human
***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: We have compared the effects of partially hydrogenated fish oil ( PHFO-diet ) , partially hydrogenated soybean oil ( PHSO-diet ) , and butterfat ( butter-diet ) on  serum lipids and lipoprotein[a ] in 31 young men . The three test margarines , which contributed 78 % of total fat in the diets , were produced from 70 % of butterfat , PHSO , or PHFO , each with 30 % of soybean oil . Fat provided about 35 % of energy , and trans fatty acids 0.9 % , 8.5 % , and 8.0 % of energy in the butter- , the PHSO- , and the PHFO-diet , respectively . Dietary cholesterol was balanced by the addition of dried egg powder to the PHSO- and the butter-diet ; thus all diets contained 420 mg dietary cholesterol per 10 MJ per day . The subjects consumed all three test diets for 19 - 21 days in a r and om order ( crossover design ) . The serum levels of total and LDL-cholesterol were significantly elevated on the PHFO-diet ( mean values 5.42 and 3.94 mmol/L , respectively ) compared to the PHSO-diet ( 5.11 and 3.58 mmol/L , respectively ) but not different from those on the butter-diet ( 5.32 and 3.81 mmol/L , respectively ) . LDL-cholesterol was significantly reduced on the PHSO-diet compared to the butter-diet . The level of HDL-cholesterol was significantly lower on the PHFO-diet ( 0.98 mmol/L ) when compared to the butter-diet ( 1.05 mmol/L ) and with border-line significance compared to the PHSO-diet ( 1.05 mmol/L ) . The ratio of LDL- to HDL-cholesterol was significantly higher on the PHFO-diet ( 4.20 ) when compared to both other test diets ( 3.85 and 3.65 , respectively ) . No significant differences in triglyceride values were observed . Lp[a ] increased and apoA-I decreased significantly after consumption of both the PHSO-diet and the PHFO-diet , compared to the butter-diet . In conclusion , our results indicate that consumption of PHFO may unfavorably affect lipid risk indicators for coronary heart disease at least to the same extent as butterfat . To what extent the observed effects are due to the content of monoene trans , diene trans , or to the long chain saturated fatty acids in PHFO remains to be eluci date Background / Objectives : The objective of this study was to evaluate the impact of three specific ruminant ( R ) milk fats result ing from modification of the cow 's diet on cardiovascular risk factors in healthy volunteers . R-milk fats were characterized by increased content in total trans fatty acids ( R-TFAs ) and parallel decrease in saturated fatty acids (SFAs).Subjects/ Methods : A total of 111 healthy , normolipemic men and women have been recruited for a monocentric , r and omized , double-blind and parallel intervention , 4-week controlled study . Volunteers consumed three experimental products ( butter , dessert cream and cookies ) made with one of the three specific milk fats ( 55 g fat per day ) . During the first week ( run-in period ) , the subjects consumed on a daily basis dairy products containing 72 % SFA/2.85 % R-TFA ( called ‘ L0 ’ ) . For the next 3 weeks of the study ( intervention period ) , the first group continued to consume L0 products . The second group received dairy products containing 63.3 % SFA/4.06 % R-TFA ( called ‘ L4 ’ ) , and the third group received dairy products containing 56.6 % SFA/12.16 % R-TFA ( called ‘ L9 ’ ) . Results : Plasma concentrations of high-density lipoprotein (HDL)-cholesterol were not significantly altered by either diet ( P=0.38 ) . Compared to L0 diet , L4 diet contributed to reduce low-density lipoprotein (LDL)-cholesterol ( −0.14±0.38 mmol/l , P=0.04 ) , total cholesterol ( −0.13±0.50 mmol/l , P=0.04 ) , LDL-cholesterol/HDL-cholesterol ( −0.14±0.36 , P=0.03 ) and total cholesterol/HDL-cholesterol ( −0.18±0.44 , P=0.02 ) . Conclusions : Different milk fat profiles can change cardiovascular plasma parameters in human healthy volunteers . A limited increase of the R-TFA/SFA ratio in dairy products is associated with an improvement in some cardiovascular risk factors . However , a further increase in R-TFA/SFA ratio has no additional