***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: The purpose of this study was to compare the rate of gastric emptying of 20 g.l-1 ( 2 G ) , 40 g.l-1 ( 4 G ) , and 60 g.l-1 ( 6 G ) glucose solutions with that of water ( W ) . On separate occasions in r and omized order , a 600-ml test solution was instilled into the stomach of each of six healthy male volunteers .  Gastric emptying was measured at 10-min intervals for 1 h by a double sampling gastric aspiration method that allowed the volume of test drink and of the gastric secretion present in the stomach to be measured at each time point . All solutions emptied rapidly and followed an exponential emptying pattern . The 20 g.l-1 glucose solution was emptied at the same rate as water . After the first 10 min of rapid emptying , 4 G and 6 G were emptied slower ( P < 0.05 ) than water . 6 G delivered more ( P < 0.05 ) glucose to the small intestine than 4 G , and 4 G delivered more glucose than 2 G . The results indicate that a 20 g.l-1 glucose solution has no effect on gastric emptying compared with water , but that after the first 10 min of rapid emptying , glucose solutions at a concentration of 40 g.l-1 or more delay gastric emptying To verify the influence of food consistency on satiety mechanisms we evaluated the effects of the same meal in solid-liquid ( SM ) and homogenized ( HM ) form on satiety sensation , gastric emptying rate and plasma cholecystokinin ( CCK ) concentration .  Eight healthy men , aged 21 - 28 ( mean 24.5 ) years were given two meals ( cooked vegetables 250 g , cheese 35 g , croutons 50 g and olive oil 25 g , total energy 2573 kJ , with water 300 ml ) differing only in physical state : SM and HM . The subjects consumed the meals in r and omized order on non-consecutive days . The sensations of fullness , satiety and desire to eat were evaluated by means of a question naire , gastric emptying was assessed by ultrasonographic measurement of antral area , and plasma CCK concentration was measured by radioimmunoassay . The vegetable-rich meal was significantly more satiating ( P < 0.05 ) when in the HM form than when eaten in a SM state . Furthermore , the overall gastric emptying time was significantly slowed ( 255 ( SEM 11 ) min after HM v. 214 ( SEM 12 ) min after SM ; P < 0.05 ) and CCK peak occurred later ( 94 ( SEM 12 ) min after HM v. 62 ( SEM 11 ) min after SM ; NS ) when the food was consumed in the HM form . Independently of the type of meal , antral area was significantly related to fullness sensations ( r2 0.46 , P = 0.004 ) . These results demonstrate that meal consistency is an important physical food characteristic which influences both gastric emptying rate and satiety sensation . Moreover , the relationship observed between antral area and fullness sensation confirms that antral distension plays a part in the regulation of eating behaviour Postpr and ial lipaemia may lead to an increase in oxidative stress , inducing endothelial dysfunction . Exercise can slow gastric emptying rates , moderating postpr and ial lipaemia . The purpose of this study was to determine if moderate exercise , prior to fat ingestion , influences gastrointestinal transit , lipaemia , oxidative stress and arterial wall function . Eight apparently healthy males ( age 23.6 ± 2.8 yrs ; height 181.4 ± 8.1 cm ; weight 83.4 ± 16.2 kg ; all data mean ± SD ) participated in the r and omised , crossover design , where ( i ) subjects ingested a high-fat meal alone ( control ) , and ( ii ) ingested a high-fat meal , preceded by 1 h of moderate exercise . Pulse Wave Velocity ( PWV ) was examined at baseline , post-exercise , and in the postpr and ial period . Gastric emptying was measured using the 13C-octanoic acid breath test . Measures of venous blood were obtained prior to and following exercise and at 2 , 4 and 6 hours post-ingestion . PWV increased ( 6.5 ± 1.9 m/sec ) at 2 ( 8.9 ± 1.7 m/sec ) and 4 hrs ( 9.0 ± 1.6 m/sec ) post-ingestion in the control group ( time × group interaction , P < 0.05 ) . PWV was increased at 2 hrs post-ingestion in the control compared to the exercise trial ; 8.9 ± 1.7 vs. 6.2 ± 1.5 m/sec ( time × group interaction , P < 0.05 ) . Lipid hydroperoxides increased over time ( pooled exercise and control data , P < 0.05 ) . Serum triacylglycerols were elevated