***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: Working memory is a cognitive process that is particularly vulnerable to decline with age . The current study sought to evaluate the efficacy of a working memory training scheme in improving memory in a group of older adults . A 5-week online training scheme was design ed to provide training in the main components of Baddeley ’s ( 2000 ) working memory model , namely auditory and visuospatial short-term and working memory . A group of older adults aged between 64 and 79 were r and omly assigned to a trainee ( n = 19 ) or control ( n = 17 ) group , with trainees engaging in the adaptive training scheme and controls engaging in a non-adaptive version of the program . Before and after training and at 3- and 6-month follow-up sessions , trainees and controls were asked to complete measures of short-term and working memory , long-term episodic memory , subjective ratings of memory , and attention and achievement of goals set at the beginning of training . The results provided evidence of an expansion of auditory short-term memory span , which was maintained 6 months later , and transfer to long-term episodic memory but no evidence of improvement in working memory capacity per se . A serendipitous and intriguing finding of a relationship between time spent training , psychological stress , and training gains provided further insight into individual differences in training gains in older adults Healthy aging is typically accompanied by some decline in cognitive performance , as well as by alterations in brain structure and function . Here we report the results of a r and omized , controlled trial design ed to determine the effects of a novel cognitive training program on resting cerebral blood flow ( CBF ) and gray matter ( GM ) volume in healthy older adults . Sixty-six healthy older adults participated in 8 weeks of either a training program targeting attention and distractibility or an educational control program . This training program produced significantly larger increases in resting CBF to the prefrontal cortex than the control program . Increases in blood flow were associated with reduced susceptibility to distraction after training , but not with alterations in GM volume . These data demonstrate that cognitive training can improve resting CBF in healthy older adults and that cerebral perfusion rates may be a more sensitive indicator of the benefits of cognitive training than volumetric analyses OBJECTIVES To investigate the efficacy of a novel brain plasticity-based computerized cognitive training program in older adults and to evaluate the effect on untrained measures of memory and attention and participant-reported outcomes . DESIGN Multisite r and omized controlled double-blind trial with two treatment groups . SETTING Communities in northern and southern California and Minnesota . PARTICIPANTS Community-dwelling adults aged 65 and older ( N=487 ) without a diagnosis of clinical ly significant cognitive impairment . INTERVENTION Participants were r and omized to receive a broadly-available brain plasticity-based computerized cognitive training program ( intervention ) or a novelty- and intensity-matched general cognitive stimulation program modeling treatment as usual ( active control ) . Duration of training was 1 hour per day , 5 days per week , for 8 weeks , for a total of 40 hours . MEASUREMENTS The primary outcome was a composite score calculated from six subtests of the Repeatable Battery for the Assessment of Neuropsychological Status that use the auditory modality ( RBANS Auditory Memory/Attention ) . Secondary measures were derived from performance on the experimental program , st and ardized neuropsychological assessment s of memory and attention , and participant-reported outcomes . RESULTS RBANS Auditory Memory/Attention improvement was significantly greater ( P=.02 ) in the experimental group ( 3.9 points , 95 % confidence interval (CI)=2.7 - 5.1 ) than in the control group ( 1.8 points , 95 % CI=0.6 - 3.0 ) . Multiple secondary measures of memory and attention showed significantly greater improvements in the experimental group ( word list total score , word list delayed recall , digits backwards , letter-number sequencing ; P<.05 ) , as did the participant-reported outcome measure ( P=.001 ) . No advantage for the experimental group was seen in narrative memory . CONCLUSION The experimental program improved generalized measures of memory and attention more than an active control program OBJECTIVES To primarily ascertain the effect of the Otago Exercise Program ( OEP ) on physiological falls risk , functional mobility , and executive functioning after 6 months in older adults with a recent history of falls and to ascertain the effect of the OEP on falls during a 1-year follow-up period . DESIGN R and omized controlled trial . SETTING Dedicated falls clinics . PARTICIPANTS Seventy-four adults aged 70 and older who presented to a healthcare professional after a fall . INTERVENTION The OEP , a home-based program that consists of resistance training and balance training exercises . MEASUREMENTS Physiological falls risk was assessed using the Physiological Profile Assessment . Functional mobility