***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: Resistant starch ( RS ) , a non-viscous dietary fibre , may have postpr and ial effects on appetite regulation and metabolism , although the exact effects and mechanisms are unknown . An acute r and omised , single-blind crossover study , aim ed to determine the effects of consumption of 48 g RS on appetite compared to energy and available carbohydrate-matched placebo .  Twenty young healthy adult males consumed either 48 g RS or the placebo divided equally between two mixed meals on two separate occasions . Effects on appetite were assessed , using an ad libitum test meal and 24-h diet diaries for energy intake , and using visual analogue scales for subjective measures . Changes to postpr and ial glucose , insulin and C-peptide were also assessed . There was a significantly lower energy intake following the RS supplement compared to the placebo supplement at both the ad libitum test meal ( 5241 ( sem 313 ) v. 5606 ( sem 345 ) kJ , P = 0.033 ) and over the 24 h ( 12 603 ( sem 519 ) v. 13 949 ( sem 755 ) kJ , P = 0.044 ) . However , there was no associated effect on subjective appetite measures . Postpr and ial plasma glucose concentrations were not significantly different between supplements , but there was a significantly lower postpr and ial insulin response following the RS supplement ( P = 0.029 ) . The corresponding C-peptide concentrations were not significantly different , although the ratio of C-peptide to insulin was higher following the RS supplement compared to placebo ( P = 0.059 ) . These results suggest that consumption of 48 g RS , over a 24-h period , may be useful in the management of the metabolic syndrome and appetite . Further studies are required to determine the exact mechanisms Fibres which are soluble or insoluble in water have different physiochemical properties and may therefore be expected to exert different effects on post-ingestive satiety signals . This study compared the effects on short-term ( 24 h ) appetite of two equienergetic high ( 22 g ) fibre breakfasts , an equienergetic low fibre breakfast and a low energy , ' light ' breakfast . Psyllium gum ( the soluble fibre ) and wheat bran ( the insoluble fibre ) were incorporated into breakfast cereals and consumed at breakfast by sixteen healthy , normal weight males after an overnight fast using a repeated measures , counterbalanced design . Ad libitum energy intake was assessed at a test snack 1.5 h after breakfast , later in the day using food boxes and the following day using food diaries . Motivation to eat and gastrointestinal sensations were tracked for the next 24 h. Hunger ratings showed a trend towards the subjects being less hungry and they consumed significantly less energy at snack time after the high insoluble than after the high soluble fibre breakfast cereal . The soluble fibre breakfast produced a greater suppression of snack intake than the light breakfast , but smaller suppression than the other breakfasts . Interestingly there was a trend toward reduced hunger and voluntary energy consumption following the soluble fibre compared with the insoluble fibre much later in the day ( 9.5 - 13.5 h after breakfast ) although this was not significant . There was no significant effect of breakfast type on total day energy intake . The results suggest that different types of fibre modulate the timecourse of appetite control and may produce alterations in the experience of motivation and patterns of eating without necessarily effecting total energy intake Objective : To assess whether the addition of viscous fiber at an amount recommended by the US FDA to allow a ‘ low saturated fat , cholesterol , soluble fiber and coronary heart disease ’ , health cl aim label on a food package ( 1.7 g psyllium ) and /or fat ( 30 g sunflower oil and 3 g sodium propionate ) to a pasta meal would affect gastric emptying , postpr and ial glucose , insulin and GLP-1 concentrations . Design : Ten subjects participated in a two-by-two single blind r and omized crossover study . Four meals containing 50 g of available carbohydrate were consumed : pasta with or without psyllium enrichment served with a tomato sauce with ( 520 kcal per meal ) and without ( 240 kcal per meal ) fat . Blood sample s were taken for 240 min following the meal and all subjects consumed a buffet meal at the end of the study . Gastric empting was