***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: In the current work we asked whether executive function , as measured by tests of working memory capacity , might benefit from an acute bout of exercise and , more specifically , whether individuals who are lower or higher in working memory to begin with would be more or less affected by an exercise manipulation . Healthy adults completed working memory measures in a nonexercise ( baseline ) session and immediately following a 30-min self-paced bout of exercise on a treadmill ( exercise session ) . Sessions were conducted 1 week apart and session order was counterbalanced across participants . A significant Session x Working Memory interaction was obtained such that only those individuals lowest in working memory benefited from the exercise manipulation . This work suggests that acute bouts of exercise may be most beneficial for healthy adults whose cognitive performance is generally the lowest , and it demonstrates that the impact of exercise on cognition is not uniform across all individuals The effects of acute aerobic exercise on cognitive functions in humans have been the subject of much investigation ; however , these studies are limited by several factors , including a lack of r and omized controlled design s , focus on only a single cognitive function , and testing during or shortly after exercise . Using a r and omized controlled design , the present study asked how a single bout of aerobic exercise affects a range of frontal- and medial temporal lobe-dependent cognitive functions and how long these effects last . We r and omly assigned 85 subjects to either a vigorous intensity acute aerobic exercise group or a video watching control group .  All subjects completed a battery of cognitive tasks both before and 30 , 60 , 90 , or 120 min after the intervention . This battery included the  Hopkins Verbal Learning Test-Revised , the Modified Benton Visual Retention Test , the Stroop Color and Word Test , the Symbol Digit Modalities Test , the Digit Span Test , the Trail Making Test , and the Controlled Oral Word Association Test . Based on these measures , composite scores were formed to independently assess prefrontal cortex- and hippocampal-dependent cognition . A three-way mixed Analysis of Variance was used to determine whether differences existed between groups in the change in cognitive function from pre- to post-intervention testing . Acute exercise improved prefrontal cortex- but not hippocampal-dependent functioning , with no differences found between delay groups . Vigorous acute aerobic exercise has beneficial effects on prefrontal cortex-dependent cognition and these effects can last for up to 2 hr after exercise Cognitive dysfunction has been repeatedly observed in major depressive disorder ( MDD ) , particularly in areas of attention , verbal and nonverbal learning and memory , and executive functioning . Exercise has been shown to improve cognitive outcomes in other population s , including age-associated cognitive decline , but has not to our knowledge been investigated as an augmentation strategy in depression . This study evaluated the effectiveness of exercise augmentation on cognitive performance in persons with MDD and residual symptoms that included cognitive complaints following initial treatment with a selective  serotonin reuptake  inhibitor ( SSRI ) . Participants enrolled in the Treatment with Exercise Augmentation for Depression ( TREAD ) study were r and omized to receive either a low or high dose exercise regimen . TREAD participants who provided informed consent for the current study completed Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery measures assessing Attention , Visual Memory , Executive Function/Set-shifting and Working Memory , and Executive Function/Spatial Planning domains . Data were analyzed for 39 participants completing both baseline and Week 12 cognitive testing . Overall tests indicated a significant task × group × time interaction for the Executive Function/Set-shifting and Working Memory domain . Post-hoc tests indicated improvements in high dose exercisers ' spatial working memory , but decreases in spatial working memory and set-shifting outcomes in low dose exercisers . Both groups improved on measures of psychomotor speed , attention , visual memory and spatial planning . This study suggests a dose-response effect of exercise in specific executive function and working memory tasks among depressed persons with a partial response to SSRI and cognitive complaints , with some cognitive functions improving regardless of exercise dose Persistent long-term memory depends on successful stabilization and integration of new memories after initial encoding [ 1 , 2 ] . This consolidation process is thought to require neuromodulatory factors such as dopamine , noradrenaline , and brain-derived neurotrophic factor [ 3 - 7 ] . Without the release of such factors around the time of encoding , memories will decay rapidly [ 3 , 5 , 6 , 8 ] . Recent studies have shown that physical exercise acutely stimulates the release of several consolidation-promoting factors in humans [ 9 - 14 ] , raising the question of whether physical exercise can be used to improve memory retention [ 15 - 17 ] . Here , we used a single session of physical exercise after learning to exogenously boost memory consolidation and thus long-term memory .  