***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: Human microbial communities are characterized by their taxonomic , metagenomic and metabolic diversity , which varies by distinct body sites and influences human physiology . However , when and how microbial communities within each body niche acquire unique taxonomical and functional signatures in early life remains underexplored . We thus sought to determine the taxonomic composition and potential metabolic function of the neonatal and early infant microbiota across multiple body sites and assess the effect of the mode of delivery and its potential confounders or modifiers . A cohort of pregnant women in their early third trimester ( n = 81 ) were prospect ively enrolled for  longitudinal sampling  through 6 weeks after delivery , and a second matched cross-sectional cohort ( n = 81 ) was additionally recruited for sampling once at the time of delivery . Sample s across multiple body sites , including stool , oral gingiva , nares , skin and vagina were collected for each maternal – infant dyad .  Whole-genome shotgun sequencing and sequencing analysis of the gene encoding the 16S rRNA were performed to interrogate the composition and function of the neonatal and maternal microbiota . We found that the neonatal microbiota and its associated functional pathways were relatively homogeneous across all body sites at delivery , with the notable exception of the neonatal meconium . However , by 6 weeks after delivery , the infant microbiota structure and function had substantially exp and ed and diversified , with the body site serving as the primary determinant of the composition of the bacterial community and its functional capacity . Although minor variations in the neonatal ( immediately at birth ) microbiota community structure were associated with the cesarean mode of delivery in some body sites ( oral gingiva , nares and skin ; R2 = 0.038 ) , this was not true for neonatal stool ( meconium ; Mann – Whitney P > 0.05 ) , and there was no observable difference in community function regardless of delivery mode . For infants at 6 weeks of age , the microbiota structure and function had exp and ed and diversified with demonstrable body site specificity ( P < 0.001 , R2 = 0.189 ) but without discernable differences in community structure or function between infants delivered vaginally or by cesarean surgery ( P = 0.057 , R2 = 0.007 ) . We conclude that within the first 6 weeks of life , the infant microbiota undergoes substantial reorganization , which is primarily driven by body site and not by mode of delivery Importance Establishment of the infant microbiome has lifelong implication s on health and immunity . Gut microbiota of breastfed compared with nonbreastfed individuals differ during infancy as well as into adulthood . Breast milk contains a diverse population of bacteria , but little is known about the vertical transfer of bacteria from mother to infant by breastfeeding . Objective To determine the association between the maternal breast milk and areolar skin and infant gut bacterial communities . Design , Setting , and Participants In a prospect i ve , longitudinal study , bacterial composition was identified with sequencing of the 16S ribosomal RNA gene in breast milk , areolar skin , and infant stool sample s of 107 healthy mother-infant pairs . The study was conducted in Los Angeles , California , and St Petersburg , Florida , between January 1 , 2010 , and February 28 , 2015 . Exposures Amount and duration of daily breastfeeding and timing of solid food introduction . Main Outcomes and Measures Bacterial composition in maternal breast milk , areolar skin , and infant stool by sequencing of the 16S ribosomal RNA gene . Results In the 107 healthy mother and infant pairs ( median age at the time of specimen collection , 40 days ; range , 1 - 331 days ) , 52 ( 43.0 % ) of the infants were male .  Bacterial communities were distinct in milk , areolar skin , and stool , differing in both composition and diversity . The infant gut microbial communities were more closely related to an infant ’s mother ’s milk and skin compared with a r and om mother ( mean difference in Bray-Curtis distances , 0.012 and 0.014 , respectively ; P < .001 for both ) . Source tracking analysis was used to estimate the contribution of the breast milk and areolar skin microbiomes to the infant gut microbiome . During the first 30 days of life , infants who breastfed to obtain 75 % or more of their daily milk intake received a mean ( SD ) of 27.7 % ( 15.2 % ) of the bacteria from breast milk and 10.3 % ( 6.0 % ) from areolar skin . Bacterial diversity ( Faith phylogenetic diversity , P = .003 ) and