***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: Cognitive training has been shown to improve performance on a range of tasks . However , the mechanisms underlying these improvements are still unclear . Given the wide range of transfer effects , it is likely that these effects are due to a factor common to a wide range of tasks . One such factor is a participant 's efficiency in allocating limited cognitive re sources . The impact of a cognitive training program , Processing Speed Training ( PST ) , on the allocation of re sources to a set of visual tasks was measured using pupillometry in 10 young adults as compared to a control group of a 10 young adults ( n = 20 ) .  PST is a well-studied computerized training program that involves identifying simultaneously presented central and peripheral stimuli . As training progresses , the task becomes increasingly more difficult , by including peripheral distracting stimuli and decreasing the duration of stimulus presentation . Analysis of baseline data confirmed that pupil diameter reflected cognitive effort . After training , participants r and omized to PST used fewer attentional re sources to perform complex visual tasks as compared to the control group . These pupil diameter data indicated that PST appears to increase the efficiency of attentional re source allocation . Increases in cognitive efficiency have been hypothesized to underlie improvements following experience with action video games , and improved cognitive efficiency has been hypothesized to underlie the benefits of PST in older adults . These data reveal that these training schemes may share a common underlying mechanism of increasing cognitive efficiency in younger adults OBJECTIVES To investigate the efficacy of a novel brain plasticity-based computerized cognitive training program in older adults and to evaluate the effect on untrained measures of memory and attention and participant-reported outcomes . DESIGN Multisite r and omized controlled double-blind trial with two treatment groups . SETTING Communities in northern and southern California and Minnesota . PARTICIPANTS Community-dwelling adults aged 65 and older ( N=487 ) without a diagnosis of clinical ly significant cognitive impairment . INTERVENTION Participants were r and omized to receive a broadly-available brain plasticity-based computerized cognitive training program ( intervention ) or a novelty- and intensity-matched general cognitive stimulation program modeling treatment as usual ( active control ) . Duration of training was 1 hour per day , 5 days per week , for 8 weeks , for a total of 40 hours . MEASUREMENTS The primary outcome was a composite score calculated from six subtests of the Repeatable Battery for the Assessment of Neuropsychological Status that use the auditory modality ( RBANS Auditory Memory/Attention ) . Secondary measures were derived from performance on the experimental program , st and ardized neuropsychological assessment s of memory and attention , and participant-reported outcomes . RESULTS RBANS Auditory Memory/Attention improvement was significantly greater ( P=.02 ) in the experimental group ( 3.9 points , 95 % confidence interval (CI)=2.7 - 5.1 ) than in the control group ( 1.8 points , 95 % CI=0.6 - 3.0 ) . Multiple secondary measures of memory and attention showed significantly greater improvements in the experimental group ( word list total score , word list delayed recall , digits backwards , letter-number sequencing ; P<.05 ) , as did the participant-reported outcome measure ( P=.001 ) . No advantage for the experimental group was seen in narrative memory . CONCLUSION The experimental program improved generalized measures of memory and attention more than an active control program Background and Objectives : Brief cognitive tests to monitor cognitive impairment in patients with multiple sclerosis ( MS ) are needed . Methods : Performance on monthly administrations of the Symbol Digit Modalities Test ( SDMT ) and the MS Neuropsychological Question naire ( MSNQ ) was assessed in 660 patients with MS in 21 countries ( 109 sites ) for 48 weeks in an open-label , safety-extension study of natalizumab . Results : At baseline , the cohort ’s mean age was 40.1 years , 67.6 % were female and the median Exp and ed Disability Status Scale score was 2.5 . Test — retest correlations were high for both SDMT ( range 0.89 for weeks 0—4 to 0.96 for weeks 44—48 ) and MSNQ ( 0.82 for weeks 0—4 to 0.93 for weeks 44—48 ) . There were no statistically significant effects of geographic region . While SDMT scores improved by 15 points over 48 weeks ( p < 0.0001 ) , incremental monthly changes were small ( effect size d < 0.3 ) . Similar results were obtained on the MSNQ except that scores moved downward , suggesting fewer cognitive complaints over 48 weeks ( p < 0.0001 ) , but again the incremental monthly changes were small ( d < -0.2 ) . Conclusions : These results replicate earlier work in a smaller cohort treated with conventional disease-modifying therapy , and support the reliability of the SDMT and MSNQ as potential screening for monitoring