***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: Noninvasive brain stimulation transiently modulates reading ability in individuals with dyslexia by facilitating the underactive neural pathways in them . However , its long-term effects have not been determined . This study confirmed the ameliorative effects of multiple sessions of transcranial direct current stimulation ( tDCS ) combined with a training for reading on the reading abilities of children and adolescents with dyslexia and examined whether they are long-lasting . Twenty-six children and adolescents with dyslexia received 3 20-min sessions per week for 6 weeks ( 18 sessions ) of left anodal/right cathodal tDCS , set to 1 mA , over the parieto-temporal regions , combined with training for reading . The participants were r and omly assigned to receive active or sham treatment .  Reading measures ( text , high- and low-frequency words , non-words ) were recorded before and immediately after the treatment and 1 and 6 months later . The long-term tolerability to tDCS was also evaluated . The active group received long-lasting benefits in reading . Specifically , the non-word reading efficiency index improved at every time point , as did the low-frequency word reading efficiency index at 1 and 6 months after the end of the treatment . No differences emerged in the sham group . No long-term adverse effects were documented . This study provides evidence of persistent improvements in reading in children and adolescents with dyslexia , constituting a new rehabilitative approach for the remediation of dyslexia Brain imaging studies have explored the neural mechanisms of recovery in adults following acquired disorders and , more recently , childhood developmental disorders . However , the neural systems underlying adult rehabilitation of neurobiologically based learning disabilities remain unexplored , despite their high incidence . Here we characterize the differences in brain activity during a  phonological manipulation task  before and after a behavioral intervention in adults with developmental dyslexia .  Phonologically targeted training result ed in performance improvements in tutored compared to nontutored dyslexics , and these gains were associated with signal increases in bilateral parietal and right perisylvian cortices . Our findings demonstrate that behavioral changes in tutored dyslexic adults are associated with ( 1 ) increased activity in those left-hemisphere regions engaged by normal readers and ( 2 ) compensatory activity in the right perisylvian cortex . Hence , behavioral plasticity in adult developmental dyslexia involves two distinct neural mechanisms , each of which has previously been observed either for remediation of developmental or acquired reading disorders BACKGROUND Neuroimaging studies show cerebellar activations in a wide range of cognitive tasks and patients with cerebellar lesions often present cognitive deficits suggesting a cerebellar role in higher-order cognition . OBJECTIVE We used cathodal transcranial direct current stimulation ( tDCS ) , known to inhibit neuronal excitability , over the cerebellum to investigate if cathodal tDCS impairs verbal working memory , an important higher-order cognitive faculty . METHOD We tested verbal working memory as measured by forward and backward digit spans in 40 healthy young participants before and after applying cathodal tDCS ( 2 mA , stimulation duration 25 min ) to the right cerebellum using a r and omized , sham-controlled , double-blind , cross-over design . In addition , we tested the effect of cerebellar tDCS on word reading , finger tapping and a visually cued sensorimotor task . RESULTS In line with lower digit spans in patients with cerebellar lesions , cerebellar tDCS reduced forward digit spans and blocked the practice dependent increase in backward digit spans . No effects of tDCS on word reading , finger tapping or the visually cued sensorimotor task were found . CONCLUSION Our results support the view that the cerebellum contributes to verbal working memory as measured by forward and backward digit spans . Moreover , the induction of reversible " virtual cerebellar lesions " in healthy individuals by means of tDCS may improve our underst and ing of the mechanistic basis of verbal working memory deficits in patients with cerebellar lesions Abnormal synaptic maturation and connectivity are possible etiologies of autism . Previous studies showed significantly less alpha activity in autism than normal children . Therefore , we studied the effects of anodal tDCS on peak alpha frequency ( PAF ) related to autism treatment evaluation checklist ( ATEC ) . Twenty male children with autism were r and omly assigned in a crossover design to receive a single session of both active and sham tDCS stimulation ( 11 mA ) over F3 ( left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex ) . Pre- to postsession changes in a measure of cortical activity impacted by tDCS ( PAF ) and ATEC were compared between groups . We also examined the associations between pre- and postsession changes in the PAF and ATEC . The results show significant pre- to postsession improvements