composition changes were associated with the proportion of daily breast milk intake in a dose-dependent manner , even after the introduction of solid foods . Conclusions and Relevance The results of this study indicate that bacteria in mother ’s breast milk seed the infant gut , underscoring the importance of breastfeeding in the development of the infant gut microbiome Infant microbiota is influenced by numerous factors , such as delivery mode , environment , prematurity and diet ( breast milk or formula ) . In addition to its nutritional value , breast milk contains bioactive substances that drive microbial colonisation and support immune system development , which are usually not present in infant formulas . Among these substances , polyamines have been described to be essential for intestinal and immune functions in newborns . However , their effect on the establishment of microbiota remains unclear . Therefore , the aim of the present study was to ascertain whether an infant formula supplemented with polyamines has an impact on microbial colonisation by modifying it to resemble that in breast-fed neonatal BALB/c mice . In a 4 d intervention , a total of sixty pups ( 14 d old ) were r and omly assigned to the following groups : ( 1 ) breast-fed group ; ( 2 ) non-enriched infant formula-fed group ; ( 3 ) three different groups fed an infant formula enriched with increasing concentrations of polyamines ( mixture of putrescine , spermidine and spermine ) , following the proportions found in human milk . Microbial composition in the contents of the oral cavity , stomach and small and large intestines was analysed by quantitative PCR targeted at fourteen bacterial genera and species . Significantly different ( P < 0·05 ) microbial colonisation patterns were observed in the entire gastrointestinal tract of the breast-fed and formula-fed mice . In addition , our findings demonstrate that supplementation of polyamines regulates the amounts of total bacteria , Akkermansia muciniphila , Lactobacillus , Bifidobacterium , Bacteroides-Prevotella and Clostridium groups to levels found in the breast-fed group . Such an effect requires further investigation in human infants , as supplementation of an infant formula with polyamines might contribute to healthy gastrointestinal tract development Background The fungi in the gastrointestinal tract , the gut mycobiota , are now recognised as a significant part of the gut microbiota , and they may be important to human health . In contrast to the adult gut mycobiota , the establishment of the early gut mycobiota has never been described , and there is little knowledge about the fungal transfer from mother to offspring . Methods In a prospect i ve cohort , we followed 298 pairs of healthy mothers and offspring from 36 weeks of gestation until 2 years of age ( 1516 sample s ) and explored the gut mycobiota in maternal and offspring sample s. Half of the pregnant mothers were r and omised into drinking probiotic milk during and after pregnancy . The probiotic bacteria included Lactobacillus rhamnosus GG ( LGG ) , Bifidobacterium animalis subsp . lactis Bb-12 and Lactobacillus acidophilus La-5 . We quantified the fungal abundance of all the sample s using qPCR of the fungal internal transcribed spacer (ITS)1 segment , and we sequenced the 18S rRNA gene ITS1 region of 90 high-quantity sample s using the MiSeq platform ( Illumina ) . Results The gut mycobiota was detected in most of the mothers and the majority of the offspring . The offspring showed increased odds of having detectable faecal fungal DNA if the mother had detectable fungal DNA as well ( OR = 1.54 , p = 0.04 ) . The fungal alpha diversity in the offspring gut increased from its lowest at 10 days after birth , which was the earliest sampling point . The fungal diversity and fungal species showed a succession towards the maternal mycobiota as the child aged , with Debaryomyces hansenii being the most abundant species during breast-feeding and Saccharomyces cerevisiae as the most abundant after weaning . Probiotic consumption increased the gut mycobiota abundance in pregnant mothers ( p = 0.01 ) . Conclusion This study provides the first insight into the early fungal establishment and the succession of fungal species in the gut mycobiota . The results support the idea that the fungal host phenotype is transferred from mother to offspring . Trial registration Clinical trials.gov Background In a recent study , supplementation of infant formula with milk fat globule membranes ( MFGM ) decreased the incidence of otitis media in infants < 6 months of age . Objectives The aim of the present study was to characterize the oral microbiota in infants fed MFGM-supplemented formula  and compare it to that of infants fed st and ard formula or breast milk .  