measured using the paracetamol absorption test . Blood was analysed for glucose , insulin , GLP-1 . Visual analog scales were used to record feelings of hunger , pleasantness and nausea . Results : The psyllium-enriched pasta had no significant effect on gastric emptying or the incremental area under the curve ( IAUC ) for GLP-1 , insulin or glucose compared with the control pasta . The addition of polyunsaturated fat and sodium propionate significantly increased the IAUC for GLP-1 ( P<0.001 ) , delaying gastric emptying ( P<0.002 ) , and decreasing glucose ( P<0.002 ) . Conclusions : A dose of 1.7 g psyllium did not evoke measurable effects on gastric emptying , postpr and ial GLP-1 , insulin or glucose metabolism . However the addition of 30 g of oil and 3 g of sodium propionate to the pasta did reduce gastric emptying , increase GLP-1 and reduce glucose and insulin concentrations . While this short-term study may have implication s in terms of reducing the risk of diabetes and improving coronary risk factor profiles the long term effects of these nutrients need to be studied . Sponsorship : This study was supported by Kellogg Company Dietary fibre consumption may help to control appetite and to reduce calorie intake . Underlying molecular mechanisms were not fully investigated . The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of barley beta-glucans on short-term appetite and on satiety-related hormones in healthy subjects . Fourteen volunteers were selected and r and omly assigned to have isocaloric breakfasts including a 3 % beta-glucan-enriched bread ( betaGB ) or a control bread ( CB ) . Post-breakfast individual self-records of appetite ratings and measure of calorie intake at an ad libitum lunch as well as measure of blood glucose , insulin , ghrelin and PYY concentrations , were performed . betaGB determined a significant higher reduction of hunger and increase of fullness and satiety than CB . Accordingly , a 19 % reduction of energy intake at lunch subsequent to betaGB consumption compared to CB , was recorded . A 23 % lower AUC(60 - 180 ) of plasma ghrelin and a 16 % higher total AUC of PYY response after betaGB than CB consumption , independent from insulin response , was found . Glucose response was also blunted by betaGB vs CB . Barley beta-glucans were able to control appetite in the short term by modulating sensations and reducing energy intake . Data suggested for the first time that satiety effect of beta-glucans are mediated by ghrelin and PYY Although subjective appetite scores are widely used , studies on the reproducibility of this method are scarce . In the present study nine healthy , normal weight , young men recorded their subjective appetite sensations before and during 5 h after two different test meals A and B. The subjects tested each meal twice and in r and omized order . Visual analogue scale ( VAS ) scores , 10 cm in length , were used to assess hunger , satiety , fullness , prospect i ve food consumption and palatability of the meals . Plasma glucose and lactate concentrations were determined concomitantly . The repeatability was investigated for fasting values , delta-mean 5 h and mean 5 h values , delta-peak/nadir and peak/nadir values . Although the profiles of the postpr and ial responses were similar , the coefficients of repeatability ( CR = 2SD ) on the mean differences were large , ranging from 2.86 to 5.24 cm for fasting scores , 1.36 to 1.88 cm for mean scores , 2.98 to 5.42 cm for delta-mean scores , and 3.16 to 6.44 cm for peak and delta-peak scores . For palatability ratings the CR values varied more , ranging from 2.38 ( taste ) to 8.70 cm ( aftertaste ) . Part of the difference in satiety ratings could be explained by the differences in palatability ratings . However , the low reproducibility may also be caused by a conditioned satiation or hunger due to the subjects ' prior experience of the meals and therefore not just be a reflection of r and om noise . It is likely , however , that the variation in appetite ratings is due both to method ological day-to-day variation and to biological day-to-day variation in subjective appetite sensations BACKGROUND Cholecystokinin is associated with satiety . Fat stimulates cholecystokinin release , and fiber appears to prolong cholecystokinin elevation during the alimentary period . OBJECTIVE We tested whether adding fiber or fat to a low-fat , low-fiber