***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
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    Input: BACKGROUND Childhood risk factors for the development of adult schizophrenia have proved to have only modest and nonspecific effects , and most seem unrelated to the adult phenotype . We report the first direct examination of the longitudinal relationship between psychotic symptoms in childhood and adulthood . METHODS We analyzed prospect i ve data from a birth cohort ( N = 761 ) , in which children were asked about delusional beliefs and hallucinatory experiences at age 11 years , and then followed up to age 26 years .  Structured diagnostic interviews were employed at both ages and self-report of schizophreniform symptoms was augmented by other data sources at age 26 years . RESULTS Self-reported psychotic symptoms at age 11 years predicted a very high risk of a schizophreniform diagnosis at age 26 years ( odds ratio , 16.4 ; 95 % confidence interval , 3.9 - 67.8 ) . In terms of attributable risk , 42 % of the age-26 schizophreniform cases in the cohort had reported 1 or more psychotic symptoms at age 11 years . Age-11 psychotic symptoms did not predict mania or depression at age 26 years , suggesting specificity of prediction to schizophreniform disorder . The link between child and adult psychotic symptoms was not simply the result of general childhood psychopathology . CONCLUSION These findings provide the first evidence for continuity of psychotic symptoms from childhood to adulthood BACKGROUND In the UK and The Netherl and s , people with high rates of psychosis are chronically exposed to discrimination . AIMS To test whether perceived discrimination is associated longitudinally with onset of psychosis . METHOD A 3-year prospect i ve study of cohorts with no history of psychosis and differential rates of reported discrimination on the basis of age , gender , disability , appearance , skin colour or ethnicity and sexual orientation was conducted in the Dutch general population ( n=4076 ) . The main outcome was onset of psychotic symptoms ( delusions and hallucinations ) . RESULTS The rate of delusional ideation was 0.5 % ( n=19 ) in those who did not report discrimination , 0.9 % ( n=4 ) in those who reported discrimination in one domain , and 2.7 % ( n=3 ) in those who reported discrimination in more than one domain ( exact P=0.027 ) . This association remained after adjustment for possible confounders . No association was found between baseline discrimination and onset of hallucinatory experiences . CONCLUSIONS Perceived discrimination may induce delusional ideation and thus contribute to the high observed rates of psychotic disorder in exposed minority population OBJECTIVES Previous research into schizotypy has shown that certain groups of people have similar experiences to the positive symptoms of schizophrenia but remain functioning members of society , such as those with profound religious experiences ( Jackson & Fulford , 1997 ) . METHOD The focus of the present study was to explore the incidence of delusional ideation in New Religious Movements ( NRMs ) . Hare Krishnas and Druids were compared to two control groups ( non-religious and Christian ) , and to deluded , psychotic in- patients on two delusions measures . RESULTS As predicted , individuals from the NRMs scored significantly higher than the control groups on all the delusional measures apart from levels of distress . They did not show as much florid symptomatology as the psychotic patients , but could not be differentiated from the deluded group on the number of delusional items endorsed on the Peters et al. Delusions Inventory ( PDI ; Peters , Day & Garety , 1996 ) , or on levels of conviction . However , they were significantly less distressed and preoccupied by their experiences . No differences were found between the two control groups on any of the delusional measures , suggesting that religious beliefs per se do not account for the NRMs members ' scores . DISCUSSION These findings provide further support for , first , the notion of a continuum between normality and psychosis and , second , for the necessity to consider the multidimensionality of delusional beliefs In traditional Western psychiatric theory , seeing or hearing things that other people do not think are there could be termed a hallucination which is often considered indicative of underlying psychopathology . The psychiatric interpretation of pathological meanings of these experiences for an individual can be contrasted with an anthropologic approach which considers whether there are underlying cultural influences to account for certain distributions of reported hallucinations and their content and to ask about the social and spiritual , as well as psychologic , meanings of such experiences . This paper presents data on reported hallucinations in a r and om sample of the general population