***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: BACKGROUND Recent research on schizophrenia indicates that cognitive deficits in this illness are important predictors of functional outcome , highlighting the need for treatments that have a positive impact on cognitive function . Here we explore the hypothesis that acute administration of d-amphetamine can improve cognitive function in individuals with schizophrenia who are well-treated with typical antipsychotics , as well as in healthy controls performing under dual task conditions design ed to elicit performance deficits analogous to those found in schizophrenia . METHODS Ten individuals with schizophrenia taking haldol or prolixin and 22 healthy controls performed spatial working memory , language production , and Stroop tasks under both placebo and 0.25 mg/kg of D-amphetamine . RESULTS D-Amphetamine improved reactions times on the spatial working memory and Stroop tasks for both individuals with schizophrenia and controls , and improved working memory accuracy in schizophrenia . In addition , D-amphetamine improved language production for both individuals with schizophrenia and controls . CONCLUSIONS These results provide support for the hypothesis that the adjunctive administration of dopamine agonist can improve cognitive in individuals with schizophrenia taking typical antipsychotics . The results are discussed in terms of their implication s for underst and ing the nature of working memory deficits in schizophrenia , and potential future avenues for cognitive enhancement in this illness OBJECTIVE Despite a prevailing assumption that adult ADHD is a childhood-onset neurodevelopmental disorder , no prospect i ve longitudinal study has described the childhoods of the adult ADHD population . The authors report follow-back analyses of ADHD cases diagnosed in adulthood , alongside follow-forward analyses of ADHD cases diagnosed in childhood , in one cohort . METHOD Participants belonged to a representative birth cohort of 1,037 individuals born in Dunedin , New Zeal and , in 1972 and 1973 and followed to age 38 , with 95 % retention . Symptoms of ADHD , associated clinical features , comorbid disorders , neuropsychological deficits , genome-wide association study -derived polygenic risk , and life impairment indicators were assessed . Data sources were participants , parents , teachers , informants , neuropsychological test results , and administrative records . Adult ADHD diagnoses used DSM-5 criteria , apart from onset age and cross- setting corroboration , which were study outcome measures . RESULTS As expected , childhood ADHD had a prevalence of 6 % ( predominantly male ) and was associated with childhood comorbid disorders , neurocognitive deficits , polygenic risk , and residual adult life impairment . Also as expected , adult ADHD had a prevalence of 3 % ( gender balanced ) and was associated with adult substance dependence , adult life impairment , and treatment contact . Unexpectedly , the childhood ADHD and adult ADHD groups comprised virtually nonoverlapping sets ; 90 % of adult ADHD cases lacked a history of childhood ADHD . Also unexpectedly , the adult ADHD group did not show tested neuropsychological deficits in childhood or adulthood , nor did they show polygenic risk for childhood ADHD . CONCLUSIONS The findings raise the possibility that adults presenting with the ADHD symptom picture may not have a childhood-onset neurodevelopmental disorder . If this finding is replicated , then the disorder 's place in the classification system must be reconsidered , and research must investigate the etiology of adult ADHD IMPORTANCE Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) is now recognized to occur in adulthood and is associated with a range of negative outcomes . However , less is known about the prospect i ve course of ADHD into adulthood , the risk factors for its persistence , and the possibility of its emergence in young adulthood in non clinical population s. OBJECTIVE To investigate childhood risk factors and young adult functioning of individuals with persistent , remitted , and late-onset young adult ADHD . DESIGN , SETTING , AND PARTICIPANTS The study sample was the Environmental Risk ( E-Risk ) Longitudinal Twin Study , a nationally representative birth cohort of 2232 twins born in Engl and and Wales from January 1 , 1994 , to December 4 , 1995 . Evaluation of childhood ADHD ( ages 5 , 7 , 10 , and 12 years ) included prenatal and perinatal factors , clinical characteristics , and aspects of the family environment .  