***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: Stress is a strong modulator of memory function . However , memory is not a unitary process and stress seems to exert different effects depending on the memory type under study . Here , we explored the impact of social stress on different aspects of human memory , including tests for explicit memory and working memory ( for neutral material s ) , as well as implicit memory ( perceptual priming , context ual priming and classical conditioning for emotional stimuli ) . A total of 35 young adult male students were r and omly assigned to either the  stress or the control group  , with stress being induced by the Trier Social Stress Test ( TSST ) . Salivary cortisol levels  were assessed repeatedly throughout the experiment to vali date stress effects . The results support previous evidence indicating complex effects of stress on different types of memory : A pronounced working memory deficit was associated with exposure to stress . No performance differences between groups of stressed and unstressed subjects were observed in verbal explicit memory ( but note that learning and recall took place within 1 h and immediately following stress ) or in implicit memory for neutral stimuli . Stress enhanced classical conditioning for negative but not positive stimuli . In addition , stress improved spatial explicit memory . These results reinforce the view that acute stress can be highly disruptive for working memory processing . They provide new evidence for the facilitating effects of stress on implicit memory for negative emotional material s. Our findings are discussed with respect to their potential relevance for psychiatric disorders , such as post traumatic stress disorder Observers ' capability to extract statistical regularities from the visual world can facilitate attentional orienting . For instance , visual search benefits from the repetition of target locations by means of probability learning . Furthermore , repeated ( old ) context s of nontargets contribute to faster visual search in comparison to r and om ( new ) arrangements of nontargets . Chun and Jiang ( 1998 ) called this effect " context ual cueing " because old context s provide spatial cues to repeated target locations . In the present study , we investigated how probability learning modulates the adaptation of context ual cueing to a change in target location . After an initial learning phase , targets were relocated within their respective context s to new positions that were , however , familiar from previous presentations in other spatial context s. Context ual cueing was observed for relocated targets that originated from old context s , but it turned into costs when relocated targets had previously been presented in new context s. Thus , probability learning was not sufficient to observe adaptive context ual cueing for relocated targets . Instead , the context ual past of target locations -- whether they had been cued or not -- modulated the integration of relocated targets into a learned context . These findings imply that observers extract multiple levels of available statistical information and use them to infer hypotheses about future occurrences of familiar stimuli The authors tested and confirmed the hypothesis that priming a  stereotype or trait  leads to complex overt behavior in line with this activated stereotype or trait . Specifically , 4 experiments established that priming the stereotype of professors or the trait intelligent enhanced participants ' performance on a scale measuring general knowledge . Also , priming the stereotype of soccer hooligans or the trait stupid reduced participants ' performance on a general knowledge scale . Results of the experiments revealed ( a ) that prolonged priming leads to more pronounced behavioral effects and ( b ) that there is no sign of decay of the effects for at least 15 min . The authors explain their results by cl aim ing that perception had a direct and pervasive impact on overt behavior ( cf . J.A. Bargh , M. Chen , & L. Burrows , 1996 ) . Implication s for human social behavior are discussed The spatial context ual cuing task ( SCCT ) ( Chun & Jiang , 1998 ) is an implicit learning task that appears to depend on the medial temporal lobes . This unusual combination has been of interest in functional imaging studies and research with clinical population s , where testing time is at a premium . However , the original version of the SCCT is time-consuming . In this study , 29 young adults ( age range , 18–22 years ) completed the  SCCT  , in which participants respond to the orientation of a target in arrays containing 11 distractors . Either 12 ( original version ) or 6 ( abbreviated version ) arrays repeated across the experiment , with the remaining novel arrays being generated r and omly . Results revealed that the magnitude of learning ( faster responses to repeated versus novel arrays ) was larger when there were fewer repeated arrays , with no explicit awareness in most participants . Thus , the abbreviated version remained implicit , with the additional benefit of increasing the magnitude of learning When encountering familiar scenes , observers can use item-specific memory to facilitate the guidance of attention to objects appearing in known locations or configurations . Here , we investigated how memory for relational contingencies that emerge across different scenes can be exploited to guide attention . Participants search ed for letter targets  embedded in  pictures of bedrooms . In a between-subjects manipulation , targets were either always on a bed pillow or r and omly positioned . When targets were systematic ally located within scenes , search for targets became more efficient . Importantly , this learning transferred to bedrooms without pillows , ruling out learning that is based on