was assessed using the Timed Up and Go Test . Three central executive functions were assessed : set shifting , using the Trail Making Test Part B ; updating , using the verbal digits backward test ; and response inhibition , using the Stroop Color-Word Test . Falls were prospect ively monitored using daily calendars . RESULTS At 6 months , there was no significant between-group difference in physiological falls risk or functional mobility ( P > or= .33 ) . There was a significant between-group difference in response inhibition ( P=.05 ) . A falls histogram revealed two outliers . With these cases removed , using negative binomial regression , the unadjusted incidence rate ratio of falls in the OEP group compared with the control group was 0.56 . The adjusted incidence rate ratio was 0.47 . CONCLUSION The OEP may reduce falls by improving cognitive performance OBJECTIVES We evaluated the effect of cognitive training among 1,534 participants in the Advanced Cognitive Training for Independent and Vital Elderly ( ACTIVE ) r and omized controlled trial ( RCT ) on 5-year improvements in 3 cognitive-specific measures of locus of control-internal , chance , and powerful others . METHODS ACTIVE was a multisite RCT ( age > or = 65 ) , with 4 groups ( memory , reasoning , speed of processing , and no-contact control ) . Complete 5-year follow-up data were available for 1,534 ( 55 % ) of the 2,802 participants . A propensity score model was used to adjust for potential attrition bias . Clinical ly important improvements ( and decrements ) in the cognitive-specific locus of control scale scores were defined as greater than or equal to 0.5 SD ( medium ) and greater than or equal to 1.0 SD ( large ) . Multinomial logistic regression was used to simultaneously contrast those who improved and those who declined with those whose locus of control scale score was unchanged . RESULTS Statistically significant effects reflecting medium-sized ( > or = 0.5 SD ) improvements in internal locus of control between baseline and the 5-year follow-up were found for the reasoning and speed of processing intervention groups who were 76 % ( p < .01 ) and 68 % ( p < .05 ) more likely , respectively , to improve than the no-contact control group . No improvement effects were found on the chance or powerful others locus of control measures or for the memory intervention group . CONCLUSION Cognitive training that targets reasoning and speed of processing can improve the cognitive-specific sense of personal control over one 's life in older adults Cognitive control is defined by a set of neural processes that allow us to interact with our complex environment in a goal -directed manner . Humans regularly challenge these control processes when attempting to simultaneously accomplish multiple goals ( multitasking ) , generating interference as the result of fundamental information processing limitations . It is clear that multitasking behaviour has become ubiquitous in today ’s technologically dense world , and substantial evidence has accrued regarding multitasking difficulties and cognitive control deficits in our ageing population . Here we show that multitasking performance , as assessed with a custom- design ed three-dimensional video game ( NeuroRacer ) , exhibits a linear age-related decline from 20 to 79 years of age . By playing an adaptive version of NeuroRacer in multitasking training mode , older adults ( 60 to 85 years old ) reduced multitasking costs compared to both an active control group and a no-contact control group , attaining levels beyond those achieved by untrained 20-year-old participants , with gains persisting for 6 months . Furthermore , age-related deficits in neural signatures of cognitive control , as measured with electroencephalography , were remediated by multitasking training ( enhanced midline frontal theta power and frontal – posterior theta coherence ) . Critically , this training result ed in performance benefits that extended to untrained cognitive control abilities ( enhanced sustained attention and working memory ) , with an increase in midline frontal theta power predicting the training-induced boost in sustained attention and preservation of multitasking improvement 6 months later . These findings highlight the robust plasticity of the prefrontal cognitive control system in the ageing brain , and provide the first evidence , to our knowledge , of how a custom- design ed video game can be used to assess cognitive abilities across the lifespan , evaluate underlying neural mechanisms , and serve as a powerful tool for cognitive enhancement BACKGROUND Cognitive decline among seniors is a pressing health care issue . Specific exercise training may combat cognitive decline . We compared the effect of once-weekly and twice-weekly resistance training with that of twice-weekly balance and tone exercise training on the performance of executive cognitive functions in senior women . METHODS In this single-blinded r and omized trial , 155 community-dwelling women aged 65 to 75 years living in Vancouver were r and omly allocated to once-weekly ( n = 54 ) or twice-weekly ( n = 52 ) resistance training or twice-weekly balance and tone training ( control group ) ( n = 49 ) . The primary outcome measure was performance on the Stroop test , an executive cognitive test of selective attention and conflict resolution . Secondary outcomes of executive cognitive functions included set shifting as measured by the Trail Making Tests ( parts A and B ) and working memory as assessed by verbal digit span forward and backward tests . Gait speed , muscular function , and whole-brain volume were also secondary outcome measures . RESULTS Both resistance training groups significantly improved their performance on the Stroop test compared with those in the balance and tone group ( P < or = .03 ) . Task performance improved by 12.6 % and 10.9 % in the once-weekly and twice-weekly resistance training groups , respectively ; it deteriorated by 0.5 % in the balance and tone group . Enhanced selective attention and conflict resolution was significantly associated with increased gait speed . Both resistance training groups demonstrated reductions in whole-brain volume compared with the balance and tone group at the end of the study ( P < or = .03 ) . CONCLUSION Twelve months of once-weekly or twice-weekly resistance training benefited the executive cognitive function of selective attention and conflict resolution among senior women . TRIAL REGISTRATION clinical trials.gov Identifier : NCT00426881 Background While many studies confirm the positive effect of cognitive and physical training on cognitive performance of older adults , only little is known about the effects of simultaneously performed cognitive and physical training . In the current study , older adults simultaneously performed a verbal working memory and a cardiovascular training to improve cognitive and motor-cognitive dual task performance . Twenty training sessions of 30 minutes each were conducted over a period of ten weeks , with a test session before , in the middle , and after the training . Training gains were tested in measures of selective attention , paired-associates learning , executive control , reasoning , memory span , information processing speed , and motor-cognitive dual task performance in the form of walking and simultaneously performing a working memory task . Results Sixty-three participants with a mean age of 71.8 ± 4.9 years ( range 65 to 84 ) either performed the simultaneous training ( N = 21 ) , performed a single working memory training ( N = 16 ) , or attended no training at all ( N = 26 ) . The results indicate similar training progress and larger improvements in the executive control task for both training groups when compared to the passive control group . In addition , the simultaneous training result ed in larger improvements compared to the single cognitive training in the paired-associates task and was able to reduce the step-to-step variability during the motor-cognitive dual task when compared to the single cognitive training and the passive control group . Conclusions The simultaneous training of cognitive and physical abilities presents a promising training concept to improve cognitive and motor-cognitive dual task performance , offering greater potential on daily life functioning , which usually involves the recruitment of multiple abilities and re sources rather than a single one The ultimate goal of cognitive enhancement as an intervention for age-related cognitive decline is transfer to everyday cognitive functioning . Development of training methods that transfer broadly to untrained cognitive tasks ( far transfer ) requires underst and ing of the neural bases of training and far transfer effects . We used cognitive training to test the hypothesis that far transfer is associated with altered attentional control dem and s mediated by the dorsal attention network and trained sensory cortex . In an exploratory study , we r and omly assigned 42 healthy older adults to six weeks of training on Brain Fitness ( BF-auditory perception ) , Space Fortress ( SF-visuomotor/working memory ) , or Rise of Nations ( RON-strategic reasoning ) . Before and after training , cognitive performance , diffusion-derived white matter integrity , and functional connectivity of the superior parietal cortex ( SPC ) were assessed . We found the strongest effects from BF training , which transferred to everyday problem solving and reasoning and selectively changed integrity of occipito-temporal white matter associated with improvement on untrained everyday problem solving . These results show that cognitive gain from auditory perception training depends on heightened white matter integrity in the ventral attention network . In BF and SF ( which also transferred positively ) , a decrease in functional connectivity between SPC and inferior temporal lobe ( ITL ) was observed compared to RON-which did not transfer to untrained cognitive function . These findings highlight the importance for cognitive training of top-down control of sensory processing by the dorsal attention network . Altered brain connect 
    Output:
    
The review indicates that both cognitive and physical training have an impact on cognition and on the brain .
However , each type of training seems to preferentially enhance different cognitive functions and specifically impact both brain structure and function .