Among participants aged 18 years , ADHD symptoms and associated impairment , overall functioning , and other mental health disorders were examined . Data analysis was conducted from February 19 to September 10 , 2015 . MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder according to DSM-IV diagnostic criteria in childhood and DSM-5 diagnostic criteria in young adulthood . RESULTS Of 2232 participants in the E-Risk Study , 2040 were included in the present analysis . In total , 247 individuals met diagnostic criteria for childhood ADHD ; of these , 54 ( 21.9 % ) also met diagnostic criteria for the disorder at age 18 years . Persistence was associated with more symptoms ( odds ratio [ OR ] , 1.11 [ 95 % CI , 1.04 - 1.19 ] ) and lower IQ ( OR , 0.98 [ 95 % CI , 0.95 - 1.00 ] ) . At age 18 years , individuals with persistent ADHD had more functional impairment ( school/work : OR , 3.30 [ 95 % CI , 2.18 - 5.00 ] , home/with friends : OR , 6.26 [ 95 % CI , 3.07 - 12.76 ] ) , generalized anxiety disorder ( OR , 5.19 [ 95 % CI , 2.01 - 13.38 ] ) , conduct disorder ( OR , 2.03 [ 95 % CI , 1.03 - 3.99 ] ) , and marijuana dependence ( OR , 2.88 [ 95 % CI , 1.07 - 7.71 ] ) compared with those whose ADHD remitted . Among 166 individuals with adult ADHD , 112 ( 67.5 % ) did not meet criteria for ADHD at any assessment in childhood . Results from logistic regressions indicated that individuals with late-onset ADHD showed fewer externalizing problems ( OR , 0.93 [ 95 % CI , 0.91 - 0.96 ] ) and higher IQ ( OR , 1.04 [ 95 % CI , 1.02 - 1.07 ] ) in childhood compared with the persistent group . However , at age 18 years , those with late-onset ADHD demonstrated comparable ADHD symptoms and impairment as well as similarly elevated rates of mental health disorders . CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE We identified heterogeneity in the DSM-5 young adult ADHD population such that this group consisted of a large , late-onset ADHD group with no childhood diagnosis , and a smaller group with persistent ADHD . The extent to which childhood-onset and late-onset adult ADHD may reflect different causes has implication s for genetic studies and treatment of ADHD PURPOSE To estimate the risk of schizophrenia in adulthood among children and adolescents with ADHD compared to the background population . SUBJECTS/ MATERIAL S AND METHODS Two hundred and eight youths with ADHD ( 183 boys ; 25 girls ) were followed prospect ively . Diagnoses of schizophrenia were obtained from The Danish Psychiatric Central Register . The relative risk ( RR ) of schizophrenia for cases with ADHD , compared to the normal population , was calculated as risk ratios . Hazard ratios ( HR 's ) by Cox regression were calculated in the predictor analyses . RESULTS Mean age for ADHD cases at follow-up was 31.1years . Schizophrenia diagnoses were given to 3.8 % of these cases . Compared to the general population , RR of schizophrenia in cases with ADHD was 4.3 ( 95 % CI 1.9 - 8.57 ) . DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION This prospect i ve follow-up study found children with ADHD to be at higher risk of later schizophrenia than controls . If replicated , these results warrant increased focus on the possible emergence symptoms of schizophrenia or schizophreniform psychosis during clinical follow-up of patients with ADHD The goal of this study was to investigate the characteristics of schizophrenic patients with a history of childhood attention deficit hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) . The study was performed on 37 adolescent patients meeting the DSM-III-R criteria for schizophrenia and ADHD and 40 controls with schizophrenia only . Schizophrenic patients who were diagnosed in childhood as suffering from ADHD had more prominent developmental disturbances in infancy , more insidious course of schizophrenia , failed to respond to neuroleptics and had poorer outcome as compared to patients with schizophrenia only . The results of this study indicate that schizophrenia subsequent to childhood ADHD has a poor prognosis as compared to schizophrenia only 
    Output:
    
Conclusions We demonstrate a greater presence of ADHD symptomatology in SCZ compared to that reported for ADHD in the general population .