***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: Abstract 1680 participants were r and omized over the recruitment period in MAPT study . A total of 1290 participants were recruited in the 7 University Hospital centers , and 390 participants in the 6 memory clinics around Toulouse Gerontopole / Alzheimer Disease research clinical center . The first r and omization was on May 30 , 2008 , and the targeted number of r and omized participants was reached on February 24 , 2011 ; 2595 subjects were finally screened , of which 1680 fulfilled the eligibility criteria which represents 64.8 % . Approximately , one quarter of screened people refused to participate after the detailed presentation of the study and 4.3 % were still interested in participating but missed for unknown reasons the baseline visit even after repeated contacts . Of the 1810 subjects who signed the consent for participating to the study at the baseline visit , 130 ( 7.1 % ) were excluded because one of the eligibility criteria was not satisfied . Interestingly , the higher percentage of r and omizations compared to screened participants is the personal contact source ; almost 85 % of screened participants entered in the study . In an equivalent way , Medias and conferences are efficient recruiting sources to enrol volunteers in the study . Unexpectedly , only about 60 % of screened participants from the hospital and GP sources were r and omized and 33.2 % from health care services . Almost a quarter of the r and omized participants come from the hospital out patients clinics and approximately 20 % from public conferences . A total of 1128 contacts yielded to 556 screened volunteers and 345 r and omized participants in the coordinating center of Toulouse . Thus , 30 % of contacts were recruited Objective : This study presents a new comprehensive educational group intervention that offers psycho-education about cognitive aging and context ual factors ( i.e. , negative age stereotypes , beliefs , health , and lifestyle ) , focuses on skills and compensatory behavior , and incorporates group discussion . Its effects were investigated in community-dwelling older women who report normal age-related cognitive complaints . Methods : A r and omized controlled trial with an experimental and waiting-list control condition was carried out in a sample of 50 women aged 60–75 years . As the main problem of these individuals were perceived cognitive deficits without actual cognitive decrements , metacognition served as the primary outcome measure . Objective cognitive functioning and psychological well-being were secondary outcome measures . A double baseline and a follow-up assessment were carried out . Results : Participants in the experimental condition reported significantly fewer negative emotional reactions toward cognitive functioning ( U = 164.500 , p = 0.004 ) . The reported effect size ( δ = −0.473 ) could be interpreted as large . Conclusions : This new comprehensive educational group intervention  reduces negative emotional reactions toward cognitive functioning , which seems a prerequisite for improved subjective cognitive functioning and well-being . It can potentially contribute the well-being of an important and large group of older adults OBJECTIVE The objective of this study was to determine the effects of a 14-day healthy longevity lifestyle program on cognition and cerebral metabolism in people with mild age-related memory complaints . METHODS Seventeen nondemented subjects , aged 35 - 69 years ( mean : 53 years , st and ard deviation : 10 ) with mild self-reported memory complaints but normal baseline memory performance scores were r and omly assigned to 1 ) the intervention group ( N = 8) : a program combining a brain healthy diet plan , relaxation exercises , cardiovascular conditioning , and mental exercise ( brain teasers and verbal memory training techniques ) ; or 2 ) the control group ( N = 9 ) : usual lifestyle routine . Pre- and postintervention measures included self- assessment s of memory ability , objective tests of cognitive performance , and determinations of regional cerebral metabolism during mental rest with [fluorine-18]fluorodeoxyglucose ( FDG ) positron emission tomography ( PET ) . RESULTS Subjects in the intervention group objective ly demonstrated greater word fluency . Concomitantly , their FDG-PET scans identified a 5 % decrease in activity in the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex . The control group showed no significant change in any of the measures . CONCLUSIONS A short-term healthy lifestyle program combining mental and physical exercise , stress reduction , and healthy diet was associated with significant effects on cognitive function and brain metabolism . Reduced resting activity in left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex may reflect greater cognitive efficiency of a brain region involved in working memory CONTEXT Cognitive function in older adults is related to independent living and need for care . However , few studies have addressed whether improving cognitive functions might have short- or long-term