***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: Oxytocin has numerous prosocial and antipsychotic-like effects in animals . Prosocial effects of acute intranasal oxytocin administration have also been reported in human subjects . We conducted a r and omized , placebo-controlled trial testing the effects of twice daily intranasal oxytocin treatment for 14 days on psychotic symptoms and social cognition in patients with schizophrenia .  PANSS scores declined significantly and several social cognition measures improved significantly or nearly significantly in oxytocin ( N=11 ) but not placebo ( N=9 ) recipients . Our results suggest that , in addition to reducing classic psychotic symptoms , oxytocin may diminish certain social cognition deficits that are not improved by current antipsychotic medications Approximately 10 % of trauma-exposed individuals go on to develop post-traumatic stress disorder ( PTSD ) . Neural emotion regulation may be etiologically involved in PTSD development . Oxytocin administration early post-trauma may be a promising avenue for PTSD prevention , as intranasal oxytocin has previously been found to affect emotion regulation networks in healthy individuals and psychiatric patients . In a r and omized double-blind placebo-controlled between-subjects functional magnetic resonance ( fMRI ) study , we assessed the effects of a single intranasal oxytocin administration ( 40 IU ) on seed-based amygdala resting-state FC with emotion regulation areas ( ventromedial prefrontal cortex ( vmPFC ) , ventrolateral prefrontal cortex ( vlPFC ) ) , and salience processing areas ( insula , dorsal anterior cingulate cortex ( dACC ) ) in 37 individuals within 11 days post trauma . Two resting-state scans were acquired ; one after neutral- and one after trauma-script-driven imagery . We found that oxytocin administration reduced amygdala-left vlPFC FC after trauma script-driven imagery , compared with neutral script-driven imagery , whereas in PL-treated participants enhanced amygdala-left vlPFC FC was observed following trauma script-driven imagery . Irrespective of script condition , oxytocin  increased amygdala – insula FC and decreased amygdala – vmPFC FC . These neural effects were accompanied by lower levels of sleepiness and higher flashback intensity in the oxytocin group after the trauma script . Together , our findings show that oxytocin administration may impede emotion regulation network functioning in response to trauma reminders in recently trauma-exposed individuals . Therefore , caution may be warranted in administering oxytocin to prevent PTSD in distressed , recently trauma-exposed individuals Despite the promise of intranasal oxytocin ( OT ) for modulating social behavior , recent work has provided mixed results . This may relate to suboptimal drug deposition achieved with conventional nasal sprays , inter-individual differences in nasal physiology and a poor underst and ing of how intranasal OT is delivered to the brain in humans . Delivering OT using a novel ‘ Breath Powered ’ nasal device previously shown to enhance deposition in intranasal sites targeted for nose-to-brain transport , we evaluated dose-dependent effects on social cognition , compared response with intravenous ( IV ) administration of OT , and assessed nasal cavity dimensions using acoustic rhinometry . We adopted a r and omized , double-blind , double-dummy , crossover design , with 16 healthy male adults completing four single-dose treatments ( intranasal 8 IU ( international units ) or 24 IU OT , 1 IU OT IV and placebo ) . The primary outcome was social cognition measured by emotional ratings of facial images . Secondary outcomes included the pharmacokinetics of OT , vasopressin and cortisol in blood and the association between nasal cavity dimensions and emotional ratings . Despite the fact that all the treatments produced similar plasma OT increases compared with placebo , there was a main effect of treatment on anger ratings of emotionally ambiguous faces . Pairwise comparisons revealed decreased ratings after 8 IU OT in comparison to both placebo and 24 IU OT . In addition , there was an inverse relationship between nasal valve dimensions and anger ratings of ambiguous faces after 8-IU OT treatment . These findings provide support for a direct nose-to-brain effect , independent of blood absorption , of low-dose OT delivered from a Breath Powered device ABSTRACT Most intranasal oxytocin research to date has been carried out in men , but recent studies indicate that females ’ responses can differ substantially from males ’ . This r and omized , double‐blind , placebo‐controlled study involved an all‐female sample of 28 women not using hormonal contraception . Participants viewed animations of geometric shapes depicting either r and om movement or social interactions such as playing , chasing , or fighting . Probe questions asked whether any shapes were “ friends ” or “ not friends . ” Social videos were preceded by cues to attend to either social relationships or physical size changes . All subjects received intranasal