of a county in north central Florida . When the results of the questions on hallucinations were compared in relation to sociodemographic variables , it was found that hallucinations were more commonly reported by the young , by blacks , by members of the lower socioeconomic quintiles and by those belonging to certain church types . These data will be discussed from the complementing and contrasting psychiatric and anthropologic viewpoints College undergraduates ( n = 34 ) identified by deviant scores ( at least 1.96 SD above the mean ) on the Revised Social Anhedonia ( SocAnh )  Scale ( M. Eckblad , L. J. Chapman , J. P. Chapman , & M. Mishlove , 1982 ) were compared with  control participants ( n = 139 ) at an initial assessment and at a 10-year follow-up evaluation . Twenty-four percent of the  SocAnh  group were diagnosed with schizophrenia-spectrum disorders at the follow-up compared with only 1 % of the control group , despite the fact that there had been no such difference between the groups at the initial assessment 10 years earlier . The SocAnh group exceeded the control group on severity of psychotic-like experiences and had poorer overall adjustment at the follow-up but not at the initial assessment . The groups did not differ on mood symptoms or substance-use disorders . Thus , the  SocAnh Scale , unlike the Perceptual Aberration and Magical Ideation Scales , appears to identify individuals at specific risk for future development of schizophrenia-spectrum disorders OBJECTIVE Reports of increased rates of psychosis in prisons could be due to sampling and ascertainment differences . The authors compared two sample s of subjects 16 - 64 years of age : those from the general population of residents in Great Britain and prisoners in Engl and and Wales . METHOD A r and om sample of rem and ed and sentenced male and female prisoners ( N=3,142 ) and a two-phase , cross-sectional r and om sample of household residents ( N=10,108 ) were assessed with structured question naires and the semistructured Schedules for Clinical Assessment in Neuropsychiatry . RESULTS The weighted prevalence of probable functional psychosis in the past year was 4.5 per thous and ( 95 % CI=3.1 to 5.8 ) in the household survey . In the prison survey , the weighted prevalence was over 10 times greater : 52 per thous and ( 95 % CI=45 to 60 ) . One in four prisoners with a psychotic disorder had psychotic symptoms attributed to toxic or withdrawal effects of psychoactive substances . The proportion of subjects with specific types of hallucinations or delusions did not differ between prison and household psychosis cases . CONCLUSIONS This large study using st and ardized comparisons showed that the prevalence of psychosis in prisons is substantially higher than in the community and is deserving of greater attention to treatment and prevention . Apart from a minority of prisoners with symptoms attributable to psychoactive substances , the clinical symptom profile of psychosis is the same in both setting s. Longitudinal research is needed to better underst and these prevalence differences The  Dissociative Experiences Scale  was administered to a r and om sample of 1,055 adults in the city of Winnipeg . Results showed that scale scores did not differ between men and women and were not influenced by income , employment status , education , place of birth , religious affiliation , or number of persons in the respondent 's household . Dissociative experiences are common in the general population and decline with age . The findings suggest that dissociative disorders may also be common in the general population Prospect i ve longitudinal investigations are needed to identify causal processes leading to schizophrenia . However , there is presently no cost-effective way to identify children who are at risk of developing schizophrenia spectrum disorders : Although having a family history of schizophrenia is associated with elevated risk for developing spectrum disorders , the majority of individuals with schizophrenia do not have an afflicted relative . The present study aim ed to test the feasibility of screening a community sample of children , aged 9 to 12 years , to identify children who experienced a triad of putative antecedents of schizophrenia that had been identified from previous research , including : ( 1 ) speech and /or motor development lags or problems ; ( 2 ) social , emotional , or behavioural problems ; and ( 3 ) psychotic-like-experiences ( PLEs ) . 548 children and 264 caregivers completed question naires . 9.2 % of boys and 4.1 % of girls displayed the triad of antecedents . 