benefit Fatty acid profile of milk fat can be modified by cow feeding strategies . Our aim was postpr and ially and after 4 wk to compare the effect of a modified milk fat ( M diet ) [ with 16 % of the cholesterolemic saturated fatty acid ( C12–16 ) replaced by mainly oleic and stearic acids ] with the effect of D diet , including a conventional Danish milk fat on plasma lipids and lipoproteins . A side effect of the cow feeding regime was a 5 % ( w/w ) increase in trans fatty acid in M diet . Eighteen subjects were fed for two periods of 4 wk strictly controlled isoenergetic test diets with 40 % of energy from total fat and the same content of dietary cholesterol in a r and omized study with cross-over design . Contrary to expectations , fasting low density lipoprotein ( LDL ) cholesterol concentration did not differ after the experimental periods . However , M diet result ed in a higher fasting total triacylglycerol concentration compared to D diet ( P=0.009 ) . Postpr and ial sample s were taken at two different occasions ( i ) at day 21 , after breakfast and lunch and ( ii ) on the last day of the study 2 , 4 , 6 , and 8 h after a fat load . Postpr and ial plasma triacylglycerol and chylomicron triacylglycerol showed higher peak values after D diet than M diet ( interaction effect , diet × times P<0.05 ) . In conclusion , M diet did not lower LDL cholesterol compared to D diet . Thus any cholesterol-lowering effect of oleic and stearic acids may have been obscured by the high content of cholesterol-raising saturated fatty acids in milk fat . A higher content of the trans fatty acids in M diet might have counteracted the cholesterol neutral/decreasing effect and increased plasma triacylglycerol BACKGROUND Dietary trans fatty acids ( FAs ) , which are formed during the process of hydrogenating vegetable oil , are known to increase plasma LDL-cholesterol concentrations . However , their effect on LDL particle size has yet to be investigated . OBJECTIVE We investigated the effect of trans FA consumption on the electrophoretic characteristics of LDL particles . DESIGN Eighteen women and 18 men each consumed 5 experimental diets in r and om order for 35-d periods . Fat represented 30 % of total energy intake in each diet , with two-thirds of the fat in the form of semiliquid margarine ( 0.6 g trans FAs/100 g fat ) , soft margarine ( 9.4 g trans FAs/100 g fat ) , shortening ( 13.6 g trans FAs/100 g fat ) , stick margarine ( 26.1 g trans FAs/100 g fat ) , or butter , which was low in trans FAs ( 2.6 g trans FAs/100 g fat ) but rich in saturated fat . LDL particle size and distribution were characterized by nondenaturing , 2 - 16 % polyacrylamide gradient gel electrophoresis . RESULTS Relative to the LDL particle size observed after consumption of the butter-enriched diet , LDL particle size decreased significantly and in a dose-dependent fashion with increasing amounts of dietary trans FAs ( P < 0.001 ) . Cholesterol concentrations in large ( > 260 A ) and medium-sized ( 255 - 260 A ) LDL particles also increased proportionately to the amount of trans FAs in the diet . CONCLUSION Consumption of dietary trans FAs is associated with a deleterious increase in small , dense LDL , which further reinforces the importance of promoting diets low in trans FAs to favorably affect the lipoprotein profile BACKGROUND The intake of trans fatty acids ( TFA ) from industrially hydrogenated vegetable oils ( iTFA ) is known to have a deleterious effect on cardiovascular health , the effects of TFA from ruminants ( rTFA ) are virtually unknown . OBJECTIVE The purpose of the present study was to compare the effects of rTFA and iTFA on plasma LDL concentrations and other cardiovascular disease risk factors in healthy subjects . DESIGN In a double-blind , r and omized crossover controlled study , 38 healthy men were fed each of 4 experimental isoenergetic diets lasting 4 wk each . The 4 diets were high in rTFA ( 10.2 g/2500 kcal ) , moderate in rTFA ( 4.2 g/2500 kcal ) , high in iTFA ( 10.2 g/2500 kcal ) , and low in TFA from any source ( 2.2 g/2500 kcal ) ( control diet ) . RESULTS Plasma LDL-cholesterol concentrations were significantly higher after the high- rTFA diet than after the control ( P = 0.03 ) or the moderate- rTFA ( P = 0.002 ) diet . Plasma LDL-cholesterol concentrations also were significantly ( P = 0.02 ) higher after the iTFA diet than after the moderate-rTFA diet . Plasma HDL-cholesterol concentrations were significantly ( P = 0.02 ) lower after the high-rTFA diet than after the moderate-rTFA diet . Finally , all risk factors were comparable between the control and the moderate-rTFA diets . CONCLUSIONS These results suggest that , whereas a high dietary intake of TFA from ruminants may adversely affect cholesterol homeostasis , moderate intakes of rTFA that are well above the upper limit of current human consumption have neutral effects on plasma lipids and other cardiovascular disease risk factors BACKGROUND The effect of individual dietary fatty acids on emerging risk factors for cardiovascular disease that are associated with sub clinical inflammation is unknown . OBJECTIVE The goal was to evaluate the role of dietary fat and specific fatty acids , especially trans fatty acids , in altering concentrations of markers of inflammation in humans fed controlled diets . DESIGN In a r and omized crossover design , 50 men consumed controlled diets for 5 wk that provided 15 % of energy from protein , 39 % of energy from fat , and 46 % of energy from carbohydrate . Eight percent of fat or fatty acids was replaced across diets with the following : cholesterol , oleic acid , trans fatty acids ( TFAs ) , stearic acid ( STE ) , TFA+STE ( 4 % of energy each ) , and 12:0 - 16:0 saturated fatty acids ( LMP ) . RESULTS Fibrinogen concentrations were higher after consumption of the diet enriched in stearic acid than after consumption of the carbohydrate diet . C-reactive protein concentrations were higher after consumption of the TFA diet than after consumption of the carbohydrate diet , but were not significantly different after consumption of the TFA and TFA+STE diets than after consumption of the LMP diet .  Interleukin 6 concentrations were lower after consumption of the oleic acid diet than after consumption of the LMP , TFA , and STE diets .  E-selectin concentrations were higher after consumption of the TFA diet than after consumption of the carbohydrate diet . Consumption of the TFA but not the TFA+STE diet result ed in higher E-selectin concentrations than did the LMP diet . CONCLUSIONS These data provide evidence that dietary fatty acids can modulate markers of inflammation . Although stearic acid minimally affects LDL cholesterol , it does appear to increase fibrinogen concentrations BACKGROUND The consumption of monounsaturated trans fatty acids ( TFAs ) increases the risk of cardiovascular disease ( CVD ) . Putative differences between the effects of TFAs from industrially produced and natural sources on CVD risk markers were not previously investigated in healthy subjects . OBJECTIVE We aim ed to compare the effects of TFAs from industrially produced and natural sources on HDL and LDL cholesterol , lipoprotein particle size and distribution , apolipoproteins , and other lipids in healthy subjects . DESIGN In a r and omized , double-blind , controlled , crossover design , 46 healthy subjects ( 22 men and 24 women ) consumed food items containing TFAs ( 11 - 12 g/d , representing approximately 5 % of daily energy ) from the 2 sources . RESULTS Forty subjects ( 19 men and 21 women ) completed the study . Compared with TFAs from industrially produced sources , TFAs from natural sources significantly ( P = 0.012 ) increased HDL cholesterol in women but 
    Output:
    
agent
We found no relationship between  R-TFA intake levels of up to 4.19 % of daily energy intake ( EI ) and changes in cardiovascular risk factors such as TC : HDL-C and LDL-cholesterol (LDL-C):HDL-C ratios .
In addition , a multivariate regression analysis that included other dietary variables , as well as subject baseline characteristics , confirmed that doses of R-TFA did not significantly influence the changes in the lipid ratio .
