human
***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: The current study examined how a r and omized one-year aerobic exercise program for healthy older adults would affect serum levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor ( BDNF ) , insulin-like growth factor type 1 ( IGF-1 ) , and vascular endothelial growth factor ( VEGF ) - putative markers of exercise-induced benefits on brain function . The study also examined whether ( a ) change in the concentration of these growth factors was associated with alterations in functional connectivity following exercise , and ( b ) the extent to which pre-intervention growth factor levels were associated with training-related changes in functional connectivity . In 65 participants ( mean age=66.4 ) , we found that although there were no group-level changes in growth factors as a function of the intervention , increased temporal lobe connectivity between the bilateral parahippocampus and the bilateral middle temporal gyrus was associated with increased BDNF , IGF-1 , and VEGF for an aerobic walking group but not for a non-aerobic control group , and greater pre-intervention VEGF was associated with greater training-related increases in this functional connection . Results are consistent with animal models of exercise and the brain , but are the first to show in humans that  exercise-induced increases in temporal lobe functional connectivity are associated with changes in growth factors and may be augmented by greater baseline VEGF Past studies have shown that electroencephalographic alpha activity increases as people learn to perform a novel motor task . Additionally , it has been suggested that motor performance and learning decline as people age beyond 60 years , and it has been hypothesized that physical fitness may attenuate this decline through its impact on the cerebral environment . This study was design ed to replicate past research by assessing changes in alpha activity as a function of learning and to extend past research by examining differences in motor performance , motor learning , and alpha activity as a function of age and fitness . VO2max was assessed in 41 older ( ages 60 - 80 years ) and 42 younger ( ages 20 - 30 years ) participants . Participants were r and omly assigned to experimental or control conditions , which differed in the amount of practice received . Participants performed trials on the mirror star trace on both an acquisition and a retention day . Results indicated that younger participants performed better and had greater learning than older participants . Fitness was not found to impact either performance or learning . Participants in the experimental group improved more than those in the control group and maintained this difference at retention , which suggests that learning occurred . Associated with these improvements in performance capabilities was an increase in alpha power Implicit motor sequence learning refers to an important human ability to acquire new motor skills through the repeated performance of a motor sequence . This learning process is characterized by slow , incremental gains of motor performance . The present fMRI study was developed to better delineate the areas supporting these temporal dynamics of learning . By using the serial color matching paradigm , our study focused on the motor level of sequence learning and tracked the time course of learning-related neural changes . Imaging results showed a significant contribution of the left anterior hippocampus in an early sequence acquisition stage ( first scanning session ) as well as during a later stage with stabilized learning effects ( second scanning session ) . Hippocampal activation significantly correlated with the behavioral learning process and was affected by a change of the motor sequence . These results suggest a strong involvement of the hippocampus in implicit motor sequence learning . On the other h and , a very extensive and bilateral neural network of parietal , temporal and frontal cortical areas ( including SMA , pre-SMA ) together with parts of the cerebellum and striatum were found to play a role during r and om visuo-motor task performance The Lifestyle Interventions and Independence for Elders ( LIFE ) Study is a Phase III r and omized controlled clinical trial ( Clinical trials.gov identifier : NCT01072500 ) that will provide definitive evidence regarding the effect of physical activity ( PA ) on major  mobility disability in older adults ( 70–89 years old ) who have compromised physical function . This paper describes the methods employed in the delivery of the LIFE Study PA intervention , providing insight into how we promoted adherence and monitored the fidelity of treatment . Data are presented on participants ’ motives and self-perceptions at the onset of the trial along with accelerometry data on patterns of PA during exercise training . Prior to the onset of training , 31.4 % of participants noted slight conflict with being able to meet the dem and s of the program and 6.4 % indicated that the degree of conflict would be moderate . Accelerometry data collected during PA training revealed that the average intensity – 1,555 counts/minute for men and 1,237 counts/minute for women – was well