***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: To evaluate the predictive effects of subjective measures of physical activity ( PA ) and objective measures of physical fitness ( PF ) on dementia risk , Participants of the prospect i ve population -based ILSE- study ( * 1930 - 1932 ; 12-year follow-up ) were examined at three examination waves ( t1 : 1993/94 ; t2 : 1997/98 ; t3 : 2005/07 ) . 381 subjects of the original cohort ( n = 500 ) were re-examined at t3 . 29 % of the subjects who were cognitively healthy at baseline received the diagnosis of mild cognitive impairment ( MCI ) and 7 % of Alzheimer 's disease ( AD ) . Subjects were screened for physical and mental health using medical interviews , physical , and neuropsychological examinations . Participants completed a question naire on their current and past PA at t1 . Subjects were classified as physically active if they reported a regular sport activity for at least 2 hours per week in the past year . Muscular strength ( h and grip ) and motor coordination ( balance ) served as objective indicators of PF . Subjects who passed the balance-test at t1 had a reduced risk of developing MCI/AD at t3 ( OR = 0.35 , 95%CI 0.19 - 0.66 , p < 0.01 ) and performed significantly better on various neuropsychological measures . Muscular strength or subjective reports of PA did not predict MCI/AD development . Our results confirm the hypothesis that PF acts as a protective factor for the development of cognitive disorders . In our study , context , motor coordination served as a better predictor than muscular strength or self-rated PA . Since subjects with cognitive disorders due to cerebral and /or systemic disorders were excluded from the analyses , our findings suggest that the effect of skill-related PF extends beyond the reduction of cardiovascular risk factors BACKGROUND The present study examined whether aerobic fitness training of older humans can increase brain volume in regions associated with age-related decline in both brain structure and cognition . METHODS Fifty-nine healthy but sedentary community-dwelling volunteers , aged 60 - 79 years , participated in the 6-month r and omized clinical trial . Half of the older adults served in the aerobic training group , the other half of the older adults participated in the toning and stretching control group .  Twenty young adults served as controls for the magnetic resonance imaging ( MRI ) , and did not participate in the exercise intervention . High spatial resolution estimates of gray and white matter volume , derived from 3D spoiled gradient recalled acquisition MRI images , were collected before and after the 6-month fitness intervention . Estimates of maximal oxygen uptake ( VO2 ) were also obtained . RESULTS Significant increases in brain volume , in both gray and white matter regions , were found as a function of fitness training for the older adults who participated in the aerobic fitness training but not for the older adults who participated in the stretching and toning ( nonaerobic ) control group . As predicted , no significant changes in either gray or white matter volume were detected for our younger participants . CONCLUSIONS These results suggest that cardiovascular fitness is associated with the sparing of brain tissue in aging humans . Furthermore , these results suggest a strong biological basis for the role of aerobic fitness in maintaining and enhancing central nervous system health and cognitive functioning in older adults Background Few studies have explored the relations between naturally occurring changes in physical activity and cognitive performance in later life . This study examined prospect i ve associations between changes in physical activity and cognitive performance in a population -based sample of Taiwanese older adults during an 11-year period . Methods Analyses were based on nationally representative data from the Taiwan Health and Living Status of the Elderly Survey collected in 1996 , 1999 , 2003 , and 2007 . Data from a fixed cohort of 1160 participants who were aged 67 years or older in 1996 and followed for 11 years were included .  