***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: Smoking  cessation treatment is now integrated into many health-care systems and a major research effort is under way to improve current success rates . Until now results from r and omized clinical trials have been reported in many different ways , leading to problems of interpretation . We propose six st and ard criteria comprising the ' Russell St and ard ' ( RS ) . These criteria are applicable to trials of cessation aids where participants have a defined target quit date and there is face-to-face contact with research ers or clinic staff , as follows . ( 1 ) Follow-up for 6 months ( RS6 ) or 12 months ( RS12 ) from the target quit date or the end of a predefined ' grace period ' ; ( 2 ) self-report of smoking abstinence over the whole follow-up period allowing up to five cigarettes in total ; ( 3 ) biochemical verification of abstinence at least at the 6-month or 12-month follow-up point ; ( 4 ) use of an ' intention-to-treat ' approach in which data from all r and omized smokers are included in the analysis unless they have died or moved to an untraceable address ( participants who are included in the analysis are counted as smokers if their smoking status at the final follow-up can not be determined ) ; ( 5 ) following-up ' protocol violators ' and using their true smoking status in the analysis ; and ( 6 ) collecting follow-up data blind to smokers ' allocation to trial group . We believe that these criteria provide the best compromise between practicability and surrogacy for long-term cessation and will enable meaningful comparison between studies . There may be good reasons why other outcome criteria would also be reported , and studies that involve interventions with special groups or where there is no design ated target quit date or face to face contact would need to adapt these criteria accordingly OBJECTIVE The present study aim ed to investigate the effectiveness of smoking cessation interventions  at a national level . METHOD A systematic follow-up was made of 3628 adults who participated in smoking cessation groups or in individual interventions in different setting s in Denmark from January 2001 to March 2002 . RESULTS The rates of continued abstinence from smoking were estimated as 18 % and 16 % after 6 and 12 months , respectively , for the 3628 participants from 101 smoking cessation units . Among participants , who accomplished at least 75 % of the intervention , the rates of non-smokers after six and twelve months were 23 % and 19 % , respectively . Five of the investigated factors influenced continued abstinence after 12 months : gender , age , degree of nicotine dependence , the format and the setting of the cessation service . CONCLUSIONS The study shows that it is possible to implement uniform smoking cessation interventions at a national level keeping the same abstinence rates as previously achieved in r and omized clinical trials . The successful cessation interventions were run by nurses and equivalent staff that had received only 3 days of training and had no other particular therapeutic skills BACKGROUND Research on the long-term persistence of effects of interventions aim ed at smoking cessation is limited . This paper examined the quitting behavior of individuals who were r and omized to a smoking cessation intervention ( SI ) or to usual care ( UC )  , at a point approximately 11 years later . METHODS The initial sample consisted of 5,887 adult smokers in 10 clinics who had evidence of airways obstruction . Two-thirds of the original participants were offered an intensive 12-week smoking cessation intervention . Of these , 4,517 were enrolled in the long-term follow-up study . RESULTS R and omized group assignment was a strong predictor of smoking behavior after 11 years , in that 21.9 % of SI participants and only 6.0 % of UC participants maintained abstinence throughout the interval . Logistic regressions identified covariates associated with abstinence . A higher proportion of abstinence was observed in participants that had been assigned to SI ( OR = 4.45 ) , were older ( OR = 1.11 , increment 5 years ) , had more years of education ( OR = 1.05 ) , and fewer cigarettes/day at baseline ( OR = 0.90 , increment 10 cigarettes ) . CONCLUSIONS Smokers exposed to an aggressive smoking intervention program and who sustain abstinence for a five-year period are very likely to still be abstinent after 11 years BACKGROUND Several large and well-conducted community interventions have failed to detect an effect on prevalence of smoking . METHODS Two thous and four hundred eight daily smokers in all motivational stages were actively recruited and included in a r and omised population -based intervention study in Copenhagen , Denmark . All smokers completed a question naire and underwent a health examination and a lifestyle consultation . Daily smokers in the high intensity intervention group were offered assistance to quit in smoking cessation groups . RESULTS The vali date d abstinence rate at 1-year follow-up was 16.3 % in the high intensity group and 12.7 % in the low intensity group compared with a self-reported abstinence rate of 7.3 % in the background population . The adjusted odds ratio of abstinence in the high intervention group was significantly higher , OR = 2.2 ( 1.6 - 3.0 ) than in the background population , also in the ' intention-to-treat ' analyses , OR = 1.5 ( 1.1 - 2.0 ) . Higher socioeconomic status , higher age at onset of daily smoking , and a higher wish to quit were predictors of success . CONCLUSION In a population -based setting , using active recruitment and offering assistance to quit , it was possible to include many smokers and to achieve a significantly higher vali date d abstinence in the high intensity