***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: Abstract Background : Although protein-rich plant foods have recently been touted as an equivalent to animal products , limited data exist regarding the effects of animal vs. plant proteins on appetite , satiety , and subsequent food intake . Objective : The objective was to determine whether a high-protein beef lunch alters the appetitive , hormonal , and neural signals controlling food intake regulation vs. a macronutrient and fiber – matched ( MF ) or serving size – matched ( SS ) soy lunch in healthy adults . Methods : A r and omized , double-blind , crossover design study was completed in 21 adults ( aged 23 ± 1 y ; body mass index : 23.8 ± 0.6 kg/m2 ; mean ± SEM ) to compare 400-kcal MF and SS lunches varying in protein quality . The MF lunches contained 24-g beef protein or 24-g soy protein , whereas the SS lunches contained 1 serving of beef ( 24-g protein/1-g fiber ) or soy ( 14-g protein/5-g fiber ) . Pre- and postlunch appetite question naires and blood sampling were completed over an 8-h period until dinner was voluntarily requested . In addition , pre- and postlunch functional MRI brain scans were completed to assess neural activation in response to food stimuli . Results : On average , dinner was requested at ∼250 ± 20 min postlunch with no differences between beef vs. soy within the MF and SS conditions . Furthermore , no differences in hunger , fullness , peptide YY , or glucagon-like peptide-1 responses were observed after the beef vs. soy lunches within the MF and SS conditions . The SS beef meal led to reductions in anterior cingulate activation ( −22 ± 6 % ) vs. soy ( + 7 ± 9%;P < 0.01 ) and greater reductions in insular activation ( −30 ± 6 % ) vs. SS soy ( −7 ± 10%;P < 0.01 ) . The participants consumed ∼945 ± 78 kcal after the MF meals and 910 ± 74 kcal after the SS meals with no differences between beef vs. soy . Conclusions : When comparing 2 high- quality protein sources , such as beef and soy , the type of protein consumed within a mixed meal elicited very little effect on appetite , satiety , and food intake in healthy adults . This study was registered at clinical trials.gov as NCT02285907 BACKGROUND Effects of protein intake on appetite-regulating hormones and their dynamics are unclear . OBJECTIVES We investigated the satiating effects of meals with varying protein contents and whether there was an effect of dose on appetite-regulating hormones and appetite ratings . DESIGN Twenty-five men [ mean ± SD age : 30.0 ± 8.7 y ; body mass index ( BMI ; in kg/m(2 ) ) : 25.9 ± 4.7 ] participated in the 3-way , r and omized , double-blind crossover study . Test meals were isocaloric with 30 % of energy from fat and protein content adjusted at the expense of carbohydrate . Test meals were normal protein ( NP ; 14 % of energy from protein ) , medium-high protein ( MHP ; 25 % of energy from protein ) , and high protein ( HP , 50 % of energy from protein ) . Appetite ratings and blood sample s were assessed every 0.5 h for 4 h. An ad libitum lunch was served 4 h after the meal . RESULTS Protein increased dose-dependently glucagon-like peptide-1 ( GLP-1 ) , peptide YY ( PYY ) 3 - 36 , and glucagon ; MHP produced 10 % , 7 % , and 47 % greater responses , respectively ; and HP produced 20 % , 14 % , and 116 % greater responses , respectively , than did NP ( P < 0.03 ) . Compared with NP , HP increased insulin and cholecystokinin and decreased ghrelin and glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide ( P < 0.05 ) . Satiety and fullness dose-dependently increased by 7 % and 6 % for MHP and 16 % and 19 % for HP compared with NP ( P < 0.001 ) . Hunger and prospect i ve consumption dose-dependently decreased by 15 % and 13 % for MHP and by 25 % and 26 % for HP compared with NP ( P < 0.0003 ) . There was a combined effect of GLP-1 and PYY 3 - 36 ( P = 0.03 ) next to the additive effect of GLP-1 ( P = 0.006 ) on the composite appetite score . No difference was shown in ad libitum energy intake . CONCLUSION Protein dose-dependently increased satiety and GLP-1 , PYY 3 - 36 , and glucagon , which may , at least in part , be responsible for the satiety-stimulating effect of protein . This trial was registered at clinical trials.gov as NCT01561235 Background / Objectives : Intake of food or fluid distends the stomach and triggers mechanoreceptors and vagal afferents . Wall stretch and tension produces a feeling of fullness . Duodenal infusion studies assessing gastric sensitivity by barostat have shown that the products of fat digestion have a greater effect on the sensation of fullness and also dyspeptic symptoms than carbohydrates . We tested here the hypothesis that fat and carbohydrate have different effects on gastric sensation under physiological conditions using non-invasive magnetic resonance imaging ( MRI ) to measure gastric volumes . Subjects/ Methods : Thirteen healthy subjects received a rice pudding test meal with added fat or added carbohydrate on two separate occasions and underwent serial postpr and ial MRI scans  for 4.5 h. Fullness was assessed on a 100-mm visual analogue scale . Results : Gastric half emptying time was significantly slower for the high-carbohydrate meal than for the high-fat meal , P=0.0327 . Fullness significantly correlated with gastric volumes for both meals ; however , the change from baseline in fullness scores was higher for the high-fat meal for any given change in stomach volume ( P=0.0147 ) , despite the lower energy content and faster gastric emptying of the high-fat meal . Conclusions : Total gastric volume correlates positively and linearly with postpr and ial fullness and ingestion of a high-fat meal increases this sensation compared with high-carbohydrate meal . These findings can be of clinical interest in patients presenting with postpr and ial dyspepsia whereby manipulating gastric sensitivity by dietary intervention may help to control digestive sensations BACKGROUND Dietary fibers have been associated with a reduction  in appetite and energy intake .  