tools for cognition over time The current study investigated the effect of video game training on older adult 's useful field of view performance ( the UFOV ® test ) . Fifty-eight older adult participants were r and omized to receive practice with the target action game ( Medal of Honor ) , a placebo control arcade game ( Tetris ) , a clinical ly vali date d UFOV training program , or into a no contact control group . Examining pretest-posttest change in selective visual attention , the UFOV improved significantly more than the game groups ; all three intervention groups improved significantly more than no-contact controls . There was a lack of difference between the two game conditions , differing from findings with younger adults . Discussion considers whether games posing less challenge might still be effective interventions for elders , and whether optimal training dosages should be higher PURPOSE To examine how cognitive speed of processing training affects driving mobility across a 3-year period among older drivers . DESIGN AND METHODS Older drivers with poor Useful Field of View ( UFOV ) test performance ( indicating greater risk for subsequent at-fault crashes and mobility declines ) were r and omly assigned to either a speed of processing training or a social and computer contact control group . Driving mobility of these 2 groups was compared with a group of older adults who did not score poorly on the UFOV test ( reference group ) across a 3-year period . RESULTS Older drivers with poor UFOV test scores  who did not receive training experienced greater mobility declines as evidence d by decreased driving exposure and space and increased driving difficulty at 3 years . Those at risk for mobility decline who received training did not differ across the 3-year period from older adults in the reference group with regard to driving exposure , space , and most aspects of driving difficulty . IMPLICATION S Cognitive speed of processing training can not only improve cognitive performance but also protect against mobility declines among older drivers . Scientifically proven cognitive training regimens have the potential to enhance the everyday lives of older adults PURPOSE To examine whether older adults with vision impairment differentially benefit from cognitive speed of processing training ( SPT ) relative to healthy older adults . METHODS Secondary data analyses were conducted from a r and omised trial on the effects of SPT  among older adults . The effects of vision impairment as indicated by ( 1 ) near visual acuity , ( 2 ) contrast sensitivity , ( 3 ) self-reported cataracts and ( 4 ) self-reported other eye conditions ( e.g. , glaucoma , macular degeneration , diabetic retinopathy , optic neuritis , and retinopathy ) among participants r and omised to either SPT or a social- and computer-contact control group  was assessed . The primary outcome was Useful Field of View Test ( UFOV ) performance . RESULTS Mixed repeated- measures ancovas demonstrated that those r and omized to SPT experienced greater baseline to post-test improvements in UFOV performance relative to controls ( p 's < 0.001 ) , regardless of impairments in near visual acuity , contrast sensitivity or presence of cataracts . Those with other eye conditions significantly benefitted from training ( p = 0.044 ) , but to a lesser degree than those without such conditions . Covariates included age and baseline measures of balance and depressive symptoms , which were significantly correlated with baseline UFOV performance . CONCLUSIONS Among a community-based sample of older adults with and without visual impairment and eye disease , the SPT intervention was effective in enhancing participants ' UFOV performance . The analyses presented here indicate the potential for SPT to enhance UFOV performance among a community-based sample of older adults with visual impairment and potentially for some with self-reported eye disease ; further research to explore this area is warranted , particularly to determine the effects of eye diseases on SPT benefits Introduction Cognitive training improves cognitive performance and delays functional impairment , but its effects on dementia are not known . We examined whether three different types of cognitive training lowered the risk of dementia across 10 years of follow-up relative to control and if greater number of training sessions attended was associated with lower dementia risk . Methods The Advanced Cognitive Training in Vital Elderly ( NCT00298558 ) study was a r and omized controlled trial ( N = 2802 ) among initially healthy older adults , which examined the efficacy of three cognitive training programs ( memory , reasoning , or speed of processing ) relative to a no-contact control condition . Up to 10 training sessions were delivered over 6 weeks with up to four sessions of booster training delivered at 11 months and a second set of up to four booster sessions at 35 months . Outcome assessment s were taken immediately after intervention and at intervals over 10 years . Dementia was defined using a combination of interview- and