postpr and ially ( pooled exercise and control data , P < 0.05 ) . There were no changes in gastric emptying , cholesterol , or C-reactive protein levels . These data suggest that acute exercise prior to the consumption of a high-fat meal has the potential to reduce vascular impairments Gastric emptying , as well as intragastric meal distribution , and gastrointestinal hormones , including cholecystokinin ( CCK ) , play an important role in appetite regulation . The evaluation of gastrointestinal factors regulating food intake is commonly performed in healthy , lean , young male participants . It has , however , been suggested that there is a marked interindividual variability in the effects of nutrient ' preloads ' on energy intake in this group . Whether there is significant intraindividual variation in acute energy intake after a nutrient preload , and , if so , how this relates to day-to-day differences in gastric emptying and gastrointestinal hormone release , is unclear . The purpose of the present paper is to evaluate the hypothesis that energy intake after a nutrient preload would be reproducible and associated with reproducible patterns of gastric emptying , intragastric distribution and gastrointestinal hormone release .  Fifteen healthy men ( age 25 ( sem 5 ) years ) consumed a glucose preload ( 50 g glucose in 300 ml water ; 815 kJ ) on three occasions . Gastric emptying and intragastric meal distribution ( using  three-dimensional ultrasound )  , blood glucose , plasma insulin and CCK concentrations and appetite perceptions were evaluated over 90 min , and energy intake from a cold buffet-style meal was then quantified . Energy intake was highly reproducible within individuals between visits ( intraclass correlation coefficient , ri = 0.9 ) . Gastric emptying , intragastric meal distribution , blood glucose , plasma insulin and CCK concentrations and appetite perceptions did not differ between visits ( ri>0.7 for all ) . In healthy males , energy intake is highly reproducible , at least in the short term , and is associated with reproducible patterns of gastric emptying , glycaemia , insulinaemia and CCK release The factors influencing appetite in humans are poorly understood . There is a weak relation between appetite and gastric emptying in normal subjects . Recent studies have shown that fasting and postpr and ial antral areas increase in patients with functional dyspepsia compared with normal subjects . We evaluated the hypothesis that antral area , and hence antral distention , is a significant determinant of postpr and ial fullness . Fourteen normal subjects had simultaneous measurements of  gastric emptying by scintigraphy and antral area by ultrasound after ingestion of 350 mL 20 % glucose .  Fullness and hunger were assessed by visual analog scales . Measurements of the gastric-emptying half time ( t1/2 ) by scintigraphy and ultrasound were not significantly different ( 129.6 + /- 11.8 min compared with 115.6 + /- 11.4 min ) . Fullness increased ( P < 0.001 ) and hunger decreased ( P < 0.001 ) after the drink . Both fullness and the magnitude of the increase in fullness after the drink were related to antral area ( r > 0.56 , P < 0.05 ) , the increase in antral area ( r > 0.59 , P < 0.05 ) , and the scintigraphic content of the distal stomach ( r > 0.57 , P < 0.05 ) , but not to the ultrasound or scintigraphic t1/2 values . In contrast , hunger and the magnitude of the decrease in hunger after the drink were not related to either antral area , the increase in antral area , or the rate of gastric emptying . We conclude that postpr and ial fullness , but not hunger , was closely related to antral distention in normal subjects The evaluation of agents potentially accelerating gastric emptying in gastric stasis syndromes is time-consuming . Since a previous study showed that emptying is slowed after antecedent fat ingestion and intravenous cisapride abolishes this effect , we investigated whether emptying delayed by fat incorporated into a meal is reversed by cisapride and thus could serve as a model for such evaluations . Twelve healthy males received , under double-blind conditions , 30 mg cisapride rectally or placebo , and 3 hr thereafter a semisolid meal of low ( 9.2 g ) or high ( 37.9 g ) fat content . The sequence of combinations placebo/low-fat meal , placebo/high-fat meal , and cisapride/high-fat meal was r and omized . Gastric emptying and antral motility were recorded scintigraphically . After placebo/high-fat , emptying was significantly slower ( P<0.05 ) than after placebo/low-fat . After cisapride/high-fat , emptying was significantly faster ( P<0.01 ) than after placebo/high-fat and similar to that after placebo/low-fat .  