human
***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: RATIONALE Attentional bias towards smoking-related cues is increased during abstinence and can predict relapse after quitting . Exercise has been found to reduce cigarette cravings and desire to smoke during temporary abstinence and attenuate increased cravings in response to smoking cues . OBJECTIVE To assess the acute effects of exercise on attentional bias to smoking-related cues during temporary abstinence from smoking . METHOD In a r and omized cross-over design , on separate days regular smokers ( n = 20 ) undertook 15 minutes of exercise ( moderate intensity stationary cycling ) or passive seating following 15 hours of nicotine abstinence .  Attentional bias was measured at baseline and post-treatment . The percentage of dwell time and direction of initial fixation was assessed during the passive viewing of a series of paired smoking and neutral images using an Eyelink II eye-tracking system .  Self-reported desire to smoke was recorded at baseline , mid- and post-treatment and post-eye-tracking task . RESULTS There was a significant condition x time interaction for desire to smoke , F((1,18 ) ) = 10.67 , P = 0.004 , eta(2 ) = 0.36 , with significantly lower desire to smoke at mid- and post-treatment following the exercise condition . The percentage of dwell time and direction of initial fixations towards smoking images were also reduced significantly following the exercise condition compared with the passive control . CONCLUSION Findings support previous research that acute exercise reduces desire to smoke . This is the first study to show that exercise appears to also influence the salience and attentional biases towards cigarettes The urges to smoke reported by 215 former smokers were measured 1 day , 7 days , 14 days and 30 days after they quit to examine : ( a ) the time course of smoking urges , ( b ) the relationship of urges to relapse , and ( c ) predictors of urges to smoke . Urges to smoke were strongest 1 day after quitting , and decreased at each subsequent measurement point . Urges were a powerful predictor of relapse . At each of the four assessment points , abstinent subjects who reported stronger urges to smoke were more likely to relapse by the next measurement point . Urges to smoke at a given day ( e.g. , day 1 ) were consistently the best predictors of the persistence of urges at the next assessment ( e.g. , day 7 ) . Greater negative emotion ( e.g. , anxiety , sadness , anger , and confusion ) and psychosocial stress also predicted stronger urges to smoke .  Nicotine gum significantly reduced urges during week 1 post-cessation . Clinical implication s of the findings are discussed Rationale Substances of misuse ( such as nicotine ) are associated with increases in activation within the mesocorticolimbic brain system , a system thought to mediate the rewarding effects of drugs of abuse . Pharmacological treatments have been design ed to reduce cigarette cravings during temporary abstinence . Exercise has been found to be an effective tool for controlling cigarette cravings . Objective The objective of this study is to assess the effect of exercise on regional brain activation in response to smoking-related images during temporary nicotine abstinence . Method In a r and omized crossover design , regular smokers ( n = 10 ) undertook an exercise ( 10 min moderate-intensity stationary cycling ) and control ( passive seating for same duration ) session , following 15 h of nicotine abstinence . Following treatments , participants entered a functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging ( fMRI ) scanner . Subjects viewed a r and om series of smoking and neutral images for 3 s , with an average inter-stimulus-interval ( ISI ) of 10 s. Self-reported cravings were assessed at baseline , mid- , and post-treatments . Results A significant interaction effect ( time by group ) was found , with self-reported cravings lower during and following exercise . During control scanning , significant activation was recorded in areas associated with reward ( cau date nucleus ) , motivation ( orbitofrontal cortex ) and visuo-spatial attention ( parietal lobe , parahippocampal , and fusiform gyrus ) . Post-exercise scanning showed hypo-activation in these areas with a concomitant shift of activation towards areas identified in the ‘ brain default mode ’ ( Broadmanns Area 10 ) . Conclusion The study confirms previous evidence that a single session of exercise can reduce cigarette cravings , and for the first time provides evidence of a shift in regional activation in response to smoking cues The present study was conducted to examine the effects of acute aerobic exercise on smoking behavior . On alternate days , 10 healthy young smokers were subjected to half an hour of sustained high exercise ( about 56 % of maximum work capacity ) or of low exercise ( about 28 % of maximum , simulating normal daytime activity ) . During