Cognitive performance ( outcome ) was assessed using 5 questions from the Short Portable Mental Status Question naire . Physical activity ( exposure ) was self-reported as number of sessions per week . The latent growth model was used to examine associations between changes in physical activity and cognitive performance after controlling for sociodemographic variables , lifestyle behaviors , and health status . Results With multivariate adjustment , higher initial levels of physical activity were significantly associated with better initial cognitive performance ( st and ardized coefficient β = 0.17 ) . A higher level of physical activity  at baseline ( 1996 ) was significantly related to slower decline in cognitive performance , as compared with a lower level of activity ( β = 0.22 ) . The association between changes in physical activity and changes in cognitive performance was stronger ( β = 0.36 ) than the previous 2 associations . The effect remained after excluding participants with cognitive decline before baseline . Conclusions Physical activity in later life is associated with slower age-related cognitive decline BACKGROUND Our aim was to determine the association between physical activity and physical performance , and inflammatory biomarkers in elderly persons . METHODS One thous and four persons aged 65 years or more , participants in a cross-sectional population -based study , were included . Interviewers collected information on  self-reported physical activity during the previous year . Moreover , 841 participants performed a 400-meter walking test  to assess physical performance . Plasma concentrations of inflammatory biomarkers were determined . RESULTS Compared to sedentary men , men practicing light and moderate-high physical activity had a significantly lower erythrocyte sedimentation rate ( -0.33 and -0.40 mm/h ; p = .023 and p = .006 , respectively ) , fibrinogen level ( -43 and -39 mg/dL ; p = .001 and p = .004 , respectively ) , and logarithm of C-reactive protein ( CRP ) ( -0.43 and -0.73 mg/L ; p = .025 and p < .001 , respectively ) , whereas only those men practicing moderate-high physical activity had a significantly lower uric acid level ( -0.57 mg/dL ; p = .023 ) , log(interleukin 6 ) levels ( -0.33 pg/mL ; p = .014 ) , and log(tumor necrosis factor-alpha ) ( -0.31 pg/mL ; p = .030 ) . In women , those practicing light and moderate-high physical activity had significantly lower uric acid ( -0.45 and -0.34 mg/dL ; p = .001 and p = .039 , respectively ) and log(interleukin 6 ) levels ( -0.18 and -0.30 pg/mL ; p = .043 and p = .004 , respectively ) ; only those women practicing moderate-high physical activity had significantly lower log(CRP ) ( -0.31 mg/L ; p = .020 ) . In women , when the analysis was adjusted for body mass index , the association between physical activity and CRP was no longer significant . Similar findings were observed when we carried these analyses according to physical performance . CONCLUSIONS Current physical activity practice and performance are associated with inflammatory biomarkers . A significant beneficial association is already observed with light physical activity practice and intermediate performance Physical activity patterns and their relation with coronary heart disease risk factors are described for a representative sample of 863 Dutch men , 65 - 84 years old , who participated in the 1985 survey of the Zutphen cohort of the Seven Countries Study . Cross-sectional results revealed a median total of reported physical activity of about 1 hour and 20 minutes per day ; only 5.8 % reported no physical activity . The percentage of participation and total weekly time spent in physical activity decreased as age increased ; the decrease was less pronounced for  walking , bicycling , gardening  , and  doing odd jobs  than for  sports , hobbies  , and  work .  Statistically significant mean differences were found among quartiles of total weekly physical activity  for both total cholesterol and high-density lipoprotein cholesterol ( HDL cholesterol ) ; however , only the differences for HDL cholesterol remained significant ( p = 0.045 ) after adjusting for potential confounders . Statistically significant regression coefficients ( p less than 0.05 ) were found for the independent association between walking and total cholesterol and between gardening and total cholesterol , HDL cholesterol , and systolic blood pressure , after adjusting for confounders . Total weekly physical activity  and specific activities , e.g. , gardening and walking , demonstrated generally favorable associations with cholesterol and systolic blood pressure Free delayed recall is considered the memory measure with the greatest sensitivity for the early diagnosis of dementia . However , its specificity for dementia could be lower , as deficits other than those of pure memory might account for poor performance in this difficult and effortful task . Cued recall is supposed to allow a better distinction between poor memory due to concurrent factors and impairments related to the neurodegenerative process . The available cued recall tests suffer from a ceiling effect . This is a prospect i ve , longitudinal study aim ing to assess the utility of a new memory test based on cued recall that avoids the ceiling effect in the early diagnosis of Alzheimer ’s disease ( AD ) . Twenty-five patients with mild cognitive impairment ( MCI ) , 22 probable AD patients ( NINCDS-ADRDA ) at a mild stage , 22 elderly patients with subjective memory complaints ( SMC ) and 38 normal age-matched controls took part in the study . The patients underwent a thorough cognitive evaluation and the recommended screening procedure for the diagnosis of dementia . All patients were re-examined 12–18 months later . A newly devised delayed cued recall test using semantic cues ( The RI48 Test ) was compared with three established memory tests : the Ten Word-List Recall  from CERAD , the “ Doors ” and the “ Shapes ” Tests from “ The Doors and People Test Battery ” . Forty-four % of the MCI patients fulfilled criteria for probable AD at follow-up . The RI48 Test classified correctly 88 % of the MCI and SMC participants and was the best predictor of the status of MCI and mild AD as well as the outcome of the MCI patients . Poor visual memory was the second best predictor of those MCI patients who evolved to AD . A cued recall test which avoids the ceiling effect is at least as good as the delayed free recall tests in the early detection of AD PURPOSE The Modifiable Activity Question naire ( MAQ ) is a physical activity question naire shown to be both valid and reliable and was initially design ed to be interviewer-administered . After translation and adaptation into French , the objective of the study was to compare past-year physical activity data obtained by self-administration of this question naire and by interviewer-administration . METHODS 84 subjects ( 22 men , 62 women , age 36 - 63 yr ) enrolled in an ongoing prospect i ve study in France ( the SUpplementation en VItamines et Minéraux AntioXydants or SU.VI.MAX study ) completed both versions of the question naire in a r and omized order with a mean ( SD ) delay of 7.9 ( 5.8 ) d between the two modes . Past-year leisure and occupational physical activity were expressed as both h x wk(-1 ) and MET-h x wk(-1 ) of activity , and television watching was expressed as h x d(-1 ) . Analysis of variance on ranks was used to compare activity variables obtained by self-administration and interview . Agreement was assessed by nonparametric intraclass correlation coefficients . RESULTS A significant effect of the mode of administration was found only for past-year leisure physical activity with lower values reported in self-administered conditions compared with interview . However , a high level of concordance between the two modes of administration was observed for all variables as shown by the intraclass correlation coefficients : 0.90 for leisure physical activity ( h x wk(-1 ) ) , 0.82 for occupational activity ( h x wk(-1 ) ) , 0.83 for total ( leisure and occupational combined ) physical activity ( h x wk(-1 ) ) , and 0.97 for television viewing ( h x d(-1 ) ) . CONCLUSIONS The agreement between the two modes of administration of the question naire suggests that the self-administered version of the MAQ is a valuable tool to assess past-year physical activity and inactivity in self-administered conditions . This instrument could be used in large-scale population studies investigating the relationships between physical activity and health outcomes BACKGROUND Physical activity may help maintain cognitive function and decrease dementia risk , but epidemiological findings remain controversial . The aim of our study was to investigate the association between leisure-time physical activity at midlife and the subsequent development of dementia and Alzheimer 's disease ( AD ) . METHODS Participants were r and omly selected from the survivors of a population -based cohort previously surveyed in 1972 , 1977 , 1982 , or 1987 . 1449 persons ( 72.5 % ) age 65 - 79 years participated in the re-examination in 1998 ( mean follow-up , 21 years ) . 117 persons had dementia and 76 had AD .  Multiple logistic regression methods were used to analyse the association between leisure-time physical activity and dementia or AD . FINDINGS Leisure-time physical activity at midlife at least twice a week was associated with a reduced risk of dementia and AD ( odds ratio [ OR ] 0.48 [ 95 % CI 0.25 - 0.91 ] and 0.38 [ 0.17 - 0.85 ] , respectively ) , even after adjustments for age , sex , education , follow-up time , locomotor disorders , APOE genotype , vascular disorders , smoking , and alcohol drinking . The associations were 
    Output:
    
Moderate- and vigorous-intensity leisure physical activity was associated with global cognitive function and specific cognitive domains including executive functions and memory but not attention or working memory .
Conclusions Observational evidence that moderate- and vigorous-intensity leisure physical activity is beneficially associated with maintained cognitive functions during old age is accumulating .