***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: Differences in the kinematics and pattern of relative regional cerebral blood flow ( rCBF ) during goal -directed arm aim ing were investigated with the use of a Fitts continuous aim ing paradigm with three difficulty conditions ( index of difficulty , ID ) and two aim ing types ( transport vs. targeting ) in six healthy right-h and ed young participants with the use of video-based movement trajectory analysis and positron emission tomography .  Movement time and kinematic characteristics were analyzed together with the magnitude of cerebral blood flow to identify areas of brain activity proportionate to task and movement variables . Significant differences in rCBF between task conditions were determined by analysis of variance with planned comparisons of means with the use of group mean weighted linear contrasts . Data were first analyzed for the group . Then individual subject differences for the movement versus no movement and task difficulty comparisons were related to each individual subjects ' anatomy by magnetic resonance imaging . Significant differences in rCBF during reciprocal aim ing compared with no-movement conditions were found in a mosaic of well-known cortical and subcortical areas associated with the planning and execution of goal -directed movements . These included cortical areas in the left sensorimotor , dorsal premotor , and ventral premotor cortices , caudal supplementary motor area ( SMA ) proper , and parietal cortex , and subcortical areas in the left putamen , globus pallidus , red nucleus , thalamus , and anterior cerebellum . As aim ing task difficulty ( ID ) increased , rCBF increased in areas associated with the planning of more complex movements requiring greater visuomotor processing . These included bilateral occipital , left inferior parietal , and left dorsal cingulate cortices -- caudal SMA proper and right dorsal premotor area . These same areas showed significant increases or decreases , respectively , when contrast means were compared with the use of movement time or relative acceleration time , respectively , as the weighting factor . Analysis of individual subject differences revealed a correspondence between the spatial extent of rCBF changes as a function of task ID and the individuals ' movement times . As task ID decreased , significant increases in rCBF were evident in the right anterior cerebellum , left middle occipital gyrus , and right ventral premotor area . Functionally , these areas are associated with aim ing conditions in which the motor execution dem and s are high ( i.e. , coordination of rapid reversals ) and precise trajectory planning is minimal . These same areas showed significant increases or decreases , respectively , when contrast means were compared with the use of movement time or relative acceleration time , respectively , as the weighting factor . A functional dissociation result ed from the weighted linear contrasts between larger ( limb transport ) or smaller ( endpoint targeting ) type amplitude/target width aim ing conditions . Areas with significantly greater rCBF for targeting were the left motor cortex , left intraparietal sulcus , and left cau date . In contrast , those areas with greater rCBF associated with limb transport included bilateral occipital lingual gyri and the right anterior cerebellum . Various theoretical explanations for the speed/accuracy tradeoffs of rapid aim ing movements have been proposed since the original information theory hypothesis of Fitts . This is the first report to relate the predictable variations in motor control under changing task constraints with the functional anatomy of these rapid goal -directed aim ing movements . Differences in unimanual aim ing task difficulty lead to dissociable activation of cortical-subcortical networks . Further , these data suggest that when more precise targeting is required , independent of task difficulty , a cortical-subcortical loop composed of the contralateral motor cortex , intraparietal sulcus , and cau date is activated . This is consistent with the role of motor Purpose : To evaluate the temporal effects of acute exercise on episodic memory . Design : A quasi-experimental study . Sample : Eighty-eight college students ( N = 22 per group ) . Measures : Four experimental groups were evaluated , including a control group , exercising prior to memory encoding , exercising during encoding , and exercising during memory consolidation . The exercise stimulus consisted of a 15-minute moderate-intensity walk on a treadmill . Participants completed the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test ( RAVLT ) to assess learning and memory . Prospect i ve memory was assessed via a Red Pen Task . Long-term memory ( recognition and attribution ) of the RAVLT was assessed 20 minutes and 24 hours after exercise . Analysis : Repeated- measures analysis of variance ( ANOVA ) assessed the performance of RAVLT scores of trials 1 to 5 across groups . One-way ANOVA assessed the performance of individual trials across groups , whereas χ2 assessed the performance of the Red Pen Task across groups . Results : Regarding learning , the interaction of groups × trial was marginally statistically significant ( F 12,332 = 1.773 , P = .05 ) , indicating that the group which exercised before encoding did better than the group that exercised during encoding and consolidation . For