placebo spray at scan 1 . While the experimenter was not blinded to nasal spray contents at Scan 1 , the participants were . Scan 2 followed a r and omized , double‐blind design . At scan 2 , half received a second placebo dose while the other half received 24 IU of intranasal oxytocin . We measured neural responses to these animations at baseline , as well as the change in neural activity induced by oxytocin . Oxytocin  reduced activation in early visual cortex and dorsal‐stream motion processing regions for the social > size contrast , indicating reduced activity related to social attention  . Oxytocin also reduced endorsements that shapes were “ friends ” or “ not friends , ” and this significantly correlated with reduction in neural activation . Furthermore , participants who perceived fewer social relationships at baseline were more likely to show oxytocin‐induced  increases in a broad network of regions involved in social perception and social cognition , suggesting that lower social processing at baseline may predict more positive neural responses to oxytocin . HIGHLIGHTSA r and omized , double‐blind , placebo‐controlled fMRI study of intranasal oxytocin .  Neural response of females was measured during animations of interacting shapes . Oxytocin ( OXT ) reduced activation in early visual cortex and dorsal stream regions . OXT reduced perception of social relationships . OXT increased social cognition networks in females with lower baseline ABSTRACT The hypothalamic neuropeptide oxytocin ( OT ) has received increasing attention for its role in modulating social‐emotional processes across species . Previous studies on using intranasal‐OT in humans point to a crucial engagement of the amygdala in the observed neuromodulatory effects of OT under task and rest conditions . However , the amygdala is not a single homogenous structure , but rather a set of structurally and functionally heterogeneous nuclei that show distinct patterns of connectivity with limbic and frontal emotion‐processing regions . To determine potential differential effects of OT on functional connectivity of the amygdala subregions , 79 male participants underwent resting‐state fMRI following r and omized intranasal‐OT or placebo administration .  In line with previous studies OT increased the connectivity of the total amygdala with dorso‐medial prefrontal regions engaged in emotion regulation . In addition , OT enhanced coupling of the total amygdala with cerebellar regions . Importantly , OT differentially altered the connectivity of amygdala subregions with distinct up‐stream cortical nodes , particularly prefrontal/parietal , and cerebellar down‐stream regions . OT‐induced  increased connectivity with cerebellar regions were largely driven by effects on the centromedial and basolateral subregions , whereas increased connectivity with prefrontal regions were largely mediated by right superficial and basolateral subregions . OT decreased connectivity of the centromedial subregions with core hubs of the emotional face processing network in temporal , occipital and parietal regions . Preliminary findings suggest that effects on the superficial amygdala‐prefrontal pathway were inversely associated with levels of sub clinical depression , possibly indicating that OT modulation may be blunted in the context of increased pathological load . Together , the present findings suggest a subregional‐specific modulatory role of OT on amygdala‐centered emotion processing networks in humans . HighlightsEffects of oxytocin ( OT ) on amygdala subregional rsFC were examined . OT differentially altered rsFC of amygdala subregions . Increased connectivity with PFC regions were driven by SF and BLA.OT  decreased rsFC of the CM with the face processing network . Effects on the SF‐mPFC pathway were associated with depression The neuropeptide oxytocin plays a role in social cognition and affective processing . The neural processes underlying these effects are not well understood . Modulation of connectivity strength between subcortical and cortical regions has been suggested as one possible mechanism . The current study investigated effects of intranasal oxytocin administration on resting-state functional connectivity between amygdala and medial prefrontal cortex ( mPFC ) , as two regions involved in social-cognitive and affective processing . Going beyond previous work that largely examined young male participants , our study comprised young and older men and women to identify age and sex variations in oxytocin 's central processes . This approach was based on known hormonal differences among these groups and emerging evidence of sex differences in oxytocin 's effects on amygdala reactivity and age-by-sex-modulated effects of oxytocin in affective processing . In a double-blind design , 79 participants were r and omly assigned to self-administer either intranasal oxytocin or placebo before undergoing resting-state functional magnetic resonance imaging . Using a targeted region-to-region approach , resting-state functional connectivity strength between bilateral amygdala and mPFC