the high-exercise condition , there were pronounced increases in physiological markers of physical activity such as mean work , heart rate , and lactic acid as well as elevations in circulating hormones ( norepinephrine , epinephrine , and immunoreactive beta-endorphin and cortisol ) known to be affected by vigorous exercise . Despite a trend toward decreased desire for cigarettes after the high exercise condition , there were no differences in plasma nicotine levels following the smoking of a usual-br and cigarette 35 min later . The sustained effects of the two exercise conditions were also similar : plasma cotinine levels 24 hr later ( reflecting nicotine intake over the entire exercise day ) revealed no significant differences between hight and low exercise Rationale Smokers show heightened activation toward smoking-related stimuli and experience increased cravings which can precipitate smoking cessation relapse . Exercise can be effective for modulating cigarette cravings and attenuating reactivity to smoking cues , but the mechanism by which these effects occur remains uncertain . Objective The objective of the study was to assess the effect of exercise on regional brain activation in response to smoking-related images during temporary nicotine abstinence . Methods In a r and omised crossover design , overnight abstinent smokers ( n = 20 ) underwent an exercise ( 10-min moderate-intensity stationary cycling ) and passive control ( seating for the same duration ) treatment , following 15 h of nicotine abstinence . After each treatment , participants underwent functional magnetic resonance imaging ( fMRI ) brain scanning while viewing a r and om series of blocked smoking or neutral images . Self-reported cravings were assessed at baseline , mid- , and post-treatments . Results There was a significant interaction effect ( treatment × time ) for desire to smoke , F ( 2,32 ) = 12.5 , p < 0.001 , with significantly lower scores following the exercise at all time points compared with the control treatment . After both exercise and rest , significant areas of activation were found in areas of the limbic lobe and in areas associated with visual attention in response to smoking-related stimuli . Smokers showed increased activation to smoking images in areas associated with primary and secondary visual processing following rest , but not following a session of exercise . Conclusion The study shows differing activation towards smoking images following exercise compared to a control treatment and may point to a neuro-cognitive process following exercise that mediates effects on cigarette cravings Stress and exposure to smoking cues influence smoking cravings and behavior .  Exercise appears to reduce cigarette cravings and withdrawal symptoms , but no study has investigated the effects of exercise on cue-elicited cravings and withdrawal symptoms , or ad libitum smoking behavior . In this study , 60 regular smokers , invited by public advertisements , were assessed at baseline following 2 hr of abstinence  , and r and omized to a 15-min brisk walk or passive condition . Both groups then completed three tasks ( Stroop color-word interference task , speech task , and h and ling a lit cigarette ) . Cravings were assessed with two single items , and withdrawal symptoms were assessed using the seven-item Mood and Physical Symptoms Scale . After the laboratory session , ad libitum smoking was determined from the subject 's cell phone text message . Exercise ( mean heart rate reserve = 24 % ) attenuated increases in strength of desire to smoke , tension , poor concentration , and stress , in response to a lit cigarette , but had minimal effects on increases in cravings and withdrawal symptoms in response to the stressors . Absolute levels of cravings and withdrawal symptoms were reduced during and following exercise . Exercisers engaged in ad libitum smoking a net 57 min ( CI = 31 - 83 ) later than those in the passive condition . A 15-min brisk walk not only reduced cigarette cravings and withdrawal symptoms but also could attenuate increases in cue-elicited cravings and withdrawal symptoms , and increase the time between cigarettes smoked Abstract Rationale : Previous research suggests that glucose may reduce desire to smoke during periods of abstinence but a definitive test is needed . Objective : The present study aim ed to determine whether a single administration of oral glucose would reduce desire to smoke in abstaining smokers . Methods : Thirty-eight smokers attended the laboratory in the afternoon having not smoked since the previous evening . They rated their desire to smoke immediately before and at 5-min intervals for 20 min after chewing four 3-g glucose tablets ( experimental group ) or four matched placebo tablets ( control group ) . Results : Ratings of desire to smoke decreased to a greater extent in the experimental than the control group . The effect was apparent after 10 min . There was