in two domains of ATEC ( social and health/behavior domains ) following active tDCS , relative to sham treatment . PAF also significantly increased at the stimulation site , and an increase in PAF was significantly associated with improvements in the two domains of ATEC impacted by tDCS . The findings suggest that a single session of anodal tDCS over the F3 may have clinical benefits in children with autism and that those benefits may be related to an increase in PAF OBJECTIVE The goals of this work are to report data regarding a large number of stimulation sessions and to use model analyses to explain the similarities or differences in the sensations induced by different parameters of tES application . METHODS We analysed sensation data relative to 693 different tES sessions .  In particular , we studied the effects on sensations induced by different types of current , categories of polarity and frequency , different timing , levels of current density and intensity , different electrode sizes and different electrode locations ( areas ) . RESULTS The application of r and om or fixed alternating current stimulation ( i.e. , tRNS and tACS ) over the scalp induced less sensation compared with transcranial direct current stimulation ( tDCS ) , regardless of the application parameters . Moreover , anodal tDCS induced more annoyance in comparison to other tES . Additionally , larger electrodes induced stronger sensations compared with smaller electrodes , and higher intensities were more strongly perceived . Timing of stimulation , montage and current density did not influence sensations perception . The analyses demonstrated that the induced sensations could be clustered on the basis of the type of somatosensory system activated . Finally and most important no adverse events were reported . CONCLUSION Induced sensations are modulated by electrode size and intensity and mainly pertain to the cutaneous receptor activity of the somatosensory system . Moreover , the procedure currently used to perform placebo stimulation may not be totally effective when compared with anodal tDCS . SIGNIFICANCE The reported observations enrich the literature regarding the safety aspects of tES , confirming that it is a painless and safe technique PURPOSE There is evidence that non-invasive brain stimulation transitorily modulates reading by facilitating the neural pathways underactive in individuals with dyslexia . The study aim ed at investigating whether multiple sessions of transcranial direct current stimulation ( tDCS ) would enhance reading abilities of children and adolescents with dyslexia and whether the effect is long-lasting . METHODS Eighteen children and adolescents with dyslexia received three 20-minute sessions a week for 6 weeks ( 18 sessions ) of left anodal/right cathodal tDCS set at 1 mA over parieto-temporal regions combined with a cognitive training . The participants were r and omly assigned to the active or the sham treatment ; reading tasks ( text , high and low frequency words , non-words ) were used as outcome measures and collected before treatment , after treatment and one month after the end of treatment . The tolerability of tDCS was evaluated . RESULTS The active group showed reduced low frequency word reading errors and non-word reading times . These positive effects were stable even one month after the end of treatment . None reported adverse effects . CONCLUSIONS The study shows preliminary evidence of tDCS feasibility and efficacy in improving non-words and low frequency words reading of children and adolescents with dyslexia and it opens new rehabilitative perspectives for the remediation of dyslexia BACKGROUND Cathodal transcranial direct current stimulation ( tDCS ) is a noninvasive brain stimulation method for suppressing regional cortical excitability . We examine the safety and antiepileptic efficacy of cathodal tDCS in children with refractory focal epilepsy . Although a prior cathodal tDCS trial in adults with epilepsy revealed EEG improvement , neither the antiepileptic potential nor the safety and tolerability of tDCS has been tested in children . METHOD The study consisted of three phases : 1 ) a 4-week pre-treatment monitoring period with vital sign measures , EEG , seizure diary , and baseline quality of life ( QOL ) question naire ; 2 ) a single treatment with 1 mA cathodal tDCS for 20 min with cathode positioned over the seizure focus and anode on the contralateral shoulder ; 3 ) follow-ups immediately after stimulation , and at 24 , 48 h , and 4 weeks after tDCS with continued seizure diary and epileptic discharge counts on EEG ; the QOL question naire was also repeated 4 weeks after stimulation . Patients were r and omized to receive either single session active or sham tDCS 1 mA , 20 min . RESULTS Thirty six children ( 6 - 15 years ) with focal epilepsy were enrolled , 27 in active and 9 in sham group . All patients tolerated tDCS well . No serious adverse events occurred . Active tDCS treatment was associated with significant reductions in epileptic discharge frequency immediately and 24 and 48 h after tDCS . Four weeks after treatment , a small ( clinical ly negligible