***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: Background Maternal feeding practice s have been proposed to play an important role in early child  weight gain and obesogenic eating behaviors . However , to date longitudinal investigations in young children exploring these relationships have been lacking . The aim of the present study was to explore prospect i ve relationships between maternal feeding practice s , child weight gain and  obesogenic eating behaviors in 2-year-old children . The competing hypothesis that child eating behaviors predict changes in maternal feeding practice s was also examined . Methods A sample of 323 mother ( mean age = 35 years , ± 0.37 ) and child dyads ( mean age = 2.03 years , ± 0.37 at recruitment ) were participants . Mothers completed a question naire assessing parental feeding practice s and child eating behaviors at baseline and again one year later . Child BMI ( predominantly objective ly measured ) was obtained at both time points . Results Increases in child BMI z-scores over the follow-up period were predicted by maternal instrumental feeding practice s. Furthermore , restriction , emotional feeding , encouragement to eat , weight-based restriction and fat restriction were associated prospect ively with the development of obesogenic eating behaviors in children including emotional eating , tendency to overeat and food approach behaviors ( such as enjoyment of food and good appetite ) . Maternal monitoring , however , predicted decreases in food approach eating behaviors . Partial support was also observed for child eating behaviors predicting maternal feeding practice s. Conclusions Maternal feeding practice s play an important role in the development of weight gain and obesogenic eating behaviors in young children and are potential targets for effective prevention interventions aim ing to decrease child obesity BACKGROUND Restricting children 's access to palatable foods may appeal to parents as a straightforward means of promoting moderate intakes of foods high in fat and sugar ; however , restricting access to palatable foods may have unintended effects on children 's eating . The efficacy of restricting children 's access to palatable foods as a means of promoting patterns of moderate intake of those foods is unknown . OBJECTIVE Two experiments were conducted to test the hypothesis that restricting access to a palatable food enhances children 's subsequent behavioral responses to , selection of , and intake of that restricted food . DESIGN Both experiments used a within-subjects design to examine the effects of restricting access to a palatable food on children 's subsequent behavior , food selection , and food intake . The first experiment examined the effects of restriction within and outside the restricted context and the second experiment focused on the effects within the restricted context . RESULTS In both experiments , restricting access to a palatable food increased children 's behavioral response to that food . Experiment 2 showed that restricting access increased children  's subsequent selection and intake of that food within the restricted context . CONCLUSIONS Restricting access focuses children 's attention on restricted foods , while increasing their desire to obtain and consume those foods . Restricting children 's access to palatable foods is not an effective means of promoting moderate intake of palatable foods and may encourage the intake of foods that should be limited in the diet BACKGROUND Obese parents are more likely to have obese children . Parents provide both the genes and eating environment for their children and familial patterns of adiposity are the result of gene-environment interactions . Environmental factors are implicated in the rapid increases in prevalence of childhood overweight that have occurred in the past 2 decades . Examination of aspects of the family environment may provide insight into increases in childhood overweight over time . OBJECTIVE We examined parental characteristics associated with overweight and eating behaviors in preschool children . DESIGN Seventy-five preschool children and their parents were recruited from local daycare centers . Information was obtained on parents ' body mass indexes ( BMI s ) , dietary restraint , and dietary disinhibition .  