***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: The aim of this study was to determine the association between drug type and arrest for driving under the influence of drugs ( DUID ) by calculating odds ratios ( ORs ) using a case-control design . A DUID arrest is in most cases related to aberrant or risky driving and might therefore be regarded as a proxy for a drug related traffic crash . The ' cases ' were 2738 drivers arrested on suspicion of drugged driving from April 2008 to March 2009 with blood alcohol concentrations below the legal limit of 0.2g/L ; 794 were arrested due to involvement in road traffic crashes , whereas 1944 were arrested for other reasons , mainly dangerous driving , suspected impairment when stopped in traffic controls , or because of phone calls to the police from other road users or observers . The ' controls ' were 9375 r and om drivers in normal traffic , also with alcohol concentrations below this limit . Blood sample s from ' cases ' and oral fluid sample s from ' controls ' were analyzed for 15 drugs that have legislative concentration limits in Norway , in addition to two other commonly detected psychoactive drugs . The most prevalent illicit drug in the control group was tetrahydrocannabinol ( THC ; 0.58 % ) , which was also commonly found in sample s from drivers arrested due to road crash ( 15.6 % ) or arrested for other reasons ( 21.8 % ) . Amphetamine/methamphetamine was most prevalent among arrested drivers involved in crashes ( 30.6 % ) and drivers arrested for other reasons ( 56.9 % ) , whereas only 0.18 % of the control group was positive for amphetamine/methamphetamine . The single-use substances which gave highest OR for police arrest were amphetamine/methamphetamine , alprazolam , clonazepam and oxazepam . The majority of the alprazolam and clonazepam findings were probably due to non-therapeutic use of medicinal drugs purchased on the illegal market . Combinations of two or more drugs yielded higher ORs than the use of single substances ; combinations of amphetamine/methamphetamine and benzodiazepines gave the highest risk Rationale In party circuits dexamphetamine is frequently used in combination with alcohol . It is hypothesized that co-administration of dexamphetamine to alcohol might reduce the sedative effects of alcohol , but may potentiate risk-taking behaviour . Objectives The study was aim ed at assessing the effects of alcohol , dexamphetamine and the combination of both on simulated driving and cognitive performance . Method Eighteen subjects participated in a r and omized , crossover , placebo-controlled study employing four conditions : 10 mg dexamphetamine , 0.8 g/kg alcohol , 10 mg dexamphetamine + 0.8 g/kg alcohol , and placebo . Fundamental driving skills and risk-taking behaviour were assessed in a driving simulator . Subjects also completed vigilance and divided attention tasks , and subjective ratings . Results Mean BAC levels during simulated driving were between 0.91‰ and 0.64‰. Subjects using alcohol showed a significantly larger mean st and ard deviation of lateral position and shorter accepted gap time and distance . Use of alcohol or dexamphetamine + alcohol was associated with a higher frequency of red light running and collisions than the dexamphetamine or placebo conditions . Performance of vigilance and divided attention tasks was significantly impaired in the alcohol condition and , to a lesser degree , in the dexamphetamine + alcohol condition . ConclusionS ingle doses of 0.8 g/kg alcohol increased risk-taking behaviours and impaired tracking , attention and reaction time during a 3-h period after drinking when BACs declined from 0.9 to 0.2 mg/ml . The stimulatory effects of co-administration of dexamphetamine 10 mg were not sufficient to overcome the impairing effects of alcohol on skills related to driving Using a cover story of the effects of alcohol on perceptual and motor abilities , two levels of alcohol consumed ( moderate and none ) , two levels of alcohol expectancy ( moderate and none ) , and two levels of sensation seeking ( high and low ) were combined to determine their effect on risk taking in a driving simulator . Ninety-six subjects were r and omly assigned to eight conditions . Dependent variables were lane changes-cars passed and time at maximum speed . Results on lane-changes-cars passed indicated greater risk-taking in driving by high sensation seekers . Interaction of alcohol expectancy and sensation seeking indicated high sensation seekers took more risks when they believed they had consumed alcohol . Low sensation seekers became more cautious in driving when they believed they had consumed alcohol . Alcohol consumed did not produce a significant main effect or interaction The present investigation employed a balanced placebo design to examine the effects of alcohol versus the belief that one has consumed alcohol , i.e. alcohol expectancy , on error production while operating a driving simulator . The male subjects employed were social drinkers , having no history of