was examined . Participants in the oxytocin compared to the placebo group and men compared to women had overall greater amygdala-mPFC connectivity strength at rest . These main effects were qualified by a significant three-way interaction : while oxytocin compared to placebo administration increased resting-state amygdala-mPFC connectivity for young women , oxytocin did not significantly influence connectivity in the other age-by-sex subgroups . This study provides novel evidence of age-by-sex differences in how oxytocin modulates resting-state brain connectivity , furthering our underst and ing of how oxytocin affects brain networks at rest We investigated the effects of intranasal oxytocin ( OXT ) on trust and cooperation in borderline personality disorder ( BPD ) , a disorder marked by interpersonal instability and difficulties with cooperation . Although studies in healthy adults show that intranasal OXT increases trust , individuals with BPD may show an altered response to exogenous OXT because the effects of OXT on trust and pro-social behavior may vary depending on the relationship representations and expectations people possess and /or altered OXT system functioning in BPD . BPD and control participants received intranasal OXT and played a social dilemma game with a partner . Results showed that OXT produced divergent effects in BPD participants , decreasing trust and the likelihood of cooperative responses . Additional analyses focusing on individual differences in attachment anxiety and avoidance across BPD and control participants indicate that these divergent effects were driven by the anxiously attached , rejection-sensitive participants . These data suggest that OXT does not uniformly facilitate trust and pro-social behavior in humans ; indeed , OXT may impede trust and pro-social behavior depending on chronic interpersonal insecurities , and /or possible neurochemical differences in the OXT system . Although popularly dubbed the ' hormone of love ' , these data suggest a more circumspect answer to the question of who will benefit from OXT Background : Although oxytocin is one of the most widely studied neuropeptides in recent times , the mechanistic process by which it modulates social-affective behavior in the brain is not yet clearly understood . Thus , to underst and the neurophysiological basis of oxytocin effects , we used resting-state functional MRI to examine the effects of intranasal oxytocin on brain connectivity in healthy males . Methods : Using a r and omized , double-blinded , placebo-controlled , crossover design , 15 healthy male volunteers received 24 IU intranasal oxytocin or placebo prior to resting-state functional MRI acquisition at 3 T . Results : We found that oxytocin significantly reduced the degree central ity of the right precuneus ( P<.05 ) . Oxytocin also reduced connectivity between the bilateral amygdalae and between the right precuneus and the right and left amygdala ( P<.05 ) . Although there were no significant changes in regional homogeneity at the whole brain level , posthoc results showed a reduction involving the right precuneus ( P<.05 ) . Conclusions : These results show that oxytocin affects one of the key centers in the brain for social cognition and introspective processing , the precuneus , and enhances our underst and ing of how oxytocin can modulate brain networks at rest . An improved underst and ing of the neurophysiological effects of oxytocin can be important in terms of evaluating the mechanisms that are likely to underlie the clinical responses observed upon long-term oxytocin administration The neuropeptide oxytocin ( OT ) is well known for its profound effects on social behavior , which appear to be mediated by an OT-dependent modulation of amygdala activity in the context of social stimuli . In humans , OT decreases amygdala reactivity to threatening faces in males , but enhances amygdala reactivity to similar faces in females , suggesting sex-specific differences in OT-dependent threat-processing . To further explore whether OT generally enhances amygdala-dependent threat-processing in females , we used functional magnetic resonance imaging ( fMRI ) in a r and omized within-subject crossover design to measure amygdala activity in response to threatening and non-threatening scenes in 14 females following intranasal administration of OT or placebo .  Participants ' eye movements were recorded to investigate whether an OT-dependent modulation of amygdala activity is accompanied by enhanced exploration of salient scene features . Although 
    Output:
    
OXTR studies identified three polymorphisms ( rs2254298 , rs2268498 , rs53576 ) having allele‐ and sex‐dependent effects on prefrontal functional connectivity , and additive effects of OXTR risk alleles on reward circuitry .
Age , sex , early life stress , and psychopathology emerged as potential moderators of both IN‐OT and OXTR effects .
Discussion : IN‐OT appears to modulate resting state functional connectivity in a manner similar to its effects on task fMRI , consistent with hypothesized models of IN‐OT .