***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: BACKGROUND Excessive discounting of future rewards has been observed in a variety of disorders and has been linked both to valuation of the past and to memory of past events . METHODS To explore the functionality of discounting and memory , we examined whether training of working memory would result in less discounting of future rewards . In this study , 27 adults in treatment for stimulant use were r and omly assigned to receive either  working memory training or control training according to a yoked experimental design . Measures of delay discounting and several other cognitive behaviors were assessed pre- and posttraining . RESULTS Rates of discounting of delayed rewards were significantly reduced among those who received memory training but were unchanged among those who received control training ; other cognitive assessment s were not affected by memory training .  Discount rates were positively correlated with memory training performance measures . CONCLUSIONS To our knowledge , this is the first study demonstrating that neurocognitive training on working memory decreases delay discounting . These results offer further evidence of a functional relationship between delay discounting and working memory Increased preference for immediate over delayed rewards and for risky over certain rewards has been associated with unhealthy behavioral choices . Motivated by evidence that enhanced cognitive control can shift choice behavior away from immediate and risky rewards , we tested whether training executive cognitive function could influence choice behavior and brain responses . In this r and omized controlled trial , 128 young adults ( 71 male , 57 female ) participated in 10 weeks of training with either a commercial web-based cognitive training program or web-based video games that do not specifically target executive function or adapt the level of difficulty throughout training . Pretraining and post-training , participants completed  cognitive assessment s and  functional magnetic resonance imaging  during performance of the following vali date d decision-making tasks : delay discounting ( choices between smaller rewards now vs larger rewards in the future ) and risk sensitivity ( choices between larger riskier rewards vs smaller certain rewards ) . Contrary to our hypothesis , we found no evidence that cognitive training influences neural activity during decision-making ; nor did we find effects of cognitive training on measures of delay discounting or risk sensitivity . Participants in the commercial training condition improved with practice on the specific tasks they performed during training , but participants in both conditions showed similar improvement on st and ardized cognitive measures over time . Moreover , the degree of improvement was comparable to that observed in individuals who were reassessed without any training whatsoever . Commercial adaptive cognitive training appears to have no benefits in healthy young adults above those of st and ard video games for measures of brain activity , choice behavior , or cognitive performance . SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Engagement of neural regions and circuits important in executive cognitive function can bias behavioral choices away from immediate rewards . Activity in these regions may be enhanced through adaptive cognitive training . Commercial brain training programs cl aim to improve a broad range of mental processes ; however , evidence for transfer beyond trained tasks is mixed . We undertook the first r and omized controlled trial of the effects of commercial adaptive cognitive training ( Lumosity ) on neural activity and decision-making in young adults ( N = 128 ) compared with an active control ( playing on-line video games ) . We found no evidence for relative benefits of cognitive training with respect to changes in decision-making behavior or brain response , or for cognitive task performance beyond those specifically trained The choice of small immediate rewards as opposed to larger delayed rewards , or delay discounting , is an important dimension of impulsive decision making . The inability to delay gratification is related to obesity , as well as other maladaptive behaviors such as substance abuse , problem drinking , smoking , pathological gambling , and risky HIV behaviors . One way to reduce delay discounting ( DD ) may be to use prospect i ve imagery in the form of episodic future thinking ( EFT ) during inter-temporal decision making . We have recently shown that EFT reduces DD and ad libitum energy intake in obese individuals . However , no studies have examined whether the magnitude of the EFT effect differs between lean and overweight/obese individuals . We conducted a within-subject design experiment to compare the efficacy of EFT versus a control task in reducing DD between lean ( N=24 ) and overweight/obese ( N=24 ) women . Participants attended two sessions in which they engaged in either EFT or control episodic thinking during a DD task . We also examined whether individual differences such as trait time perspective , behavioral inhibition or behavioral activation moderated the EFT effect on DD . Results showed EFT  reduced DD similarly for lean and overweight/obese individuals . The EFT effect was moderated by behavioral activation . This suggests EFT is just as effective in reducing impulsive decision making in obese individuals as it is in lean individuals and may be useful in reducing other impulsive obesity related behaviors Objective : The present study tested the