***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: Background : Cognitive decline leads to disability and increased health care expenditures . Methods : Effectiveness of an intervention to stimulate multiple cognitive domains was determined using a format combining traditional and computer-based activities ( Integrated Cognitive Stimulation and Training Program ) , 45 minutes a day , 2 days a week , for 6 weeks . Nonimpaired , mildly , and moderately-impaired participants > age 65 ( n = 32 ) were r and omly allocated into a control or experimental group . Using a repeated measures design participants were tested again postintervention and at 8 weeks follow-up . Results : Statistically significant improvement on Dementia Rating Scale scores occurred for mildly and moderately impaired treatment participants ( n = 15 ) . Statistical significance was demonstrated on subscales of the WMS-III : Logical Memory I and Logical Memory II . Conclusion : Blending computer-based with traditional cognitive stimulation activities shows promise in preserving cognitive function in elders . Future studies to explore efficacy in larger , more diverse sample s are needed One of the defining differences between mild cognitive impairment ( MCI ) and dementia is the degree of independence in everyday activities . Effecting memory-related behavioural change in MCI could help maintain daily function and prolong the time before onset of dependency . However , it is well known that changing previously well-established behaviours is difficult to achieve . We conducted a r and omised controlled trial to evaluate the effectiveness of a multidisciplinary group-based intervention programme in changing everyday memory behaviour in individuals with amnestic MCI . The intervention provided evidence d-based memory training and lifestyle education to optimise memory behaviour .  Fifty-four participants were r and omly assigned to treatment or waitlist-control conditions . Consistent with our primary goal , treatment participants showed an increase in memory- strategy knowledge and use from pre-test to immediate post-test , and these gains were maintained at three-month post-test relative to waitlist controls . There were no group differences in memory beliefs or on laboratory tests of objective memory performance . The increase in memory- strategy knowledge and use was associated with the degree of participation in the programme . Individuals with MCI , therefore , can acquire and maintain knowledge about memory strategies and , importantly , can change their everyday memory behaviour by putting this knowledge into practice . This incorporation of practical memory strategies into daily routines could potentially provide the means for maintaining functional independence by individuals with MCI , an issue to be addressed in future research We performed a pilot r and omized , controlled trial of intensive , computer-based cognitive training in 47 subjects with mild cognitive impairment . The intervention group performed exercises specifically design ed to improve auditory processing speed and accuracy for 100 min/d , 5 d/wk for 6 weeks ; the control group performed more passive computer activities ( reading , listening , visuospatial game ) for similar amounts of time . Subjects had a mean age of 74 years and 60 % were men ; 77 % successfully completed training . On our primary outcome , Repeatable Battery for Assessment of Neuropsychological Status total scores improved 0.36 st and ard deviations ( SD ) in the intervention group ( P=0.097 ) compared with 0.03 SD in the control group ( P=0.88 ) for a nonsignificant difference between the groups of 0.33 SD ( P=0.26 ) . On 12 secondary outcome measures , most differences between the groups were not statistically significant . However , we observed a pattern in which effect sizes for verbal learning and memory measures tended to favor the intervention group whereas effect sizes for language and visuospatial function measures tended to favor the control group , which raises the possibility that these training programs may have domain-specific effects . We conclude that intensive , computer-based mental activity is feasible in subjects with mild cognitive impairment and that larger trials are warranted This study aim ed to determine the efficacy of cognitive training in a 10-week r and omised controlled study involving 22 individuals presenting with mild cognitive impairment of the amnestic type ( MCI-A ) . Participants in the experimental group ( n = 11 ) learned face – name associations using a paradigm combining errorless ( EL ) learning and spaced retrieval ( SR ) whereas participants in the control group ( n = 11 ) were trained using an errorful ( EF ) learning paradigm . Psycho-educational sessions on memory were also provided to all participants . After neuropsychological screening and baseline evaluations , the cognitive training took place in 6 sessions over a 3-week period . The post-training and follow-up evaluations , at one and four weeks respectively , were performed by research assistants blind to the participant 's study group . The results showed that regardless of the training condition , all participants improved their capacity to learn face – name associations . A significant amelioration was also observed in participant satisfaction regarding their memory functioning and in the frequency with which the participants used strategies to support memory functions in daily life . The absence of difference between groups on all variables might be partly explained by the high variability of scores within the experimental group . Other studies are needed in order to verify the efficacy of EL learning and SR over EF in OBJECTIVE The authors evaluated the efficacy of a new cognitive rehabilitation program on memory and functional performance of mildly impaired Alzheimer disease ( AD ) patients receiving a cholinesterase inhibitor . METHODS Twenty-five participants in the Cognitive Rehabilitation ( CR ) condition participated in two 45-minute sessions twice per week for 24 total sessions . CR training included face-name association tasks , object recall training , functional tasks ( e.g. , making change , paying bills ) , orientation to time and place , visuo-motor speed of processing , and the use of a memory notebook .  