below the cutoff point used to classify exercise as being of moderate intensity or higher for adults . Also , a sizable subgroup required one or more rest stops . These data illustrate that it is not feasible to have a single exercise prescription for older adults with compromised function . Moreover , the concept of what constitutes “ moderate ” exercise or an appropriate volume of work is dictated by the physical capacities of each individual and the level of comfort/stability in actually executing a specific prescription Background : Falls in the elderly are a major health problem . Although exercise programs have been shown to reduce the risk of falls , the optimal exercise components , as well as the working mechanisms that underlie the effectiveness of these programs , have not yet been established . Objective : To test whether the Nijmegen Falls Prevention Program was effective in reducing falls and improving st and ing balance , balance confidence , and obstacle avoidance performance in community-dwelling elderly people . Methods : A total of 113 elderly with a history of falls participated in this study ( exercise group , n = 79 ; control group , n = 28 ; dropouts before r and omization , n = 6 ) .  Exercise sessions were held twice weekly for 5 weeks . Pre- and post-intervention fall monitoring and quantitative motor control assessment s were performed . The outcome measures were the number of falls , st and ing balance and obstacle avoidance performance , and balance confidence scores . Results : The number of falls in the exercise group decreased by 46 % ( incidence rate ratio ( IRR ) 0.54 , 95 % confidence interval ( CI ) 0.36–0.79 ) compared to the number of falls during the baseline period and by 46 % ( IRR 0.54 , 95 % CI 0.34–0.86 ) compared to the control group . Obstacle avoidance success rates improved significantly more in the exercise group ( on average 12 % ) compared to the control group ( on average 6 % ) . Quiet stance and weight-shifting measures did not show significant effects of exercise . The exercise group also had a 6 % increase of balance confidence scores . Conclusion : The Nijmegen Falls Prevention Program was effective in reducing the incidence of falls in otherwise healthy elderly . There was no evidence of improved control of posture as a mechanism underlying this result . In contrast , an obstacle avoidance task indicated that subjects improved their performance . Laboratory obstacle avoidance tests may therefore be better instruments to evaluate future fall prevention studies than posturographic balance assessment We have recently shown that a single bout of acute cardiovascular exercise improves motor skill learning through an optimization of long-term motor memory . Here we exp and this previous finding , to explore potential exercise-related biomarkers and their association with measures of motor memory and skill acquisition .  Thirty-two healthy young male subjects were r and omly allocated into either an exercise or control group . Following either an intense bout of cycling or rest subjects practice d a visuomotor tracking task .  Motor skill acquisition was assessed during practice and retention 1 h , 24 h and 7 days after practice . Plasma levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor ( BDNF ) , vascular endothelial growth factor ( VEGF ) , insulin-like growth factor ( IGF-1 ) , epinephrine , norepinephrine , dopamine and lactate were analyzed at baseline , immediately after exercise or rest and during motor practice . The exercise group showed significantly better skill retention 24h and 7 days after acquisition . The concentration of all blood compounds increased significantly immediately after exercise and remained significantly elevated for 15 min following exercise except for BDNF and VEGF . Higher concentrations of norepinephrine and lactate immediately after exercise were associated with better acquisition . Higher concentrations of BDNF correlated with better retention 1 h and 7 days after practice . Similarly , higher concentrations of norepinephrine were associated with better retention 7 days after practice whereas lactate correlated with better retention 1h as well as 24 h and 7 days after practice . Thus , improvements in motor skill acquisition and retention induced by acute cardiovascular exercise are associated with increased concentrations of biomarkers involved in memory and learning processes . More mechanistic studies are required to eluci date the specific role of each biomarker in the formation of motor memory Regular physical activity has a positive impact on cognition and brain function . Here we investigated if a single bout of exercise can improve motor memory and motor skill learning . We also explored if the timing of the exercise bout in relation to the timing of practice has any impact on the acquisition and retention of a motor skill .  Forty-eight young subjects were r and omly allocated into three groups , which practice d a visuomotor accuracy-tracking task either before or after a bout of intense cycling or after rest .  