58.9 % of the children reported " certain experience " of one or more PLEs . The results suggest that question naire screening of community sample s of children for the putative antecedents of schizophrenia spectrum disorders is feasible . Accuracy of identification will only be established by follow-up studies This article presents a prospect i ve analysis of an antecedent psychopathologic features and sociodemographic risk factors in schizophrenia with data from five community sites in the National Institute of Mental Health Epidemiologic Catchment Area Program . Three nonoverlapping psychotic cases were defined using DSM-III definitions as implemented by the Diagnostic Interview Schedule ( DIS ) : ( 1 ) DSM-III Schizophrenia Criterion A ; ( 2 ) Criterion A and Affective Episode ; and ( 3 ) full Schizophrenia . In a 1-year follow-up period , the cumulative incidence rate of Criterion A was 0.79 per 100 , for Criterion A with Affective Episode it was 0.17 per 100 , and for Schizophrenia the rate was 0.20 per 100 . In multivariable logistic regression modeling , the patterns of associations between sociodemographic factors and DIS/DSM-III Schizophrenia resembled patterns in clinical ly based registry data . Male subjects had an earlier peak onset than female subjects , and marital status and employment were strongly related to odds of developing DIS/DSM-III Schizophrenia . An interaction between gender and never marrying showed never-married men at 50 times higher odds of developing DIS/DSM-III Schizophrenia , never-married women at 14 times higher odds , and married women at 2.5 times higher odds , relative to married men . Adjusting for sociodemographic factors , DIS/DSM-III Obsessive Compulsive Disorder and Social Phobia were both associated with more than 3.5 times increased odds of developing DIS/DSM-III Schizophrenia . Several other psychopathology items , including panic attacks , were associated with increased odds of developing DIS/DSM-III Schizophrenia . There were both similarities and differences in risk factor structure between DIS/DSM-III Schizophrenia and the other two defined categories of case BACKGROUND Urban and rural population s have different rates of psychotic illness . If psychosis exists as a continuous phenotype in nature , urban-rural population differences in the rate of psychotic disorder should be accompanied by similar differences in the rate of abnormal mental states characterized by psychotic or psychosislike symptoms . METHODS A r and om sample of 7076 individuals aged 18 to 64 years were interviewed by trained lay interviewers with the Composite International Diagnostic Interview . Approximately half of those with evidence of psychosis according to the Composite International Diagnostic Interview were additionally interviewed by clinicians . We investigated associations between a 5-level urbanicity rating and ( 1 ) any DSM-III-R diagnosis of psychotic disorder ( sample prevalence , 1.5 % ) , ( 2 ) any rating of hallucinations and /or delusions ( sample prevalence , 4.2 % ) , and ( 3 ) any rating of psychotic or psychosislike symptoms ( sample prevalence , 17.5 % ) . RESULTS Level of urbanicity was associated not only with DSM-III-R psychotic disorder ( adjusted odds ratio [ OR ] over 5 levels , 1.47 ; 95 % confidence interval [ CI ] , 1.25 - 1.72 ) , but also , independently , with any rating of delusion and /or hallucination ( adjusted OR , 1.28 ; 95 % CI , 1.17 - 1.40 ; clinician-assessed psychotic symptoms only : OR , 1.30 ; 95 % CI , 1.03 - 1.64 ) and any rating of psychosislike symptom ( adjusted OR , 1.18 ; 95 % CI , 1.13 - 1.24 ) . Psychotic symptoms were strongly and independently associated with psychotic disorder , regardless of the level of urbanization . CONCLUSIONS Community level of psychotic and psychosislike symptoms may be inextricably linked to the prevalence of psychotic disorder . The prevalence of abnormal mental states that facilitate development to overt psychotic illness increases progressively with level of urbanization Abstract . Aims : The cross-sectional association between tobacco use and  psychotic features  has been well established . If psychotic features precede tobacco use , then tobacco may be used to self-medicate psychotic symptoms . The aim was to assess if psychotic features in adolescents constitute a risk factor for later tobacco use . Design : A r and om target sample of 2,600 children aged 4–16 years from the Dutch general population was followed up across a 14-year interval 
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There is evidence , however , that transitory developmental expression of psychosis ( psychosis proneness ) may become abnormally persistent ( persistence ) and subsequently clinical ly relevant ( impairment ) , depending on the degree of environmental risk the person is additionally exposed to .
The psychosis proneness-persistence-impairment model considers genetic background factors impacting on a broadly distributed and transitory population expression of psychosis during development , poor prognosis of which , in terms of persistence and clinical need , is predicted by environmental exposure interacting with genetic risk