***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: The anterior cingulate is believed to play a crucial role in the regulation of thought and action . Recent evidence suggests that the anterior cingulate may play a role in the detection of inappropriate responses . We used event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging techniques to examine the neural responses to appropriate ( correct rejects and correct hits ) and inappropriate ( errors of commission ) behavioral responses during a go/no-go task .  Analyses of the inappropriate responses revealed extensive activation in the rostral anterior cingulate cortex and in the left lateral frontal cortex . These areas were not activated for correctly classified trials ( correct rejects and correct hits ) . These data suggest that the rostral anterior cingulate and left lateral frontal cortex are integral components of the brain 's error checking system BACKGROUND Functional imaging studies have recently demonstrated that specific brain regions become active in cocaine addicts when they are exposed to cocaine stimuli . To test whether there are regional brain activity differences during alcohol cue exposure between alcoholic subjects and social drinkers , we design ed a functional magnetic resonance imaging ( fMRI ) protocol involving alcohol-specific cues . METHODS Ten non-treatment-seeking adult alcoholic subjects ( 2 women ) ( mean [ SD ] age , 29.9 [ 9.9 ] years ) as well as 10 healthy social drinking controls of similar age ( 2 women ) ( mean [ SD ] age , 29.4 [ 8.9 ] years ) were recruited , screened , and scanned . In the 1.5-T magnetic resonance imaging scanner , subjects were serially rated for alcohol craving before and after a sip of alcohol , and after a 9-minute r and omized presentation of pictures of alcoholic beverages , control nonalcoholic beverages , and 2 different visual control tasks . During picture presentation , changes in regional brain activity were measured with the blood oxygen level-dependent technique . RESULTS Alcoholic subjects , compared with the social drinking subjects , reported higher overall craving ratings for alcohol . After a sip of alcohol , while viewing alcohol cues compared with viewing other beverage cues , only the alcoholic subjects had increased activity in the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex and the anterior thalamus . The social drinkers exhibited specific activation only while viewing the control beverage pictures . CONCLUSIONS When exposed to alcohol cues , alcoholic subjects have increased brain activity in the prefrontal cortex and anterior thalamus-brain regions associated with emotion regulation , attention , and appetitive behavior This study tested whether opiate dependence , tobacco smoking , or their combination accompanied impaired performance on the  gambling task ( GT )  , which tests decision-making .  GT previously detected impairments in patients with lesions of the ventromedial prefrontal cortex and in substance abusers . Four groups were matched on demographic characteristics and intelligence : methadone-maintained smokers ( n = 9 ) and nonsmokers ( n = 9 ) , and control ( i.e. , not opiate-dependent ) smokers ( n = 9 ) and nonsmokers ( n = 10 ) . The  Wisconsin Card Sorting Task ( WCST )  was administered to test whether differences in  GT performance reflected generalized deficits in prefrontal cortical function . While there were no significant group differences on the WCST , groups differed significantly on  GT performance ( F(3,31 ) = 2.95 , P = 0.048 ) , controlling for depressive symptom ratings and childhood attention deficit hyperactivity disorder .  Methadone-maintained smokers ( but not nonsmokers ) performed more poorly than either of the two control groups ( P = 0.007 versus smokers ; P = 0.024 versus nonsmokers ) . In a planned analysis of methadone-maintained subjects , smokers scored more poorly on  GT  than nonsmokers ( F(1,18 ) = 5.64 , P = 0.032 ) and had more treatment failures ( 67 % heroin use during the last 30 days versus 20 % ) . The findings suggest that among opiate-dependent individuals , tobacco smoking may be a marker for a more severe form of substance abuse disorder , reflecting impaired decision-making , as modeled by GT Cocaine abusers demonstrate faulty decision-making as manifested by their inability to discontinue self-destructive drug-seeking behaviors . The orbitofrontal cortex ( OFC ) plays an important role in decision-making . In this preliminary study we tested whether 25-day-abstinent cocaine abusers show alterations in normalized cerebral blood flow ( rCBF ) in the OFC using PET with (15)O during the Iowa Gambling Task ( a decision-making task ) . This task measures the ability to weigh short-term rewards against long-term losses . A control task matched the sensorimotor aspects of the task but did not require decision-making . Cocaine abusers ( N = 13 ) showed greater activation during performance of the  Iowa Gambling Task  in the right OFC and less activation in the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex ( DLPFC ) and left medial prefrontal cortex ( MPFC ) compared to a control group ( N = 13 ) . Better  Iowa Gambling Task performance was associated with greater activation in the right OFC in both groups . Also , the amount of cocaine used ( grams/week ) prior to the 25 days of enforced abstinence was negatively correlated with activation in the left OFC . Greater activation in the OFC in cocaine abusers compared to a control