Our findings showed that doses of R-TFA did not influence the changes in the ratios of plasma TC : HDL-C and LDL-C : HDL-C. These data suggest that TFA from natural sources , at least at the current levels of intake and up to 4.19 % EI , have no adverse effects on these key CVD risk markers in healthy people
***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: We have compared the effects of partially hydrogenated fish oil ( PHFO-diet ) , partially hydrogenated soybean oil ( PHSO-diet ) , and butterfat ( butter-diet ) on  serum lipids and lipoprotein[a ] in 31 young men . The three test margarines , which contributed 78 % of total fat in the diets , were produced from 70 % of butterfat , PHSO , or PHFO , each with 30 % of soybean oil . Fat provided about 35 % of energy , and trans fatty acids 0.9 % , 8.5 % , and 8.0 % of energy in the butter- , the PHSO- , and the PHFO-diet , respectively . Dietary cholesterol was balanced by the addition of dried egg powder to the PHSO- and the butter-diet ; thus all diets contained 420 mg dietary cholesterol per 10 MJ per day . The subjects consumed all three test diets for 19 - 21 days in a r and om order ( crossover design ) . The serum levels of total and LDL-cholesterol were significantly elevated on the PHFO-diet ( mean values 5.42 and 3.94 mmol/L , respectively ) compared to the PHSO-diet ( 5.11 and 3.58 mmol/L , respectively ) but not different from those on the butter-diet ( 5.32 and 3.81 mmol/L , respectively ) . LDL-cholesterol was significantly reduced on the PHSO-diet compared to the butter-diet . The level of HDL-cholesterol was significantly lower on the PHFO-diet ( 0.98 mmol/L ) when compared to the butter-diet ( 1.05 mmol/L ) and with border-line significance compared to the PHSO-diet ( 1.05 mmol/L ) . The ratio of LDL- to HDL-cholesterol was significantly higher on the PHFO-diet ( 4.20 ) when compared to both other test diets ( 3.85 and 3.65 , respectively ) . No significant differences in triglyceride values were observed . Lp[a ] increased and apoA-I decreased significantly after consumption of both the PHSO-diet and the PHFO-diet , compared to the butter-diet . In conclusion , our results indicate that consumption of PHFO may unfavorably affect lipid risk indicators for coronary heart disease at least to the same extent as butterfat . To what extent the observed effects are due to the content of monoene trans , diene trans , or to the long chain saturated fatty acids in PHFO remains to be eluci date Background / Objectives : The objective of this study was to evaluate the impact of three specific ruminant ( R ) milk fats result ing from modification of the cow 's diet on cardiovascular risk factors in healthy volunteers . R-milk fats were characterized by increased content in total trans fatty acids ( R-TFAs ) and parallel decrease in saturated fatty acids (SFAs).Subjects/ Methods : A total of 111 healthy , normolipemic men and women have been recruited for a monocentric , r and omized , double-blind and parallel intervention , 4-week controlled study . Volunteers consumed three experimental products ( butter , dessert cream and cookies ) made with one of the three specific milk fats ( 55 g fat per day ) . During the first week ( run-in period ) , the subjects consumed on a daily basis dairy products containing 72 % SFA/2.85 % R-TFA ( called ‘ L0 ’ ) . For the next 3 weeks of the study ( intervention period ) , the first group continued to consume L0 products . The second group received dairy products containing 63.3 % SFA/4.06 % R-TFA ( called ‘ L4 ’ ) , and the third group received dairy products containing 56.6 % SFA/12.16 % R-TFA ( called ‘ L9 ’ ) . Results : Plasma concentrations of high-density lipoprotein (HDL)-cholesterol were not significantly altered by either diet ( P=0.38 ) . Compared to L0 diet , L4 diet contributed to reduce low-density lipoprotein (LDL)-cholesterol ( −0.14±0.38 mmol/l , P=0.04 ) , total cholesterol ( −0.13±0.50 mmol/l , P=0.04 ) , LDL-cholesterol/HDL-cholesterol ( −0.14±0.36 , P=0.03 ) and total cholesterol/HDL-cholesterol ( −0.18±0.44 , P=0.02 ) . Conclusions : Different milk fat profiles can change cardiovascular plasma parameters in human healthy volunteers . A limited increase of the R-TFA/SFA ratio in dairy products is associated with an improvement in some cardiovascular risk factors . However , a further increase in R-TFA/SFA ratio has no additional benefit Fatty acid profile of milk fat can be modified by cow feeding strategies . Our aim was postpr and ially and after 4 wk to compare the effect of a modified milk fat ( M diet ) [ with 16 % of the cholesterolemic saturated fatty acid ( C12–16 ) replaced by mainly oleic and stearic acids ] with the effect of D diet , including a conventional Danish milk fat on plasma lipids and lipoproteins . A side effect of the cow feeding regime was a 5 % ( w/w ) increase in trans fatty acid in M diet . Eighteen subjects were fed for two periods of 4 wk strictly controlled isoenergetic test diets with 40 % of energy from total fat and the same content of dietary cholesterol in a r and omized study with cross-over design . Contrary to expectations , fasting low density lipoprotein ( LDL ) cholesterol concentration did not differ after the experimental periods . However , M diet result ed in a higher fasting total triacylglycerol concentration compared to D diet ( P=0.009 ) . Postpr and ial sample s were taken at two different occasions ( i ) at day 21 , after breakfast and lunch and ( ii ) on the last day of the study 2 , 4 , 6 , and 8 h after a fat load . Postpr and ial plasma triacylglycerol and chylomicron triacylglycerol showed higher peak values after D diet than M diet ( interaction effect , diet × times P<0.05 ) . In conclusion , M diet did not lower LDL cholesterol compared to D diet . Thus any cholesterol-lowering effect of oleic and stearic acids may have been obscured by the high content of cholesterol-raising saturated fatty acids in milk fat . A higher content of the trans fatty acids in M diet might have counteracted the cholesterol neutral/decreasing effect and increased plasma triacylglycerol BACKGROUND Dietary trans fatty acids ( FAs ) , which are formed during the process of hydrogenating vegetable oil , are known to increase plasma LDL-cholesterol concentrations . However , their effect on LDL particle size has yet to be investigated . OBJECTIVE We investigated the effect of trans FA consumption on the electrophoretic characteristics of LDL particles . DESIGN Eighteen women and 18 men each consumed 5 experimental diets in r and om order for 35-d periods . Fat represented 30 % of total energy intake in each diet , with two-thirds of the fat in the form of semiliquid margarine ( 0.6 g trans FAs/100 g fat ) , soft margarine ( 9.4 g trans FAs/100 g fat ) , shortening ( 13.6 g trans FAs/100 g fat ) , stick margarine ( 26.1 g trans FAs/100 g fat ) , or butter , which was low in trans FAs ( 2.6 g trans FAs/100 g fat ) but rich in saturated fat . LDL particle size and distribution were characterized by nondenaturing , 2 - 16 % polyacrylamide gradient gel electrophoresis . RESULTS Relative to the LDL particle size observed after consumption of the butter-enriched diet , LDL particle size decreased significantly and in a dose-dependent fashion with increasing amounts of dietary trans FAs ( P < 0.001 ) . Cholesterol concentrations in large ( > 260 A ) and medium-sized ( 255 - 260 A ) LDL particles also increased proportionately to the amount of trans FAs in the diet . CONCLUSION Consumption of dietary trans FAs is associated with a deleterious increase in small , dense LDL , which further reinforces the importance of promoting diets low in trans FAs to favorably affect the lipoprotein profile BACKGROUND The intake of trans fatty acids ( TFA ) from industrially hydrogenated vegetable oils ( iTFA ) is known to have a deleterious effect on cardiovascular health , the effects of TFA from ruminants ( rTFA ) are virtually unknown . OBJECTIVE The purpose of the present study was to compare the effects of rTFA and iTFA on plasma LDL concentrations and other cardiovascular