligible subjects in the intervention arm were given psycho-education , case management , interpersonal psychotherapy and /or antidepressants by lay health workers . Subjects in the control arm were treated by physicians . The use of health-care re sources , the disability of each subject and degree of psychiatric morbidity , as measured by the Revised Clinical Interview Schedule , were determined at 2 , 6 and 12 months . FINDINGS Complete data , from all three follow-ups , were collected from 1243 ( 75.4 % ) and 938 ( 81.7 % ) of the subjects enrolled in the study facilities from the public and private sectors , respectively . Within the public facilities , subjects in the intervention arm showed greater improvement in all the health outcomes investigated than those in the control arm . Time costs were also significantly lower in the intervention arm than in the control arm , whereas health system costs in the two arms were similar . Within the private facilities , however , the effectiveness and costs recorded in the two arms were similar . CONCLUSION Within public primary -care facilities in Goa , the use of lay health workers in the care of subjects with common mental disorders was not only cost-effective but also cost-saving Background Intermittent preventive treatment for malaria in children ( IPTc ) involves the administration of a full course of an anti-malarial treatment to children under 5 years old at specified time points regardless of whether or not they are known to be infected , in areas where malaria transmission is seasonal . It is important to determine the costs associated with IPTc delivery via community based volunteers and also the potential savings to health care providers and caretakers due to malaria episodes averted as a consequence of IPTc . Methods Two thous and four hundred and fifty-one children aged 3–59 months were r and omly allocated to four groups to receive : three days of artesunate plus amodiaquine ( AS+AQ ) monthly , three days of AS+AQ bimonthly , one dose of sulphadoxine-pyrimethamine ( SP ) bi-monthly or placebo . This paper focuses on incremental cost effectiveness ratios ( ICERs ) of the three IPTc drug regimens as delivered by community based volunteers ( CBV ) in Hohoe , Ghana compared to current practice , i.e. case management in the absence of IPTc . Financial and economic costs from the publicly funded health system perspective are presented . Treatment costs borne by patients and their caretakers are also estimated to present societal costs . The costs and effects of IPTc during the intervention period were considered with and without a one year follow up . Probabilistic sensitivity analysis was undertaken to account for uncertainty . Results Economic costs per child receiving at least the first dose of each course of IPTc show SP bimonthly , at US$ 8.19 , is the cheapest to deliver , followed by AS+AQ bimonthly at US$ 10.67 and then by AS+AQ monthly at US$ 14.79 . Training , drug delivery and supervision accounted for approximately 20–30 % each of total unit costs . During the intervention period AS & AQ monthly was the most cost effective IPTc  drug regimen at US$ 67.77 ( 61.71–74.75 , CI 95 % ) per malaria case averted based on intervention costs only , US$ 64.93 ( 58.92–71.92 , CI 95 % ) per malaria case averted once the provider cost savings are included and US$ 61.00 ( 54.98 , 67.99 , CI 95 % ) when direct household cost savings are also taken into account . SP bimonthly was US$ 105.35 ( 75.01–157.31 , CI 95 % ) and AS & AQ bimonthly US$ 211.80 ( 127.05–399.14 , CI 95 % ) per malaria case averted based on intervention costs only . The incidence of malaria in the post intervention period was higher in children who were < 1 year old when they received AS+AQ monthly compared to the placebo group leading to higher cost effectiveness ratios when one year follow up is included . The cost per child enrolled fell considerably when modelled to district level as compared to those encountered under trial conditions . Conclusions We demonstrate how cost-effective IPTc  is using three different drug regimens and the possibilities for reducing 
    Output:
    
agent
We found that substantial evidence exists for achieving cost savings and efficiency improvements from task shifting activities related to tuberculosis and HIV/AIDS , and additional evidence exists for the potential to achieve cost savings from activities related to malaria , NCDs , NTDs , childhood illness , and other disease areas , especially at the primary health care and community levels .
Conclusions Task shifting presents a viable option for health system cost savings in LMICs .
