***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: The aim of the present proof-of-concept study was to test a novel cognitive bias modification ( CBM ) programme in an analogue sample of people with sub clinical bulimic eating disorder ( ED ) psychopathology . Thirty participants with high levels of trait food craving were trained to make avoidance movements in response to visual food stimuli in an implicit learning paradigm . The intervention comprised ten 15-minute sessions over a 5-week course . At baseline , participants showed approach and attentional biases towards high-caloric palatable food that were both significantly reduced and turned into avoidance biases after the training . Participants also reported pronounced reductions in both trait and cue-elicited food craving and in ED symptoms as well . The overall evaluation of the training by the participants was positive . The specific CBM programme tested in this pilot trial promises to be an effective and feasible way to alter automatic action tendencies towards food in people suffering from bulimic ED psychopathology BACKGROUND Excessive discounting of future rewards has been observed in a variety of disorders and has been linked both to valuation of the past and to memory of past events . METHODS To explore the functionality of discounting and memory , we examined whether training of working memory would result in less discounting of future rewards . In this study , 27 adults in treatment for stimulant use were r and omly assigned to receive either  working memory training or control training according to a yoked experimental design . Measures of delay discounting and several other cognitive behaviors were assessed pre- and posttraining . RESULTS Rates of discounting of delayed rewards were significantly reduced among those who received memory training but were unchanged among those who received control training ; other cognitive assessment s were not affected by memory training .  Discount rates were positively correlated with memory training performance measures . CONCLUSIONS To our knowledge , this is the first study demonstrating that neurocognitive training on working memory decreases delay discounting . These results offer further evidence of a functional relationship between delay discounting and working memory The mere sight of foods may activate the brain ’s reward circuitry , and humans often experience difficulties in inhibiting urges to eat upon encountering visual food signals . Imbalance between the reward circuit and those supporting inhibitory control may underlie obesity , yet brain circuits supporting volitional control of appetite and their possible dysfunction that can lead to obesity remain poorly specified . Here we delineated the brain basis of volitional appetite control in healthy and obese individuals with functional magnetic resonance imaging ( fMRI ) . Twenty-seven morbidly obese women ( mean BMI = 41.4 ) and fourteen age-matched normal-weight women ( mean BMI = 22.6 ) were scanned with 1.5 Tesla fMRI while viewing food pictures . They were instructed to inhibit their urge to eat the foods , view the stimuli passively or imagine eating the foods . Across all subjects , a frontal cortical control circuit was activated during appetite inhibition versus passive viewing of the foods .  Inhibition minus imagined eating ( appetite control ) activated bilateral precunei and parietal cortices and frontal regions spanning anterior cingulate and superior medial frontal cortices . During appetite control , obese subjects had lower responses in the medial frontal , middle cingulate and dorsal cau date nuclei . Functional connectivity of the control circuit was increased in morbidly obese versus control subjects during appetite control , which might reflect impaired integrative and executive function in obesity OBJECTIVE Obesity is largely attributable to excess caloric intake , in particular from " junk " foods , including salty snack foods . Evidence suggests that neurobiological preferences to consume highly hedonic foods translate ( via implicit processes ) into poor eating choices , unless overturned by inhibitory mechanisms or interrupted by explicit processes . The primary aim of the current study was to test the independent and combinatory effects of a computerized inhibitory control training ( ICT ) and a mindful decision-making training ( MDT ) design ed to facilitate de-automatization . METHODS We r and omized 119 habitual salty snack food eaters to one of four short , training conditions : MDT , ICT , both MDT and ICT , or neither ( i.e. ,  psychoeducation ) . For 7 days prior to the intervention and 7 days following the intervention , participants reported on their salty snack food consumption 2 times per day , on 3 portions of their days , using a smartphone-based ecological momentary assessment system . Susceptibility to emotional eating cues was measured at baseline . RESULTS Results indicated that the effect of MDT was consistent across levels of trait emotional eating , whereas the benefit of ICT was apparent only at