***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: The  sensory and motor functioning of normal children ( N = 119 ) ages 4 to 13 years old were examined for developmental and sex differences in relation to neuropsychological functioning . Sensory and motor subtests of the Dean-Woodcock Neuropsychological Assessment System ( D-WNAS )  , a st and ardized instrument , were administered . Significant differences between the older and younger children were found , suggesting that developmental differences exist for sensory and motor functioning . The older children significantly outperformed the younger children on all subtests except for visual confrontation . Differences between males and females and the interaction between sex and age were not significant . The present findings coincide with previous research showing clear maturational differences in sensory and motor functions Background Neuromuscular training may reduce risk factors that contribute to ACL injury incidence in female athletes . Multi-component , ACL injury prevention training programs can be time and labor intensive , which may ultimately limit training program utilization or compliance . The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of neuromuscular training on those classified as " high-risk " compared to those classified as " low-risk . " The hypothesis was that high-risk athletes would decrease knee abduction moments while low-risk and control athletes would not show measurable changes . Methods Eighteen high school female athletes participated in neuromuscular training 3 ×  /week over a 7-week period . Knee kinematics and kinetics were measured during a drop vertical jump ( DVJ ) test at pre/post training . External knee abduction moments were calculated using inverse dynamics . Logistic regression indicated maximal sensitivity and specificity for prediction of ACL injury risk using external knee abduction ( 25.25 Nm cutoff ) during a DVJ . Based on these data , 12 study subjects ( and 4 controls ) were grouped into the high-risk ( knee abduction moment > 25.25 Nm ) and 6 subjects ( and 7 controls ) were grouped into the low-risk ( knee abduction < 25.25 Nm ) categories using mean right and left leg knee abduction moments . A mixed design repeated measures ANOVA was used to determine differences between athletes categorized as high or low-risk . Results Athletes classified as high-risk decreased their knee abduction moments by 13 % following training ( Dominant pre : 39.9 ± 15.8 Nm to 34.6 ± 9.6 Nm ; Non-dominant pre : 37.1 ± 9.2 to 32.4 ± 10.7 Nm ; p = 0.033 training X risk factor interaction ) . Athletes grouped into the low-risk category did not change their abduction moments following training ( p > 0.05 ) . Control subjects classified as either high or low-risk also did not significantly change from pre to post-testing . Conclusion These results indicate that " high-risk " female athletes decreased the magnitude of the previously identified risk factor to ACL injury following neuromuscular training . However , the mean values for the high-risk subjects were not reduced to levels similar to low-risk group following training . Targeting female athletes who demonstrate high-risk knee abduction loads during dynamic tasks may improve efficacy of neuromuscular training . Yet , increased training volume or more specific techniques may be necessary for high-risk athletes to substantially decrease ACL injury risk Abstract . The development of proprioceptive sensitivity was studied in 140 children between the ages of 5.8 and 11.8 years using a so-called foot-h and task . Ten boys and ten girls were included in each age group . The task required the children to locate a target pin with the " big toe " ( felt target ) and match the located target position with the h and , without vision . There were four conditions : location of targets by the right big toe : matching located target position with the right h and ( RfRh ) and left h and ( RfLh ) ; and location of targets by the left big toe : matching located target position with the left h and ( LfLh ) and right h and ( LfRh ) . The results showed a significant developmental trend in proprioceptive sensitivity , when the absolute error scores for boys and girls were combined , with most of the improvement occurring between the ages of 5.8 and 7.8 years . The most interesting and novel finding seems to be the significant two-way interaction between age and sex – the clearest differences manifesting themselves in the age group 9.9 years . Separate within-sex group analyses showed the trend to be determined by the results for the girls , the trend being absent in the results for the boys . Furthermore only the boys showed a significant difference between the intra- and inter-hemispheric conditions . We propose that these differences may only manifest themselves in particular tasks , i.e. there may be a sex-task interaction . The implication s of this proposal for theoretical interpretations of the phenomenon of inter-hemispheric processing as well as possible sources of the task differences are briefly discussed To identify sex differences and developmental trends in motor performance and coordination across three stages of development : prepubertal , pubertal and postpubertal , 60 participants , 30 males and 30 females , were assessed on 13 motor tasks . Physical characteristics that accompany puberty were used to classify the participants into the stages . Analysis of variance and covariate analyses demonstrated that motor performance improves throughout adolescence in both males and females and that sex differences exist in motor performance , males performing better than females . The magnitude of the stage and sex differences were demonstrated by large effect sizes ( eta 2 ) . The motor tasks of long jump , running speed , and throwing a ball principally distinguished between the males and females . Female performance differed less from male performance after puberty . Results showed OBJECTIVE To investigate the developmental trajectory of response inhibition and , more specifically , whether there is a dissociation of function in the prefrontal cortex over the course of development of executive function and associated response inhibition abilities . METHOD Nineteen typically developing subjects , ranging in age from 8 to 20 , performed a Go/NoGo task while behavioral and functional magnetic resonance imaging ( fMRI ) data were collected . RESULTS All subjects performed the task with few errors of omission and commission . No relationship between accuracy and age emerged , but the ability to inhibit responses significantly improved with age . Analyses of fMRI data revealed a positive correlation between activation and age in the left inferior frontal gyrus/insula/orbitofrontal gyrus , and a negative correlation between activation and age in the left middle/superior frontal gyri . CONCLUSION These data provide the first evidence of dissociable processes occurring in the prefrontal cortex during development of executive functions associated with response inhibition : ( 1 ) Younger subjects activate more extensively than older subjects in discrete regions of the prefrontal cortex , presumably due to increased dem and s and inefficient recruitment of brain regions subserving executive functions including working memory . ( 2 ) Older subjects show increasingly focal activation in specific regions thought to play a more critical role in response inhibition In very young children , immature control of posture and gait results in unsteady locomotion . In children of approximately 3 yr of age , gait appears relatively mature ; however , it is unknown whether the dynamics of walking change beyond this age . Because stride dynamics depend on neural control , we hypothesized that motor control would continue to develop beyond age 3 . To test this hypothesis , we measured the gait cycle duration on a stride-by-stride basis in 50 healthy 3- to 14-yr-old children ( 25 girls ) . Measurements of stride-to-stride variability were significantly larger both in the 3- and 4-yr-old children , compared with the 6- and 7-yr-old children , and in the 6- and 7-yr-old children , compared with the 11- to 14-yr-old children . Measurements of the temporal organization of gait also revealed significant age-dependent changes . The effects of age persisted even after adjusting for height . These findings indicate that mature stride dynamics may not be completely developed even in healthy 7-yr-old children and that different aspects of stride dynamics mature at different ages This study presents a method to quantify a child ’s sensitivity to passive limb motion , which is an important aspect of kinaesthesia not easily examined clinical ly . Psychophysical detection thresholds to passive forearm motion were determined in a group of 20 typically developing pre‐adolescent children ( mean age 12y 6mo , SD 10mo , range 11−13y ) and a group of 10 healthy adults ( mean age 29y 10mo , SD 10y 7mo , range 18−50y ) . A newly design ed passive motion apparatus was used to measure the time to detection of forearm motion and the errors in determining movement direction . Results showed that limb motion sensitivity became increasingly variable below 0.3 ° /s in children and adults . In comparison with adults , movement detection times in the pediatric group were increased by between 4 % and 108 % for the range of tested velocities ( 0.075−1.35 ° /s ) . At 0.075 ° /s , 5 % of the children , but 50 % of the adults , made no directional error , indicating that motion perception became unreliable at such low velocity in both groups . The findings demonstrate that sensitivity to passive forearm motion  in children should be tested at a range between 0.075 and 0.3 ° /s . They further suggest that passive motion sensitivity may not be fully developed in pre‐adolescent children Prevailing theories of implicit or unaware learning propose a developmental invariance model , with implicit function maturing early in infancy or childhood despite prolonged improvements in explicit or intentional learning and memory systems across childhood . Neuroimaging studies of adult visuomotor sequence learning have associated fronto-striatal brain regions with implicit learning of spatial sequences . Given evidence of continued development in these brain regions during childhood , we compare  implicit sequence learning in adults and 7- to 11-year-old children to examine potential developmental differences in the recruitment of fronto-striatal circuitry during implicit learning . Participants performed a st and ard serial reaction time task . Stimuli alternately followed a fixed 10-step sequence of locations or were presented in a pseudor and om order of locations .  