both 24-hour recognition and attribution performance , the group that exercised before memory encoding performed significantly better than the group that exercised during consolidation ( P = .05 recognition , P = .006 attribution ) . Discussion : Engaging in a 15-minute bout of moderate-intensity walking before a learning task was effective in influencing long-term episodic memory The effects of acute aerobic exercise on cognitive functions in humans have been the subject of much investigation ; however , these studies are limited by several factors , including a lack of r and omized controlled design s , focus on only a single cognitive function , and testing during or shortly after exercise . Using a r and omized controlled design , the present study asked how a single bout of aerobic exercise affects a range of frontal- and medial temporal lobe-dependent cognitive functions and how long these effects last . We r and omly assigned 85 subjects to either a vigorous intensity acute aerobic exercise group or a video watching control group .  All subjects completed a battery of cognitive tasks both before and 30 , 60 , 90 , or 120 min after the intervention . This battery included the  Hopkins Verbal Learning Test-Revised , the Modified Benton Visual Retention Test , the Stroop Color and Word Test , the Symbol Digit Modalities Test , the Digit Span Test , the Trail Making Test , and the Controlled Oral Word Association Test . Based on these measures , composite scores were formed to independently assess prefrontal cortex- and hippocampal-dependent cognition . A three-way mixed Analysis of Variance was used to determine whether differences existed between groups in the change in cognitive function from pre- to post-intervention testing . Acute exercise improved prefrontal cortex- but not hippocampal-dependent functioning , with no differences found between delay groups . Vigorous acute aerobic exercise has beneficial effects on prefrontal cortex-dependent cognition and these effects can last for up to 2 hr after exercise HIGHLIGHTSAcute exercise following fear conditioning in animals leads to great fear learning . There is no evidence pertaining to the impact of acute exercise on intrusive emotional memories . Acute exercise following encoding of traumatic images led to greater intrusive memories . Findings reinforce animal models of exercise‐induced fear conditioning . ABSTRACT Brief physical exercise enhances memories for neutral events , and recently has been shown to modulate fear learning in animals . To date there is no evidence pertaining to the impact of exercise on emotional memories in humans . Accordingly , this study investigated the role of brief exercise in the development of emotional intrusive memories . Forty‐nine university students ( 18–29 year olds ) viewed a car accident film depicting accident and injury , and were then r and omly assigned to engage in either 10 min of intense exercise or easy walking . Two days following the experiment participants were assessed for both intrusive memories of the film and intentional recall of film details . Results indicated that participants in the exercise relative to the walking condition reported more intrusive memories , but not voluntarily recalled memories , of the car accident film two days later . These findings are consistent with recent evidence of exercise‐induced  emotional learning in animals , and point to the potential for physical activity to contribute to the development of intrusions in the context of encoding emotionally‐laden information Persistent long-term memory depends on successful stabilization and integration of new memories after initial encoding [ 1 , 2 ] . This consolidation process is thought to require neuromodulatory factors such as dopamine , noradrenaline , and brain-derived neurotrophic factor [ 3 - 7 ] . Without the release of such factors around the time of encoding , memories will decay rapidly [ 3 , 5 , 6 , 8 ] . Recent studies have shown that physical exercise acutely stimulates the release of several consolidation-promoting factors in humans [ 9 - 14 ] , raising the question of whether physical exercise can be used to improve memory retention [ 15 - 17 ] . Here , we used a single session of physical exercise after learning to exogenously boost memory consolidation and thus long-term memory .  Three groups of r and omly assigned participants first encoded a set of picture-location associations . Afterward , one group performed exercise immediately , one 4 hr later , and the third did not perform any exercise . Participants otherwise underwent exactly the same procedures to control for potential experimental confounds . Forty-eight hours later , participants returned for a cued-recall test in a magnetic resonance scanner . With this design , we could investigate the impact of acute exercise on memory consolidation and retrieval-related neural processing . We found that performing exercise 4 hr , but not immediately , after encoding improved the retention of picture-location associations compared to the no-exercise control group . Moreover , performing exercise after a delay was associated with increased hippocampal pattern similarity for correct responses during delayed retrieval . Our results suggest that appropriately timed physical exercise can improve long-term memory and highlight the potential of exercise as an intervention in educational and clinical setting Objective : To systematic ally summarize the experimental effects of exercise on cognitive-related memory function among young to middle-aged adults , which has yet to be done in the literature . Data Source : PubMed . Study Inclusion and Exclusion Criteria : Studies were included if they were published in the English language , indexed in PubMed , employed an experimental study design ( eg , traditional parallel group r and omized controlled trial : either acute intervention or chronic/training intervention study ) , and conducted among human adults . Studies were excluded if nonhumans ( ie , animal models ) were studied , if children/adolescents ( < 18 years ) or older adults ( > 50 years ) were evaluated , and if select chronic diseases ( eg , diabetes and dementia ) were present . Data Extraction : A systematic review approach was employed . Data Synthesis : An extraction table was created synthesizing the key results , and recommendations for future research are emphasized . Results : Among the 17 evaluated studies , 2 were published before the year 2000 ( ie , 1998 and 1999 ) , 2 were published in 2007 , and the remaining 13 were published in the years 2011 and beyond . This highlights the emergence of this research topic within this age-group ( young to middle-aged adults ) . Among the 17 evaluated studies , 14 were conducted among healthy sample s , with 3 conducted among those with a diagnosis of depression . Among the 17 studies , 4 employed a chronic training protocol , with 13 utilizing an acute exercise protocol . Among the 3 experimental studies in the depressed population , all demonstrated a favorable effect of exercise on memory function . Among the 14 trials in the nondepressed population , 10 ( 71 % ) demonstrated a favorable effect of exercise on some aspect of memory function . Conclusion : Acute and chronic exercise appears to play a pronounced effect on memory function  among young to middle-aged adults . Implication s and recommendations for future research are outlined in this systematic review The broader purpose of this study was to examine the temporal effects of high-intensity exercise on learning , short-term and long-term retrospective memory and prospect i ve memory . Among a sample of 88 young adult participants , 22 were r and omized into one of four different groups : exercise before learning , control group , exercise during learning , and exercise after learning . The retrospective assessment s ( learning , short-term and long-term memory ) were assessed using the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test . Long-term memory including a 20-min and 24-hr follow-up assessment . Prospect i ve memory was assessed using a time-based procedure by having participants contact ( via phone ) the research ers at a follow-up time period . The exercise stimulus included a 15-min bout of progressive maximal exertion treadmill exercise . High-intensity exercise prior to memory encoding ( vs. exercise during memory encoding or consolidation ) was effective in enhancing long-term memory ( for both 20-min and 24-h follow-up assessment s ) . We did not observe a differential temporal effect of high-intensity exercise on short-term memory ( immediate post-memory encoding ) , learning or prospect i ve memory . The timing of high-intensity exercise may play an important role in facilitating long-term memory The hippocampus shrinks in late adulthood , leading to impaired memory and increased risk for dementia . Hippocampal and medial temporal lobe volumes are larger in higher-fit adults , and physical activity training increases hippocampal perfusion , but the extent to which aerobic exercise training can modify hippocampal volume in late adulthood remains unknown . Here we show , in a r and omized controlled trial with 120 older adults , that aerobic exercise training increases the size of the anterior hippocampus , leading to improvements in spatial memory .  Exercise training increased hippocampal volume by 2 % , effectively reversing age-related loss in volume by 1 to 2 y. We also demonstrate that increased hippocampal volume is associated with greater serum levels of BDNF , a mediator of neurogenesis in the dentate gyrus . Hippocampal volume declined in the control group , but higher preintervention fitness partially attenuated the decline , suggesting that fitness protects against volume loss . Cau date nucleus and thalamus volumes were unaffected by the intervention . These theoretically important findings indicate that aerobic exercise training is effective at reversing hippocampal volume loss in late adulthood , which is accompanied by improved memory function Abstract Although anecdotal reports suggest that information processing and decision making is impaired immediately following prolonged periods of physical activity , results obtained from laboratory studies of exercise-indu 
    Output:
    
Various study design s and participant characteristics moderated the temporal effects of acute exercise on episodic memory function .
For example , vigorous-intensity acute exercise , and acute exercise among young adults , had greater effects when the acute bout of exercise  occurred before memory encoding or during the early memory consolidation period .
Conclusions : The timing of acute exercise plays an important role in the exercise-memory interaction .
Various exercise- and participant-related characteristics moderate this temporal relationship