lower levels of emotional eating . No synergistic effect of MDT and ICT was detected . CONCLUSIONS These results provide qualified support for the efficacy of both types of training for decreasing hedonically-motivated eating . Moderation effects suggest that those who eat snack foods for reasons unconnected to affective experiences ( i.e. , lower in emotional eating ) may derive benefit from a combination of ICT and MDT . Future research should investigate the additive benefit of de-automization training to st and ard weight loss interventions The choice of small immediate rewards as opposed to larger delayed rewards , or delay discounting , is an important dimension of impulsive decision making . The inability to delay gratification is related to obesity , as well as other maladaptive behaviors such as substance abuse , problem drinking , smoking , pathological gambling , and risky HIV behaviors . One way to reduce delay discounting ( DD ) may be to use prospect i ve imagery in the form of episodic future thinking ( EFT ) during inter-temporal decision making . We have recently shown that EFT reduces DD and ad libitum energy intake in obese individuals . However , no studies have examined whether the magnitude of the EFT effect differs between lean and overweight/obese individuals . We conducted a within-subject design experiment to compare the efficacy of EFT versus a control task in reducing DD between lean ( N=24 ) and overweight/obese ( N=24 ) women . Participants attended two sessions in which they engaged in either EFT or control episodic thinking during a DD task . We also examined whether individual differences such as trait time perspective , behavioral inhibition or behavioral activation moderated the EFT effect on DD . Results showed EFT  reduced DD similarly for lean and overweight/obese individuals . The EFT effect was moderated by behavioral activation . This suggests EFT is just as effective in reducing impulsive decision making in obese individuals as it is in lean individuals and may be useful in reducing other impulsive obesity related behaviors Impulsive delayed reward discounting ( DRD ) is an important behavioral process in alcohol use disorders ( AUDs ) , reflecting incapacity to delay gratification . Recent work in neuroeconomics has begun to unravel the neural mechanisms supporting DRD , but applications of neuroeconomics in relation to AUDs have been limited . This study examined the neural mechanisms of DRD preferences in AUDs , with emphasis on dissociating activation patterns based on DRD choice type and level of cognitive conflict . Heavy drinking adult men with ( n = 13 ) and without ( n = 12 ) a diagnosis of an AUD completed a monetary DRD task during a functional magnetic resonance imaging scan . Participant responses were coded based on choice type ( impulsive versus restrained ) and level of cognitive conflict ( easy versus hard ) . AUD+ participants exhibited significantly more impulsive DRD decision‐making . Significant activation during DRD was found in several decision‐making regions , including dorsolateral prefrontal cortex ( DLPFC ) , insula , posterior parietal cortex ( PPC ) , and posterior cingulate . An axis of cognitive conflict was also observed , with hard choices associated with anterior cingulate cortex and easy choices associated with activation in supplementary motor area . AUD+ individuals exhibited significant hyperactivity in regions associated with cognitive control ( DLPFC ) and prospect i ve thought ( PPC ) and exhibited less task‐related deactivation of areas associated with the brain 's default network during DRD decisions . This study provides further clarification of the brain systems supporting DRD in general and in relation to AUDs OBJECTIVE The current study sought to examine executive function ( EF ) in overweight individuals with and without loss-of-control ( LOC ) eating . METHOD Eighty overweight and obese individuals entering a behavioural weight loss trial with ( n=18 ) and without ( n=62 ) LOC eating were administered a clinical interview and neuropsychological battery design ed to assess self-regulatory control , planning , delayed discounting and working memory . RESULTS After controlling for age , IQ and depression , individuals with LOC eating performed worse on tasks of planning and self-regulatory control and did not differ in performance on other tasks . DISCUSSION Results indicate that overweight individuals with LOC eating display relative deficits in EF compared with overweight individuals without LOC eating . Planning and self-regulatory control deficits in particular may contribute to dysregulated eating patterns , increasing susceptibility to LOC episodes . Future research should examine how EF deficits relate to treatment outcome Background Research has shown that obese individuals have cognitive deficiencies in executive function , leading to poor planning and impulse control , and decision-making difficulties . An intervention that could help reduce these deficits and in turn help weight loss maintenance is Cognitive Remediation