***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: INTRODUCTION The efficacy of contingency-management ( CM ) and motivational enhancement therapy ( MET ) for college student smoking cessation was examined . METHODS Nontreatment-seeking daily smokers ( N = 110 ) were r and omly assigned to 3 weeks of CM versus noncontingent reinforcement ( NR ) and to three individual sessions of MET versus a relaxation control in a 2 x 2 experimental design . Expired carbon monoxide ( CO ) sample s were collected twice daily for 3 weeks . Participants earned 5 US dollars for providing each sample ; additionally , those r and omized to CM earned escalating monetary rewards based on CO reductions ( Week 1 ) and smoking abstinence ( Weeks 2 - 3 ) . RESULTS Compared with NR , CM result ed in significantly lower CO levels and greater total and consecutive abstinence during the intervention . Those in the CM and MET groups reported greater interest in quitting smoking posttreatment , but rates of confirmed abstinence at follow-up were very low ( 4 % at 6-month follow-up ) and did not differ by group . DISCUSSION Findings support the short-term efficacy of CM for reducing smoking among college students . Future research should explore enhancements to CM in this population , including a longer intervention period and the recruitment of smokers who are motivated to quit Background Even after quitting illicit drugs , tobacco abuse remains a major cause of morbidity and mortality in former injection drug users . An important unmet need in this population is to have effective interventions that can be used in the context of community based care . Contingency management , where a patient receives a monetary incentive for healthy behavior choices , and incorporation of individual counseling regarding spirometric “ lung age ” ( the age of an average healthy individual with similar spirometry ) have been shown to improve cessation rates in some population s. The efficacy of these interventions on improving smoking cessation rates has not been studied among current and former injection drug users . Methods In a r and omized , factorial design study , we recruited 100 active smokers from an ongoing cohort study of current and former injection drug users to assess the impact of contingency management and spirometric lung age on smoking cessation . The primary outcome was 6-month biologically-confirmed smoking cessation comparing contingency management , spirometric lung age or both to usual care . Secondary outcomes included differences in self-reported and biologically-confirmed cessation at interim visits , number of visits attended and quit attempts , smoking rates at interim visits , and changes in Fagerstrom score and self-efficacy . Results Six-month biologically-confirmed smoking cessations rates were 4 % usual care , 0 % lung age , 14 % contingency management and 0 % for combined lung age and contingency management ( p = 0.13 ) . There were no differences in secondary endpoints comparing the four interventions or when pooling the lung age groups . Comparing contingency management to non-contingency management , 6-month cessation rates were not different ( 7 % vs. 2 % ; p = 0.36 ) , but total number of visits with exhaled carbon monoxide-confirmed abstinence were higher for contingency management than non-contingency management participants ( 0.38 vs. 0.06 ; p = 0.03 ) , and more contingency management participants showed reduction in their Fagerstrom score from baseline to follow-up ( 39 % vs. 18 % ; p = 0.03 ) . Conclusions While lung age appeared ineffective , contingency management was associated with more short-term abstinence and lowered nicotine addiction .  Contingency management may be a useful tool in development of effective tobacco cessation strategies among current and former injection drug users . Trial registration Clinical trials.gov NCT01334736 ( April 12 , 2011 ) Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease ( COPD ) usually results from tobacco smoking . Smoking cessation slows COPD 's progression , but few have studied anti-smoking treatments in COPD . In 3-month trials we paid lottery tickets during daily home visits to still-smoking COPD patients for reductions in breath carbon monoxide ( CO ) , a measure of smoke intake . In our first protocol experimental patients received 0 - 3 tickets per day , depending upon the extent of CO reduction below pre-treatment baselines ; yoked controls received the same number of tickets , but not contingent on CO . The protocol produced no change . In a second study patients were assigned a post-baseline quit- date , received nicotine gum , and were paid up to 5 tickets per night , but only for CO less than 10 parts per million ( ppm ) . CO fell sharply as the intervention began , but gradually rose again . A third protocol added special reinforcement schedules for those who did not quit