Although a few studies suggest that nonviscous fibers can exert such effects , likely through colonic fermentation , limited data are available . OBJECTIVE The objective of this study was to determine whether α-galacto-oligosaccharides ( α-GOSs ) , fermentable soluble fibers extracted from legumes , could reduce appetite , food intake , and inflammation in overweight subjects . METHODS In 2 single-center , double-blind , r and omized , placebo-controlled trials , 88 overweight adults [ 50 % men and 50 % women ; 18 - 60 y old ; body mass index ( in kg/m(2 ) ) : 25 - 28 ] were supplemented for 14 d with tea that contained α-GOSs with different α-GOS dosages ( 6 , 12 , or 18 g α-GOSs/d ) , formulas ( 12 g α-GOSs/d with > 80 % of molecules with a degree of polymerization of 2 , 3 , or 4 ) , or a control substance ( glucose syrup ) . Appetite scores ( 5 appetite dimensions were assessed on visual analog scales during a preload test meal ) , food intake ( test meal and 24-h food recall ) , and inflammatory markers [ plasma lipopolysaccharide ( LPS ) and C-reactive protein ( CRP ) ] were evaluated at day 0 ( baseline ) and day 15 . RESULTS Changes in appetite scores from day 0 to day 15 were significantly higher after α-GOS intake , with areas under the curve for the satiety score of + 121 ± 108 , + 218 ± 218 , and + 306 ± 205 score · min for 6 , 12 , and 18 g α-GOSs/d , respectively , and -5 ± 64 score · min for the control group . We observed dose-dependent effects that did not vary by α-GOS composition . The administration of 6 , 12 , or 18 g α-GOSs/d significantly and dose-dependently increased the change in energy intake from day 0 to day 15 during a test meal ( -13 ± 19 , -26 ± 22 , and -32 ± 22 kcal , respectively ; + 6 ± 21 kcal for the control group ) . Reductions in energy intake during lunch and dinner were also higher in the α-GOS groups in the dose-effect study . At day 15 , LPS was dose-dependently reduced without an association with α-GOS composition ( 0.16 ± 0.02 , 0.12 ± 0.08 , and 0.08 ± 0.05 EU/mL for 6 , 12 , and 18 g α-GOSs/d , respectively , and 0.06 ± 0.04 EU/mL for the control group ) and CRP was significantly lower in the α-GOS groups than in the control group in the formulation-effect study . CONCLUSIONS Consumption of α-GOSs for 14 d dose-dependently reduced appetite , food intake , and inflammation in overweight adults with no impact of α-GOS composition . Consequently , α-GOSs appear to promote long-term weight loss and mitigate metabolic disorders Background Whole grain has shown potential to prevent  obesity , cardiovascular disease and type 2 diabetes .  Possible mechanism could be related to colonic fermentation of specific indigestible carbohydrates , i.e. dietary fiber ( DF ) . The aim of this study was to investigate effects on cardiometabolic risk factors and appetite regulation the next day when ingesting rye kernel bread rich in DF as an evening meal . Method Whole grain rye kernel test bread ( RKB ) or a white wheat flour based bread ( reference product , WWB ) was provided as late evening meals to healthy young adults in a r and omized cross-over design . The test products RKB and WWB were provided in two priming setting s : as a single evening meal or as three consecutive evening meals prior to the experimental days . Test variables were measured in the morning , 10.5–13.5 hours after ingestion of RKB or WWB . The postpr and ial phase was analyzed for measures of glucose metabolism , inflammatory markers , appetite regulating hormones and short chain fatty acids ( SCFA ) in blood , hydrogen excretion in breath and subjective appetite ratings . Results With the exception of serum CRP , no significant differences in test variables were observed depending on length of priming ( P>0.05 ) . The RKB evening meal increased plasma concentrations of PYY ( 0–120 min , P<0.001 ) , GLP-1 ( 0–90 min , P<0.05 ) and fasting SCFA ( acetate and butyrate , P<0.05 , propionate , P = 0.05 ) , compared to WWB . Moreover , RKB decreased blood glucose ( 0–120 min , P = 0.001 ) , serum insulin response ( 0–120 min , P<0.05 ) and fasting FFA concentrations ( P<0.05 ) . Additionally , RKB improved subjective appetite ratings during the whole experimental period ( P<0.05 ) , and increased breath hydrogen excretion ( P<0.001 ) , indicating increased colonic fermentation activity . Conclusion The results indicate that RKB evening meal has an anti-diabetic potential and that the increased release of satiety hormones and improvements of appetite sensation could be beneficial in preventing obesity . These effects could possibly be mediated through colonic fermentation . Trial Registration Clinical Trials.gov Background Dietary fibers are associated with enhanced satiety . However , the mechanism of different dietary fibers contributing to satiety-related gastrointestinal ( GI ) peptide release , especially in an obese population , is still poorly understood . Polydextrose ( PDX ) , a water-soluble glucose polymer , has demonstrated its ability to reduce energy intake at a subsequent meal , but its mechanism of action requires further research . Also , there is limited evidence on its capacity to regulate subjective feelings of appetite . This study examines the effects of PDX on postpr and ial secretion of satiety-related GI peptides , short chain fatty acids ( SCFAs ) , lactic acid , and subjective appetite ratings in obese participants . Methods 18 non-diabetic , obese participants ( 42.0 y , 33.6 kg/m2 ) consumed a high-fat meal (  
    Output:
    
The effect of higher protein intake on appetite sensation has been well documented with positive results , whereas dietary fibers , although the majority of evidence suggests positive results , still show inconsistent data because of various method ological approaches .