alcohol abuse . The alcoholic beverage consisted of vodka and tonic in the ratio of 1:5 , result ing in a mean blood alcohol level of .064 % . The placebo beverage consisted of water and tonic , also in the ration 1:5 . Principal findings were that alcohol ingestion had a debilitating effect on certain measures of driving behavior ( operation of brakes , steering ) , whereas the belief that one had consumed alcohol had no discernable effects . The results are discussed in relation to other findings using the balanced placebo design . It was concluded that reckless driving under the influence of alcohol , is at least partly a result of the pharmological effects of ethanol Rationale The driving simulator provides a safe and controlled environment for testing driving behaviour efficiently . The question is whether it is sensitive to detect drug-induced effects . Objective The primary aim of the current study was to investigate the sensitivity of the driving simulator for detecting drug effects . As a case in point , we investigated the dose-related effects of oral ∆9-tetrahydrocannabinol ( THC ) , i.e. dronabinol , on simulator and on-the-road driving performance in equally dem and ing driving tasks . Method Twenty-four experienced driver participants were treated with dronabinol ( Marinol ® ; 10 and 20 mg ) and placebo .  Dose-related effects of the drug on the ability to keep a vehicle in lane ( weaving ) and to follow the speed changes of a lead car ( car following ) were compared within subjects for on-the-road versus in-simulator driving . Additionally , the outcomes of equivalence testing to alcohol-induced effects were investigated . Results Treatment effects found on weaving when driving in the simulator were comparable to treatment effects found when driving on the road . The effect after 10 mg dronabinol was however less strong in the simulator than on the road and inter-individual variance seemed higher in the simulator . There was , however , a differential treatment effect of dronabinol on reactions to speed changes of a lead car ( car following ) when driving on the road versus when driving in the simulator . Conclusion The driving simulator was proven to be sensitive for demonstrating dronabinol-induced effects particularly at higher doses . Treatment effects of dronabinol on weaving were comparable with driving on the road but inter-individual variability seemed higher in the simulator than on the road which may have potential effects on the clinical inferences made from simulator driving . Car following on the road and in the simulator were , however , not comparable The Lane Change Task was developed to provide an objective safety criterion for the assessment of driver distraction by in-vehicle information systems ( IVIS ) . It consists of two basic driving tasks , namely lane keeping and lane changes . The LCT has been shown to reliably detect distraction from driving . As this test becomes increasingly important for the assessment of safety the validity of the LCT is crucial . In order to examine this further , the effect of an alcohol intoxication of 0.08 g/dl on the performance in the LCT was examined in the present study as the negative effects of alcohol on driving are well known . Twenty-three participants were tested under  alcohol and placebo in a cross-over design measuring different performance indicators in the LCT . There were significant effects of alcohol during the lane keeping phase . However , these were much smaller than those typically found with distracting secondary tasks . The lane change phase was only marginally affected by alcohol . This result gives rise to some caution for interpreting effects in the LCT . The LCT is well able to detect distraction , as other studies have shown . However , our study with intoxicated participants shows that a small effect in the  LCT  does not necessarily mean that this condition does not impair driving AIMS Marketing that promotes mixing caffeinated ' energy ' drinks with alcoholic beverages ( e.g. Red Bull with vodka ) targets young drinkers and conveys the expectation that caffeine will offset the sedating effects of alcohol and enhance alertness . Such beliefs could result in unwarranted risk taking ( e.g. driving while intoxicated ) . The aim of this study was to assess the acute effects of caffeinated versus non-caffeinated alcoholic beverages on a simulated driving task and attention/reaction time . DESIGN We conducted a 2 × 2 between-groups r and omized trial in which participants were r and omized to one of four conditions : beer and non-alcoholic beer , with and without caffeine added . Caffeine was added in the same proportion as found in a commercially available caffeinated beer ( 69 mg/12 oz of beer at 4.8 % alc . by vol ) . PARTICIPANTS Participants were 127 non-dependent , heavy episodic , young adult drinkers ( age 21 - 30 ) who were college students or recent graduates . The target breath alcohol level was 0.12 g% . MEASURES Driving performance was assessed with a driving simulator ; sustained attention/reaction with the Psychomotor Vigilance Task ( PVT ) . FINDINGS Across the driving and attention/reaction time we found main effects for alcohol , with alcohol significantly impairing driving and sustained attention/reaction time , with mainly large statistical effects ; however , the addition of caffeine had no main or interaction effects on performance . CONCLUSION The addition of caffeine to alcohol does not appear to enhance driving or sustained attention/reaction time performance relative to alcohol alone Both driving speed and speed of detection of potentially hazardous events while driving have been found to correlate positively with accident rates across individuals . Alcohol ingestion is also known to increase risk of a traffic accident . This paper reports two double-blind , placebo-controlled studies : one on the effect of alcohol on driving speed and the other on the effect of alcohol on time taken to detect potential traffic hazards . Moderate drinkers aged between 30 and 55 took part . Each subject underwent three experimental conditions on separate days : no alcohol , low alcohol ( 0.025 % BAC ) and moderate alcohol ( 0.05 % BAC ) . The order of conditions was counterbalanced . The moderate alcohol dose increased mean time taken to respond to hazards ( 2.5 s in no alcohol condition compared with 3.2 s in moderate alcohol condition ) but did not affect mean driving speed ( indexed by time taken to travel sections of a fixed route ; 19.3 s in no alcohol compared with 19.0 s in moderate alcohol ) . The results support the view that at least part of the excess risk of accident associated with alcohol ingestion is attributable to an increase in the time taken to respond to traffic hazards High rates of binge drinking and alcohol-related problems , including drinking and driving , occur among college students . Underlying reasons for the heightened impaired driving rates in this demographic group are not known . The authors hypothesized that acute tolerance to the interoceptive cues of intoxication may contribute to these maladaptive decisions to drive in binge drinkers . Groups of binge-drinking and non-binge-drinking college students ( N = 28 ) attended sessions during which they received a moderate dose of alcohol ( 0.65 g/kg ) or a placebo . The development of acute tolerance to subjective ratings of intoxication and simulated driving performance was assessed by comparing measures taken during the ascending phase and descending phases of the blood alcohol curve . Compared with placebo , alcohol increased ratings of intoxication and impaired multiple aspects of simulated driving performance in both binge and non-binge drinkers . During the descending phase of the blood alcohol curve , binge drinkers showed acute tolerance to alcohol 's effect on subjective intoxication , and this effect was accompanied by an increased rating of willingness to drive . By contrast , non-binge drinkers showed no acute tolerance Changes in drivers , vehicles , and roadways pose substantial challenges to the transportation safety community . Crash records and naturalistic driving data are useful for examining the influence of past or existing technology on drivers , and the associations between risk factors and crashes . However , they are limited because causation can not be established and technology not yet installed in production vehicles can not be assessed . Driving simulators have become an increasingly widespread tool to underst and evolving and novel technologies . The ability to manipulate independent variables in a r and omized , controlled setting also provides the added benefit of identifying causal links . This paper introduces a special issue on  simulator-based safety studies . The special issue comprises 25 papers that demonstrate the use of driving simulators to address pressing transportation safety problems and includes topics as diverse as neurological dysfunction , work zone design , and driver distraction This study presents an investigation of the effects of peer attitude , gender , and blood alcohol level on driving performance using a driving simulator . The subjects were 18 male and 18 female social drinkers from the general population , aged 18 - 25 , and holding a current drivers ' licence . Subjects were r and omly assigned to pro or against drinking driving conditions and tested at different blood alcohol levels .  The results revealed that subjects in the for drinking driving condition perceived themselves to be more capable than they actually were and drove increasingly faster and made more mistakes than subjects in the against drinking driving condition when under the influence of alcohol . Sign 
    Output:
    
Alcohol consumption mostly deteriorated the following performance outcomes in descending order : SDSD , LPSD , speed , MLPD , LC and NA .
Alcohol consumption may decrease simulated driving  performance  in alcohol consumed people compared with non-alcohol consumed people via changes in SDSD , LPSD , speed , MLPD , LC and NA .