***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
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    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
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    Input: The relationship between risk of prostate cancer  and dietary intake of energy , fat , vitamin A , and other nutrients was investigated in a case-control study conducted in Ontario , Canada . Cases were men with a recent , histologically confirmed diagnosis of adenocarcinoma of the prostate notified to the Ontario Cancer Registry between April 1990 and April 1992 . Controls were selected r and omly from assessment lists maintained by the Ontario Ministry of Revenue , and were frequency-matched to the cases on age . The study included 207 cases ( 51.4 percent of those eligible ) and 207 controls ( 39.4 percent of those eligible ) , and information on  dietary intake  was collected from them by means of a quantitative diet history . There was a positive association between energy intake and risk of prostate cancer , such that men at the uppermost quartile level of energy intake had a 75 percent increase in risk . In contrast , there was no clear association between the non-energy effects of total fat and monounsaturated fat intake and prostate cancer risk . There was some evidence for an inverse association with saturated fat intake , although the dose-response pattern was irregular . There was a weak ( statistically nonsignificant ) positive association between polyunsaturated fat intake and risk of prostate cancer . Relatively high levels of retinol intake were associated with reduced risk , but there was essentially no association between dietary β-carotene intake and risk . There was no alteration in risk in association with dietary fiber , cholesterol , and vitamins C and E. Although these patterns were evident both overall and within age-strata , and persisted after adjustment for a number of potential confounding factors , they could reflect ( in particular ) the effect of nonrespondent bias The association between plasma carotenoids and prostate cancer  risk was investigated in a case-control study nested within the prospect i ve Health Professionals Follow-up Study . We matched 450 incident prostate cancer cases diagnosed from 1993–1998 to 450 controls by age , time , month , and year of blood donation . Modest inverse , but not statistically significant , associations were observed among plasma α-carotene , β-carotene , and lycopene concentrations , and overall risk of prostate cancer diagnosis { odds ratio ( highest versus lowest quintile ; OR ) , α-carotene : OR , 0.67 [ 95 % confidence interval ( CI ) , −0.40–1.09 ] ; β-carotene : OR , 0.78 ( 95 % CI , 0.48–1.25 ) ; lycopene : OR , 0.66 ( 95 % CI , 0.38–1.13)}. The inverse association between plasma lycopene concentrations and prostate cancer risk was limited to participants who were 65 years or older ( OR , 0.47 ; 95 % CI , 0.23–0.98 ) and without a family history of prostate cancer ( OR , 0.48 ; 95 % CI , 0.26–0.89 ) . Combining , older age and a negative family history provided similar results ( OR , 0.43 ; 95 % CI , 0.18–1.02 ) . Inverse associations between β-carotene and prostate cancer risk were also found among younger participants ( < 65 years of age ; OR , 0.36 ; 95 % CI , 0.14–0.91 ; Ptrend = 0.03 ) . Combining dietary intake and plasma data confirmed our results . We found a statistically significant inverse association between higher plasma lycopene concentrations and lower risk of prostate cancer , which was restricted to older participants and those without a family history of prostate cancer . This observation suggests that tomato products may exhibit more potent protection against sporadic prostate cancer rather than those with a stronger familial or hereditary component . In addition , our findings also suggest that among younger men , diets rich in β-carotene may also play a protective role in prostate carcinogenesis BACKGROUND Several human studies have observed a direct association between retinol ( vitamin A ) intake and risk of prostate cancer ; other studies have found either an inverse association or no association of intake of beta-carotene ( the major provitamin A ) with risk of prostate cancer . Data regarding carotenoids other than beta-carotene in relation to prostate cancer risk are sparse . PURPOSE We concluded a prospect i ve cohort study to examine the relationship between the intake of various carotenoids , retinol , fruits , and vegetables and the risk of prostate cancer . METHODS Using responses to a vali date d , semiquantitative food-frequency question naire mailed to participants in the Health Professionals Follow-up Study in 1986 , we assessed dietary intake for a 1-year period for a cohort of 47,894 eligible subjects initially free of diagnosed cancer . Follow-up question naires were sent to the entire cohort in 1988 , 1990 , and 1992 . We calculated the relative risk ( RR ) for each of the upper categories of intake of a specific food or nutrient by dividing the incidence rate of prostate cancer among men in each of these categories by the rate among men in the lowest intake level . All P values result ed from two-sided tests . RESULTS Between 1986 and 1992 , 812 new cases of prostate cancer , including 773 non-stage A1 cases , were documented . Intakes of the carotenoids beta-carotene , alpha-carotene , lutein , and beta-cryptoxanthin were not associated with risk of non-stage A1 prostate cancer ; only lycopene intake was related to lower risk ( age- and energy-adjusted RR = 0.79 ; 95 % confidence interval [ CI ] = 0.64 - 0.99 for high versus low quintile of intake ; P for trend = .04 ) . Of 46 vegetables and fruits or related products , four were significantly associated with lower prostate cancer risk ; of the four -- tomato sauce ( P for trend = .001 ) , tomatoes ( P for trend = .03 ) , and pizza ( P for trend = .05 ) , but not strawberries -- were primary sources of lycopene . Combined intake of tomatoes , tomato sauce , tomato juice , and pizza ( which accounted for 82 % of lycopene intake ) was inversely associated with risk of prostate cancer ( multivariate RR = 0.65 ; 95 % CI = 0.44 - 0.95 , for consumption frequency greater than 10 versus less than 1.5 servings per week ; P for trend = .01 ) and advanced ( stages C and D ) prostate cancers ( multivariate RR = 0.47 ; 95 % CI = 0.22 - 1.00 ; P for trend = .03 ) . No consistent association was observed for dietary retinol and risk of prostate cancer . CONCLUSIONS These findings suggest that intake of lycopene or other compounds in tomatoes may reduce prostate cancer risk , but other measured carotenoids are unrelated to risk . IMPLICATION S Our findings support recommendations to increase vegetable and fruit consumption to reduce cancer incidence but suggest that tomato-based foods may be especially beneficial regarding prostate cancer risk In order to learn about the influence of dietary factors and obesity on  prostatic cancer in our environment , a case-control study was performed . The group of cases consisted of 90 men histologically diagnosed with prostatic cancer in the ' La Paz ' hospital ( Madrid ) during the 4-year period of 1983 - 1987 . The controls were 180 men selected to obtain a r and om sample of males from the same hospital , stratified according to age and date of admission as compared with the prostatic cancer patients . The results of the study revealed that a diet rich in animal fats as well as high in meat consumption  increased the risk of prostatic cancer . Low ingestion of vitamin A or vitamin C and obesity were unassociated to the disease Previously , tomato powder ( TP ) diets initiated postweaning have been shown to be effective in reducing prostate cancer  in the transgenic adenocarcinoma of the mouse prostate ( TRAMP ) model . The TRAMP model develops and progresses through all stages of carcinogenesis similarly to humans . We hypothesized that a 10 % TP diet intervention after puberty would reduce carcinogenesis at 12 , 16 , and 20 weeks of age in TRAMP mice . Eight-week-old male C57BL/6 X FVB F1 TRAMP mice were r and omized to consume either an AIN-93 G + 10 % TP diet ( n = 90 ) or the AIN-93 G control diet ( n = 88 ) and r and omized to 1 of 3 end point ages : 12 ( n = 59 ) , 16 ( n = 60 ) , or 20 ( n = 59 ) weeks of age . There was no difference between diets in overall cancer incidence at any time point . However , at 16 weeks of age , TP significantly increased high- grade PIN ( P = .014 ) and significantly decreased poorly differentiated ( P = .024 ) lesions compared with the control diet suggesting a delay in the progression of prostate cancer . Two variables that may explain the modest