***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
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    Input: Objective To investigate the associations between intimate partner violence , rape  and  HIV among South African men . Design Cross-sectional study involving a r and omly-selected sample of men . Methods We tested hypotheses that perpetration of physical intimate partner violence and rape were associated with prevalent HIV infections in a cross-sectional household study of 1229 South African men aged 18–49 .  Violence perpetration was elicited in response to a question naire administered using an Audio-enhanced Personal Digital Assistant and blood sample s were tested for HIV . A multivariable logistic regression model was built to identify factors associated with HIV . Results 18.3 % of men had HIV . 29.6 % ( 358/1211 ) of men disclosed rape perpetration , 5.2 % ( 63/1208 ) rape in the past year and 30.7 % ( 362/1180 ) of had been physically violent towards an intimate partner more than once . Overall rape perpetration was not associated with HIV . The model of factors associated with having HIV showed men under 25 years who had been physically violent towards partners were more likely to have HIV than men under 25 who had not ( aOR 2.08 95 % CI 1.07–4.06 , p = 0.03 ) . We failed to detect any association in older men . Conclusions Perpetration of physical IPV is associated with HIV sero-prevalence in young men , after adjusting for other risk factors . This contributes to our underst and ing of why women who experience violence have a higher HIV prevalence . Rape perpetration was not associated , but the HIV prevalence among men who had raped was very high . HIV prevention in young men must seek to change ideals of masculinity in which male partner violence is rooted BACKGROUND This paper aims to describe factors associated with HIV sero-status in young , rural South African women and the relationship between intimate partner violence ( IPV ) and HIV . METHODS A total of 1295 sexually active female volunteers , aged 15 - 26 , from 70 villages were recruited to participate in a cluster r and omized controlled trial of an HIV behavioural intervention . The main measures were HIV sero-status , and IPV and sexual practice s measured using a question naire administered during baseline interviews . RESULTS About 12.4 % of women had HIV and 26.6 % had experienced more than one episode of physical or sexual IPV . After adjusting for age , HIV infection was associated with having three or more past year partners [ odds ratio ( OR ) 2.39 ; 95 % confidence interval ( 95 % CI ) 1.48 - 3.85 ] , sex in past 3 months ( OR 3.33 ; 95 % CI 1.87 - 5.94 ) , a partner three or more years older ( OR 1.69 ; 95 % CI 1.16 - 2.48 ) , and a more educated partner ( OR 1.91 ; 95 % CI 1.30 - 2.78 ) . IPV was associated with HIV in two-way analyses ( OR 1.56 ; 95 % CI 1.08 - 2.23 ) , but the effect was non-significant after adjusting for HIV risk behaviours . The experience of IPV was strongly associated with past year partner numbers , time of last sex , and partner 's education ; it was also marginally associated with partner age difference . Adverse experiences in childhood , including sexual abuse , increased the likelihood of having more past year partners ( OR 1.43 ; 95 % CI 1.21 - 1.69 ) . CONCLUSIONS IPV was strongly associated with most of the identified HIV risk factors . Our findings provide further evidence of links between IPV and HIV among women and the importance of joint prevention CONTEXT Women with multiple pregnancies in adolescence may experience medical , psychological and social complications . Improved underst and ing of the individual- , dyad- , family- , peer/community- and social system-level risk factors for repeat pregnancy may lead to the development of more effective prevention strategies for adolescent mothers in a variety of setting s. METHODS Between 1993 and 1996 , white , black and Mexican American adolescent mothers at a labor and delivery unit in Texas were interviewed after delivery and completed written surveys prospect ively for up to 48 months . Logistic regression analyses were used to determine predictors of repeat pregnancy within 24 months , using social ecological theory as a guide . RESULTS Forty-two percent of adolescent mothers experienced a repeat pregnancy within 24 months ; 73 % of these delivered a second child . Individual-level predictors were planning to have another baby within five years ( odds ratio , 1.6 ) and not using long-acting contraceptives within three months of delivery ( 2.4 ) . Dyad-level predictors were not being in a relationship with the father of the first child three months after delivery ( 2.0 ) , being more than three years younger than the first child 's father ( 1.6 ) and experiencing intimate