Three groups of r and omly assigned participants first encoded a set of picture-location associations . Afterward , one group performed exercise immediately , one 4 hr later , and the third did not perform any exercise . Participants otherwise underwent exactly the same procedures to control for potential experimental confounds . Forty-eight hours later , participants returned for a cued-recall test in a magnetic resonance scanner . With this design , we could investigate the impact of acute exercise on memory consolidation and retrieval-related neural processing . We found that performing exercise 4 hr , but not immediately , after encoding improved the retention of picture-location associations compared to the no-exercise control group . Moreover , performing exercise after a delay was associated with increased hippocampal pattern similarity for correct responses during delayed retrieval . Our results suggest that appropriately timed physical exercise can improve long-term memory and highlight the potential of exercise as an intervention in educational and clinical setting OBJECTIVE Physical exercise has been linked to higher cognitive functioning and enhanced brain plasticity in aging humans . The most consistent positive effects have been reported for executive functions associated with frontal brain regions . In rodents , however , running has been shown to induce functional and structural changes in the hippocampus , a brain region known to be important for memory . It is still a matter of debate which cognitive functions are susceptible to exercise and whether an increase in cardiovascular fitness is beneficial for cognitive functioning . Moreover , little is known about the impact of exercise on cognition in middle-aged humans . METHOD Sixty-eight sedentary men and women between 40 and 56 years of age were r and omly assigned to one of two training programs : aerobic endurance training ( cycling ) or nonendurance training ( stretching/coordination ) . Both groups exercised twice a week for six months . Additionally , a sedentary control group was tested . At baseline and after six months , episodic memory , perceptual speed , executive functions , and spatial reasoning were assessed with st and ardized psychometric tests , and all participants underwent a cardiovascular fitness test . RESULTS Significant improvements in memory were observed in both the cycling and the stretching/coordination group as compared with the sedentary control group . The improvement in episodic memory correlated positively with the increase in cardiovascular fitness . The stretching/coordination training particularly improved selective attention as compared with the cycling training . CONCLUSIONS The results suggest that cardiovascular fitness has beneficial effects even in high-functioning middle-aged participants , but that these benefits are very specific to memory functions rather than a wider range of cognitive functions Cognitive training has received a lot of attention recently , yielding findings that can be conflicting and controversial . In this paper , we present a novel approach to cognitive training based on complex motor activities . In a r and omized controlled design , participants were assigned to one of three conditions : aerobic exercise , working memory training or design ed sport -- an intervention specifically tailored to include both physical and cognitive dem and s. After training for eight weeks , the  design ed sport group showed the largest gains in all cognitive measures , illustrating the efficacy of complex motor activities to enhance cognition . Design ed sport training also revealed impressive health benefits , namely decreased heart rate and blood pressure . In this period of skepticism over the efficacy of computerized cognitive training , we discuss the potential of ecological interventions targeting both cognition and physical fitness , and propose some possible applications This condensed review gives an overview about two method ological approaches to study the impact of physical activity on cognition in elderly , namely cross-sectional studies and r and omized controlled intervention studies with pre- and post- measures . Moreover , this review includes studies investigating different types of physical activity and their relation to cognitive functions in older age .  Behavioral data are considered but the main focus lies on neuroscientific methods like event-related potentials ( ERPs ) and functional magnetic resonance imaging ( fMRI ) This is the first r and omized , controlled study comparing the cognitive effects of transcranial laser stimulation and acute aerobic exercise on the same cognitive tasks . We examined whether transcranial infrared laser stimulation of the prefrontal cortex , acute high-intensity aerobic exercise , or the combination may enhance performance in sustained attention and working memory tasks .  