***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: Background Prospect i ve memory ( PM ) , the act of remembering that something has to be done in the future without any explicit prompting to recall , provides a useful framework with which to examine problems in internal- source monitoring . This is because it requires distinguishing between two internally-generated processes , namely the intention to perform an action versus actual performance of the action . In habitual tasks , such as taking medicine every few hours , the same PM task is performed regularly and thus it is essential that the individual is able to distinguish thoughts ( i.e. , thinking about taking the medicine ) from actions ( i.e. , actually taking the medicine ) . Methods We assessed habitual PM in patients with schizophrenia by employing a laboratory analogue of a habitual PM task in which , concurrently with maneuvering a ball around an obstacle course ( ongoing activity ) , participants were to turn over a counter once during each trial ( PM task ) . After each trial , participants were asked whether they had remembered to turn the counter over . Results Patients with schizophrenia made a disproportionate number of errors compared to controls of reporting that a PM response had been made ( i.e. , the counter turned over ) after an omission error ( i.e. , the counter was not turned over ) . There was no group difference in terms of reporting that an omission error occurred ( i.e. , forgetting to turn over the counter ) when in fact a PM response had been made . Conclusion Patients with schizophrenia displayed a specific deficit distinguishing between two internally-generated sources , attributable to either poor source monitoring or temporal discrimination Working memory may be conceptualized as a multi-component system involving the active maintenance and manipulation of stored information in the service of planning/guiding behaviour . Impaired spatial working memory is a robust finding in schizophrenia patients which has been related to an impairment in frontostriatal connectivity . The purpose of this study was to examine the specificity of this impairment by comparing the mnemonic and executive aspects of working memory performance in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder with psychotic features , focusing particularly on the functional dynamics between task components . Twenty-four patients with schizophrenia , 14 patients with bipolar I disorder ( manic phase ) and 33 healthy control subjects were assessed using the Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery ( CANTAB ) : including the spatial working memory ( between search errors and strategy scores ) spatial span ( storage capacity ) and spatial planning ( Stockings of Cambridge : accuracy and latency ) tasks . Both patient groups were impaired on the spatial span task , which requires the maintenance and retrieval of stored information . In contrast , only schizophrenia patients showed a significant deficit in between search errors , which requires both maintenance and manipulation of information in working memory . That is , they exhibited both a mnemonic and an executive dysfunction . Spatial span was particularly important to accurate planning ability in bipolar patients . In contrast , in patients with schizophrenia  poor spatial working memory was a significant predictor of planning impairments , consistent with failures in goal selection , evaluation and /or execution . Furthermore , initial planning time was positively correlated with the latency to complete a planning sequence . This pattern of slow cognitive processing in schizophrenia patients only , resembled that reported previously in patients with basal ganglia disorders . These findings are discussed in terms of a possible common disturbance in fronto-parietal circuitry in the two disorders together with a specific disturbance of fronto-striatal circuitry in schizophrenia , that is not present in bipolar disorder There is accumulating evidence for involvement of the prefrontal cortex ( PFC ) in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia . A primary function supported by the PFC is working memory ( WM ) . Findings from WM studies in schizophrenia can provide insight into the nature of clinical symptoms and cognitive deficits associated with this disorder , as well as begin to suggest areas of underlying neuropathology . To date , studies have not adequately investigated different WM domains ( e.g. , verbal , spatial , or object ) or processing requirements ( e.g. , maintenance , monitoring , or manipulation ) , shown to be associated with distinct patterns of neural activation , in schizophrenia patients and their well relatives . Accordingly , this study evaluated the performance of schizophrenia patients , their first-degree biological relatives , and nonpsychiatric controls on a comprehensive battery of WM tasks and investigated the association among WM deficits and  schizophrenia-spectrum psychopathology . The findings indicate that schizophrenia patients are consistently impaired on WM tasks  , irrespective of WM domain or processing requirements . In contrast , their unaffected relatives are only impaired on  