partner violence within three months after delivery ( 1.9 ) . Peer/community-level predictors were not being in school three months postpartum ( 1.8 ) and having many friends who were adolescent parents ( 1.5 ) . CONCLUSION Adolescent mothers are at high risk for a rapid subsequent pregnancy . Interventions that address the complex and multifaceted aspects of the lives of adolescent mothers are needed to prevent repeat pregnancy Epidemiologists are aware that the estimated effect of an exposure can be biased if the investigator fails to adjust for confounding factors when analyzing either a prospect i ve or retrospective etiologic study . St and ard texts warn , however , that intervening factors are an exception : one should not adjust for any factor which is intermediate on the causal pathway between the exposure and the disease . Other factors which are not on the causal pathway but are caused in part by the exposure are often adjusted for in epidemiologic studies . This paper illustrates that bias can result when adjustment is made for any factor which is caused in part by the exposure under study and is also correlated with the outcome under study . Intervening variables are only one example of this phenomenon . The misleading effects of this practice are illustrated with examples OBJECTIVES We examined the efficacy of an HIV prevention intervention among African American female adolescents reporting a history of gender-based violence . METHODS In this analysis of a subgroup of participants involved in a r and omized controlled trial , consistent condom use , psychosocial mediators associated with HIV-preventive behaviors , and presence of sexually transmitted diseases were assessed at 6- and 12-month follow-ups . The intervention emphasized ethnic and gender pride , HIV knowledge , condom attitudes , healthy relationships , communication , and condom use skills . RESULTS Relative to the comparison condition , participants r and omized to the intervention reported using condoms more consistently , had fewer episodes of unprotected vaginal sex , engaged in a greater proportion of protected intercourse acts , were more likely to have used a condom during their most recent intercourse , were less likely to have a new sexual partner , were less likely to have a sexually transmitted disease , and demonstrated more proficient condom skills . CONCLUSIONS Given the substantial prevalence of gender-based violence among female adolescents and the associations observed between gender-based violence , HIV risk , and HIV infection , it is essential that HIV interventions involving young women address partner violence Objectives : To quantify the association between intimate partner violence ( IPV ) and incident HIV infection in women in the Rakai Community Cohort Study between 2000 and 2009 . Design and methods : Data were from the Rakai Community Cohort Study annual surveys between 2000 and 2009 . Longitudinal data analysis was used to estimate the adjusted incidence rate ratio ( IRR ) of incident HIV associated with IPV in sexually active women aged 15–49 years , using a multivariable Poisson regression model with r and om effects . The population attributable fraction was calculated . Putative mediators were assessed using Baron and Kenny 's criteria and the Sobel – Goodman test . Results : Women who had ever experienced IPV had an adjusted IRR of incident HIV infection of 1.55 ( 95 % CI 1.25–1.94 , P = 0.000 ) , compared with women who had never experienced IPV . Risk of HIV infection tended to be greater for longer duration of IPV exposure and for women exposed to more severe and more frequent IPV . The adjusted population attributable fraction of incident HIV attributable to IPV was 22.2 % ( 95 % CI 12.5–30.4 ) . There was no evidence that either condom use or number of sex partners in the past year mediated the relationship between IPV and HIV . Conclusion : IPV is associated with incident HIV infection  in a population -based cohort in Ug and a , although the adjusted population attributable fraction is modest . The prevention of IPV should be a public health priority , and could contribute to HIV prevention Mpumalanga Province , South Africa has one of the highest HIV/AIDS diagnosis rates among pregnant women ( ~29.4 % ) . This study sought to enhance male involvement in pregnancy to increase HIV disclosure , sexual communication , HIV knowledge and reduce unprotected sex .  