Antral motility was little affected . The slow emptying of a high-fat meal thus seems a suitable model for the evaluation of prokinetic drug effects BACKGROUND The performance of exercise while immersed in cold water has been shown to influence energy intake in the subsequent meal . However , the effect of ambient temperature during l and -based exercise is not known . OBJECTIVES Our aims were to investigate the effect of exercise performed in the heat on energy intake in the subsequent meal and to determine concentrations of circulating appetite-related hormones . DESIGN In a r and omized , counterbalanced design , 11 active male participants completed 3 experimental trials in a fasted state : exercise in the heat ( 36 degrees C ) , exercise in a neutral temperature ( 25 degrees C ) , and a resting control ( 25 degrees C ) . The exercise trials consisted of treadmill running for 40 min at 70 % VO(2peak ) . After each trial , participants were presented with a buffet-type breakfast of precisely known quantity and nutrient composition , which they could consume ad libitum . RESULTS Energy intake was greater after exercise in the neutral temperature compared with the control ( P = 0.021 ) but was similar between exercise in the heat and the control and between the 2 exercise trials . When accounting for the excess energy expended during exercise , relative energy intake during exercise in the heat was lower than the control ( P = 0.002 ) but was similar between exercise in the neutral temperature and the control and between exercise in the heat and in the neutral temperature . The lower relative energy intake after exercise in the heat was associated with an elevated tympanic temperature and circulating concentrations of peptide YY ( P < 0.05 ) . CONCLUSION Exercise in a neutral environmental temperature is associated with higher energy intake in the subsequent meal compared with a control , whereas exercise in the heat is not Resistance ( muscle strengthening ) exercise is a key component of exercise recommendations for weight control , yet very little is known about the effects of resistance exercise on appetite . We investigated the effects of resistance and aerobic exercise on hunger and circulating levels of the gut hormones acylated ghrelin and peptide YY ( PYY ) .  Eleven healthy male students : age 21.1 + /- 0.3 yr , body mass index 23.1 + /- 0.4 kg/m(2 ) , maximum oxygen uptake 62.1 + /- 1.8 ml.kg(-1).min(-1 ) ( means + /- SE ) undertook three , 8-h trials , 1 ) resistance exercise : a 90-min free weight lifting session followed by a 6.5-h rest period , 2 ) aerobic exercise : a 60-min run followed by a 7-h rest period , 3 ) control : an 8-h rest , in a r and omized crossover design . Meals were provided 2 and 5 h into each trial . Hunger ratings and plasma concentrations of acylated ghrelin and PYY were measured throughout . Two-way ANOVA revealed significant ( P < 0.05 ) interaction effects for hunger , acylated ghrelin , and PYY , indicating suppressed hunger and acylated ghrelin during aerobic and resistance exercise and increased PYY during aerobic exercise . A significant trial effect was observed for PYY , indicating higher concentrations on the aerobic exercise trial than the other trials ( 8 h area under the curve : control 1,411 + /- 110 , resistance 1,381 + /- 97 , aerobic 1,750 + /- 170 
    Output:
    
There was a dose response of exercise intensity ; at lower intensities GE was faster , and at high exercise intensities GE was slower .
Walking was associated with faster GE and cycling with slower GE .
Greater volume of meal/fluid ingested , higher osmolality of beverage and longer exercise duration were also associated with slower GE with exercise .
Conclusions These results suggest that exercise intensity , mode , duration and the nature of meal/fluid ingested all influence GE during and after acute exercise .