Motor skill acquisition was assessed during practice and retention was measured 1 hour , 24 hours and 7 days after practice . Differences among groups in the rate of motor skill acquisition were not significant . In contrast , both exercise groups showed a significantly better retention of the motor skill 24 hours and 7 days after practice . Furthermore , compared to the subjects that exercised before practice , the subjects that exercised after practice showed a better retention of the motor skill 7 days after practice . These findings indicate that one bout of intense exercise performed immediately before or after practicing a motor task is sufficient to improve the long-term retention of a motor skill . The positive effects of acute exercise on motor memory are maximized when exercise is performed immediately after practice , during the early stages of memory consolidation . Thus , the timing of exercise in relation to practice is possibly an important factor regulating the effects of acute exercise on long-term motor memory BACKGROUND The Short Physical Performance Battery ( SPPB ) , which includes walking , balance , and chair st and s tests , independently predicts mobility disability and activities of daily living disability . To date , however , there is no definitive evidence from r and omized controlled trials that SPPB scores can be improved . Our objective was to assess the effect of a comprehensive physical activity ( PA ) intervention on the SPPB and other physical performance measures . METHODS A total of 424 sedentary persons at risk for disability ( ages 70 - 89 years ) were r and omized to a moderate-intensity PA intervention or a successful aging ( SA ) health education intervention and were followed for an average of 1.2 years . RESULTS The mean baseline SPPB score on a scale of 0 - 12 , with 12 corresponding to highest performance , was 7.5 . At 6 and 12 months , the PA versus SA group adjusted SPPB ( + /- st and ard error ) scores were 8.7 + /- 0.1 versus 8.0 + /- 0.1 , and 8.5 + /- 0.1 versus 7.9 + /- 0.2 , respectively ( p < .001 ) . The 400-meter walking speed was also significantly improved in the PA group . The PA group had a lower incidence of major mobility disability defined as incapacity to complete a 400-meter walk ( hazard ratio = 0.71 , 95 % confidence interval = 0.44 - 1.20 ) . CONCLUSIONS A structured PA intervention improved the SPPB score and other measures of physical performance . An intervention that improves the SPPB performance may also offer benefit on more distal health outcomes , such as mobility disability From animal research , it is known that combining physical activity with sensory enrichment has stronger and longer-lasting effects on the brain than either treatment alone . For humans dancing has been suggested to be analogous to such combined training . Here we assessed whether a newly design ed dance training program that stresses the constant learning of new movement patterns is superior in terms of neuroplasticity to conventional fitness activities with repetitive exercises and whether extending the training duration has additional benefits . Twenty-two healthy seniors ( 63–80 years ) who had been r and omly assigned to either a dance or a sport group completed the entire 18-month study .  MRI , BDNF and neuropsychological tests were performed at baseline and after 6 and 18 months of intervention . After 6 months , we found a significant increase in gray matter volume in the left pre central gyrus in the dancers compared to controls . This neuroplasticity effect may have been mediated by the increased BDNF plasma levels observed in the dancers . Regarding cognitive measures , both groups showed significant improvements in attention after 6 months and in verbal memory after 18 months . In addition , volume increases in the parahippocampal region were observed in the dancers after 18 months . The results of our study suggest that participating in a long-term dance program that requires constant cognitive and motor learning is superior to engaging in repetitive physical exercises in inducing neuroplasticity in the brains of seniors . Therefore , dance is highly promising in its potential to counteract age-related gray matter decline OBJECTIVES To examine whether 12 months of aerobic training ( AT ) moderated the relationship between change in mobility and change in basal ganglia volume than balance and toning ( BAT ) exercises in older adults . DESIGN Secondary analysis of a r and omized controlled trial . SETTING Champaign-Urbana , Illinois . PARTICIPANTS Community-dwelling older adults ( N=101 ; mean age 66.4 ) . INTERVENTION Twelve-month exercise trial with two groups : AT and BAT . MEASUREMENTS Mobility was assessed using the Timed Up and Go test . Basal ganglia ( putamen , cau date nucleus , pallidum ) was segmented from T1-weighted magnetic resonance images using the Oxford Centre for Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the Brain Software Library Integrated Registration and Segmentation Tool . Measurements were obtained at baseline and trial completion . Hierarchical multiple regression was conducted to examine whether exercise mode moderates the relationship 
    Output:
    
agent
Results concerning the association of chronic physical activity and motor performance are mixed and seem to be influenced by the study design , kind of exercise , motor task , and exercise intensity .
