***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: & NA ; Two experiments were conducted to determine whether attention mediates the effects of affective distractors on cold pressor pain , or whether the cognitive processes of priming and appraisal best account for the effects . In Experiment I , 65 male respondents were exposed to either pleasant , neutral or unpleasant pictures  selected from the International Affective Pictures System ( IAPS ) . The cold‐pressor test was administered simultaneously . Consistent with predictions based on priming and appraisal hypotheses , results revealed a linear trend across conditions , such that pain tolerance scores were higher as a function of picture pleasantness . A second study was conducted to examine the role of pain cues in the effects of negative affect on cold pressor pain .  Thirty‐nine male respondents were exposed to unpleasant pictures that either did or did not include pain‐related material . Respondents who viewed pictures without pain cues tolerated the cold water for a longer period of time than respondents who viewed pictures that contained pain‐related information . Priming and appraisal processes that might underlie the observed differences , and the type of affective distractors that could be meaningful for enhancing pain tolerance , are discussed Fifty participants took part in an experiment design ed to investigate individual differences in the effects of alcohol on facial EMG responses to emotionally significant stimuli . Participants took part in two experimental sessions during which they viewed emotionally negative and emotionally positive visual images . In one session they consumed alcohol ( 0.5 g/kg bodyweight ) whilst in the other they consumed soft drink . We classified each participant as a light or heavy drinker on the basis of their self-reported alcohol consumption . Negatively valenced images elicited increases in both frontalis and corrugator activity but alcohol did not moderate this effect either in light or heavy drinkers . Nevertheless , heavy drinkers did respond more strongly to the negatively valenced images and this supports the view that responses to negative emotional stimuli may play a part in the development of heavy drinking as a result of negative reinforcement processes Emotions have powerful effects on pain perception . However , the brain mechanisms underlying these effects remain largely unknown . In this study , we combined functional cerebral imaging with psychophysiological methods to explore the neural mechanisms involved in the emotional modulation of spinal nociceptive responses ( RIII-reflex ) and pain perception in healthy participants . Emotions induced by pleasant or unpleasant pictures modulated the responses to painful electrical stimulations in the right insula , para central lobule , parahippocampal gyrus , thalamus , and amygdala . Right insula activation covaried with the modulation of pain perception , consistent with a key role of this structure in the integration of pain signals with the ongoing emotion . In contrast , activity in the thalamus , amygdala , and several prefrontal areas was associated with the modulation of spinal reflex responses . Last , connectivity analyses suggested an involvement of prefrontal , parahippocampal , and brainstem structures in the cerebral and cerebrospinal modulation of pain by emotions . This multiplicity of mechanisms underlying the emotional modulation of pain is reflective of the strong interrelations between pain and emotions , and emphasizes the powerful effects that emotions can have on pain OBJECTIVE The majority of the research on alcohol-related aggression has been conducted on men . This bias has persisted despite mounting evidence indicating gender differences in aggression . As such , the purpose of this study was to investigate gender differences in alcohol-related aggression . METHOD Subjects were 64 men and 64 women who competed against either male or female fictitious opponents on a modified version of the Taylor aggression paradigm in which electric shocks were received from and administered to a fictitious opponent during a competitive task . Aggression was operationalized as the intensity and duration of the shocks selected by the subjects . Subjects were assigned to either an alcohol , a placebo or a sober group . RESULTS Alcohol increased both shock intensity and duration in men ; however , it only increased shock duration in women . Men behaved more aggressively toward men , whereas women displayed equal levels of aggression toward both genders . Alcohol expectancies did not appear to have an effect on aggressive behavior for either gender . CONCLUSIONS The findings of this investigation indicate that alcohol differentially affects aggressive responding in men and women . It is suggested that men are likely to express alcohol-related aggression in direct ( shock intensity ) and indirect ( shock duration ) forms , whereas women are most likely to use indirect forms ( shock duration ) Social drinkers were administered either an alcoholic , placebo or no-alcohol control beverage . Subjects were next informed that they were to give a self-disclosing speech about their body and physical appearance . Subjects ' heart rate and videotapes of their facial expression were recorded during this instruction . Facial reactions to the stressor were analyzed using a system based on the Maximally Discriminative Facial Coding System ( Izard , 1979 ) . Subjects who were intoxicated showed significantly less negative emotion , as measured by the facial expression analysis , than those subjects consuming either the control or placebo  beverage .  