effects on activities related to living independently . OBJECTIVE To evaluate whether 3 cognitive training interventions improve mental abilities and daily functioning in older , independent-living adults . DESIGN R and omized , controlled , single-blind trial with recruitment conducted from March 1998 to October 1999 and 2-year follow-up through December 2001 . SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS Volunteer sample of 2832 persons aged 65 to 94 years recruited from senior housing , community centers , and hospital/clinics in 6 metropolitan areas in the United States . INTERVENTIONS Participants were r and omly assigned to 1 of 4 groups : 10-session group training for memory ( verbal episodic memory ; n = 711 ) , or reasoning ( ability to solve problems that follow a serial pattern ; n = 705 ) , or speed of processing ( visual search and identification ; n = 712 ) ; or a no-contact control group ( n = 704 ) . For the 3 treatment groups , 4-session booster training was offered to a 60 % r and om sample 11 months later . MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Cognitive function and cognitively dem and ing everyday functioning . RESULTS Thirty participants were incorrectly r and omized and were excluded from the analysis . Each intervention improved the targeted cognitive ability compared with baseline , durable to 2 years ( P<.001 for all ) . Eighty-seven percent of speed- , 74 % of reasoning- , and 26 % of memory-trained participants demonstrated reliable cognitive improvement immediately after the intervention period . Booster training enhanced training gains in speed ( P<.001 ) and reasoning ( P<.001 ) interventions ( speed booster , 92 % ; no booster , 68 % ; reasoning booster , 72 % ; no booster , 49 % ) , which were maintained at 2-year follow-up ( P<.001 for both ) . No training effects on everyday functioning were detected at 2 years . CONCLUSIONS Results support the effectiveness and durability of the cognitive training interventions in improving targeted cognitive abilities . Training effects were of a magnitude equivalent to the amount of decline expected in elderly persons without dementia over 7- to 14-year intervals . Because of minimal functional decline across all groups , longer follow-up is likely required to observe training effects on everyday function What is the neurocognitive basis for the considerable individual differences observed in functioning of the adult mind and brain late in life ? We review the evidence that in healthy old age the brain remains capable of both neuronal and cognitive plasticity , including in response to environmental and experiential factors . Neuronal plasticity ( e.g. , neurogenesis , synaptogenesis , cortical re-organization ) refers to neuron-level changes that can be stimulated by experience . Cognitive plasticity ( e.g. , increased dependence on executive function ) refers to adaptive changes in patterns of cognition related to brain activity . We hypothesize that successful cognitive aging requires interactions between these two forms of plasticity . Mechanisms of neural plasticity underpin cognitive plasticity and in turn , neural plasticity is stimulated by cognitive plasticity . We examine support for this hypothesis by considering evidence that neural plasticity is stimulated by learning and novelty and enhanced by both dietary manipulations ( low-fat , dietary restriction ) and aerobic exercise . We also examine evidence that cognitive plasticity is affected by education and training  . This is a testable hypothesis which could be assessed in humans in r and omized trials comparing separate and combined effects of cognitive training , exercise , and diet on measures of cognitive and brain integrity . Greater underst and ing of the factors influencing the course of cognitive aging and of the mechanisms underlying those factors could provide information on which people could base choices that improve their ability to age successfully CONTEXT Frequent participation in cognitively stimulating activities has been hypothesized to reduce risk of Alzheimer disease ( AD ) , but prospect i ve data regarding an association are lacking . OBJECTIVE To test the hypothesis that frequent participation in cognitive activities is associated with a reduced risk of AD . DESIGN Longitudinal cohort study with baseline evaluations performed between January 1994 and July 2001 and mean follow-up of 4.5 years . PARTICIPANTS AND SETTING A total of 801 older Catholic nuns , priests , and brothers without dementia at enrollment , recruited from 40 groups across the United States . At baseline , they rated frequency of participation in common cognitive activities  ( eg , reading a newspaper ) , from which a previously vali date d composite measure of cognitive activity frequency was derived . MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Clinical diagnosis of AD by a board-certified neurologist using National Institute of Neurological and Communicative Disorders and Stroke/Alzheimer 's Disease and Related Disorders Association criteria and change in global and specific measures of