or relapsed ( up to 20 tickets per night for CO less than 10 ppm ) . Daily CO concentrations fell from 27.1 parts per million ( baseline mean ) to 12.7 ( intervention mean ) , but rapid increases followed the intervention . Few patients stopped smoking , but CO and cigarettes used per day significantly fell during Studies 2 and 3 . Post-hoc analysis suggested only a small effect from gum Background Stimulating successful tobacco cessation among employees has multiple benefits . Employees who quit tobacco are healthier , more productive , less absent from work , and longer employable than employees who continue to use tobacco . Despite the evidence for these benefits of tobacco cessation , a successful method to stimulate employees to quit tobacco is lacking . The aim of this study is to evaluate whether adding a financial incentive to behavioral support ( compared with no additional incentive ) is effective and cost-effective in increasing abstinence rates in tobacco smoking employees participating in a smoking cessation group training . Methods / design In this cluster-r and omized trial employees in the intervention and control group both participate in a smoking cessation group training consisting of seven weekly counseling sessions of ninety minutes each . In addition to the training , employees in the intervention group receive a voucher as an incentive for being abstinent from smoking at the end of the training ( € 50 ) , after three months ( € 50 ) , after six months ( € 50 ) , and after one year ( € 200 ) . The control group does not receive any incentive . The primary outcome is carbon monoxide vali date d 12-month continuous abstinence from smoking ( Russel ’s st and ard ) . Additionally , an economic evaluation is performed from a societal and an employer perspective . Discussion The present paper describes the methods and design of this cluster-r and omized trial in detail . We hypothesize that the financial incentive for abstinence in the form of vouchers increases abstinence rates over and above the group training . The results of this study can provide important recommendations for enhancement of employee tobacco cessation . Trial registration Dutch Trial Register : NTR5657 . First received 27 - 01 - 2016 OBJECTIVES To examine the feasibility , acceptability , and potential effectiveness of an online intervention targeting college smokers . The incentives involved discounted or free goods and services from businesses proximal to each campus . METHODS A r and omized controlled trial was conducted with 122 current smokers recruited from 2 Southeastern US universities . The intervention involved health behavior monitoring , targeted messaging , and incentives for healthy goods and services versus the American Cancer Society 's Guide to Quitting Smoking online . RESULTS The intervention achieved greater adherence and utilization ( p 's < .001 ) . Overall , 55.6 % learned about a local business through this program . At end-of-treatment , intervention participants less frequently attempted to quit ( p = .02 ) but smoked fewer cigarettes/day ( p = .05 ) . Both groups demonstrated significant end-of-treatment cessation rates . CONCLUSIONS This intervention demonstrated feasibility and acceptability Objective To survey public attitudes about incentives for smoking cessation in pregnancy and for breast feeding to inform trial design . Design Cross-sectional survey . Setting and participants British general public . Methods Seven promising incentive strategies had been identified from evidence syntheses and qualitative interview data from service users and providers . These were shopping vouchers for : ( 1 ) vali date d smoking cessation in pregnancy and ( 2 ) after birth ; ( 3 ) for a smoke-free home ; ( 4 ) for proven breast feeding ; ( 5 ) a free breast pump ; ( 6 ) payments to health services for reaching smoking cessation in pregnancy targets and ( 7 ) breastfeeding targets . Ipsos MORI used area quota sampling and home-administered computer-assisted question naires , with r and omised question order to assess agreement with different incentives ( measured on a five-point scale ) . Demographic data and target behaviour experience were recorded . Analysis used multivariable ordered logit models . Results Agreement with incentives was mixed ( ranging from 34 % to 46 % ) among a representative sample of 1144 British adults .  