Methods In a prospect i ve double-blinded r and omized controlled trial , exclusively formula-fed infants < 2 months of age were r and omized to be fed experimental formula ( EF , n = 80 ) with reduced energy and protein and supplemented with a bovine MFGM concentrate , or st and ard formula ( SF , n = 80 ) until 6 months of age . A breast-fed reference ( BFR , n = 80 ) group was also recruited . The oral microbiota was analyzed at 4 ( n = 124 ) and 12 ( n = 166 ) months of age using Illumina MiSeq multiplex sequencing and taxonomic resolution against the HOMD 16S rDNA data base of oral bacteria . Results Species richness in the oral sample s did not differ between the EF and SF groups , but partial least square modeling identified a few taxa that were significantly associated with being in either group , e.g. lower level of Moraxella catarrhalis in the EF group . Infants in the BFR group had significantly lower species richness at 4 months of age and their microbiota pattern differed markedly from the formula-fed groups . Conclusions Supplementation of infant formula with MFGM yielded moderate effects on the oral microbiome . Moraxella catarrhalis was less prevalent in infants fed EF than in those fed SF and may be associated with the decrease in otitis media seen in the same group A prospect i ve study was conducted to determine risk factors for fungal colonization , drug susceptibility , and association with invasive fungal infections ( IFIs )  in a neonatal unit . On admission and weekly thereafter , surveillance fungal cultures  were taken from mouth , rectum , and trachea of neonates with expected stays of > 1 week .  Fungal colonization was detected in 72 ( 12.1 % ) of 593 neonates during 12 months . C AND IDA ALBICANS was isolated from 42 % of colonized neonates . Although early colonization ( age 1.3 + /- 0.2 days ) was found in 2.5 % of the neonates , late colonization ( age 17.6 + /- 1.4 days ) was noted in 14.2 % of neonates hospitalized for > 5 days . Neonates born vaginally were at higher risk for early colonization than those delivered after cesarean section ( P = 0.01 ) . By multivariate logistic regression , very low birthweight was the only independent risk factor for late colonization . Ten IFIs ( nine c and idemias ) were diagnosed , yielding a rate of 1.1 % . These episodes occurred in 6.9 % of colonized neonates , compared with 0.76 % of noncolonized neonates ( P = 0.002 ) . C. ALBICANS was susceptible to azoles , but some non- ALBICANS C AND IDA spp . exhibited decreased susceptibility to these drugs In the neonate , fungal infections result in significant morbidity and mortality . For very low birth weight ( less than 1,500 g ) infants , we prospect ively determined the fungal colonization rate to be 26.7 % . In one third of infants with fungal colonies , mucocutaneous c and idiasis developed , and in 7.7 % , systemic disease developed . Two thirds of the infants had colonies in the first week of life . This colonization was probably acquired during labor and delivery , because those infants who had colonization were more often delivered vaginally than by cesarean section . Early colonization , commonly from the gastrointestinal or respiratory tract , featured C and ida albicans and C and ida tropicalis . Late colonization , occurring after 2 weeks of life ( 15.0 % of patients ) , was more likely to be cutaneous and was associated with either C and ida parapsilosis or such poor growth that the organism could not be identified . Infants with colonization only rarely had budding yeasts ( 6.1 % ) , whereas more than half of the infants with either a urinalysis showing budding yeasts or a urine culture growing fungi had invasive disease . Fungal contamination was not found on either thoracotomy tubes or catheter tips . In the low birth weight infant , fungal colonization represents a significant risk factor for cutaneous or systemic c and idiasis in these infants Abstract Background : Knowledge of fungal colonization patterns in very low birth weight infants ( VLBWI ) admitted to the neonatal intensive care unit ( NICU ) is essential in underst and ing the process of fungal infections in neonates . We analyz 
    Output:
    
Our analysis revealed no significant differences between the oral mycobiome of breastfed and bottle-fed children .
As for the delivery mode , the majority of studies found a relation between fungal colonization and vaginal delivery .
Our analysis suggests that  maternal breastfeeding  does not seem to influence oral mycology , but vaginal delivery appears to promote oral yeast colonization in early life