***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: Reliable tables of glycemic index ( GI ) compiled from the scientific literature are instrumental in improving the quality of research examining the relation between GI , glycemic load , and health . The GI has proven to be a more useful nutritional concept than is the chemical classification of carbohydrate ( as simple or complex , as sugars or starches , or as available or unavailable ) , permitting new insights into the relation between the physiologic effects of carbohydrate-rich foods and health . Several prospect i ve observational studies have shown that the chronic consumption of a diet with a high glycemic load ( GI x dietary carbohydrate content ) is independently associated with an increased risk of developing type 2 diabetes , cardiovascular disease , and certain cancers . This revised table contains almost 3 times the number of foods listed in the original table ( first published in this Journal in 1995 ) and contains nearly 1300 data entries derived from published and unpublished verified sources , representing > 750 different types of foods tested with the use of st and ard methods . The revised table also lists the glycemic load associated with the consumption of specified serving sizes of different foods BACKGROUND Epidemiologic studies that directly examine changes in whole-grain consumption in relation to weight gain are sparse , and characterization of this association has been obscured by method ologic inconsistencies in the assessment of whole grains . OBJECTIVE We aim ed to ascertain the associations between changes in new quantitative estimates of whole-grain intake and 8-y  weight gain among US men . DESIGN The study was conducted in a prospect i ve cohort of 27 082 men aged 40 - 75 y at baseline in 1986 . Data on lifestyle factors were obtained periodically by using self-reported question naires , and participants measured and reported their body weight in 1986 and 1994 . RESULTS In multivariate analyses , an increase in whole-grain intake was inversely associated with long-term weight gain ( P for trend < 0.0001 ) . A dose-response relation was observed , and for every 40-g/d increment in whole-grain intake from all foods , weight gain was reduced by 0.49 kg . Bran that was added to the diet or obtained from fortified-grain foods further reduced the risk of weight gain ( P for trend = 0.01 ) , and , for every 20 g/d increase in intake , weight gain was reduced by 0.36 kg . Changes in cereal and fruit fiber were inversely related to weight gain . No associations were observed between changes in refined-grain or added germ consumption and body weight . CONCLUSIONS The increased consumption of whole grains was inversely related to weight gain , and the associations persisted after changes in added bran or fiber intakes were accounted for . This suggests that additional components in whole grains may contribute to favorable metabolic alterations that may reduce long-term weight gain BACKGROUND Although increased consumption of dietary fiber and grain products is widely recommended to maintain healthy body weight , little is known about the relation of whole grains to body weight and long-term weight changes . OBJECTIVE We examined the associations between the intakes of dietary fiber and whole- or refined-grain products and weight gain over time . DESIGN In a prospect i ve cohort study , 74,091 US female nurses , aged 38 - 63 y in 1984 and free of known cardiovascular disease , cancer , and diabetes at baseline , were followed from 1984 to 1996 ; their dietary habits were assessed in 1984 , 1986 , 1990 , and 1994 with vali date d food-frequency question naires . Using multiple models to adjust for covariates , we calculated average weight , body mass index ( BMI ; in kg/m(2 ) ) , long-term weight changes , and the odds ratio of developing obesity ( BMI > or = 30 ) according to change in dietary intake . RESULTS Women who consumed more whole grains consistently weighed less than did women who consumed less whole grains ( P for trend < 0.0001 ) . Over 12 y , those with the greatest increase in intake of dietary fiber  gained an average of 1.52 kg less than did those with the smallest increase in intake of dietary