no difference between the groups in terms of feeling ” sick ” or ” satisfied ” . Conclusion : A single dose of glucose has a relatively rapid and detectable effect on desire to smoke and the effect is not mediated by feeling sick . Glucose tablets may be useful in helping to control desire to smoke during periods of abstinence Rationale Recent research has shown that 10 min of moderate intensity exercise reduce smoking withdrawal symptoms and desire to smoke in acutely abstinent smokers . The aim of the current study was to determine whether the reductions are related to participant expectation of these effects . Material s and methods Forty-five sedentary participants who had smoked ten or more cigarettes per day for at least 3 years reported their expectation of the effects of exercise on smoking withdrawal symptoms .  Approximately 1 month later , participants were r and omly assigned to one of three groups after 11–15 h of overnight smoking abstinence . Each group read either a positive , negative or neutral statement concerning exercise effects on smoking withdrawal symptoms . They rated their expectation again and then completed 10 min of moderate intensity exercise on a stationary bicycle ergometer . Using st and ardised scales , participants rated smoking withdrawal symptoms and desire to smoke at 10 , 5 and 0 min before exercise , then at 5 and 10 min during exercise and 15 and 20 min post-exercise . Results Expectation of exercise effects on withdrawal were manipulated in the predicted directions . No significant group main effects were found for any symptom . Significant reductions in symptoms and desire to smoke occurred during and after exercise regardless of participant expectation . Conclusions Ten minutes of moderate intensity exercise can lead to reductions in desire to smoke and smoking withdrawal symptoms , which are not due to the participant ’s expectation of exercise effects . These findings support the use of short periods of exercise as an aid to smoking cessation AIMS To examine the acute effects of a guided relaxation routine ( body scan ) and isometric exercise on  desire to smoke and tobacco withdrawal symptoms .  DESIGN Experimental comparison of three conditions . PARTICIPANTS Forty-eight individuals reporting smoking > or = 10 cigarettes daily . INTERVENTION R and om assignment to one of three interventions delivered via a 10-minute audio : isometric exercise ( IE , n = 14 ) , body scanning ( BS , n = 18 ) or a reading about natural history ( control group , n = 16 ) . Interventions were delivered twice on the same day : in the laboratory , then in their ' normal ' environment . MEASUREMENTS Desire to smoke ( primary outcome ) and withdrawal symptoms were rated at pre-intervention and up to 30 minutes post-intervention . FINDINGS Controlling for baseline scores , post-intervention desire to smoke and withdrawal symptoms were significantly lower for IE and BS groups , compared with the controls , in both environments . There were no significant differences for IE versus BS . For desire to smoke , controlling for baseline values , ratings in the laboratory were significantly lower for IE and BS versus the control up to 30 minutes post-intervention . In the normal environment , these ratings were significantly lower only up to 5 minutes post-intervention . CONCLUSIONS Brief IE and BS interventions are effective for reducing desire to smoke and withdrawal symptoms in temporarily abstaining smokers . These interventions were found to be more effective in the laboratory than in the smoker 's normal environment , but this may be an artefact of there not being a sufficient ' wash-out ' period between interventions . These techniques may be beneficial for managing desire to smoke and tobacco withdrawal This study investigated both acute and longer term ( " chronic " ) effects of vigorous exercise training on affect , nicotine withdrawal , and  cigarette craving  among women enrolled in a smoking cessation research study . All subjects participated in a 12-week cognitive behavioral smoking cessation program and were r and omly assigned to attend three sessions per week of either a vigorous exercise program or contact control . Measures of positive and negative affect , cigarette craving , and nicotine withdrawal were administered immediately before , and again immediately after the final exercise or contact session each week of the program . Study I enrolled 24 women who had been assigned to the exercise condition . Significant reductions in negative affect , nicotine withdrawal and cigarette craving were observed following exercise most weeks of the program . No significant changes in positive affect were observed . In Study II this protocol was repeated among 62 women ( 44 exercise , 18 contact control )  in two consecutive cohorts of the larger study . Significant reduction were observed in negative affect , nicot 
    Output:
    
agent