WM tasks with higher central executive processing requirements . This pattern of WM performance may further implicate DLPFC dysfunction in the liability for schizophrenia and has implication s for future cognitive , genetic , and neurodevelopmental research The purpose of this study was to investigate basal ganglia ( BG ) and medial temporal lobe ( MTL ) dependent learning in patients with schizophrenia . Acquired equivalence is a phenomenon in which prior training to treat two stimuli as equivalent ( if two stimuli are associated with the same response ) increases generalization between them . The learning of stimulus-response pairs is related to the BG , whereas the MTL system participates in stimulus generalization . Forty-three patients with DSM-IV schizophrenia and 28 matched healthy controls participated . Volunteers received the Rutgers acquired equivalence task ( face-fish task ) by [ Myers , C.E. , Shohamy , D. , Gluck , M.A. et al. , 2003 . Dissociating hippocampal versus basal ganglia contributions to learning and transfer . J. Cogn . Neurosci . 15 , 185 - 193 . ] , the California Verbal Learning Test ( CVLT ) , and the n-back working memory test . The Rutgers acquired equivalence task investigates BG-dependent processes ( stimulus-response learning ) and MTL-dependent processes ( stimulus generalization ) with a single test . Results revealed that patients with schizophrenia showed a selective deficit on stimulus generalization , whereas stimulus-response learning was spared . The stimulus generalization deficit correlated with the CVLT performance ( total scores from trials 1 - 5 and long-delay recall ) , but not with the n-back test performance . The number of errors during stimulus-response learning correlated with the daily chlorpromazine-equivalent dose of antipsychotics . In conclusion , this is the first study to show that patients with schizophrenia exhibit deficits during MTL-dependent learning , but not during BG-dependent learning within a single task . High-dose first generation antipsychotics may disrupt BG-dependent learning by blocking dopaminergic neurotransmission in the nigro-stiratal system Previous investigations have found that increasing circulating glucose availability can increase memory performance in rodents , healthy humans , and individuals with dementia of the Alzheimer 's type . In this study , patients with schizophrenia , healthy control subjects , and controls with bipolar affective disorder were tested using double-blind treatment with either 50 g anhydrous dextrose plus 4 mg sodium saccharin ( for " taste " ) or 23.7 mg saccharin alone , followed by cognitive testing on a complex battery . At this glucose dose , verbal memory performance on a paragraph recall task was increased during the glucose condition relative to the saccharin condition in the patients with schizophrenia ; this effect was not detected in either the psychiatric or normal controls . The results provide preliminary support for the hypothesis that memory performance can be improved in patients with schizophrenia by increasing circulating glucose availability and suggest the importance of further evaluation of therapeutic manipulations of glucose availability Controls ( N = 45 ) , schizophrenics ( N = 20 ) and alcoholics ( N = 23 ) were asked to choose at r and om a number between 1 and 10 , 100 times . The correlation matrices of five different r and omization indices were used to study within group variation ; these matrices were similar for the normal and alcoholic groups , but very different for the schizophrenic group . The differences between the three groups were studied by canonical analysis and , in terms of the canonical variables , the mean performance of the normal group is clearly discriminated from that of the alcoholic and schizophrenic subjects To characterize the deficit in r and om number generation in schizophrenia with respect to control of sensory information processing , the present study employed a r and om number generation task using 10 digits ( 0 to 9 ) and compared two response modes ( oral and written ) with different amounts of sensory availability about the previous choices of the subject . Analysis indicated that the increased availability of previous information in the written response mode may exacerbate an aspect of the deficit in r and om number generation in schizophrenia reflecting the disturbance in control of sensory information processing . The comparison of performance in written and oral response modes may be useful in assessing schizophrenic psychopathology Patients with first-episode ( FE ) schizophrenia ( n=40 ) , with chronic schizophrenia ( n=40 ) and healthy controls ( n=40 ) matched for age , gender , education and parental socioeconomic status were administered a battery of st and ardized neuropsychological ( NP ) tests . Both patient groups showed generalized impairment relative to controls and the most pronounced deficits in visual-motor processing and attention ( VSM ) . Compared with FE patients , chronic schizophrenics performed worse in VSM and abstract ion/flexibility . Our findings suggest that NP deficits are fundamental manifestations of the illness , and that mainly frontally based dysfunctions are more prominent in chronic , kraepelinian patients The functioning of working memory in schizophrenic patients according to Baddeley 's model was examined in two complementary experiments . Experiment 1 comprised 27 patients and their controls , matched in age and level of education . Of this pool , 20 pairs participated also in Experiment 2 .  