fiber  ( P for trend < 0.0001 ) independent of body weight at baseline , age , and changes in covariate status . Women in the highest quintile of dietary fiber intake had a 49 % lower risk of major weight gain than did women in the highest quintile ( OR = 0.51 ; 95 % CI : 0.39 , 0.67 ; P < 0.0001 for trend ) . CONCLUSION Weight gain was inversely associated with the intake of high-fiber , whole-grain foods but positively related to the intake of refined-grain foods , which indicated the importance of distinguishing whole-grain products from refined-grain products to aid in weight control The modification of folate status was analysed in a group of sixty-seven overweight/obese women of childbearing age ( 20 - 35 years ) . Subjects were r and omly assigned to one of two slightly hypocaloric diets : diet V ( increased consumption of vegetables ) or diet C ( increased consumption of breakfast cereals ) . Dietetic , anthropometric and biochemical data were collected at the start of the study and again at 2 and 6 weeks . At 6 weeks a weight loss of 2.0 ( sd 1.3 ) kg was achieved in V subjects and of 2.8 ( sd 1.4 ) kg in C subjects ( P < 0.05 ) . At the start of the study , 64.2 % of all subjects had a folate intake of < 67 % of the recommended intake ; this fell to just 3 % ( 7.14 % of V subjects and 0 % of C subjects ) by week 6 . Significant increases were only seen in C subjects in serum folate concentrations ( both at 2 and 6 weeks ) , accompanied by a significant reduction in serum homocysteine ( at week 6 ) . Some 62.1 % of all subjects had serum folate concentrations of > or = 13.6 nmol/l ( associated with a very low risk of neural tube defects ) at the start of the study , while 87.0 % ( 85.2 % of V subjects and 88.9 % of C subjects ) had concentrations of > or = 13.6 nmol/l at 6 weeks ( P < 0.01 ) . Increasing the relative consumption of vegetables/cereals in the context of a slightly hypocaloric diet may therefore be a good way to lose body weight . Breakfast cereals may be of special help with respect to folate status and serum homocysteine levels in overweight/obese young women following energy restriction diets Cereal consumption is a common dietary behavior that has been associated with positive health outcomes . The objective of this study was to examine prospect i ve associations between cereal intake in childhood and  percent body fat , waist-to-hip ratio , lipid levels , and physical activity  during late adolescence . In this longitudinal investigation ( data collected 1987 - 1997 ) , data were analyzed for the 2,379 girls who participated in the 10-year National Heart , Lung , and Blood Institute Growth and Health Study . The cumulative percent of days that each girl consumed cereal during childhood ( based on 3-day food diaries collected during six study visits between ages 11.5 and 18.6 years ) was examined in relation to percent body fat , waist-to-hip ratio , lipid levels , and physical activity measured at age 18.6 years . Results indicated that nearly all girls ( 90.1 % ) reported eating cereal and 18.7 % reported eating cereal on half or more of the days reported in the food diaries . Girls who ate cereal on a greater percentage of days during childhood had lower percent body fat and total cholesterol , and were more likely to exhibit high levels of physical activity and less television viewing during Study Year 10 ( P values<0.05 ) . Further research should explore lifestyle issues related to cereal consumption Objectives : The primary aim was to determine whether ready-to-eat cereal used as a portion-controlled , meal replacement promotes weight loss . Additional aims were to determine whether weight loss differed if the cereal was provided as a single br and or variety of br and s and whether this use of ready-to-eat cereal promotes continued weight loss following transition to a high-fiber , high-volume ( Volumetric ) diet . Methods : Body composition was measured and diet records , appetite question naires and activity logs were completed during baseline and end of intervention weeks 2 and 6 . Participants were assigned to one of four treatment groups . Group 1 ( 6 M , 22 F , mean age 43.0 ± 1.9 years , mean initial BMI 28.9 ± 0.4 kg/m2 ) consumed a serving of