***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: The present r and omized double-blinded cross-over study aims to extensively study the neural correlates underpinning cognitive functions in healthy subjects after acute glucose and fructose administration , using an integrative multimodal neuroimaging approach . Five minutes after glucose , fructose , or placebo administration through a nasogastric tube , 12 participants underwent 3 complementary neuroimaging techniques : 2 task-based functional magnetic resonance imaging ( fMRI ) sequences to assess working memory ( N-back ) and response inhibition ( Go/No-Go ) and one resting state fMRI sequence to address the cognition-related fronto-parietal network ( FPN ) and salience network ( SN ) . During working memory processing , glucose intake decreased activation in the anterior cingulate cortex ( ACC ) relative to placebo , while fructose  decreased activation in the ACC and sensory cortex relative to placebo and glucose . During response inhibition ,  glucose and fructose decreased activation in the ACC , insula and visual cortex relative to placebo . Resting state fMRI indicated increased global connectivity strength of the FPN and the SN during glucose and fructose intake . The results demonstrate that glucose and fructose lead to partially different partially overlapping changes in regional brain activities that underpin cognitive performance in different tasks The aim of the present study was to define the scalp topography of the two subcomponents of the P3 component of the auditory evoked potential elicited in a three-stimulus oddball paradigm and to identify their cortical generators using the st and ardized low resolution electromagnetic tomography ( sLORETA ) . Subjects were presented with a r and om sequence of auditory stimuli and instructed to respond to an infrequently occurring target stimulus inserted into a sequence of frequent st and ard and rare non-target stimuli . Results show that the magnitude of the frontal P3a is determined by the relative physical difference among stimuli , as it was larger for the stimulus more deviant from the st and ard . Major neural generators of the P3a were localized within frontal cortex and anterior cingulate gyrus . In contrast to this , the P3b , showing maximal amplitude at parietal locations , was larger for stimuli dem and ing a response than for the rare non-target . Major sources of the P3b included the superior parietal lobule and the posterior part of the cingulate gyrus . Our findings are in line with the hypothesis that P3a is related to alerting activity during the initial allocation of attention , while P3b is related to activation of a posterior network when the neuronal model of perceived stimulation is compared with the attentional trace BACKGROUND A glucose drink has been shown to improve memory in persons with poor glucose regulation and poor cognition . OBJECTIVE The objective of this study was to determine 1 ) whether an association between cognition and glucose regulation is apparent in healthy seniors and 2 ) the effects of dietary carbohydrates on cognition . DESIGN After an overnight fast , 10 men and 10 women ( aged 60 - 82 y ) consumed 50 g carbohydrate as glucose , potatoes , or barley or a placebo on 4 separate mornings . Cognitive tests were administered 15 , 60 , and 105 min after ingestion of the carbohydrate .  Plasma glucose and serum insulin were measured . RESULTS In a multiple regression analysis , poor baseline ( placebo )  verbal declarative memory ( immediate and 20-min delayed paragraph recall and word list recall ) and visuomotor task performance were predicted by poor beta cell function , high incremental area under the glucose curve , low insulin resistance , and low body mass index . The difference in plasma glucose after food consumption [ glucose > potatoes > barley > placebo ( P : < 0.03 ) ] did not predict performance . Although overall performance did not differ with consumption of the different test foods , baseline score and beta cell function correlated with improvements in immediate and delayed paragraph recall for all 3 carbohydrates ( compared with placebo ) ; the poorer the baseline memory or beta cell function , the greater the improvement ( correlation between beta cell function and improvement in delayed paragraph recall : r > -0.50 , P : < 0.03 ) . Poor beta cell function correlated with improvement for all carbohydrates in visuomotor task performance but not on an attention task . CONCLUSIONS Glucose regulation was associated with cognitive performance in elderly subjects with normal glucose tolerance . Dietary carbohydrates ( potatoes and barley ) enhanced cognition in subjects with poor memories or beta cell function independently of plasma glucose IMPORTANCE Increases in fructose consumption have paralleled the increasing prevalence of obesity , and high-fructose diets are thought to promote weight gain and insulin resistance . Fructose ingestion produces smaller increases in circulating satiety hormones compared with glucose ingestion , and central administration of fructose provokes feeding in rodents , whereas central ly administered glucose promotes satiety . OBJECTIVE To study neurophysiological factors that might underlie associations between fructose consumption and weight gain . DESIGN , SETTING , AND PARTICIPANTS Twenty healthy adult volunteers underwent 2 magnetic resonance imaging sessions at Yale University in conjunction with fructose or glucose drink ingestion in a blinded , r and om-order , crossover design . MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Relative changes in hypothalamic regional cerebral blood flow ( CBF ) after glucose or fructose ingestion . Secondary outcomes included whole-brain analyses to explore regional CBF changes , functional connectivity analysis to investigate correlations between the hypothalamus and other brain region responses , and hormone responses to fructose and glucose ingestion . RESULTS There was a significantly greater reduction in hypothalamic CBF after glucose vs fructose ingestion ( -5.45 vs 2.84 mL/g per minute , respectively ; mean difference , 8.3 mL/g per minute [ 95 % CI of mean difference , 1.87 - 14.70 ] ; P = .01 ) . Glucose ingestion ( compared with baseline ) increased functional connectivity between the hypothalamus and the thalamus and striatum . Fructose  increased connectivity between the hypothalamus and thalamus but not the striatum . Regional CBF within the hypothalamus , thalamus , insula , anterior cingulate , and striatum ( appetite and reward regions ) was reduced after glucose ingestion compared with baseline ( P < .05 significance threshold , family-wise error [ FWE ] whole-brain corrected ) . In contrast , fructose  reduced regional CBF in the thalamus , hippocampus , posterior cingulate cortex , fusiform , and visual cortex ( P < .05 significance threshold , FWE whole-brain corrected ) . In whole-brain voxel-level analyses , there were no significant differences between direct comparisons of fructose vs glucose sessions following correction for multiple comparisons . Fructose vs glucose ingestion result ed in lower peak levels of serum glucose ( mean difference , 41.0 mg/dL [ 95 % CI , 27.7 - 54.5 ] ; P < .001 ) , insulin ( mean difference , 49.6 μU/mL [ 95 % CI , 38.2 - 61.1 ] ; P < .001 ) , and glucagon-like polypeptide 1 ( mean difference , 2.1 pmol/L [ 95 % CI , 0.9 - 3.2 ] ; P = .01 ) . CONCLUSION AND RELEVANCE In a series of exploratory analyses , consumption of fructose compared with glucose result ed in a distinct pattern of regional CBF and a smaller increase in systemic glucose , insulin , and glucagon-like polypeptide 1 levels Rationale : Memory for a list of 20 words can be enhanced by preceding learning with consumption of 25 g glucose rather than an equally sweet aspartame solution . In previous studies , participants performed a secondary h and -movement task during the list-learning phase . Objective : The present placebo-controlled , double-blind study examined whether the additional cognitive load created by a secondary task is a crucial feature of the glucose memory facilitation effect . Methods : The effect of glucose administration on word recall performance in healthy young participants was examined under conditions where the primary memory task and a secondary task were competing for cognitive re sources ( across a range of secondary tasks ) , and where task difficulty was increased but dual task-mediated competition for cognitive re sources did not exist . Measures of non-verbal and working memory performance were also compared under the different glycaemic conditions ( glucose versus aspartame drinks ) . Results : In the present study , a beneficial effect of glucose on memory was detected after participants encoded a 20-word list while performing a secondary task , but not when participants encoded the list without a secondary task , nor when the 20 target words were intermixed with 20 non-target words ( distinguished by gender of speaker ) . In addition , glucose significantly enhanced performance on spatial and working memory tasks . Conclusion : The data indicate that possible " depletion " of episodic memory capacity and /or glucose-mediated re sources in the brain due to performing a concomitant cognitive task might be crucial to the demonstration of a glucose facilitation effect . Possible implication s regarding underlying cognitive and physiological mechanisms are discussed in this article Glucose facilitation of cognitive function has been widely reported in previous studies ( including our own ) . However , several studies have also failed to detect glucose facilitation . There is sparsity of research examining the factors that modify the effect of glucose on cognition . The aims of the present study were to ( 1 ) demonstrate the previously observed enhancement of cognition through glucose administration and ( 2 ) investigate some of the factors that may exert moderating roles on the behavioural response to glucose , including glucose regulation , body composition ( BC ) and hypothalamic – pituitary – adrenal