***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: Background — Evidence on economically efficient strategies to lower  blood pressure ( BP )  from low- and middle-income countries remains scarce . The Control of Blood Pressure and Risk Attenuation ( COBRA ) trial r and omized 1341 hypertensive subjects in 12 r and omly selected communities in Karachi , Pakistan , to 3 intervention programs : ( 1 ) combined home health education ( HHE ) plus trained general practitioner ( GP ) ; ( 2 ) HHE only ; and ( 3 ) trained GP only . The comparator was no intervention ( or usual care ) . The reduction in BP was most pronounced in the combined group . The present study examined the cost-effectiveness of these strategies . Methods and Results — Total costs were assessed at baseline and 2 years to estimate incremental cost-effectiveness ratios based on ( 1 ) intervention cost ; ( 2 ) cost of physician consultation , medications , diagnostics , changes in lifestyle , and productivity loss ; and ( 3 ) change in systolic BP . Precision of the incremental cost-effectiveness ratio estimates was assessed by 1000 bootstrapping replications . Bayesian probabilistic sensitivity analysis was also performed . The annual costs per participant associated with the combined HHE plus trained GP , HHE alone , and trained GP alone were $ 3.99 , $ 3.34 , and $ 0.65 , respectively . HHE plus trained GP was the most cost-effective intervention , with an incremental cost-effectiveness ratio of $ 23 ( 95 confidence interval , 6–99 ) per mm Hg reduction in systolic BP compared with usual care , and remained so in 97.7 of 1000 bootstrapped replications . Conclusions — The combined intervention of HHE plus trained GP is potentially affordable and more cost-effective for BP control than usual care or either strategy alone in some communities in Pakistan , and possibly other countries in Indochina with similar healthcare infrastructure . Clinical Trial Registration — http://www . clinical trials.gov . Unique identifier : NCT00327574 Background Intermittent preventive treatment of malaria in children ( IPTc ) involves the administration of a course of anti-malarial drugs at specified time intervals to children at risk of malaria regardless of whether or not they are known to be infected .  IPTc provides a high level of protection against uncomplicated and severe malaria , with monthly sulphadoxine-pyrimethamine plus amodiaquine ( SP&AQ ) and sulphadoxine-pyrimethamine plus piperaquine being the most efficacious regimens . A key challenge is the identification of a cost-effective delivery strategy . Methods A community r and omized trial was undertaken in Jasikan district , Ghana to assess IPTc effectiveness and costs using SP&AQ delivered in three different ways . Twelve villages were r and omly selected to receive IPTc from village health workers ( VHWs ) or facility-based nurses working at health centres ' outpatient departments ( OPD ) or EPI outreach clinics . Children aged 3 to 59 months-old received one IPT course ( three doses ) in May , June , September and October . Effectiveness was measured in terms of children covered and adherent to a course and delivery costs were calculated in financial and economic terms using an ingredient approach from the provider perspective . Results The economic cost per child receiving at least the first dose of all 4 courses was US$ 4.58 when IPTc was delivered by VHWs , US$ 4.93 by OPD nurses and US$ 5.65 by EPI nurses . The unit economic cost of receiving all 3 doses of all 4 courses was US$ 7.56 and US$ 8.51 when IPTc was delivered by VHWs or facility-based nurses respectively . The main cost driver for the VHW delivery was supervision , reflecting re sources used for travelling to more remote communities rather than more intense supervision , and for OPD and EPI delivery , it was the opportunity cost of the time spent by nurses in dispensing IPTc . Conclusions VHWs achieve higher IPTc coverage and adherence at lower costs than facility-based nurses in Jasikan district , Ghana . Trial Registration Clinical Trials.gov NCT00119132 Current World Health Organization ( WHO ) guidelines for severe pneumonia treatment of under-5 children recommend hospital referral . However , high treatment cost is a major barrier for communities . We compared household costs for referred cases with management by lady health workers ( LHWs ) using oral antibiotics . This study was nested within a cluster r and omized trial in Haripur , Pakistan . Data on direct and indirect costs were collected through interviews and record review s in the 14 intervention and 14 control clusters . The average household cost/case for a LHW managed case was $ 1.46 compared with $ 7.60 for referred cases . When the cost of antibiotics provided by the LHW program was excluded from the estimates , the cost/case came to $ 0.25 and $ 7.51 for the community managed and referred cases , respectively , a 30-fold difference . Exp and ing severe pneumonia treatment with oral amoxicillin to community level could significantly reduce household costs and improve access to the underprivileged population , preventing many child deaths Background We assessed overall annual and unit cost of delivering package of services and specific services at sub-centre level by CHWs and cost effectiveness of Government of India ’s policy of introducing a second auxiliary nurse midwife ( ANM ) at the sub-centre compared to scenario of single ANM sub-centre . Methods We undertook an economic costing of health services delivered by CHWs , from a health system perspective . Bottom-up costing method was used to collect data on re sources spent in 50 r and omly selected sub-centres selected from 4 districts .  Mean unit cost along with its 95 % confidence intervals were estimated using bootstrap method . Multiple linear regression model was used to st and ardize cost and assess its determinants . Results Annually it costs INR 1.03 million ( USD 19,381 ) , or INR 187 ( USD 3.5 ) per capita per year , to provide a package of preventive , curative and promotive services through community health workers . Unit costs for antenatal care , postnatal care , DOTS treatment and immunization  were INR 525 ( USD 10 ) per full ANC care , INR 767 ( USD 14 ) per PNC case registered , INR 974 ( USD 18 ) per DOTS treatment completed and INR 97 ( USD 1.8 ) per child immunized in routine immunization respectively . A 10 % increase in human re source costs results in 6 % rise in per capita cost . Similarly , 10 % increment in the ANC case registered per provider through-put results in a decline in unit cost ranging from 2 % in the event of current capacity utilization to 3 % reduction in case of full capacity utilization . Incremental cost of introducing 2nd ANM at sub-centre level per unit percent increase ANC coverage was INR 23,058 ( USD 432 ) . Conclusion Our estimates would be useful in undertaking full economic evaluations or equity analysis of CHW programs . Government of India ’s policy of hiring 2nd ANM at sub-centre level is very cost effective from Indian health system perspective BACKGROUND AND METHODS In the setting of a cluster r and omized study to assess impact of the  Integrated Management of Neonatal and Childhood Illnesses ( IMNCI ) program in the district of Faridabad in India , we r and omly selected auxiliary nurse midwives ( ANM ) , anganwadi workers ( AWW ) and accredited social health activists ( ASHA ) from intervention and control areas to collect cost data using an economic perspective . Bootstrap method was used to estimate 95 % confidence interval . RESULTS The annual per-child cost of providing health services through an ANM , AWW and ASHA is INR 348 ( USD 7.7 ) , INR 588 ( USD 13.1 ) and INR 87 ( USD 1.9 ) , respectively . The annual per-child incremental cost of delivering IMNCI is INR 124.8 ( USD 2.77 ) , INR 26 ( USD 0.6 ) and INR 31 ( USD 0.7 ) at the ANM , AWW and ASHA level , respectively . CONCLUSION Implementation of IMNCI imposes additional costs to the health system . A comprehensive economic evaluation of the IMNCI is imperative to estimate the net cost implication s in India We did a cost-effectiveness analysis alongside a cluster-r and omised controlled trial of a participatory intervention with women 's groups  to improve birth outcomes in rural Nepal . The average provider cost of the women 's group intervention was US0.75 dollars per person per year ( 0.90 dollars with health-service strengthening ) in a population of 86,704 . The incremental cost per life-year saved ( LYS ) was 211 dollars ( 251 dollars ) , and expansion could rationalise on start-up costs and technical assistance , reducing the cost per LYS to 138 dollars ( 179 dollars ) . Sensitivity analysis showed a variation from 83 dollars to 263 dollars per LYS for most variables . This intervention could provide a cost-effective way of reducing neonatal deaths OBJECTIVE To carry out an economic evaluation of a task-shifting intervention for the