a single br and of ready-to-eat cereal with 2/3 C skim milk and a 100 Kcal portion of fruit for breakfast and as a replacement for either lunch or dinner for weeks 1 and 2 . No restrictions were placed on the non-cereal meal . They then followed the Volumetric diet for weeks 3 to 6 with a target energy restriction of 500 kcal/day . Group 2 ( 3 M , 25 F , mean age 40.9 ± 2.3 years , mean initial BMI 29.39 ± 0.6 kg/m2 ) followed the same protocol , but was permitted to select from a variety of ready-to-eat cereals during weeks 1 and 2 . Group 3 ( 7 M , 19 F , mean age 41.6 ± 2.4 years , mean initial BMI 29.3 ± 0.6 kg/m2 ) received no dietary instruction during the six-week study and Group 4 ( 9 M , 18 F , mean age 38.2 ± 2.8 years , mean initial BMI 29.3 ± 0.6 kg/m2 ) received no intervention prior to adoption of the Volumetric diet for weeks 3 to 6 . Results : The cereal interventions result ed in 640 ± 109 and 617 ± 105 kcal/day reductions of energy intake in Groups 1 and 2 , respectively , during the two-week cereal intervention . This led to comparable mean weight losses ( 1.91 ± 0.19 kg — Group 1 , 1.37 ± 0.15 kg — Group 2 ) that were significantly greater than that observed in Group 3 ( 0.08 ± 0.15 kg ) . The losses were primarily of fat mass . No significant changes of total body water were observed . Weight loss continued during the Volumetric diet in Groups 1 and 2 . The changes were comparable to those observed in Group 4 , and all were significantly greater than that of Group 3 . Self-reported hunger was slightly , but significantly higher than baseline in Groups 1 and 2 during the cereal intervention , but similar to baseline in Groups 1 , 2 and 3 during the Volumetric diet . Based on predicted weight loss , compliance with the Volumetric diet was similar and limited in all three intervention groups . Conclusions : Ready-to-eat cereals may be used to promote weight loss when consumed as a portion-controlled , meal replacement . Provision of a variety of br and s does not compromise efficacy . Weight losses may be maintained or increased after transition to the Volumetric diet . The later regimen effectively controls hunger and may lead to weight loss , but compliance is limited The authors prospect ively examined whether change in dietary glycemic index ( GI ) , glycemic load ( GL ) , fiber intake , or whole-grain intake during puberty is associated with concurrent change in percentage of body fat ( % BF ) or body mass index ( BMI ; weight (kg)/height)(2 ) . Linear mixed-effects regression analyses were performed in 215 participants from the Dortmund Nutritional and Anthropometric Longitudinally Design ed ( DONALD ) Study ( Dortmund , Germany ) who possessed weighed 3-day dietary records and anthropometric data at puberty onset ( defined by age at takeoff ) and over the subsequent 4 years ( 1988 - 2007 ) . Neither changes in dietary GI , GL , fiber intake , nor whole-grain intake were associated with concurrent changes in % BF throughout puberty ( change in % BF : -0.03 ( st and ard error ( SE ) , 0.11 ) per st and ard deviation ( SD ) increase in GI ( P = 0.8 ) ; -0.01 ( SE , 0.11 ) per SD increase in GL ( P = 0.9 ) ; 0.02 ( SE , 0.14 ) per SD increase in fiber intake ( P = 0.9 ) ; and 0.09 ( SE , 0.13 ) per SD increase in whole-grain intake ( P = 0.5 ) ) . Similarly , no concurrent associations were observed between these dietary factors and BMI SD scores . Associations of dietary GI with % BF and BMI SD score differed between overweight and normal-weight adolescents ( for concurrent association , P for interaction was 0.03 for % BF and 0.08 for BMI SD score ) . Dietary GI , GL , and fiber and whole-grain intakes in healthy , free-living adolescents do not appear to be relevant to the development of % BF or BMI during puberty OBJECTIVE Prospect i ve studies have suggested that substituting whole grain for refined grain products may lower the risk of overweight and obesity .  Breakfast cereal intake is a major source of 
    Output:
    
However , other findings cl aim that this association was only attributed to the consumption of whole-grain cereals and not the refined-grain ones .
Moreover , significant differences have been observed in composition among the marketed RTEC .