axis response . A total of twenty-four participants took part in a double-blind , placebo-controlled , r and omised , repeated- measures study , which examined the effect of 25 and 60 g glucose compared with placebo on cognitive function . At 1 week before the study commencement , all participants underwent an oral glucose tolerance test . Glucose facilitated performance on tasks of numeric and spatial working memory , verbal declarative memory and speed of recognition . Moderating variables were examined using several indices of glucoregulation and BC . Poorer glucoregulation predicted improved immediate word recall accuracy following the administration of 25 g glucose compared with placebo . Those with better glucoregulation showed performance decrements on word recall accuracy following the administration of 25 g glucose compared with placebo . These findings are in line with accumulating evidence that glucose load may preferentially enhance cognition in those with poorer glucoregulation . Furthermore , the finding that individuals with better glucoregulation may suffer impaired performance following a glucose load is novel and requires further substantiation Introduction Behavioural evidence supports the notion that oral glucose ingestion enhances recognition memory judgements based on re collection , but not familiarity . The present study sought to clarify and extend upon these behavioural findings by investigating the influence of glucose administration on event-related potential ( ERP ) components that are thought to be differentially mediated by re collection and familiarity processes in healthy adolescents . Methods In a within-subjects design , participants performed a recognition memory task , during which time  electroencephalogram ( EEG ) was recorded , subsequent to ingestion of either ( a ) glucose or ( b ) placebo in a counterbalanced order . Results Response times during the recognition memory task were observed to be faster for the glucose condition , relative to a placebo control . Further , glucose ingestion was associated with an enhanced left parietal old/new ERP effect ( a marker of re collection ) and an enhanced mid-frontal old/new ERP effect ( known to be mediated by familiarity ) . Discussion These findings ( a ) support the results of previous research that the ‘ glucose memory facilitation effect ’ can be extended to healthy adolescents , but ( b ) suggest that glucose enhances both the re collection and familiarity components of recognition memory . The observed ERP profile has important implication s for the proposal that glucose specifically targets the hippocampus in modulating cognitive performance Previous dual-task neuroimaging studies have not discriminated between brain regions involved in preparing to make more than one response from those involved in the management and execution of two tasks . To isolate the effects of dual-task processing while minimizing effects related to task-preparatory processes , we employed a blocked event-related design in which single trials and dual trials were r and omly and unpredictably intermixed for one block ( mixed block ) and presented in isolation of one another during other blocks ( pure blocks ) . Any differences between dual-task and single-task trials within the mixed block would be related to dual-task performance while minimizing any effects related to preparatory differences between the conditions . For this comparison , we found dual-task-related activation throughout inferior prefrontal , temporal , extrastriate , and parietal cortices and the basal ganglia . In addition , when comparing the single task within the mixed block with the single task presented in the pure block of trials , the regions involved in processes important in the mixed block yet unrelated to dual-task operations could be specified . In this comparison , we report a pattern of activation in right inferior prefrontal and superior parietal cortices . Our results argue that a variety of neural regions remain active during dual-task performance even after minimizing task-preparatory processes , but some regions implicated in dual-task performance in previous studies may have been due to task-preparation processes . Furthermore , our results suggest that dual-task operations activate the same brain areas as the single tasks , but to a greater magnitude than the single tasks . These results are discussed in relation to current conceptions of the neural correlates of dual-task performance Rationale Current research suggests that glucose facilitates performance on cognitive tasks which possess an episodic memory component and a relatively high level of cognitive dem and . However , the extent to which this glucose facilitation effect is uniform across the lifespan is uncertain . Methods This study was 
    Output:
    
The evidence suggests that glucose administration enhances neurocognitive markers of episodic memory and attentional processes underpinned by medial temporal and frontal activation , sometimes in the absence of measurable behavioural effects .