Therapy for Obesity ( CRT-O ) . We aim to examine the efficacy of manualised CRT-O , which is intended to improve executive function , enhance reflective practice and help weight loss maintenance . Methods / Design A r and omised controlled trial ( registered with the Australian New Zeal and Clinical Trials Registry ) will be conducted . First , 90 obese adults ( body mass index > 30 kg/m2 ) in the community will receive three weekly sessions of a group Behaviour Weight Loss Treatment ( BWLT ) , and then will be r and omised either to receive CRT-O or to enter a no-treatment control group . CRT-O training will comprise twice-weekly sessions of 45 minutes over a 4 to 6 week period , for a total of eight sessions . Measurement points will be at baseline , post CRT-O ( or 4 to 6 weeks after BWLT for the no-treatment control ) , 3 months post treatment and 1 year post treatment . The primary outcome will be executive function and secondary outcome measures will include participants ’ body mass index , hip to waist ratio , eating behaviours and quality of life . Discussion This is the first study of its kind to examine the efficacy of Cognitive Remediation Therapy for obese adults through a r and omised controlled trial . Trial Registration Australian New Zeal and Clinical Trials Registry number : 12613000537752 . Date of registration : 14 May 2013 Obese individuals tend to behave more impulsively than healthy weight individuals across a variety of measures , but it is unclear whether this pattern can be altered . The present study examined the effects of a mindful eating behavioral strategy on impulsive and risky choice patterns for hypothetical food and money . In Experiment 1 , 304 participants completed computerized delay and probability discounting tasks  for food-related and monetary outcomes . High percent body fat ( PBF ) predicted more impulsive choice for food , but not small-value money , replicating previous work . In Experiment 2 , 102 r and omly selected participants from Experiment 1 were assigned to participate in a 50-min workshop on mindful eating or to watch an educational video . They then completed the discounting tasks again . Participants who completed the mindful eating session showed more self-controlled and less risk-averse discounting patterns for food compared to baseline ; those in the control condition discounted similarly to baseline rates . There were no changes in discounting for money for either group , suggesting stimulus specificity for food for the mindful eating condition Although higher delay discounting rates have been linked to cigarette smoking , little is known about the stability of delay discounting , whether delay discounting promotes smoking acquisition , whether smoking contributes to impulsive choices , or if different relationships exist in distinct subgroups . This study sought to fill these gaps within a prospect i ve longitudinal cohort study ( N=947 ) spanning mid-adolescence to young adulthood ( age 15 - 21 years old ) .  Smoking and delay discounting  were measured across time . Covariates included peer and household smoking , academic performance , depression , novelty seeking , inattention and hyperactivity/impulsivity symptoms , and alcohol and marijuana use . The associated processes latent growth curve modeling ( LGCM ) with paths from the delay discounting level factor ( baseline measure ) and the trend factor ( slope ) to the smoking trend factor ( slope ) fit the data well , chi(2)((19,n=947 ) ) = 15.37 , p=.70 , CFI=1.00 , RMSEA=0 , WRMR=.36 . The results revealed that  delay discounting  did not change significantly across time . Baseline delay discounting had a significant positive effect on smoking trend ( beta=.08 , z=2.16 , p=.03 ) . A st and ard deviation ( SD=1.41 ) increase in  baseline delay discounting  result ed in an 11 % increase ( OR=1.11 , 95 % CI=1.03 , 1.23 ) in the odds of smoking uptake . The alternative path LCGM revealed that smoking did not significantly impact delay discounting  ( p's>.05 ) . Growth mixture modeling identified three smoking trajectories : nonsmokers , early/fast smoking adopters , and slow smoking progressors .  Delay discounting  was higher in the smoking versus nonsmoking trajectories , but did not discriminate between the smoking trajectories , despite different acquisition patterns . Delay discounting may provide a variable by which to screen for smoking vulnerability and help identify subgroups to target for more intensive smoking prevention efforts that include novel behavioral components directed toward aspects of impulsivity OBJECTIVE A positive association between delay discounting and substance use has been documented ; substance users tend to discount 
    Output:
    
Limited data suggest that BN , BED and obesity are associated with increased TD , whilst data in AN are mixed .
Aberrant neural activity in frontostriatal circuitry is implicated .
TD tasks vary widely and TD in ED/obesity may vary according to factors such as illness stage .
Our findings suggest altered self-regulatory control in ED and obesity .