treatment of depressive and anxiety disorders in primary -care setting s in Goa , India . METHODS Cost-utility and cost-effectiveness analyses based on generalized linear models were performed within a trial set in 24 public and private primary -care facilities . Subjects were r and omly assigned to an intervention or a control arm . Eligible subjects in the intervention arm were given psycho-education , case management , interpersonal psychotherapy and /or antidepressants by lay health workers . Subjects in the control arm were treated by physicians . The use of health-care re sources , the disability of each subject and degree of psychiatric morbidity , as measured by the Revised Clinical Interview Schedule , were determined at 2 , 6 and 12 months . FINDINGS Complete data , from all three follow-ups , were collected from 1243 ( 75.4 % ) and 938 ( 81.7 % ) of the subjects enrolled in the study facilities from the public and private sectors , respectively . Within the public facilities , subjects in the intervention arm showed greater improvement in all the health outcomes investigated than those in the control arm . Time costs were also significantly lower in the intervention arm than in the control arm , whereas health system costs in the two arms were similar . Within the private facilities , however , the effectiveness and costs recorded in the two arms were similar . CONCLUSION Within public primary -care facilities in Goa , the use of lay health workers in the care of subjects with common mental disorders was not only cost-effective but also cost-saving Background Intermittent preventive treatment for malaria in children ( IPTc ) involves the administration of a full course of an anti-malarial treatment to children under 5 years old at specified time points regardless of whether or not they are known to be infected , in areas where malaria transmission is seasonal . It is important to determine the costs associated with IPTc delivery via community based volunteers and also the potential savings to health care providers and caretakers due to malaria episodes averted as a consequence of IPTc . Methods Two thous and four hundred and fifty-one children aged 3–59 months were r and omly allocated to four groups to receive : three days of artesunate plus amodiaquine ( AS+AQ ) monthly , three days of AS+AQ bimonthly , one dose of sulphadoxine-pyrimethamine ( SP ) bi-monthly or placebo . This paper focuses on incremental cost effectiveness ratios ( ICERs ) of the three IPTc drug regimens as delivered by community based volunteers ( CBV ) in Hohoe , Ghana compared to current practice , i.e. case management in the absence of IPTc . Financial and economic costs from the publicly funded health system perspective are presented . Treatment costs borne by patients and their caretakers are also estimated to present societal costs . The costs and effects of IPTc during the intervention period were considered with and without a one year follow up . Probabilistic sensitivity analysis was undertaken to account for uncertainty . Results Economic costs per child receiving at least the first dose of each course of IPTc show SP bimonthly , at US$ 8.19 , is the cheapest to deliver , followed by AS+AQ bimonthly at US$ 10.67 and then by AS+AQ monthly at US$ 14.79 . Training , drug delivery and supervision accounted for approximately 20–30 % each of total unit costs . During the intervention period AS & AQ monthly was the most cost effective IPTc  drug regimen at US$ 67.77 ( 61.71–74.75 , CI 95 % ) per malaria case averted based on intervention costs only , US$ 64.93 ( 58.92–71.92 , CI 95 % ) per malaria case averted once the provider cost savings are included and US$ 61.00 ( 54.98 , 67.99 , CI 95 % ) when direct household cost savings are also taken into account . SP bimonthly was US$ 105.35 ( 75.01–157.31 , CI 95 % ) and AS & AQ bimonthly US$ 211.80 ( 127.05–399.14 , CI 95 % ) per malaria case averted based on intervention costs only . The incidence of malaria in the post intervention period was higher in children who were < 1 year old when they received AS+AQ monthly compared to the placebo group leading to higher cost effectiveness ratios when one year follow up is included . The cost per child enrolled fell considerably when modelled to district level as compared to those encountered under trial conditions . Conclusions We demonstrate how cost-effective IPTc  is using three different drug regimens and the possibilities for reducing 
    Output:
    