Nineteen participants in the Mental Stimulation ( MS ) condition had equivalent therapist contact and number of sessions , which consisted of interactive computer games involving memory , concentration , and problem-solving skills . RESULTS Compared with the MS condition , participants in CR demonstrated improved performance on tasks that were similar to those used in training . Gains in recall of face-name associations , orientation , cognitive processing speed , and specific functional tasks were present post-intervention and at a 3-month follow-up . CONCLUSION A systematic program of cognitive rehabilitation can result in maintained improvement in performance on specific cognitive and functional tasks in mildly impaired AD patients Background : Memory disturbance , deficient concentration , and fatigue are symptoms seen in  amnestic mild cognitive impairment  ( MCI ) as well as in mild traumatic brain injury ( TBI ) . The aim of this study was to assess if an established rehabilitation program commonly used in TBI can aid MCI patients to develop compensatory memory strategies that can improve their cognition , occupational performance , and quality of life ( QoL ) . Methods : Fifteen patients with MCI participated in the program 2 days per week for 8 weeks . Cognitive function , occupational performance , and self-perceived QoL were assessed at baseline , at the end of the intervention , and at follow-up after 6 months . Results : Significant improvements were seen in cognitive processing speed , occupational performance , and in some of the QoL domains . Conclusion : As this goal -oriented rehabilitation program in MCI result ed in some improvements in cognition , occupational performance , and QoL , further r and omized controlled studies are warranted Normal aging is associated with progressive functional losses in perception , cognition , and memory . Although the root causes of age-related cognitive decline are incompletely understood , psychophysical and neuropsychological evidence suggests that a significant contribution stems from poorer signal-to-noise conditions and down-regulated neuromodulatory system function in older brains . Because the brain retains a lifelong capacity for plasticity and adaptive reorganization , dimensions of negative reorganization should be at least partially reversible through the use of an appropriately design ed training program . We report here results from such a training program targeting age-related cognitive decline . Data from a r and omized , controlled trial using st and ardized measures of neuropsychological function as outcomes are presented . Significant improvements in assessment s directly related to the training tasks and significant generalization of improvements to nonrelated st and ardized neuropsychological measures of memory ( effect size of 0.25 ) were documented in the group using the training program . Memory enhancement appeared to be sustained after a 3-month no-contact follow-up period . Matched active control and no-contact control groups showed no significant change in memory function after training or at the 3-month follow-up . This study demonstrates that intensive , plasticity-engaging training can result in an enhancement of cognitive function in normal mature adults Dementia is a highly invalidating condition and , given the progressive aging of the population , one of the major issues that health systems will have to face in future years . Recently there has been an increase in the potential of diagnostic tools and pharmacological treatments for dementia ; moreover , considerable interest has been expressed regarding non pharmacological interventions . However , the current evidence in support of non pharmacological treatments in patients affected by dementia still does not allow to draw definitive conclusions on what is the most effective treatment to apply , largely because of method ological difficulties and limitations of the studies so far carried out due to the complex nature of the disease . To address this need , we carried out a single blind r and omized controlled study on the efficacy of computer cognitive rehabilitation in patients with mild cognitive decline . We here present preliminary data on 11 patients with diagnosis of Alzheimer 's Disease ( AD ) and mild cognitive decline r and omly assigned to treatment ( a ) or control ( b ) condition ( i.e. specific vs. aspecific treatment ) . The specific treatment ( a ) consisted in a cycle of 12 individual sessions of computer exercises , while the control condition ( b ) consisted in sessions of semi-structured interviews with patients , conducted with the same frequency and time period as ( a ) . Cognitive , behavioural and functional assessment was performed by an