meal increases cholecystokinin release and enhances subjective measures of satiety and whether the cholecystokinin response correlates with subjective measures of satiety . DESIGN Three isoenergetic breakfast meals were tested in a r and omized crossover design : low fiber , low fat ; high fiber , low fat ; and low fiber , high fat . Blood sample s were drawn from fasted subjects ( 7 men and 8 women ) before and at different time points after test meal consumption for 6 h. Plasma was analyzed for cholecystokinin , insulin , glucose , and triacylglycerols . Visual analogue scales were used to assess subjects ' hunger , desire to eat , fullness , and prospect i ve consumption . RESULTS In the women , the meals higher in fiber or in fat result ed in greater feelings of satiety and in significantly higher cholecystokinin responses than did the low-fat , low-fiber meal . In the men , the increase in cholecystokinin concentration did not differ between meals , but the 2 low-fat meals elicited a greater feeling of satiety than did the high-fat meal . The insulin response was significantly higher for the low-fiber , low-fat meal than for the other 2 meals , and the triacylglycerol response was greatest for the high-fat , low-fiber meal . CONCLUSION In women , the feeling of satiety caused by cholecystokinin release is enhanced by increasing either the fiber or fat content of a low-fat , low-fiber meal BACKGROUND Protein and fiber may be important determinants of satiety . Lupin kernel flour is a novel food ingredient that is rich in protein and fiber . OBJECTIVE The objective was to investigate the effects of lupin kernel flour-enriched bread ( LB ) on satiety and energy intake  in humans . DESIGN Two r and omized controlled crossover trials were performed to compare the acute effects of LB with those of white bread ( WB ) . In study 1 , the subjects ( n = 16 ) completed 4 treatments 1 wk apart : WB breakfast ( as toast ) and WB lunch ( as s and wiches ) , WB breakfast and LB lunch , LB breakfast and WB lunch , and LB breakfast and LB lunch .  Energy intake at all breakfast meals was matched ( 1655 kJ ) , and ad libitum energy intake at lunch , 3 h after breakfast , was measured . In study 2 , the subjects ( n = 17 ) completed 2 treatments 1 wk apart : WB breakfast and LB breakfast ( each 1655 kJ ) . Blood sample s were taken at baseline and at regular intervals for 3 h after breakfast . RESULTS In study 1 , the LB breakfast result ed in significantly higher self-reported satiety ( P < 0.001 ) and lower energy intake ( kJ ) at lunch ( -488 ; 95 % CI : -798 , -178 ) than did the WB breakfast . The LB lunch result ed in a significantly lower within-meal energy intake ( kJ ) at lunch ( -1028 ; 95 % CI : -1338 , -727 ) than did the WB lunch . In study 2 , compared with the WB breakfast , the LB breakfast significantly altered the 3-h postmeal plasma ghrelin response ( P = 0.04 ) and result ed in significantly lower mean 3-h plasma ghrelin concentrations ( P = 0.009 ) . CONCLUSION A novel food enriched in protein and fiber derived from lupin kernel flour significantly influences energy intake acutely BACKGROUND The pattern of substrate utilization with diets containing a high or a low proportion of unavailable and slowly digestible carbohydrates may constitute an important factor in the control , time course , and onset of hunger in humans . OBJECTIVE We tested the hypothesis that isoenergetic diets differing only in their content of unavailable carbohydrates would result in different time courses of total , endogenous , and exogenous carbohydrate oxidation rates . DESIGN Two diets with either a high ( H diet ) or a low ( L diet ) content of unavailable carbohydrates were fed to 14 healthy subjects studied during two 24-h periods in a metabolic chamber . Substrate utilization was assessed by whole-body indirect calorimetry . In a subgroup of 8 subjects , endogenous and exogenous carbohydrate oxidation were assessed by prelabeling the body glyc 
    Output:
    
Most fibers do not reduce appetite or energy intake in acute study design s. KEY TEACHING POINTS : • Dietary fiber intake is associated with lower body weight in epidemiologic studies . •
Most acute fiber treatments ( 61 % ) did not enhance satiety . •
Most acute fiber treatments ( 78 % ) did not reduce food intake . •
Neither fiber type nor fiber dose were related to satiety response or food intake