Regarding motor learning , a high physical activity or cardiovascular fitness level seems to boost the initial phase of motor learning ; results differ with respect to motor retention .
Overall , ( motor-coordinative ) intervention studies seem to be more promising than cross-sectional studies
***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: The current study examined how a r and omized one-year aerobic exercise program for healthy older adults would affect serum levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor ( BDNF ) , insulin-like growth factor type 1 ( IGF-1 ) , and vascular endothelial growth factor ( VEGF ) - putative markers of exercise-induced benefits on brain function . The study also examined whether ( a ) change in the concentration of these growth factors was associated with alterations in functional connectivity following exercise , and ( b ) the extent to which pre-intervention growth factor levels were associated with training-related changes in functional connectivity . In 65 participants ( mean age=66.4 ) , we found that although there were no group-level changes in growth factors as a function of the intervention , increased temporal lobe connectivity between the bilateral parahippocampus and the bilateral middle temporal gyrus was associated with increased BDNF , IGF-1 , and VEGF for an aerobic walking group but not for a non-aerobic control group , and greater pre-intervention VEGF was associated with greater training-related increases in this functional connection . Results are consistent with animal models of exercise and the brain , but are the first to show in humans that  exercise-induced increases in temporal lobe functional connectivity are associated with changes in growth factors and may be augmented by greater baseline VEGF Past studies have shown that electroencephalographic alpha activity increases as people learn to perform a novel motor task . Additionally , it has been suggested that motor performance and learning decline as people age beyond 60 years , and it has been hypothesized that physical fitness may attenuate this decline through its impact on the cerebral environment . This study was design ed to replicate past research by assessing changes in alpha activity as a function of learning and to extend past research by examining differences in motor performance , motor learning , and alpha activity as a function of age and fitness . VO2max was assessed in 41 older ( ages 60 - 80 years ) and 42 younger ( ages 20 - 30 years ) participants . Participants were r and omly assigned to experimental or control conditions , which differed in the amount of practice received . Participants performed trials on the mirror star trace on both an acquisition and a retention day . Results indicated that younger participants performed better and had greater learning than older participants . Fitness was not found to impact either performance or learning . Participants in the experimental group improved more than those in the control group and maintained this difference at retention , which suggests that learning occurred . Associated with these improvements in performance capabilities was an increase in alpha power Implicit motor sequence learning refers to an important human ability to acquire new motor skills through the repeated performance of a motor sequence . This learning process is characterized by slow , incremental gains of motor performance . The present fMRI study was developed to better delineate the areas supporting these temporal dynamics of learning . By using the serial color matching paradigm , our study focused on the motor level of sequence learning and tracked the time course of learning-related neural changes . Imaging results showed a significant contribution of the left anterior hippocampus in an early sequence acquisition stage ( first scanning session ) as well as during a later stage with stabilized learning effects ( second scanning session ) . Hippocampal activation significantly correlated with the behavioral learning process and was affected by a change of the motor sequence . These results suggest a strong involvement of the hippocampus in implicit motor sequence learning . On the other h and , a very extensive and bilateral neural network of parietal , temporal and frontal cortical areas ( including SMA , pre-SMA ) together with parts of the cerebellum and striatum were found to play a role during r and om visuo-motor task performance The Lifestyle Interventions and Independence for Elders ( LIFE ) Study is a Phase III r and omized controlled clinical trial ( Clinical trials.gov identifier : NCT01072500 ) that will provide definitive evidence regarding the effect of physical activity ( PA ) on major  mobility disability in older adults ( 70–89 years old ) who have compromised physical function . This paper describes the methods employed in the delivery of the LIFE Study PA intervention , providing insight into how we promoted adherence and monitored the fidelity of treatment . Data are presented on participants ’ motives and self-perceptions at the onset of the trial along with accelerometry data on patterns of PA during exercise training . Prior to the onset of training , 31.4 % of participants noted slight conflict with being able to meet