Participants attending Antenatal Clinics ( ANC ) completed HIV counseling and testing and were enrolled with male partners ( n=239 couples , 478 individuals ) . Twelve ANCs were r and omly assigned to provide a prevention of mother-to-child transmission ( PMTCT ) intervention or the st and ard of care , health education sessions plus PMTCT . Participants were assessed at baseline and post-intervention ( approximately 6–8 weeks post-baseline ) on demographics , sexual behavior , HIV-related knowledge , and conflict resolution strategies . Experimental participants increased HIV knowledge , use of negotiation , and decreased intimate partner violence . Additionally , they were more likely to have increased condom use from baseline to post-intervention ( OR=5.1 , 95 % CI=[2.0 , 13.3 ] ) . Seroconversions in the control condition exceeded experimental ( 6 vs. 0 ) . HIV serostatus disclosure to partner did not increase over time for men or women within the experimental or control condition . Male involvement in pregnancy may be an important strategy to reduce sexual risk behavior and HIV transmission . Results support the utility of group interventions to enhance communication and HIV knowledge among pregnant couples Background  Intimate partner violence ( IPV ) against women is a global public health and human rights concern . Despite a growing body of research into risk factors for IPV , method ological differences limit the extent to which comparisons can be made between studies . We used data from ten countries included in the WHO Multi-country Study on Women 's Health and Domestic Violence to identify factors that are consistently associated with abuse across sites , in order to inform the design of IPV prevention programs . Methods St and ardised population -based household surveys were done between 2000 and 2003 . One woman aged 15 - 49 years was r and omly selected from each sample d household . Those who had ever had a male partner were asked about their experiences of physically and sexually violent acts . We performed multivariate logistic regression to identify predictors of physical and /or sexual partner violence within the past 12 months . Results Despite wide variations in the prevalence of IPV , many factors affected IPV risk similarly across sites . Secondary education , high SES , and formal marriage offered protection , while alcohol abuse , cohabitation , young age , attitudes supportive of wife beating , having outside sexual partners , experiencing childhood abuse , growing up with domestic violence , and experiencing or perpetrating other forms of violence in adulthood , increased the risk of IPV . The strength of the association was greatest when both the woman and her partner had the risk factor . Conclusions IPV prevention programs should increase focus on transforming gender norms and attitudes , addressing childhood abuse , and reducing harmful drinking . Development initiatives to improve access to education for girls and boys may also have an important role in violence prevention Intimate partner violence ( IPV ) has been recognized as a risk factor for HIV and sexually transmitted infections ( STIs ) among women , particularly among those who are drug involved . This study examines the temporal relationships between sexual and /or physical partner violence ( IPV ) and sexual risk of HIV/STI transmission in a longitudinal study with a r and om sample of 416 women enrolled in methadone maintenance treatment programs in New York City . Two hypotheses are tested : whether sexual risk-related factors or risk reduction behavior leads to subsequent IPV ( H1 ) ; and whether IPV decreases likelihood of subsequent risk reduction behavior ( i.e. , requesting to use condoms ) or increases likelihood of certain sexual risk-related factors ( i.e. , inconsistent condom use , having unprotected anal sex , having more than one partner , exchanging sex for drugs or money , having had an STI , being HIV positive , having a partner who engaged in HIV risk ) ( H2 ) . Participants were interviewed at three waves : baseline , six months and twelve months . Hypotheses were examined using propensity score matching and multiple logistic regression analyses . The prevalence rate of any physical or sexual IPV was 46 % at baseline . Findings for H1 indicate that women who reported always using condoms at wave 2 were significantly less likely than women who reported inconsistent or no condom use to experience subsequent IPV at wave 3 . Similarly , increased risk of IPV at wave 3 was associated with self-reported STIs ( OR=2.0 , p=.03 ) , and unprotected anal sex ( OR= 2.0 , p<.01 ) ; always requesting that partners use condoms was associated with a significant decrease in subsequent IPV ( OR=.18 , p<.01 ) . Findings for H2 suggest that IPV at wave 2 decreased the subsequent likelihood of always using condoms at wave 3 ( OR=.41 , p<.01 ) and always requesting that a partner use condoms ( OR=.42 , p=.02 ) . The implication s of the findings for HIV prevention interventions 
    Output:
    
IPV is associated with a reduction in women 's use of contraception ; women who experience IPV are less likely to report using condoms with their male partners .