Sixty healthy young adults were r and omly assigned to one of the following four treatments : ( 1 ) low-level laser therapy ( LLLT ) with infrared laser to two forehead sites while seated ( total 8 min , 1064 nm continuous wave , 250 mW/cm2 , 60 J/cm2 per site of 13.6 cm2 ) ; ( 2 ) acute exercise ( EX ) of high-intensity ( total 20 min , with 10-min treadmill running at 85–90 % VO2max ) ; ( 3 ) combined treatment ( LLLT + EX ) ; or ( 4 ) sham control ( CON ) . Participants were tested for prefrontal measures of sustained attention with the psychomotor vigilance task ( PVT ) and working memory with the delayed match-to- sample task ( DMS ) before and after the treatments . As compared to CON , both LLLT and EX reduced reaction time in the PVT [ F(1.56 ) = 4.134 , p = 0.01 , η2 = 0.181 ] and increased the number of correct responses in the DMS [ F(1.56 ) = 4.690 , p = 0.005 , η2 = 0.201 ] , demonstrating a significant enhancing effect of LLLT and EX on cognitive performance . LLLT + EX effects were similar but showed no significantly greater improvement on PVT and DMS than LLLT or EX alone . The transcranial infrared laser stimulation and acute aerobic exercise treatments were similarly effective for cognitive enhancement , suggesting that they augment prefrontal cognitive functions similarly OBJECTIVE To simultaneously examine the effects of acute exercise intensity and free-living physical activity and sedentary behavior on cognitive function in young , healthy adults . PATIENTS AND METHODS Using a counterbalanced , crossover , r and omized controlled design , 87 young adults ( mean age , 21.4 years ) completed various cognitive assessment s with and without an acute bout of exercise preceding the assessment . Participants were r and omized into 1 of 4 groups to complete a 30-minute bout of acute exercise : control ( no exercise ) , light intensity ( 40%-50 % of predicted maximum heart rate [ HR(max ) ] ) , moderate intensity ( 51%-70 % of predicted HR(max ) ) , or vigorous intensity ( 71%-85 % of predicted HR(max ) ) . Subjectively and objective ly determined ( accelerometry ) physical activity and sedentary behavior were assessed to examine the association between these free-living behaviors and cognitive function . The study duration was August 26 , 2013 , to September 11 , 2014 . RESULTS Concentration-related cognition ( mean ± SD Feature Match test score ) was significantly higher after a 30-minute acute bout of moderate-intensity exercise ( 145.1±26.9 ) compared with cognitive assessment without exercise ( 121.3±19.2 ; P=.004 ) . Furthermore , question naire-determined sedentary behavior was inversely associated with visual attention and task switching ( Trail Making Test A score ) ( β=-0.23 ; P=.04 ) . Last , estimated cardiorespiratory fitness ( volume of maximum oxygen consumption ) was positively associated with reasoning-related cognitive function ( Odd One Out test score ) ( β=0.49 ; P=.05 ) ; when adding metabolic equivalent of task minutes per week to this model , the results were not significant ( β=0.47 ; P=.07 ) . CONCLUSION These findings provide some support for acute moderate-intensity exercise , sedentary behavior , and cardiorespiratory fitness being associated with executive functioning-related cognitive function in young , healthy adults In this study , we tested the effect of acute exercise on long-term memory , specifically the timing of exercise relative to the memory challenge . We assessed memory via paragraph recall , in which participants listened to two paragraphs ( exposure ) and recounted them following a 35-min delay . Participants ( n = 48 ) were r and omly assigned to one of three groups : exercise prior to exposure , exercise after exposure , or no-exercise . Exercise consisted of 30 min on a cycle ergometer , including 20 min at moderate intensity . Only the exercise-prior group recalled significantly more than the control group ( p < .05 ) . Differences among the exercise groups failed to reach significance ( p = .09 ) . Results indicated that acute exercise positively influenced recall and that exercise timing relative to memory task may have an impact on this effect There is a paucity of methods for improving the affective experience of exercise . We tested a novel method based on discoveries about the relation between exercise intensity and pleasure , and lessons from behavioral economics . We examined the effect of reversing the slope of pleasure during exercise from negative to positive on pleasure and enjoyment , remembered pleasure , and forecasted pleasure .  Forty-six adults were r and omly assigned to a 15-min bout of recumbent cycling of either increasing intensity ( 0 - 120 % of watts corresponding to the ventilatory threshold ) or decreasing intensity ( 120 - 0 % ) . Ramping intensity down , thereby eliciting a positive slope of pleasure during exercise , improved postexercise pleasure and enjoyment , 
    Output:
    
Conclusion : Acute and chronic exercise appears to play a pronounced effect on memory function  among young to middle-aged adults .