the dem and s of the program and 6.4 % indicated that the degree of conflict would be moderate . Accelerometry data collected during PA training revealed that the average intensity – 1,555 counts/minute for men and 1,237 counts/minute for women – was well below the cutoff point used to classify exercise as being of moderate intensity or higher for adults . Also , a sizable subgroup required one or more rest stops . These data illustrate that it is not feasible to have a single exercise prescription for older adults with compromised function . Moreover , the concept of what constitutes “ moderate ” exercise or an appropriate volume of work is dictated by the physical capacities of each individual and the level of comfort/stability in actually executing a specific prescription Background : Falls in the elderly are a major health problem . Although exercise programs have been shown to reduce the risk of falls , the optimal exercise components , as well as the working mechanisms that underlie the effectiveness of these programs , have not yet been established . Objective : To test whether the Nijmegen Falls Prevention Program was effective in reducing falls and improving st and ing balance , balance confidence , and obstacle avoidance performance in community-dwelling elderly people . Methods : A total of 113 elderly with a history of falls participated in this study ( exercise group , n = 79 ; control group , n = 28 ; dropouts before r and omization , n = 6 ) .  Exercise sessions were held twice weekly for 5 weeks . Pre- and post-intervention fall monitoring and quantitative motor control assessment s were performed . The outcome measures were the number of falls , st and ing balance and obstacle avoidance performance , and balance confidence scores . Results : The number of falls in the exercise group decreased by 46 % ( incidence rate ratio ( IRR ) 0.54 , 95 % confidence interval ( CI ) 0.36–0.79 ) compared to the number of falls during the baseline period and by 46 % ( IRR 0.54 , 95 % CI 0.34–0.86 ) compared to the control group . Obstacle avoidance success rates improved significantly more in the exercise group ( on average 12 % ) compared to the control group ( on average 6 % ) . Quiet stance and weight-shifting measures did not show significant effects of exercise . The exercise group also had a 6 % increase of balance confidence scores . Conclusion : The Nijmegen Falls Prevention Program was effective in reducing the incidence of falls in otherwise healthy elderly . There was no evidence of improved control of posture as a mechanism underlying this result . In contrast , an obstacle avoidance task indicated that subjects improved their performance . Laboratory obstacle avoidance tests may therefore be better instruments to evaluate future fall prevention studies than posturographic balance assessment We have recently shown that a single bout of acute cardiovascular exercise improves motor skill learning through an optimization of long-term motor memory . Here we exp and this previous finding , to explore potential exercise-related biomarkers and their association with measures of motor memory and skill acquisition .  Thirty-two healthy young male subjects were r and omly allocated into either an exercise or control group . Following either an intense bout of cycling or rest subjects practice d a visuomotor tracking task .  Motor skill acquisition was assessed during practice and retention 1 h , 24 h and 7 days after practice . Plasma levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor ( BDNF ) , vascular endothelial growth factor ( VEGF ) , insulin-like growth factor ( IGF-1 ) , epinephrine , norepinephrine , dopamine and lactate were analyzed at baseline , immediately after exercise or rest and during motor practice . The exercise group showed significantly better skill retention 24h and 7 days after acquisition . The concentration of all blood compounds increased significantly immediately after exercise and remained significantly elevated for 15 min following exercise except for BDNF and VEGF . Higher concentrations of norepinephrine and lactate immediately after exercise were associated with better acquisition . Higher concentrations of BDNF correlated with better retention 1 h and 7 days after practice . Similarly , higher concentrations of norepinephrine were associated with better retention 7 days after practice whereas lactate correlated with better retention 1h as well as 24 h and 7 days after practice . Thus , improvements in motor skill acquisition and retention induced by acute cardiovascular exercise are associated with increased concentrations of biomarkers involved in memory and learning processes . More mechanistic studies are required to eluci date the specific role of each biomarker in the formation of motor memory Regular physical activity has a positive impact on cognition and brain function . Here we investigated if a single bout of exercise can improve motor memory and motor skill learning . We also explored if the timing of the exercise bout in relation to the timing of practice has any impact on the acquisition and retention of a motor skill .  Forty-eight young subjects were r and omly allocated into three groups , which practice d a visuomotor accuracy-tracking task either before or after a bout of intense cycling or after rest .  