We attribute this effect of alcohol to its actions on subjects ' appraisal of anxiety-inducing information Alcohol intoxication often results in negative consequences ; however , specific behavioral and subjective effects vary as a function of individual differences . The present study utilized an alcohol challenge paradigm to examine whether heavy binge social drinkers ( HD ; n=77 ) , compared to light social drinkers ( LD ; n=55 ) , exhibit : ( 1 ) greater tolerance in psychomotor task performance under the influence of alcohol , and ( 2 ) differential perceptions of the impairing effects of alcohol . The study included three test sessions in which participants consumed either a low ( 0.4 g/kg ) or a high ( 0.8 g/kg ) dose of ethanol or a placebo beverage administered in r and om order and counterbalanced within group . Participants completed the Digit-Symbol Substitution Task ( DSST ) and the Grooved Pegboard at pre-drink baseline and at multiple time points after beverage consumption . They also completed a scale of perceived impairment at several intervals after beverage consumption . Ethanol impaired performance at the high dose , but not at the low dose ( ps<.001 ) . The groups exhibited similar alcohol-induced impairment . However , HD reported lower self-perceived impairment compared to LD , particularly during the early portion of the blood alcohol curve when actual impairment was most pronounced ( p<.001 ) . Thus , this study extends prior research in that habitual binge social drinking does not appear to be associated with tolerance to alcohol 's impairing effects on select psychomotor skills . Further , results may have implication s for alcohol-related harm as binge social drinkers regularly consume intoxicating doses of alcohol but may not be aware of the physical and cognitive impairments produced by alcohol Pleasant stimuli typically elicit greater electromyographic ( EMG ) activity over zygomaticus major and less activity over corrugator supercilii than do unpleasant stimuli . To provide a systematic comparison of these 2 measures , the authors examined the relative form and strength of affective influences on activity over zygomaticus major and corrugator supercilii . Self-reported positive and negative affective reactions and facial EMG were collected as women ( n = 68 ) were exposed to series of affective pictures , sounds , and words . Consistent with speculations based on known properties of the neurophysiology of the facial musculature , results revealed a stronger linear effect of valence on activity over corrugator supercilii versus zygomaticus major . In addition , positive and negative affect ratings indicated that positive and negative affect have reciprocal effects on activity over corrugator supercilii , but not zygomaticus major We used affective modulation of the eye-blink component of the startle reflex to examine effects of three levels of alcohol intoxication and a no-intoxication control on emotional responses to pleasant , neutral , and unpleasant pictures .  Non-problematic student drinkers ( n=101 ; 48 female ) were r and omly assigned to intoxication groups .  Normal inhibition of startle during exposure to pleasant pictures was intact across groups . In contrast , potentiation of startle during viewing of unpleasant pictures was evident in the no- and low-intoxication groups , compared to the intermediate- and high-intoxication groups , in which it was significantly reduced . This pattern suggests that a direct and selective anxiolytic effect of alcohol can occur at higher levels of intoxication without an analogous impact on response to emotionally positive stimuli at similar levels Rationale Alcohol is usually consumed in social context s. However , the drug has been studied mainly under socially isolated conditions , and our underst and ing of how social setting affects response to alcohol is limited . Objectives The current study compared the subjective , physiological , and behavioral effects of a moderate dose of alcohol in moderate social drinkers who were tested in either a social or an isolated context and in the presence of others who had or had not consumed alcohol . Methods Healthy men and women were r and omly assigned to either a social group tested in pairs ( SOC ; N = 24 ) , or an isolated group tested individually ( ISO ; N = 20 ) . They participated in four sessions , in which they received oral alcohol ( 0.8 g/kg ) or placebo on two sessions each , in quasi-r and omized order under double-blind conditions . In the SOC condition , the drug conditions of the co- participants were varied systematic ally : on two sessions , both participants received the same substance ( placebo or alcohol ) and on the other two sessions one received alcohol while the other received placebo .  