performance-based methods . Results A total of 260 cases of dementia were identified during the follow-up . Speed training result ed in reduced risk of dementia ( hazard ratio [ HR ] 0.71 , 95 % confidence interval [ CI ] 0.50–0.998 , P = .049 ) compared to control , but memory and reasoning training did not ( HR 0.79 , 95 % CI 0.57–1.11 , P = .177 and HR 0.79 , 95 % CI 0.56–1.10 , P = .163 , respectively ) . Each additional speed training session was associated with a 10 % lower hazard for dementia ( unadjusted HR , 0.90 ; 95 % CI , 0.85–0.95 , P < .001 ) . Discussion Initially , healthy older adults r and omized to speed of processing cognitive training had a 29 % reduction in their risk of dementia after 10 years of follow-up compared to the untreated control group OBJECTIVES We evaluated the effect of cognitive training among 1,534 participants in the Advanced Cognitive Training for Independent and Vital Elderly ( ACTIVE ) r and omized controlled trial ( RCT ) on 5-year improvements in 3 cognitive-specific measures of locus of control-internal , chance , and powerful others . METHODS ACTIVE was a multisite RCT ( age > or = 65 ) , with 4 groups ( memory , reasoning , speed of processing , and no-contact control ) . Complete 5-year follow-up data were available for 1,534 ( 55 % ) of the 2,802 participants . A propensity score model was used to adjust for potential attrition bias . Clinical ly important improvements ( and decrements ) in the cognitive-specific locus of control scale scores were defined as greater than or equal to 0.5 SD ( medium ) and greater than or equal to 1.0 SD ( large ) . Multinomial logistic regression was used to simultaneously contrast those who improved and those who declined with those whose locus of control scale score was unchanged . RESULTS Statistically significant effects reflecting medium-sized ( > or = 0.5 SD ) improvements in internal locus of control between baseline and the 5-year follow-up were found for the reasoning and speed of processing intervention groups who were 76 % ( p < .01 ) and 68 % ( p < .05 ) more likely , respectively , to improve than the no-contact control group . No improvement effects were found on the chance or powerful others locus of control measures or for the memory intervention group . CONCLUSION Cognitive training that targets reasoning and speed of processing can improve the cognitive-specific sense of personal control over one 's life in older adults The current study investigated older adults ' level of engagement with a video game training program . Engagement was measured using the concept of flow ( Csikszentmihalyi , 1975 ) . Forty-five older adults were r and omized to receive practice with an action game ( Medal of Honor ) , a puzzle-like game ( Tetris ) , or a gold-st and ard useful field of view ( UFOV ) training program . Both Medal of Honor and Tetris participants reported significantly higher flow ratings at the conclusion , relative to the onset of training . Participants are more engaged in games that can be adjusted to their skill levels and that provide incremental levels of difficulty . This finding was consistent with flow theory ( Csikszentmihalyi , 1975 ) Background Age-related cognitive decline is common and may lead to substantial difficulties and disabilities in everyday life . We hypothesized that 10 hours of visual speed of processing training would prevent age-related declines and potentially improve cognitive processing speed . Methods Within two age b and s ( 50–64 and ≥65 ) 681 patients were r and omized to ( a ) three computerized visual speed of processing training arms ( 10 hours on-site , 14 hours on-site , or 10 hours at-home ) or ( b ) an on-site attention control group using computerized crossword puzzles for 10 hours . The primary outcome was the Useful Field of View ( UFOV ) test , and the secondary outcomes were the Trail Making ( Trails ) A and B Tests , Symbol Digit Modalities Test ( SDMT ) , Stroop Color and Word Tests , Controlled Oral Word Association Test ( COWAT ) , and the Digit Vigilance Test ( DVT ) , which were assessed at baseline and at one year . 620 participants ( 91 % ) completed the study and 
    Output:
    
HighlightsUseful Field of View training improves neural outcomes , speed of processing , and attention .
Useful Field of View training improves older adults ’  everyday function .
Results addressing the Institute of Medicine criteria indicated that : ( a ) UFOV training  enhanced neural outcomes , speed of processing , and attention .
( b ) UFOV training effects were equivalent when compared to active‐ or no‐contact control conditions . (
c ) UFOV training showed far transfer to everyday function .
Results indicated that UFOV training effects were larger for adaptive‐ than non‐adaptive training techniques , and in community‐based as compared to clinical sample s. UFOV training did not transfer to other neuropsychological outcomes , but positively enhanced well‐being , health , and quality of life longitudinally .
UFOV training should be implemented among older adults to improve real‐world functional outcomes and well‐being