Motor skill acquisition was assessed during practice and retention was measured 1 hour , 24 hours and 7 days after practice . Differences among groups in the rate of motor skill acquisition were not significant . In contrast , both exercise groups showed a significantly better retention of the motor skill 24 hours and 7 days after practice . Furthermore , compared to the subjects that exercised before practice , the subjects that exercised after practice showed a better retention of the motor skill 7 days after practice . These findings indicate that one bout of intense exercise performed immediately before or after practicing a motor task is sufficient to improve the long-term retention of a motor skill . The positive effects of acute exercise on motor memory are maximized when exercise is performed immediately after practice , during the early stages of memory consolidation . Thus , the timing of exercise in relation to practice is possibly an important factor regulating the effects of acute exercise on long-term motor memory BACKGROUND The Short Physical Performance Battery ( SPPB ) , which includes walking , balance , and chair st and s tests , independently predicts mobility disability and activities of daily living disability . To date , however , there is no definitive evidence from r and omized controlled trials that SPPB scores can be improved . Our objective was to assess the effect of a comprehensive physical activity ( PA ) intervention on the SPPB and other physical performance measures . METHODS A total of 424 sedentary persons at risk for disability ( ages 70 - 89 years ) were r and omized to a moderate-intensity PA intervention or a successful aging ( SA ) health education intervention and were followed for an average of 1.2 years . RESULTS The mean baseline SPPB score on a scale of 0 - 12 , with 12 corresponding to highest performance , was 7.5 . At 6 and 12 months , the PA versus SA group adjusted SPPB ( + /- st and ard error ) scores were 8.7 + /- 0.1 versus 8.0 + /- 0.1 , and 8.5 + /- 0.1 versus 7.9 + /- 0.2 , respectively ( p < .001 ) . The 400-meter walking speed was also significantly improved in the PA group . The PA group had a lower incidence of major mobility disability defined as incapacity to complete a 400-meter walk ( hazard ratio = 0.71 , 95 % confidence interval = 0.44 - 1.20 ) . CONCLUSIONS A structured PA intervention improved the SPPB score and other measures of physical performance . An intervention that improves the SPPB performance may also offer benefit on more distal health outcomes , such as mobility disability From animal research , it is known that combining physical activity with sensory enrichment has stronger and longer-lasting effects on the brain than either treatment alone . For humans dancing has been suggested to be analogous to such combined training . Here we assessed whether a newly design ed dance training program that stresses the constant learning of new movement patterns is superior in terms of neuroplasticity to conventional fitness activities with repetitive exercises and whether extending the training duration has additional benefits . Twenty-two healthy seniors ( 63–80 years ) who had been r and omly assigned to either a dance or a sport group completed the entire 18-month study .  MRI , BDNF and neuropsychological tests were performed at baseline and after 6 and 18 months of intervention . After 6 months , we found a significant increase in gray matter volume in the left pre central gyrus in the dancers compared to controls . This neuroplasticity effect may have been mediated by the increased BDNF plasma levels observed in the dancers . Regarding cognitive measures , both groups showed significant improvements in attention after 6 months and in verbal memory after 18 months . In addition , volume increases in the parahippocampal region were observed in the dancers after 18 months . The results of our study suggest that participating in a long-term dance program that requires constant cognitive and motor learning is superior to engaging in repetitive physical exercises in inducing neuroplasticity in the brains of seniors . Therefore , dance is highly promising in its potential to counteract age-related gray matter decline OBJECTIVES To examine whether 12 months of aerobic training ( AT ) moderated the relationship between change in mobility and change in basal ganglia volume than balance and toning ( BAT ) exercises in older adults . DESIGN Secondary analysis of a r and omized controlled trial . SETTING Champaign-Urbana , Illinois . PARTICIPANTS Community-dwelling older adults ( N=101 ; mean age 66.4 ) . INTERVENTION Twelve-month exercise trial with two groups : AT and BAT . MEASUREMENTS Mobility was assessed using the Timed Up and Go test . Basal ganglia ( putamen , cau date nucleus , pallidum ) was segmented from T1-weighted magnetic resonance images using the Oxford Centre for Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging of the Brain Software Library Integrated Registration and Segmentation Tool . Measurements were obtained at baseline and trial completion . Hierarchical multiple regression was conducted to examine whether exercise mode moderates the relationship 
    Output:
    