Adults outperformed children , achieving a significantly larger sequence learning effect and showing learning more quickly than children . Age-related differences in activity were observed in the premotor cortex , putamen , hippocampus , inferotemporal cortex , and parietal cortex . We observed differential recruitment of cortical and subcortical motor systems between groups , presumably reflecting age differences in motor response execution . Adults showed greater hippocampal activity for sequence trials , whereas children demonstrated greater signal during r and om trials . Activity in the right cau date correlated significantly with behavioral measures of implicit learning for both age groups , although adults showed greater signal change than children overall , as would be expected given developmental differences in sequence learning magnitude . These results challenge the idea of developmental invariance in implicit learning and instead support a view of parallel developments in implicit and explicit learning systems Recent research using measures to assess the time-dependent structure of postural fluctuations has provided new insights into the stability and adaptability of human postural control in adults . To date , little research has examined how postural dynamics reflecting the stability and adaptability of postural control may change as a function of development , especially during supra-postural tasks . The goal of this study was to examine the dynamics of postural fluctuations during a manual-fitting task in which precision , visual and postural task constraints were altered in children and adults . Three age groups were tested : 7- , 10-year olds and college aged adults .  Recurrence quantification analysis ( RQA ) was used to assess the regularity ( percent determinism ) and complexity ( entropy ) of the center of pressure ( CoP ) in the anterior – posterior ( AP ) and medial-lateral ( ML ) directions . The CoP patterns exhibited by adults were more deterministic and more complex ( higher entropy ) than those of the 7-year-old children under the different experimental manipulations . No differences between the adults and the 10-year-old children were observed . The increase in determinism with a corresponding increase in entropy exhibited by the adults and older-children during a manual fitting task may be a prospect i ve mechanism over which postural movements follow a more predictable path allowing for stable and flexible task performance . Our results also support the notion that complex postural fluctuations ( as measured by RQA entropy ) are functional and typically increase as the precision requirements of a manual task increase Past research has shown that spectral frequency characteristics of a balance control system may be useful for early detection of minor changes in the system . Since there is a lack of information regarding the frequency spectrum of children 's balance control system , this study was undertaken to investigate and compare the spectral frequency characteristics of st and ing balance control between children and young adults under altered sensory environments . Seventeen children ( 9 females , 8 males , mean age 7.8+/-0.9 years ) and the same number of female and male young adults ( mean age 21.1+/-1.3 years ) were tested for st and ing balance  under six sensory conditions . These conditions were created by crossing the three levels of the visual factor ( open eye , closed eye , sway-referenced vision ) with the two levels of the somatosensory factor ( fixed foot support , compliant foot support ) . The median spectral frequencies of the shear forces in the anterior-posterior ( A/P ) and the medial-lateral ( M/L ) directions were used as dependent variables . The results showed that children had higher median spectral frequency of the A/P shear force than young adults and this difference was not affected by the somatosensory factor . The median spectral frequency in the M/L direction was not different between the groups . The higher rate of body mass vibration of children in the A/P direction implies that children may not have fully developed the ankle strategy for maintaining st and ing balance , but nonetheless have developed the same efficiency of using vision for their reference of st and ing balance Traditional posturographic analysis and four statistical mechanics techniques were applied to center-of-pressure ( COP ) trajectories of young , older " low-fall-risk " and older " high-fall-risk " individuals . Low-fall-risk older adults were active 3 days per week in a cardiac rehabilitation program , while high-fall-risk older adults were diagnosed with perilymph fistula . Subject 
    Output:
    
The search results indicated that many aspects of sensorimotor function continue to mature throughout adolescence , and at least some children experience delays or regressions in at least some sensorimotor mechanisms .