Digit span , reading rate , and immediate serial recall  assessed the functioning of the phonological loop .  Corsi and pattern span tasks assessed the capacity of visuo-spatial memory . The central executive 's ability to monitor two concurrent tasks was evaluated in a dual task paradigm , and its capacity to control action in a r and om generation task . A preliminary set of analyses showed that the patients ' performances were reduced in all tasks explored , except in digit span . This initial pattern changed consistently after controlling for reading rate . While slow and fast reading patients were comparable in demographic and clinical criteria , slow reading patients showed impaired performance in all tasks , whereas fast reading patients exhibited reduced performance in visuo-spatial tasks and in the r and om generation task only . The state of functioning of working memory in schizophrenia appears , therefore , to vary consistently among the components of the model and is markedly impaired in slow reading patients . The implication s of slowness are discussed Objective : Atypical neuroleptics seem to be more beneficial than typical ones with respect to long-term neuropsychological functioning . Thus , most studies focus on the long-term effects of neuroleptics . We were interested in whether atypical neuroleptic treatment is also superior to typical drugs over relatively short periods of time . Methods : We studied 20 schizophrenic patients [ 10 males , mean age 35.5 years , mean Brief Psychiatric Rating Scale ( BPRS ) score at entry 58.9 ] admitted to our hospital with acute psychotic exacerbation . Nine of them were treated with typical and 11 with atypical neuroleptics . In addition , 14 healthy drug-free subjects ( 6 males , mean age 31.2 years ) were enrolled in the study and compared to the patients . As neuropsychological tools , a divided attention test , the  Vienna reaction time test , the Benton visual retention test , digit span and a Multiple Choice Word Fluency Test ( MWT-B )  were used during the first week after admission , within the third week and before discharge ( approximately 3 months ) . Results : Patients scored significantly worse than healthy controls on nearly all tests ( except Vienna reaction time ) . Clinical ratings [ BPRS and Positive and Negative Symptom Scale for Schizophrenia ( PANSS ) ] improved markedly ( p < 0.01 ) , without a significant difference between typical and atypical medication . Clinical improvement ( PANSS total score ) correlated with less mistakes on the Benton test ( r = 0.762 , p = 0.017 ) and an improvement on the divided attention task ( r = 0.705 , p = 0.034 ) . Neuropsychological functioning ( explicit memory , p < 0.01 ; divided attention , p < 0.05 ) moderately improved for both groups under treatment but without a significant difference between atypical and typical antipsychotic drugs . Conclusions : Over short periods of time ( 3 months ) , neuropsychological disturbances in schizophrenia seem to be moderately responsive to both typical and atypical neuroleptics Twenty-six patients with schizophrenia and 12 patients with schizophrenia-like psychosis of epilepsy ( SLPE ) were compared to 38 healthy volunteers and 12 nonpsychotic patients with epilepsy to determine the contribution of psychosis to the pattern of cognition .  Tests of memory and executive function  were used . The schizophrenic group was more cognitively impaired than the SLPE and comparison groups . The profile of neuropsychological impairment in SLPE resembled that of schizophrenia and is unlikely to be explained solely by temporal lobe dysfunction . These results do not support the concept of SLPE as an independent nosological entity BACKGROUND The role of the inhibitory neurotransmitter gamma aminobutyric acid ( GABA ) in schizophrenia has previously been investigated using postmortem material . Recently , using single photon emission tomography ( SPET ) with the selective benzodiazepine antagonist 123I-Iomazenil as the radiolig and , we have demonstrated an in vivo relationship between reduced GABAA/benzodiazepine receptor binding and the severity of positive symptomatology in schizophrenia . The present study aim ed to build on this using the same in vivo scanning techniques , and relating findings to cognitive functioning . METHO 
    Output:
    
RESULTS Statistically significant effect sizes were found for all working memory measures , indicating deficits in schizophrenia groups .
Meta-regression analyses showed that the working memory deficit was not simply explained by discrepancies in current IQ between schizophrenia and control groups .
CONCLUSIONS Large deficits in working memory were demonstrated in schizophrenia groups across all three working memory domains .
There were , however , no clear differences across subdomains or between particular working memory tasks .