perceptual contingencies . Learning also transferred to living room scenes , but it did not transfer to kitchen scenes , even though both scene types contained pillows . These results suggest that statistical regularities abstract ed across a range of stimuli are governed by semantic expectations regarding the presence of target-predicting local l and marks . Moreover , explicit awareness of these contingencies led to a central tendency bias in recall memory for precise target positions that is similar to the spatial category effects observed in l and mark memory . These results broaden the scope of conditions under which context ual cuing operates and demonstrate how semantic memory plays a causal and independent role in the learning of associations between objects in real-world scenes The notion of multiple memory systems based on conscious accessibility has been supported largely by neuropsychological patient studies . Specifically , it was widely held that amnesic patients have impaired explicit memory performance but spared implicit memory performance . However , recent patient studies have called the implicit/explicit memory distinction into question . In this study , normal participants were tested on a visual search task , once after an  injection  of  midazolam  , an anesthetic that induces temporary amnesia , and once after an injection of saline . Under the influence of midazolam , participants did not show facilitation in search times for repeated configurations ( context ual cuing ) , although there was a general speed-up in performance across blocks in both the midazolam and saline conditions . Neither the context ual-cuing effect nor the procedural-learning effect was available to subjective experience , yet only one of these was affected by midazolam-induced amnesia . These data call into question the notion that memory systems divide on the basis of subjective experience of consciousness or reportability . Rather , the findings support the contention that antero grade amnesia affects learning that depends on building novel associations in memory and that this deficit does not hinge upon accessibility to consciousness Three experiments examined  memory-based guidance of visual search using a modified version of the  context ual-cueing paradigm  ( Jiang & Chun , 2001 ) . The target , if present , was a conjunction of color and orientation , with target ( and distractor ) features r and omly varying across trials ( multiconjunction search ) . Under these conditions , reaction times ( RTs ) were faster when all items in the display appeared at predictive ( " old " ) relative to nonpredictive ( " new " ) locations . However , this RT benefit was smaller compared to when only one set of items , namely that sharing the target 's color ( but not that in the alternative color ) appeared in predictive arrangement . In all conditions , context ual cueing was reliable on both target-present and -absent trials and enhanced if a predictive display was preceded by a predictive ( though differently arranged ) display , rather than a nonpredictive display . These results suggest that ( 1 ) context ual cueing is confined to color subsets of items , that ( 2 ) retrieving context ual associations for one color subset of items can be impeded by associations formed within the alternative subset ( " context ual interference " ) , and ( 3 ) that context ual cueing is modulated by intertrial priming Visual attention can be guided by past experience of regularities in our visual environment . In the context ual cueing paradigm , incidental learning of repeated distractor configurations speeds up search times compared to r and om search arrays . Concomitantly , fewer fixations and more direct scan paths indicate more efficient visual exploration in repeated search arrays . In previous work , we found that simulating a central scotoma in healthy observers eliminated this search facilitation . Here , we investigated context ual cueing in patients with age-related macular degeneration ( AMD ) who suffer from impaired foveal vision . AMD patients performed visual search using only their more severely impaired eye ( n = 13 ) as well as under binocular viewing ( n = 16 ) . Normal-sighted controls developed a significant context ual cueing effect . In comparison , patients showed only a small nonsignificant advantage for repeated displays when search ing with their worse eye . When search ing binocularly , they profited from context ual cues , but still less than controls . Number of fixations and scan pattern ratios showed a comparable pattern as search times . Moreover , context ual cueing was significantly correlated with acuity in monocular search . Thus , foveal vision loss may lead to impaired guidance of attention by context ual memory cues The repeated configurations of r and om elements induce a better search performance than that of the displays of novel r and om configurations . The mechanism of such context ual cueing effect has been investigated through the use of the RT × Set Size function . There are divergent views on whether the context ual cueing effect is driven by attentional guidance or facilitation of initial perceptual processing or response selection . To explore this question , we used eye movement recording in this study , which offers information about the substages of the search task . The results suggest that the context ual cueing effect is contributed mainly by attentional guidance , and facilitation of response selection also plays a role 
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Instead , our analyses demonstrate that these tests are typically insensitive and underpowered to detect medium to small , but true , effects in awareness tests .
These findings challenge a widespread and theoretically important cl aim about the extent of unconscious human cognition