group may reflect differences in the anticipation of reward while less activation in the DLPFC and MPFC may reflect differences in planning and working memory . These findings suggest that cocaine abusers show persistent functional abnormalities in prefrontal neural networks involved in decision-making and these effects are related to cocaine abuse . Compromised decision-making could contribute to the development of addiction and undermine attempts at abstinence Stimulant-dependent subjects show dysfunctions in decision-making similar to those seen in subjects with ventromedial prefrontal cortex lesions . Studies of drug craving , reward association , and decision-making have implicated dysfunctions of the dorsolateral and orbitofrontal cortex as a key neural substrate in subjects with stimulant dependence . Here , a functional magnetic resonance imaging ( fMRI ) study was carried out to determine the relationship between decision-making dysfunction and neural activation in different prefrontal areas . This investigation tested the behavioral hypothesis that  methamphetamine-dependent subjects in early sustained remission show decision-making dysfunctions that are consistent with an increased reliance on stimulus-contingent response selection . It was hypothesized that these decision-making dysfunctions are due to differences in task-related activation in the dorsolateral and ventromedial prefrontal cortex . Ten methamphetamine-dependent subjects were compared with ten age- and education-matched controls performing a two-choice prediction task and a two-choice response task during a fMRI session .  Response bias , latency , and mutual information measures assessing the underlying strategies of the decision-making sequences were obtained . First , methamphetamine-dependent subjects were more influenced by the immediately preceding outcome during the two-choice prediction task relative to normal comparison subjects . Second , methamphetamine-dependent subjects activated less dorsolateral prefrontal cortex ( BA 9 ) and failed to activate ventromedial cortex ( BA 10,11 ) during the two-choice prediction task compared with the two-choice response task . These results support the basic hypothesis that stimulant-dependent subjects exhibit fundamental cognitive deficits during decision-making that are consistent with both orbitofrontal and dorsolateral prefrontal dysfunction Ten male opiate addicts , who were current heroin injectors , underwent positron emission tomographic ( PET ) scanning during exposure to a sequence of six alternating drug related and neutral video cues , on two occasions . After the second scan , each subject received heroin or placebo using a r and omised single-blind procedure . This design allowed the investigation of patterns of brain activity during a range of self-reported cue evoked emotional states , both in the presence and absence of heroin . Self-reports of ' urge to use ' correlated strongly with increased regional blood flow ( rCBF ) in the inferior frontal and orbitofrontal cortex target regions of the mesolimbic dopaminergic system , implicated in conditioning and reward . ' Urge to use ' was also associated with highly significant increased rCBF in the right pre-cuneus , an area associated with episodic memory retrieval , and in the left insula , implicated in the processing of the emotional components of stimuli . Self-reports of feeling ' high ' correlated with rCBF activation in the hippocampus , an area relevant to the acquisition of stimulus-associated reinforcement Lesions to prefrontal cortex ( PFC ) in humans can severely disrupt everyday decision-making , with concomitant effects on social and occupational functioning . Forty-six patients with unilateral lesions to prefrontal cortex and 21 healthy control subjects were administered three neuropsychological measures of decision-making : the Iowa Gambling Task , the Cambridge Gamble Task , and the Risk Task . Magnetic resonance imaging ( MRI ) scans were acquired from 40 patients , with region of interest ( ROI ) mapping of prefrontal subregions . The frontal patients showed only limited damage in medial and orbital prefrontal cortex , but greater damage in lateral prefrontal regions of interest . Patients with right frontal lesions preferred the risky decks on the Iowa Gambling Task , and differed significantly from left frontal and control subjects . Within the right frontal group , the preference for the risky decks was correlated with the total lesion volume and the volume of damage outside of the ventromedial prefrontal region . Right and left frontal groups did not differ significantly on the  Cambridge Gamble Task or the Risk Task  , and performance was not associated with lesion volume . The results indicate a laterality effect on the  Iowa Gambling Task , and the contribution of prefrontal regions outside the ventromedial region to task performance . The Cambridge Gamble Task and Risk Task were less sensitive to the effects of unilateral frontal lobe lesions , and may be more selectively associated with ventral prefrontal damage 
    Output:
    
Most studies showed significant deficits in decision-making in people with substance use disorders .
A consistent finding in the neuroimaging studies was hypoactivity of the orbitofrontal cortex after detoxification .
The association between hyperactivity of this region and craving or cue reactivity was not consistent across studies .
The orbitofrontal cortex has an important role in addictive behaviours .