A behavioral index of disinhibited eating in children was used to measure children 's eating when given free access to palatable snack foods in the absence of hunger . Children 's weight-for-height values were also calculated . RESULTS Maternal dietary disinhibition ( R2 = 0.35 , P < 0.01 ) and maternal BMI ( R2 = 0.19 , P < 0.05 ) positively predicted daughters ' overweight . Maternal disinhibition ( R2 = 0.35 , P < 0.05 ) mediated the relation between mothers ' BMI and daughters ' overweight when both maternal disinhibition and maternal BMI were used to predict daughters ' overweight . Furthermore , when both mothers ' disinhibition and daughters ' free access intakes were used to predict daughters ' overweight , mothers ' disinhibition ( P < 0.05 ) showed independent prediction . CONCLUSIONS These findings suggest that familial influences on child overweight differ according to parent and child sex . Also , these results suggest that mothers ' dietary disinhibition mediates familial similarities in degree of overweight for mothers and daughters IMPORTANCE Many early life risk factors for childhood obesity are more prevalent among blacks and Hispanics than among whites and may explain the higher prevalence of obesity among racial/ethnic minority children . OBJECTIVE To examine the extent to which racial/ethnic disparities in adiposity and overweight are explained by differences in risk factors during pregnancy ( gestational diabetes and depression ) , infancy ( rapid infant weight gain , feeding other than exclusive breastfeeding , and early introduction of solid foods ) , and early childhood ( sleeping < 12 h/d , presence of a television set in the room where the child sleeps , and any intake of sugar-sweetened beverages or fast food ) . DESIGN Prospect i ve prebirth cohort study . SETTING Multisite group practice in Massachusetts . PARTICIPANTS Participants included 1116 mother-child pairs ( 63 % white , 17 % black , and 4 % Hispanic ) EXPOSURE Mother 's report of child 's race/ethnicity . MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES Age- and sex-specific body mass index ( BMI ) z score , total fat mass index from dual-energy x-ray absorptiometry , and overweight or obesity , defined as a BMI in the 85th percentile or higher at age 7 years . RESULTS Black ( 0.48 U [ 95 % CI , 0.31 to 0.64 ] ) and Hispanic ( 0.43 [ 0.12 to 0.74 ] ) children had higher BMI z scores , as well as higher total fat mass index and overweight/obesity prevalence , than white children . After adjustment for socioeconomic confounders and parental BMI , differences in BMI z score were attenuated for black and Hispanic children ( 0.22 U [ 0.05 to 0.40 ] and 0.22 U [ -0.08 to 0.52 ] , respectively ) . Adjustment for pregnancy risk factors did not substantially change these estimates . However , after further adjustment for infancy and childhood risk factors , we observed only minimal differences in BMI z scores between whites , blacks ( 0.07 U [ -0.11 to 0.26 ] ) , and Hispanics ( 0.04 U [ -0.27 to 0.35 ] ) . We observed similar attenuation of racial/ethnic differences in adiposity and prevalence of overweight or obesity . CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE Racial/ethnic disparities in childhood adiposity and obesity are determined by factors operating in infancy and early childhood . Efforts to reduce obesity disparities should focus on preventing early life risk factors Background The current literature on the influences of family environment on  childhood obesity is predominantly based on western population s and has focused on the role of parents . This study examined the influence of gr and parents on the development of obesity among Chinese primary school aged children . Methods A mixed methods study was conducted in four socioeconomically distinct primary school communities in two cities of southern China . The qualitative study ( 17 focus groups and four personal interviews ) involved parents , gr and parents , school staff , and food retailers in the vicinity of the schools ( n = 99 ) and explored perceived causes of childhood obesity . The cross-sectional study examined the association between children ’s objective ly measured weight status and reported health behaviours , and the presence and role of gr and parents in the household . It included children from three r and omly selected third grade ( 8 to 10 years ) classes from each school ( n = 497 ) . Results Gr and parents were commonly perceived to contribute to childhood obesity through inappropriate perception ( e.g. fat children are healthy and well cared for ) , knowledge ( e.g. obesity related diseases can only happen in adults ; the higher the dietary energy/fat content , the more nutritious the food ) , and behaviour ( e.g. overfeeding and indulging through excusing the children from household chores ) . Conflicting child care beliefs and practice s between gr and parents and parents , and between gr and parents and school teachers , were felt to undermine efforts to promote healthy behaviours in children . In the cross-sectional study , children who were mainly cared for by their gr and parents were more likely to be overweight/obese ( adjusted OR = 2.03 ; 95 % CI = 1.19 to 3.47 ) ; and to consume more sugar-added drinks and unhealthy snacks ( B = 2.13 , 95 % CI = 0.87 to 3.40 ) , than children who were mainly cared for by their parents or other adult . Children who lived with two or more gr and parents in the household were more likely to be overweight/obese than children who did not live with any gr and parent ( adjusted OR = 1.72 ; 95 % CI = 1.00 to 2.94 ) . Conclusions Involvement of gr and parents in childcare is an important factor contributing to childhood obesity in China . Future preventive interventions should include strategies that target gr and parents OBJECTIVE To examine cross-sectional and longitudinal ( one-year follow-up ) associations of  parental feeding styles  with  child snacking behaviour and weight  in the context of general parenting , taking into account the multidimensionality of the controlling feeding style . DESIGN Linear regression analyses were performed . Parents completed a question naire to measure five feeding style dimensions ( Instrumental Feeding , Emotional Feeding , Encouragement , Overt Control and Covert Control ) and children 's fruit , energy-dense snack and sugar-sweetened beverage ( SSB ) intakes . Children 's height and weight were measured to calculate their BMI Z-scores . Moderation by parenting style was tested by adding interaction terms to the regression analyses . SETTING Observational study in the Netherl and s. SUBJECTS Parent-child dyads ( n 1275 ) participating in the INPACT ( IVO Nutrition and Physical Activity Child cohorT ) study ; children were ( on average ) 9 years of age . RESULTS Instrumental Feeding and Emotional Feeding were negatively related to child fruit intake one year later and positively to ( changes in ) child energy-dense snack intake . Encouragement was negatively related to child energy-dense snacking and SSB intake one year later . Overt Control was cross-sectionally and prospect ively related to ( changes in ) child energy-dense snacking and SSB intake in a negative direction . Covert Control showed similar associations with child energy-dense snacking and SSB intake as Overt Control . Although Covert Control was also positively related to child fruit intake and ( changes in ) child BMI Z-score , bootstrapping analyses revealed only a differential effect of Overt Control and Covert Control on child BMI Z-score one year later , with Covert Control displaying a stronger , positive association . Moderation analyses showed that some significant associations between parental feeding styles and outcome measures were dependent on the degree of psychological control and behavioural control . CONCLUSIONS Instrumental Feeding and Emotional Feeding may have a detrimental impact on children 's snacking behaviour , while Encouragement , Overt Control and Covert Control may lead to less energy-dense snacking and less SSB intake .  Overt Control and Covert Control have differential effects on child BMI Z-score one year later , which supports the idea that they should be treated as separate constructs . Prospect i ve studies with a longer follow-up may eluci date the causal pathways between the various feeding styles and children 's snacking behaviour and weight , as well as the moderating influences of psychological and behavioural control OBJECTIVE To examine the association between family variables and children 's diets .  DESIGN Cross-sectional study with households sample d using r and om-digit dialing . Children completed a one-time , self-administered survey , and mothers participated in a face-to-face structured interview . SETTING Data collection occurred in southern San Diego County on the U.S.-Mexico border . PARTICIPANTS One hundred sixty-seven Mexican American children between 8 and 18 years of age and their mothers . MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Diet : number of snacks , c and ies and sweets , and sodas consumed daily ; dietary fat and fiber ; and money spent weekly on fast food and snacks . Family variables : household size , family support for healthful eating , number of meals eaten together , availability of fast food in the home , food ads seen on television , and parent purchasing food products that children saw advertised on television . DATA ANALYSES Regression analyses were used to examine the independent contributions of family variables on dietary intake . Statistical significance was set at P < .05 . RESULTS Greater family support for healthful eating was associated with fewer snacks and more fiber consumed . Children of parents who purchased food products that their children had seen advertised on television reported consuming more snacks and more fat , and they spent more money on fast food and snacks . CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATION S Family-based interventions are needed to moderate the potential influence of television-advertised food products on children 's requests for these food products Research indicates that parental control and parental modelling are 
    Output:
    
Snacking was often assessed using food frequency items and defined post-hoc based on nutritional characteristics ( e.g. energy-dense , sugary foods , unhealthy , etc . ) .
Conclusions Restrictive feeding and home access to unhealthy foods were most consistently associated with snacking  among young children .