disease risk factors in healthy subjects . DESIGN In a double-blind , r and omized crossover controlled study , 38 healthy men were fed each of 4 experimental isoenergetic diets lasting 4 wk each . The 4 diets were high in rTFA ( 10.2 g/2500 kcal ) , moderate in rTFA ( 4.2 g/2500 kcal ) , high in iTFA ( 10.2 g/2500 kcal ) , and low in TFA from any source ( 2.2 g/2500 kcal ) ( control diet ) . RESULTS Plasma LDL-cholesterol concentrations were significantly higher after the high- rTFA diet than after the control ( P = 0.03 ) or the moderate- rTFA ( P = 0.002 ) diet . Plasma LDL-cholesterol concentrations also were significantly ( P = 0.02 ) higher after the iTFA diet than after the moderate-rTFA diet . Plasma HDL-cholesterol concentrations were significantly ( P = 0.02 ) lower after the high-rTFA diet than after the moderate-rTFA diet . Finally , all risk factors were comparable between the control and the moderate-rTFA diets . CONCLUSIONS These results suggest that , whereas a high dietary intake of TFA from ruminants may adversely affect cholesterol homeostasis , moderate intakes of rTFA that are well above the upper limit of current human consumption have neutral effects on plasma lipids and other cardiovascular disease risk factors BACKGROUND The effect of individual dietary fatty acids on emerging risk factors for cardiovascular disease that are associated with sub clinical inflammation is unknown . OBJECTIVE The goal was to evaluate the role of dietary fat and specific fatty acids , especially trans fatty acids , in altering concentrations of markers of inflammation in humans fed controlled diets . DESIGN In a r and omized crossover design , 50 men consumed controlled diets for 5 wk that provided 15 % of energy from protein , 39 % of energy from fat , and 46 % of energy from carbohydrate . Eight percent of fat or fatty acids was replaced across diets with the following : cholesterol , oleic acid , trans fatty acids ( TFAs ) , stearic acid ( STE ) , TFA+STE ( 4 % of energy each ) , and 12:0 - 16:0 saturated fatty acids ( LMP ) . RESULTS Fibrinogen concentrations were higher after consumption of the diet enriched in stearic acid than after consumption of the carbohydrate diet . C-reactive protein concentrations were higher after consumption of the TFA diet than after consumption of the carbohydrate diet , but were not significantly different after consumption of the TFA and TFA+STE diets than after consumption of the LMP diet .  Interleukin 6 concentrations were lower after consumption of the oleic acid diet than after consumption of the LMP , TFA , and STE diets .  E-selectin concentrations were higher after consumption of the TFA diet than after consumption of the carbohydrate diet . Consumption of the TFA but not the TFA+STE diet result ed in higher E-selectin concentrations than did the LMP diet . CONCLUSIONS These data provide evidence that dietary fatty acids can modulate markers of inflammation . Although stearic acid minimally affects LDL cholesterol , it does appear to increase fibrinogen concentrations BACKGROUND The consumption of monounsaturated trans fatty acids ( TFAs ) increases the risk of cardiovascular disease ( CVD ) . Putative differences between the effects of TFAs from industrially produced and natural sources on CVD risk markers were not previously investigated in healthy subjects . OBJECTIVE We aim ed to compare the effects of TFAs from industrially produced and natural sources on HDL and LDL cholesterol , lipoprotein particle size and distribution , apolipoproteins , and other lipids in healthy subjects . DESIGN In a r and omized , double-blind , controlled , crossover design , 46 healthy subjects ( 22 men and 24 women ) consumed food items containing TFAs ( 11 - 12 g/d , representing approximately 5 % of daily energy ) from the 2 sources . RESULTS Forty subjects ( 19 men and 21 women ) completed the study . Compared with TFAs from industrially produced sources , TFAs from natural sources significantly ( P = 0.012 ) increased HDL cholesterol in women but 
    Output:
    