There is strong evidence that physical activity acutely reduces cigarette craving
***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: RATIONALE Attentional bias towards smoking-related cues is increased during abstinence and can predict relapse after quitting . Exercise has been found to reduce cigarette cravings and desire to smoke during temporary abstinence and attenuate increased cravings in response to smoking cues . OBJECTIVE To assess the acute effects of exercise on attentional bias to smoking-related cues during temporary abstinence from smoking . METHOD In a r and omized cross-over design , on separate days regular smokers ( n = 20 ) undertook 15 minutes of exercise ( moderate intensity stationary cycling ) or passive seating following 15 hours of nicotine abstinence .  Attentional bias was measured at baseline and post-treatment . The percentage of dwell time and direction of initial fixation was assessed during the passive viewing of a series of paired smoking and neutral images using an Eyelink II eye-tracking system .  Self-reported desire to smoke was recorded at baseline , mid- and post-treatment and post-eye-tracking task . RESULTS There was a significant condition x time interaction for desire to smoke , F((1,18 ) ) = 10.67 , P = 0.004 , eta(2 ) = 0.36 , with significantly lower desire to smoke at mid- and post-treatment following the exercise condition . The percentage of dwell time and direction of initial fixations towards smoking images were also reduced significantly following the exercise condition compared with the passive control . CONCLUSION Findings support previous research that acute exercise reduces desire to smoke . This is the first study to show that exercise appears to also influence the salience and attentional biases towards cigarettes The urges to smoke reported by 215 former smokers were measured 1 day , 7 days , 14 days and 30 days after they quit to examine : ( a ) the time course of smoking urges , ( b ) the relationship of urges to relapse , and ( c ) predictors of urges to smoke . Urges to smoke were strongest 1 day after quitting , and decreased at each subsequent measurement point . Urges were a powerful predictor of relapse . At each of the four assessment points , abstinent subjects who reported stronger urges to smoke were more likely to relapse by the next measurement point . Urges to smoke at a given day ( e.g. , day 1 ) were consistently the best predictors of the persistence of urges at the next assessment ( e.g. , day 7 ) . Greater negative emotion ( e.g. , anxiety , sadness , anger , and confusion ) and psychosocial stress also predicted stronger urges to smoke .  Nicotine gum significantly reduced urges during week 1 post-cessation . Clinical implication s of the findings are discussed Rationale Substances of misuse ( such as nicotine ) are associated with increases in activation within the mesocorticolimbic brain system , a system thought to mediate the rewarding effects of drugs of abuse . Pharmacological treatments have been design ed to reduce cigarette cravings during temporary abstinence . Exercise has been found to be an effective tool for controlling cigarette cravings . Objective The objective of this study is to assess the effect of exercise on regional brain activation in response to smoking-related images during temporary nicotine abstinence . Method In a r and omized crossover design , regular smokers ( n = 10 ) undertook an exercise ( 10 min moderate-intensity stationary cycling ) and control ( passive seating for same duration ) session , following 15 h of nicotine abstinence . Following treatments , participants entered a functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging ( fMRI ) scanner . Subjects viewed a r and om series of smoking and neutral images for 3 s , with an average inter-stimulus-interval ( ISI ) of 10 s. Self-reported cravings were assessed at baseline , mid- , and post-treatments . Results A significant interaction effect ( time by group ) was found , with self-reported cravings lower during and following exercise . During control scanning , significant activation was recorded in areas associated with reward ( cau date nucleus ) , motivation ( orbitofrontal cortex ) and visuo-spatial attention ( parietal lobe , parahippocampal , and fusiform gyrus ) . Post-exercise scanning showed hypo-activation in these areas with a concomitant shift of activation towards areas identified in the ‘ brain default mode ’ ( Broadmanns Area 10 ) . Conclusion The study confirms previous evidence that a single session of exercise can reduce cigarette cravings , and for the first time provides evidence of a shift in regional activation in response to smoking cues The present study was conducted to examine the effects of acute aerobic exercise on smoking behavior . On alternate days , 10 healthy young smokers were subjected to half an hour of sustained high exercise ( about 56 % of maximum work capacity ) or of low exercise ( about 28 % of maximum , simulating normal daytime activity ) . During the high-exercise condition , there were pronounced increases in physiological markers of physical activity such as mean work , heart rate , and lactic acid as well as elevations in circulating hormones ( norepinephrine , epinephrine , and immunoreactive beta-endorphin and cortisol ) known to be affected by vigorous exercise . Despite a trend toward decreased desire for cigarettes after the high exercise condition , there were no differences in plasma nicotine levels following the smoking of a usual-br and cigarette 35 min later . The sustained effects of the two exercise conditions were also similar : plasma cotinine levels 24 hr later ( reflecting nicotine intake over the entire exercise day ) revealed no significant differences between hight and low exercise Rationale Smokers show heightened activation toward smoking-related stimuli and experience increased cravings which can precipitate smoking cessation relapse . Exercise can be effective for modulating cigarette cravings and attenuating reactivity to smoking cues , but the mechanism by which these effects occur remains uncertain . Objective The objective of the study was to assess the effect of exercise on regional brain activation in response to smoking-related images during temporary nicotine abstinence . Methods In a r and omised crossover design , overnight abstinent smokers ( n = 20 ) underwent an exercise ( 10-min moderate-intensity stationary cycling ) and passive control ( seating for the same duration ) treatment , following 15 h of nicotine abstinence . After each treatment , participants underwent functional magnetic resonance imaging ( fMRI ) brain scanning while viewing a r and om series of blocked smoking or neutral images . Self-reported cravings were assessed at baseline , mid- , and post-treatments . Results There was a significant interaction effect ( treatment × time ) for desire to smoke , F ( 2,32 ) = 12.5 , p < 0.001 , with significantly lower scores following the exercise at all time points compared with the control treatment . After both exercise and rest , significant areas of activation were found in areas of the limbic lobe and in areas associated with visual attention in response to smoking-related stimuli . Smokers showed increased activation to smoking images in areas associated with primary and secondary visual processing following rest , but not following a session of exercise . Conclusion The study shows differing activation towards smoking images following exercise compared to a control treatment and may point to a neuro-cognitive process following exercise that mediates effects on cigarette cravings Stress and exposure to smoking cues influence smoking cravings and behavior .  Exercise appears to reduce cigarette cravings and withdrawal symptoms , but no study has investigated the effects of exercise on cue-elicited cravings and withdrawal symptoms , or ad libitum smoking behavior . In this study , 60 regular smokers , invited by public advertisements , were assessed at baseline following 2 hr of abstinence  , and r and omized to a 15-min brisk walk or passive condition . Both groups then completed three tasks ( Stroop color-word interference task , speech task , and h and ling a lit cigarette ) . Cravings were assessed with two single items , and withdrawal symptoms were assessed using the seven-item Mood and Physical Symptoms Scale . After the laboratory session , ad libitum smoking was determined from the subject 's cell phone text message . Exercise ( mean heart rate reserve = 24 % ) attenuated increases in strength of desire to smoke , tension , poor concentration , and stress , in response to a lit cigarette , but had minimal effects on increases in cravings and withdrawal symptoms in response to the stressors . Absolute levels of cravings and withdrawal symptoms were reduced during and following exercise . Exercisers engaged in ad libitum smoking a net 57 min ( CI = 31 - 83 ) later than those in the passive condition . A 15-min brisk walk not only reduced cigarette cravings and withdrawal symptoms but also could attenuate increases in cue-elicited cravings and withdrawal symptoms , and increase the time between cigarettes smoked Abstract Rationale : Previous research suggests that glucose may reduce desire to smoke during periods of abstinence but a definitive test is needed . Objective : The present study aim ed to determine whether a single administration of oral glucose would reduce desire to smoke in abstaining smokers . Methods : Thirty-eight smokers attended the laboratory in the afternoon having not smoked since the previous evening . They rated their desire to smoke immediately before and at 5-min intervals for 20 min after chewing four 3-g glucose tablets ( experimental group ) or four matched placebo tablets ( control group ) . Results : Ratings of desire to smoke decreased to a greater extent in the experimental than the control group . The