expert evaluator , blinded to the patients ' group allocation . Preliminary results show a significant performance decline only in the control group at the 9-month follow-up compared to both baseline and the 3-month follow-up . Our results suggest that computer based cognitive training in patients with AD and mild cognitive decline is effective at least in delaying the continuous progression of cognitive impairment in AD Background : Positive effects are reported for memory training for healthy older adults , and yet there is limited information about the benefit of cognitive intervention for older adults with increasing memory difficulties — mild cognitive impairment . Objective : To investigate the usefulness of an early cognitive intervention for the memory difficulties experienced by people with amnestic mild cognitive impairment . Methods : Using a r and omised control design , 52 participants with amnestic mild cognitive impairment and their family partners were r and omly assigned to a cognitive intervention ( memory rehabilitation group ) or waitlist ( control group ) . Participants were assessed on primary measures of everyday memory ( prospect i ve memory ) and memory strategies at 2 weeks ’ and 4 months ’ follow-up ; secondary measures of contentment with memory and the family participants ’ knowledge of memory strategies were also assessed . Results : Everyday memory , measured by performance on prospect i ve memory tasks , significantly improved following intervention , although self- appraisal of everyday memory did not demonstrate a similar intervention effect . Knowledge and use of memory strategies also significantly increased following intervention . Furthermore , family knowledge of memory strategies increased following intervention . There was a strong trend towards improvement in contentment with memory immediately following intervention , but this effect was not significant . Conclusions : Early intervention for memory difficulties in amnestic mild cognitive impairment , using cognitive rehabilitation in compensatory strategies , can assist in minimising everyday memory failures as evaluated by performance on prospect i ve memory tasks and knowledge of memory strategies BACKGROUND Memory complaints and decline in cognitive function are common in the elderly .  Cognitive intervention has been shown to be beneficial in Alzheimer 's disease ( AD ) . However , few community-based cognitive intervention programs are available in Hong Kong . The aim of this project is to examine and compare the feasibility , acceptability , and clinical outcome of a cognitive intervention program for older patients with mild cognitive impairment and mild dementia using telemedicine versus a conventional face-to-face method . METHODS Community-dwelling older subjects with mild dementia or mild cognitive impairments were recruited from a community center . A total of 12 sessions of assessment and cognitive intervention were conducted via videoconferencing or by face-to-face method . Assessment included : Cantonese version of Mini Mental State Examination ( C-MMSE ) , Cantonese version of Rivermead Behavioural Memory test ( C-RBMT ) and Hierarchic Dementia Scale ( HDS ) . RESULTS Twenty-two clients were recruited . There was significant and comparable cognitive improvement in clients in both treatment arms . The videoconference arm was highly accepted by the clients and the community center . Overall compliance rate of participants was above 95 % . CONCLUSIONS Telemedicine was a feasible , effective and acceptable means in providing cognitive assessment and intervention to older persons with mild cognitive deficits . Promoting such a program to other community setting s would further enhance the accessibility of dementia service to the community ' Mild cognitive impairment ' ( MCI ) in older adults refers to a significant decline in memory function but not other cognitive functions . Pharmacological and non-pharmacological treatments for MCI are needed . The present r and omized clinical trial tests the efficacy of a cognitive and behavioral treatment to improve memory performance and participants ' attitudes about their memory .  A multi-faceted intervention that included education about memory loss , relaxation training , memory skills training , and cognitive restructuring for memory-related beliefs was compared to a no-treatment control condition . Outcomes included memory performance and appraisal s of memory function and control . Results indicate that the treated group had significantly better memory appraisal s than controls at the end of treatment and at a six-month follow-up . There were no differences between groups on memory performance at post-test but at follow-up the trained individuals showed a trend toward better word list recall than controls . Findings suggest that individuals with MCI can benefit from multi-component memory enhancement training . Further development of such training programs and tests of their efficacy alone and in combination with medications are needed Background and aims : Cognitive training programs have been developed for Alzheimer ’s disease patients and the health ] ; elderly ) population . Collective cogn 
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Conclusions Previous conclusions of a lack of efficacy for cognitive training in MCI may have been influenced by not clearly defining the intervention .
Our systematic review found that cognitive exercises can produce moderate-to-large beneficial effects on memory-related outcomes .