effect of TP in this study are as follows : the low amount of lycopene in the TP diet ( 12.3 ppm ) and the timing of the intervention ( 8 weeks of age ) . The TP diet contained 30-fold less lycopene than previous studies in our laboratory . In addition , the initiation of the diet intervention time of 8 weeks of age instead of 4 weeks of age may have been too late in cancer progression to substantially impact carcinogenesis . In conclusion , a low-lycopene TP intervention failed to reduce carcinogenesis in TRAMP mice BACKGROUND The amount of dietary fat required for optimal bioavailability of carotenoids in plant matrices is not clearly defined . OBJECTIVE The objective was to quantify the appearance of carotenoids in plasma chylomicrons after subjects ingested fresh vegetable salads with fat-free , reduced-fat , or full-fat salad dressings .  DESIGN The subjects ( n = 7 ) each consumed 3 salads consisting of equivalent amounts of spinach , romaine lettuce , cherry tomatoes , and carrots with salad dressings containing 0 , 6 , or 28 g canola oil . The salads were consumed in r and om order separated by washout periods of > or = 2 wk . Blood sample s were collected hourly from 0 to 12 h. Chylomicrons were isolated by ultracentrifugation , and carotenoid absorption was analyzed by HPLC with coulometric array detection . RESULTS After ingestion of the salads with fat-free salad dressing , the appearance of alpha-carotene , beta-carotene , and lycopene in chylomicrons was negligible . After ingestion of the salads with reduced-fat salad dressing , the appearance of the carotenoids in plasma chylomicrons increased relative to that after ingestion of the salads with fat-free salad dressing ( P < 0.04 ) . Similarly , the appearance of the carotenoids in plasma chylomicrons was higher after the ingestion of salads with full-fat than with reduced-fat salad dressing ( P < 0.02 ) . CONCLUSIONS High-sensitivity HPLC with coulometric array detection enabled us to quantify the intestinal absorption of carotenoids ingested from a single vegetable salad . Essentially no absorption of carotenoids was observed when salads with fat-free salad dressing were consumed . A substantially greater absorption of carotenoids was observed when salads were consumed with full-fat than with reduced-fat salad dressing BACKGROUND There is limited evidence that supports etiologically distinct molecular subtypes of prostate cancer , the identification of which may improve prevention . Given their antioxidant properties , we hypothesized that lycopene and tomato sauce may be especially protective against diseases harboring the common gene fusion transmembrane protease , serine 2 (TMPRSS2):v-ets avian erythroblastosis virus E26 oncogene homolog ( ERG ) . OBJECTIVE We aim ed to examine associations between estimated lycopene and tomato sauce intake and the risk of prostate cancer  defined by ERG protein expression subtype . DESIGN Our study population consisted of a prospect i ve cohort of 46,719 men from the Health Professionals Follow-Up Study .  TMPRSS2:ERG was assessed by ERG immunohistochemistry on tumor tissue microarrays constructed from radical prostatectomy specimens . We used multivariable competing risk models to calculate HRs and 95 % CIs for the risk of ERG-positive and , separately , ERG-negative disease . We implemented inverse probability weighting to account for evaluating ERG status only in surgically treated cases . RESULTS During 23 y of follow-up , 5543 men were diagnosed with prostate cancer , among whom 884 were assayed for ERG ( 426 ERG-positive ) . With inclusion of only the latter cases , increasing cumulative average tomato sauce intake was associated with a decreased risk of prostate cancer overall ( ≥2 servings/wk compared with < 1 serving/mo ; multivariable HR : 0.70 ; 95 % CI : 0.52 , 0.95 ; P-trend = 0.002 ) . With respect to molecular subtypes , cumulative average tomato sauce intake was associated with a decreased risk of ERG-positive disease ( HR : 0.54 ; 95 % CI : 0.37 , 0.81 ; P-trend = 0.004 ) but not with ERG-negative disease ( HR : 0.96 ; 95 % CI : 0. 
    Output:
    
Conclusions Our data demonstrate that increased tomato consumption  is inversely associated with PCa risk .
These findings were accompanied with dose – response relationships for total tomato consumption and for cooked tomatoes and sauces .