but statistically significant ) decrease in seizure frequency was also detected . CONCLUSION A single session of cathodal tDCS improves epileptic EEG abnormalities for 48 h and is well-tolerated in children Minimally verbal children with autism commonly demonstrate language dysfunction , including immature syntax acquisition . We hypothesised that transcranial direct current stimulation ( tDCS ) should facilitate language acquisition in a cohort ( n = 10 ) of children with immature syntax . We modified the English version of the Bilingual Aphasia Test ( BAT ) to test only basic canonical subject – verb – object sentences . We tested syntactic accuracy after teaching then testing all vocabulary from the subsequent syntax test to ensure validity of syntactic scoring . We used scaffolding sentences for syntax training . All procedures were performed both before and after tDCS . Results demonstrated a large effect size of the difference between pre-/post-tDCS groups ( p < 0.0005 , d = 2.78 ) , indicating syntax acquisition . Combining a modified BAT with tDCS constitutes effective modalities for assessment and treatment of immature syntax in children with autism . Future studies should explore the BAT for patients with an inability to use or underst and language , in particular bilingual children with autism DIRECT currents ( DC ) applied directly to central nervous system structures produce substantial and long-lasting effects in animal experiments . We tested the functional effects of very weak scalp DC ( < 0.5 mA , 7 s ) on the human motor cortex by assessing the changes in motor potentials evoked by transcranial magnetic brain stimulation . We performed four different experiments in 15 healthy volunteers . Our findings led to the conclusion that such weak ( < 0.5 mA ) anodal scalp DC , alternated with a cathodal DC , significantly depresses the excitability of the human motor cortex , providing evidence that a small electric field crosses the skull and influences the brain . A possible mechanism of action of scalp DC is the hyperpolarization of the superficial excitatory interneurones in the human motor cortex In this paper we demonstrate in the intact human the possibility of a non-invasive modulation of motor cortex excitability by the application of weak direct current through the scalp .  Excitability changes of up to 40 % , revealed by transcranial magnetic stimulation , were accomplished and lasted for several minutes after the end of current stimulation . Excitation could be achieved selectively by anodal stimulation , and inhibition by cathodal stimulation . By varying the current intensity and duration , the strength and duration of the after-effects could be controlled . The effects were probably induced by modification of membrane polarisation . Functional alterations related to post-tetanic potentiation , short-term potentiation and processes similar to postexcitatory central inhibition are the likely c and i date s for the excitability changes after the end of stimulation . Transcranial electrical stimulation using weak current may thus be a promising tool to modulate cerebral excitability in a non-invasive , painless , reversible , selective and focal way Noninvasive brain stimulation offers the possibility to induce changes in cortical excitability and it is an interesting option as a remediation tool for the treatment of developmental disorders . This study aim ed to investigate the effect of transcranial direct current stimulation ( tDCS ) on reading and reading-related skills of children and adolescents with dyslexia . Nineteen children and adolescents with dyslexia performed different reading and reading-related tasks ( word , nonword , and text reading ; lexical decision ; phonemic blending ; verbal working memory ; rapid automatized naming ) in a baseline condition without tDCS and after 20 min of exposure to three different tDCS conditions : left anodal/right cathodal tDCS to enhance left lateralization of the parietotemporal region , right anodal/left cathodal tDCS to enhance right lateralization of the parietotemporal region , and sham tDCS . In text reading , results showed a significant reduction in errors after left anodal/right cathodal tDCS and an increase in errors after left cathodal/right anodal tDCS . No effect was found in the other reading and reading-related tasks . Our findings indicate for the first time that one session of t 
    Output:
    
The majority of studies employing such stimulation protocol showed significant improvement in differential reading subprocesses .
More precisely , word decoding was improved in adult readers , whereas non-word and low-frequency word reading in younger individuals .
Furthermore , tDCS was found to be specifically effective in poor readers and individuals with DD rather than typical readers , in spite of the specific brain region targeted by the stimulation ; Left frontal , left temporo-parietal , and right cerebellar tDCS failed to modulate reading in already proficient readers .
Overall , tDCS appears to be a promising remedial tool for reading difficulties , even when applied to younger population s with reading problems .