intervention than in the background population , even when using ' intention-to-treat ' analyses The first nation-wide Quit and Win Contest in Sweden was held in 1988 with 12,840 participants . This corresponds to a participant rate of 6.4 per 1,000 daily tobacco users in Sweden . In order to follow up the long-term effects of cessation and to analyse the determinants for successful cessation , a panel ( n = 946 ) of r and omized participants were followed-up at 6 and 12 months with a mailed question naire . This gave a complete set of data for 557 ( panel ) respondents . Available baseline data from the participants ’ entry forms included sex , age , occupation , specific tobacco habits , quitting attempts during the previous year , and place of residence . At the 12-month follow-up 21 % had been tobacco-free for the whole year . In addition 9 % of the participants relapsed into tobacco-use , then quit again and were tobacco-free at the 12-month follow-up . The success rate for those participants ( 14 % ) who used smokeless tobacco ( oral snuff ) was similar to that of smokers . The logistic regression showed a significantly better prognosis for success among those without any earlier quitting attempts during the previous year ( OR 2.35 ) , if the subjects participated of their own volition rather than having been recruited by a non-tobacco user ( OR 1.74 ) , and if they were married/co-habiting ( OR 1.92 ) , the results were also significantly improved . The results also show that as a population -based method , Quit and Win produced many successful tobacco quitters , and one year after the contest one-fifth of the participants were still abstinent While the intent-to-treat ( ITT ) concept has often been discussed and debated in the literature with respect to r and omized , placebo-controlled therapeutic trials , there has been little discussion of this issue in the context of preventive vaccine efficacy trials .  ITT analysis has traditionally played a minor role ( if any ) in the latter trials . This paper discusses the ITT approach to analysis in r and omized superiority trials of preventive vaccine efficacy , using clinical endpoints . Data are presented from published literature as well as from a simple mathematical model . The data suggest that when compliance and efficacy are high , both ITT and " per- protocol " approaches generally lead to similar conclusions regarding the acceptability of a vaccine for use in a population . However , when compliance is low , the ITT and per- protocol estimates of vaccine efficacy can be widely disparate . ITT and per- protocol analyses address unique and relevant scientific questions , and often both will be informative in evaluating preventive vaccines The intention-to-treat ( ITT ) approach to r and omized controlled trials analyzes data on the basis of treatment assignment , not treatment receipt . Alternative approaches make comparisons according to the treatment received at the end of the trial ( as-treated analysis ) or using only subjects who did not deviate from the assigned treatment ( adherers-only analysis ) . Using a sensitivity analysis on data for a hypothetical trial , we compare these different analytical approaches in the context of two common protocol deviations : loss to follow-up and switching across treatments . In each case , two rates of deviation are considered : 10 % and 30 % . The analysis shows that biased estimates of effect may occur when deviation is nonr and om , when a large percentage of participants switch treatments or are lost to follow-up , and when the method of estimating missing values accounts inadequately for the process causing loss to follow-up . In general , ITT analysis attenuates between-group effects . Trialists should use sensitivity analyses on their data and should compare the characteristics of participants who do and those who do not deviate from the trial protocol . The ITT approach is not a remedy for unsound design , and imputation of missing values is not a substitute for complete , good quality data Of 6052 adult patients who consulted their doctors in six Oxfordshire general practice s between October 1980 and February 1981 , 2110 ( 35 % ) were smokers . The smokers were allocated to one of four study groups -- a control ( non-intervention ) group ; a group that received verbal and written antismoking advice from the general practitioner ; a group that received this advice and also a demonstration of exhaled carbon monoxide ; and a group that received the advice plus the offer of further help from a health visitor . After one year 72 % of smokers replied to a postal follow up question naire : 11 % of the control group cl aim ed to have stopped smoking compared with 15 % in the group that received advice alone , 17 % in the exhaled carbon monoxide group , and 13 % in the health visitor group . Validation of these findings by assays of urinary concentrations of cotinine showed that between 24 % and 40 % of subjects may have misreported their smoking habits , but there was no indication that the rate of misreporting was higher in the intervention groups than in the control group . Giving advice routinely against smoking has a useful effect , and showing an immediate , personal , and potentially harmful consequence of smoking using a CO-oximeter may improve this , particularly in lower socioeconomic groups 
    Output:
    
In contrast , pharmacological studies are conservative , as they are r and omised , use ITT analysis and have continuous quit rates with biochemical verification of abstinence .
This literature review reveals that quit rates of smoking cessation interventions are not always comparable .
Sc and inavian BMSCPs reported optimistic quit rates , confirmed by Cochrane literature review criteria .