effect was apparent after 10 min . There was no difference between the groups in terms of feeling ” sick ” or ” satisfied ” . Conclusion : A single dose of glucose has a relatively rapid and detectable effect on desire to smoke and the effect is not mediated by feeling sick . Glucose tablets may be useful in helping to control desire to smoke during periods of abstinence Rationale Recent research has shown that 10 min of moderate intensity exercise reduce smoking withdrawal symptoms and desire to smoke in acutely abstinent smokers . The aim of the current study was to determine whether the reductions are related to participant expectation of these effects . Material s and methods Forty-five sedentary participants who had smoked ten or more cigarettes per day for at least 3 years reported their expectation of the effects of exercise on smoking withdrawal symptoms .  Approximately 1 month later , participants were r and omly assigned to one of three groups after 11–15 h of overnight smoking abstinence . Each group read either a positive , negative or neutral statement concerning exercise effects on smoking withdrawal symptoms . They rated their expectation again and then completed 10 min of moderate intensity exercise on a stationary bicycle ergometer . Using st and ardised scales , participants rated smoking withdrawal symptoms and desire to smoke at 10 , 5 and 0 min before exercise , then at 5 and 10 min during exercise and 15 and 20 min post-exercise . Results Expectation of exercise effects on withdrawal were manipulated in the predicted directions . No significant group main effects were found for any symptom . Significant reductions in symptoms and desire to smoke occurred during and after exercise regardless of participant expectation . Conclusions Ten minutes of moderate intensity exercise can lead to reductions in desire to smoke and smoking withdrawal symptoms , which are not due to the participant ’s expectation of exercise effects . These findings support the use of short periods of exercise as an aid to smoking cessation AIMS To examine the acute effects of a guided relaxation routine ( body scan ) and isometric exercise on  desire to smoke and tobacco withdrawal symptoms .  DESIGN Experimental comparison of three conditions . PARTICIPANTS Forty-eight individuals reporting smoking > or = 10 cigarettes daily . INTERVENTION R and om assignment to one of three interventions delivered via a 10-minute audio : isometric exercise ( IE , n = 14 ) , body scanning ( BS , n = 18 ) or a reading about natural history ( control group , n = 16 ) . Interventions were delivered twice on the same day : in the laboratory , then in their ' normal ' environment . MEASUREMENTS Desire to smoke ( primary outcome ) and withdrawal symptoms were rated at pre-intervention and up to 30 minutes post-intervention . FINDINGS Controlling for baseline scores , post-intervention desire to smoke and withdrawal symptoms were significantly lower for IE and BS groups , compared with the controls , in both environments . There were no significant differences for IE versus BS . For desire to smoke , controlling for baseline values , ratings in the laboratory were significantly lower for IE and BS versus the control up to 30 minutes post-intervention . In the normal environment , these ratings were significantly lower only up to 5 minutes post-intervention . CONCLUSIONS Brief IE and BS interventions are effective for reducing desire to smoke and withdrawal symptoms in temporarily abstaining smokers . These interventions were found to be more effective in the laboratory than in the smoker 's normal environment , but this may be an artefact of there not being a sufficient ' wash-out ' period between interventions . These techniques may be beneficial for managing desire to smoke and tobacco withdrawal This study investigated both acute and longer term ( " chronic " ) effects of vigorous exercise training on affect , nicotine withdrawal , and  cigarette craving  among women enrolled in a smoking cessation research study . All subjects participated in a 12-week cognitive behavioral smoking cessation program and were r and omly assigned to attend three sessions per week of either a vigorous exercise program or contact control . Measures of positive and negative affect , cigarette craving , and nicotine withdrawal were administered immediately before , and again immediately after the final exercise or contact session each week of the program . Study I enrolled 24 women who had been assigned to the exercise condition . Significant reductions in negative affect , nicotine withdrawal and cigarette craving were observed following exercise most weeks of the program . No significant changes in positive affect were observed . In Study II this protocol was repeated among 62 women ( 44 exercise , 18 contact control )  in two consecutive cohorts of the larger study . Significant reduction were observed in negative affect , nicot 
    Output:
    