***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: The ability to control craving for substances that offer immediate rewards but whose long-term consumption may pose serious risks lies at the root of substance use disorders and is critical for mental and physical health . Despite its importance , the neural systems supporting this ability remain unclear . Here , we investigated this issue using functional imaging to examine neural activity in cigarette smokers , the most prevalent substance-dependent population in the United States , as they used cognitive strategies to regulate craving for cigarettes and food . We found that the cognitive down-regulation of craving was associated with ( i ) activity in regions previously associated with regulating emotion in particular and cognitive control in general , including dorsomedial , dorsolateral , and ventrolateral prefrontal cortices , and ( ii ) decreased activity in regions previously associated with craving , including the ventral striatum , subgenual cingulate , amygdala , and ventral tegmental area . Decreases in craving correlated with decreases in ventral striatum activity and increases in dorsolateral prefrontal cortex activity , with ventral striatal activity fully mediating the relationship between lateral prefrontal cortex and reported craving . These results provide insight into the mechanisms that enable cognitive strategies to effectively regulate craving , suggesting that it involves neural dynamics parallel to those involved in regulating other emotions . In so doing , this study provides a method ological tool and conceptual foundation for study ing this ability across substance using population s and developing more effective treatments for substance use disorders Background and aims People with substance abuse and pathological gamblers show an attentional bias . In a laboratory setting , we found an attentional bias using an addiction Stroop in adults with Internet Gaming Disorder ( IGD ) . We aim ed at investigating this effect using two web-based experiments . Methods Study 1 :  Gamers with IGD , casual gamers , and non-gamers ( N = 81 , 28.1 ± 7.8 years ) completed a web-based addiction Stroop with a fully r and omized word order . They saw computer-related and neutral words in four colors and indicated the word color via keypress . Study 2 :  Gamers with IGD , casual gamers , and non-gamers ( N = 87 , 23.4 ± 5.1 years ) completed a web-based addiction Stroop and a classical Stroop ( incongruent color and neutral words ) , which both had a block design . We expected that in both studies , only the gamers with IGD would react more slowly to computer-related words in the addiction Stroop . All groups were expected to react more slowly to incongruent color words in the classical Stroop . Results In neither study did the gamers with IGD differ in their reaction times to computer-related words compared to neutral words . In Study 2 , all groups reacted more slowly to incongruent color words than to neutral words confirming the validity of the online reaction time assessment . Discussion Gamers with IGD did not show a significant attentional bias . IGD may differ from substance abuse and pathological gambling in this respect ; alternatively experimenting on the Internet may have introduced error variance that made it harder to detect a bias BACKGROUND Impulsive decision making is a hallmark of frequently occurring addiction disorders including alcohol dependence ( AD ) . Therefore , ameliorating impulsive decision making is a promising target for the treatment of AD . Previous studies have shown that modafinil enhances cognitive control functions in various psychiatric disorders . However , the effects of modafinil on delay discounting and its underlying neural correlates have not been investigated as yet . The aim of the current study was to investigate the effects of modafinil on neural correlates of impulsive decision making in abstinent AD patients and healthy control ( HC ) subjects . METHOD A r and omized , double-blind , placebo-controlled , within-subjects cross-over study using functional magnetic resonance imaging ( fMRI ) was conducted in 14 AD patients and 16 HC subjects . All subjects participated in two fMRI sessions in which they either received a single dose of placebo or 200 mg of modafinil 2 h before the session . During fMRI , subjects completed a delay-discounting task to measure impulsive decision making . RESULTS Modafinil improved impulsive decision making in AD pateints , which was accompanied by enhanced recruitment of frontoparietal regions and reduced activation of the ventromedial prefrontal cortex . Moreover , modafinil-induced enhancement of functional connectivity between the superior frontal gyrus and ventral striatum was specifically associated with improvement in impulsive decision making . CONCLUSIONS These findings indicate that modafinil can improve impulsive decision making in AD patients through an enhanced coupling of prefrontal control regions and brain regions coding the subjective value of rewards . Therefore , the current study supports the implementation of modafinil in future clinical trials for AD OBJECTIVE In alcohol-dependent patients , alcohol cues evoke increased activation in mesolimbic brain areas , such as the nucleus accumbens and the amygdala . Moreover , patients show an alcohol approach bias , a tendency to more quickly approach than avoid alcohol cues . Cognitive bias modification training , which aims to retrain approach biases , has been shown to reduce alcohol craving and relapse rates . The authors investigated effects of this training on cue reactivity in alcohol-dependent patients . METHOD In a double-blind r and omized design , 32 abstinent alcohol-dependent patients received either bias modification training or sham training . Both trainings consisted of six sessions of the joystick approach-avoidance task ; the bias modification training entailed pushing away 90 % of alcohol cues and 10 % of soft drink cues , whereas this ratio was 50/50 in the sham training .  Alcohol cue reactivity was measured with functional MRI before and after training . RESULTS Before training , alcohol cue-evoked activation was observed in the amygdala bilaterally , as well as in the right nucleus accumbens , although here it fell short of significance . Activation in the amygdala correlated with craving and arousal ratings of alcohol stimuli ; correlations in the nucleus accumbens again fell short of significance . After training , the bias modification group showed greater reductions in cue-evoked activation in the amygdala bilaterally and in behavioral arousal ratings of alcohol pictures , compared with the sham training group . Decreases in right amygdala activity correlated with decreases in craving in the bias modification but not the sham training group . CONCLUSIONS These findings provide evidence that cognitive bias modification affects alcohol cue-induced mesolimbic brain activity . Reductions in neural reactivity may be a key underlying mechanism of the therapeutic effectiveness of this training 
    Output:
    
HighlightsIGD is associated with alterations in fronto‐striatal and fronto‐cingulate regions .
IGD subjects , compared with healthy controls , showed : ( 1 ) hyperactivation in the anterior and posterior cingulate cortices , cau date , posterior inferior frontal gyrus ( IFG ) , which were mainly associated with studies measuring reward and cold‐executive functions ; and , ( 2 ) hypoactivation in the anterior IFG in relation to hot‐executive function , the posterior insula , somatomotor and somatosensory cortices in relation to reward function .
Furthermore ,  IGD subjects showed reduced gray‐matter volume in the anterior cingulate , orbitofrontal , dorsolateral prefrontal , and premotor cortices .
These findings suggest that IGD is associated with both functional and structural neural alterations in fronto‐striatal and fronto‐cingulate regions .
Moreover , multi‐domain assessment s capture different aspects of neural alterations  in IGD , which may be helpful for developing effective interventions targeting specific functions