Mean agreement score was highest for a free breast pump , and lowest for incentives for smoking abstinence after birth . More women disagreed with shopping vouchers than men . Those with lower levels of education disagreed more with smoking cessation incentives and a breast pump . Those aged 44 or under agreed more with all incentive strategies compared with those aged 65 and over , particularly provider targets for smoking cessation . Non-white ethnic groups agreed particularly with breastfeeding incentives . Current smokers with previous stop attempts and respondents who had breast fed children agreed with providing vouchers for the respective behaviours . Up to £ 40/month vouchers for behaviour change were acceptable ( > 85 % ) . Conclusions Women and the less educated were more likely to disagree , but men and women of childbearing age to agree , with incentives design ed for their benefit . Trials evaluating reach , impact on health inequalities and ethnic groups are required prior to implementing incentive interventions . Trial registration number CRD42012001980 Despite the high risk of tobacco-related morbidity and mortality among low-income persons , few studies have connected low-income smokers to evidence -based treatments . We will examine a smoking cessation intervention integrated into primary care . To begin , we completed qualitative formative research to refine an intervention utilizing the services of a patient navigator trained to promote smoking cessation . Next , we will conduct a r and omized controlled trial combining two interventions : patient navigation and financial incentives . The goal of the intervention is to promote smoking cessation among patients who receive primary care in a large urban safety-net hospital . Our intervention will encourage patients to utilize existing smoking cessation re sources ( e.g. , quit lines , smoking cessation groups , discussing smoking cessation with their primary care providers ) . To test our intervention , we will conduct a r and omized controlled trial , r and omizing 352 patients to the intervention condition ( patient navigation and financial incentives ) or an enhanced traditional care control condition .  We will perform follow-up at 6 , 12 , and 18 months following the start of the intervention . Evaluation of the intervention will target several implementation variables : reach ( participation rate and representativeness ) , effectiveness ( smoking cessation at 12 months [ primary outcome ] ) , unintended consequences ( e.g. , purchase of illicit substances with incentive money ) , adoption ( use of intervention across primary care suites ) , implementation ( delivery of intervention ) , and maintenance ( smoking cessation after conclusion of intervention ) . Improving the implementation of smoking cessation interventions in primary care setting s serving large underserved population s could have substantial public health impact , reducing cancer-related morbidity/mortality and associated health disparities Rationale Sustaining smoking abstinence during the initial weeks of a cessation effort is highly correlated with long-term smoking abstinence . However , experimental research is needed to establish a direct causal relationship between achieving early abstinence and lowered relapse risk . Objective In the present study , we tested whether a period of sustained abstinence directly decreases the relative reinforcing effects of cigarette smoking . Methods Participants were 63 adult smokers who were r and omized into one of three conditions : 14-day ( 14C ) , 7-day ( 7C ) , and 1-day ( 1C ) contingent payment for smoking abstinence . Smoking status was assessed three times per day for 14 consecutive days using breath carbon monoxide monitoring and an abstinence criterion of ≤4 ppm . In the 14C condition , monetary payment was contingent on abstinence for all 14 days ; in the 7C condition , payment was noncontingent for days 1–7 and contingent for days 8–14 ; in the 1C condition , payment was noncontingent for days 1–13 and contingent for day 14 . On day 14 , all participants completed a 3-h preference session under controlled laboratory conditions wherein they could make a maximum of 20 exclusive choices between options to smoke ( two puffs/choice ) or earn money ( $ 0.25/choice ) . Preference was deemed an index of the relative reinforcing effects of smoking and money . Results A significantly lower proportion of participants in the 14C condition ever chose the smoking option ( 19 % ) compared to those in the 7C ( 57 % ) or 1C ( 62 % ) conditions . Conclusions These results provide experimental evidence that sustained abstinence can decrease the relative reinforcing effects of smoking , an effect that may be related to the commonly observed decrease in relapse risk among those who are able to sustain smoking abstinence during the initial weeks of a cessation effort Medication noncompliance with smoking cessation pharmacotherapies is a significant problem in both research and clinical setting s. This r and omized , controlled , single- 
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AUTHORS ' CONCLUSIONS Incentives appear to boost cessation rates while they are in place .
Deposit-refund trials can suffer from relatively low rates of uptake , but those who do sign up and contribute their own money may achieve higher quit rates than reward-only participants .