cognitive function , compared by cognitive activity score at baseline . RESULTS Baseline scores on the composite measure of cognitive activity ranged from 1.57 to 4.71 ( mean , 3.57 ; SD , 0.55 ) , with higher scores indicating more frequent activity . During an average of 4.5 years of follow-up , 111 persons developed AD . In a proportional hazards model that controlled for age , sex , and education , a 1-point increase in cognitive activity score was associated with a 33 % reduction in risk of AD ( hazard ratio , 0.67 ; 95 % confidence interval , 0.49 - 0.92 ) . Results were comparable when persons with memory impairment at baseline were excluded and when terms for the apolipoprotein E epsilon4 allele and other medical conditions were added . In r and om-effects models that controlled for age , sex , education , and baseline level of cognitive function , a 1-point increase in cognitive activity was associated with reduced decline in global cognition ( by 47 % ) , working memory ( by 60 % ) , and perceptual speed ( by 30 % ) . CONCLUSION These results suggest that frequent participation in cognitively stimulating activities is associated with reduced risk of AD In an interdisciplinary project on maintaining and supporting independent living in old age , ( a ) competence training , ( b ) memory training and ( c ) psychomotor training as well as ( d ) combined competence and psychomotor training and ( e ) combined memory and psychomotor training was performed with n = 309 elderly of 75 to 89 years of age for 9 months . Regardless of treatment conditions , an age-related decline of health and subjective well-being was found 1 year after the end of the training . The specific training measures each led to highly significant specific improvements of the trained functions . A favorable influence of competence training on everyday coping and hence on active strategies for staying independent as well as of memory training on all cognitive functions and especially on memory performance was found . While global psychomotor performance was not significantly improved , effects of psychomotor training on specific functions were detected . In addition , the combined psychomotor and memory training led to an improvement of psychomotor performance and to a reduction of symptoms of dementia , even though neither psychomotor training alone nor memory training alone result ed in such effects . Neurophysiological changes leading to a provision of reserve-capacity of CNS-performance are among other effects assumed as an explanation The objective of the study was to examine the effectiveness of two types of memory training ( collective and individual ) , compared to control ( waiting list ) , on memory performance .  Participants were 139 community-dwelling older individuals recruited through media advertisements asking for people with subjective memory complaints to participate in a study . Data were collected at baseline , and at 1 week and 4 months after the intervention . Training efficacy was assessed using measures of subjective and objective memory performance . After the intervention , participants in the collective training group reported more stability in memory functioning and had fewer feelings of anxiety and stress about memory functioning . In addition , positive effects were found on objective memory functioning . Compared with the other two groups , the collective training group participants had an improved recall of a previously learned word list . Compared to controls , participants in the individual training group reported fewer feelings of anxiety and stress in relation to memory functioning PURPOSE To compare the efficacy of cognitive training ( CT ) and cognitive stimulation ( CS ) programs for the community elderly with subjective memory complaints ( SMC ) . METHOD The single-blind non-r and omized controlled study was applied . The numbers of CT and CS participants were 14 and 11 . The mean ages of CT and CS participants were 68.71 and 70.36 . Memory training and problem solving strategies were applied in the CT group . There were ten 2-hourly sessions of CT , held twice weekly . CS group met once weekly in a 1.5-h class for eight classes . Cognitive performance tests of general cognitive performance , verbal memory and executive function were measured before/after the training and at 6 months follow-up . RESULTS In both training conditions , the general cognitive performance were enhanced . The CT group showed improvement in the verbal memory test . The CS group did not trigger any training effect in the verbal memory test but the executive function . All cognitive progresses remained at follow-up . CONCLUSION Both cognitive training and cognitive stimulation programs showed training effects and remained until 6 months CONTEXT Cognitive training has been 
    Output:
    
Overall , most interventions showed to objective ly improve cognitive performance in subjects with SCCs .
Conversely , there is a current lack of evidence in the literature about the efficacy of nonpharmacological cognitive interventions for preventing dementia or cognitive impairment