Cardiovascular measures , breath alcohol levels , and mood were assessed at regular intervals , and measures of social interaction were obtained in the SOC group . Results Alcohol produced greater effects on certain subjective measures in the SOC condition compared with the ISO condition , including feelings of intoxication and stimulation , but not on other measures such as feeling se date d or high , or on cardiovascular measures . Within the SOC condition , participants rated themselves as more intoxicated when their partner received alcohol , and paired subjects interacted more when at least one participant received alcohol . Conclusions The presence of others enhances some of the subjective and behavioral effects of alcohol , especially the presence of another intoxicated individual . This enhancement of alcohol effects may explain , in part , why it is used in a social context OBJECTIVE Faced with a large body of contradictory findings , investigators have begun to propose cognitive factors that moderate the effects of alcohol on stress . We tested the hypothesis , stemming from the appraisal -disruption model ( ADM ) , that alcohol would be more likely to reduce stress when consumed prior to exposure to a stressor than when consumed following exposure . METHOD Male and female social drinkers ( N = 169 , 85 men ) with or without a parental history of alcoholism were recruited using separate structured clinical interviews with the participant and with a biological parent . Participants drank a moderate dose of alcohol or a placebo in one of two temporal sequences . Stress was induced by asking participants to present a self-disclosing speech about their physical appearance . Stress responses were assessed using four types of measures : self-reported anxiety , pulse rate , facial expression associated with negative affect and threat-related interference on a color-naming task . RESULTS Alcohol was generally more likely to attenuate stress responses when initial exposure to a social stressor followed drinking than when it preceded drinking . CONCLUSIONS Findings were consistent with predictions stemming from the ADM . Alcohol appears to be more likely to reduce stress when initial stress appraisal occurs during intoxication . In contrast , when initial appraisal occurs prior to drinking , alcohol is less effective in attenuating stress OBJECTIVE Research review s have suggested that cognitive and motor skills are not equally sensitive to a moderate dose of alcohol ; they disagree , however , on which type of task is more sensitive to impairment . This issue is addressed in two experiments testing a cognitive and a motor skill task performed by the same person at comparable blood alcohol concentrations ( BACs ) during a moderate dose of alcohol . METHOD A motor skill task ( PR ) and a rapid information processing ( RIP ) task requiring no learned motor skill were performed in counterbalanced order , and tests on the pair of tasks occurred at intervals as BAC rose and declined . In the first experiment , two groups of male social drinkers ( each n = 10 ) received either a moderate dose of alcohol ( 0.62 g/kg ) or placebo and performed the tasks with no consequence for performance . The second experiment comprised four groups ( each n = 14 ) to verify and extend the results to a situation in which unimpaired performance under alcohol was rewarded on one or both tasks . RESULTS In both experiments , impairment on the PR task tended to increase and diminish with rising and declining BACs , whereas impairment on the RIP task showed no such pattern . Reinforcement reduced the degree of impairment displayed on each task , but the different task profiles of impairment were still evident . CONCLUSIONS The results indicate how disagreement over the sensitivity of cognitive and motor skills to a moderate dose of alcohol may occur when impairment is only assessed at some particular BACs . Theoretical and practical implication s of the findings are discussed OBJECTIVE The purpose of this study was to examine performance effects of alcohol in young adult heavy drinkers ( HDs ) and light drinkers ( LDs ) . Prior research has shown that HDs have alterations in subjective alcohol response in comparison with LDs , with greater reported stimulant-like effects and reduced sedative-like effects . It is unclear whether these quantitative differences extend to performance and objective effects . METHOD Thirty-four subjects participated ( 20 HDs and 14 LDs ) in three early evening individual alcohol challenge sessions .  Subjects were examined on  eye movement and psychomotor performance tasks before and several times after consuming either 0.8 g/kg or 0.4 g/kg ethanol or placebo beverage . RESULTS Alcohol produced similar impairment for the groups in psychomotor performance and saccadic velocity measures , with blood alcohol concentration dependent group differences on the smooth pursuit task and a marginally lower threshold for impairment for HDs on the saccadic latency task . Covarying for personality differences ( i.e. , disinhibition and boredom susceptibility traits ) and family history of alcoholism did not significantly 
    Output:
    
Results Overall , alcohol exerted effects on facial expressions of emotions in social drinkers .
These effects were not generally disinhibiting , but varied depending on the valence of emotion and on social interaction .
Being consumed within social groups , alcohol mostly influenced facial expressions of emotions in a socially desirable way , thus underscoring the view of alcohol as social lubricant .
Conclusion Our review highlighted the relevance of emotional valence and social- context factors for acute alcohol effects on social drinkers ' facial expressions of emotions .