extent to which age and obesity predicted impulsive choices for food and monetary outcomes and tested how a brief mindful-eating training would alter delay discounting for food and money choices compared with control groups . Method : First , 172 adolescents ( Mage = 13.13 years ) and 176 ( Mage = 23.33 years ) adults completed the Food Choice Question naire ( FCQ ) and Monetary Choice Question naire ( MCQ ) as measures of food and money delay discounting , respectively . Then , participants returned to the lab and were r and omly assigned to complete a brief mindful-eating training , watch a DVD on nutrition , or serve as a control . Participants completed the  FCQ  and  MCQ  again as a postmanipulation measure . Results : Participants with high percent body fat ( PBF ) were more impulsive for food than those with low PBF . Adults with high PBF were also more impulsive for money compared with adults with low PBF ; no PBF-related differences were found for adolescents . Participants in the mindful-eating group exhibited more self-controlled choices for food , but not for money . The control conditions did not exhibit changes . Conclusion : The study suggests that individuals with high PBF make more impulsive food choices relative to those with low PBF , which could increase the risk of obesity over time . It also is the first to demonstrate shifts in choice patterns for food and money using a brief mindful-eating training with adolescents . Mindful eating is a beneficial strategy to reduce impulsive food choice , at least temporarily , that may impede weight gain Imagining future events while performing an  intertemporal choice task can attenuate the devaluation of future rewards . Here , we investigated whether this effect and its neural basis depend on the degree of personal prior experience associated with the simulated future scenarios . Functional magnetic resonance imaging was combined with a modified intertemporal choice task in which the delayed options were either purely monetary , or linked with a social event .  Subject‐specific events differed regarding familiarity , that is , meeting a close , familiar person or a celebrity in a café . In line with recent hypotheses on episodic construction , the simulation of future familiar and unfamiliar events equally attenuated delay discounting behavior in comparison with the control condition and both were imagined with similar richness . Imaging data , however , indicate that these results rely on differential neural activation patterns . The hippocampus was particularly involved in the simulation of unfamiliar future scenarios , probably reflecting enhanced construction processes when personal experience with similar past events is lacking . Consequently , functional coupling of the hippocampus with neural valuation signals in the anterior cingulate cortex predicted the subjective value only of rewards offered in the unfamiliar context . In contrast , valuation of rewards in a familiar context was predicted by activation in key nodes of emotional and autobiographical memory retrieval and dynamically modulated by frontal‐striatal connectivity . The present data emphasize that the mechanisms underlying neural valuation of prospect i ve rewards largely depend on the pre‐experience with the context in which they are offered . Hum Brain Mapp 36:4210–4221 , 2015 . © 2015 Wiley Periodicals , Impulsivity in delay discounting is associated with maladaptive behaviors such as overeating and drug and alcohol abuse . Research ers have recently noted that delay discounting , even when measured by a brief laboratory task , may be the best predictor of human health related behaviors ( e.g. , exercise ) currently available . Identifying techniques to decrease impulsivity in delay discounting , therefore , could help improve decision-making on a global scale . Visual exposure to natural environments is one recent approach shown to decrease impulsive decision-making in a delay discounting task , although the mechanism driving this result is currently unknown . The present experiment was thus design ed to evaluate not only whether visual exposure to natural ( mountains , lakes ) relative to built ( buildings , cities ) environments result ed in less impulsivity , but also whether this exposure influenced time perception .  Participants were r and omly assigned to either a  natural environment condition or a built environment condition . Participants viewed photographs of either natural scenes or built scenes before and during a delay discounting task in which they made choices about receiving immediate or delayed hypothetical monetary outcomes . Participants also completed an interval bisection task in which natural or built stimuli were judged as relatively longer or shorter presentation duration s. Following the delay discounting and interval bisection tasks , additional measures of time perception were administered , including how many minutes participants thought had passed during the session and a scale measurement of whether time " flew " or " dragged " during the session . Participants exposed to natural as opposed to built scenes were less impulsive and also reported longer subjective session times , although no differences across groups were revealed with the interval bisection task . These results are the first to suggest that decreased impulsivity from exposure to natural as opposed to built environments may be related to lengthened time perception Humans have the ability to engage in prospect i ve imagery to anticipate the future consequences of present behaviors ( Suddendorf & Busby , 2005 ) , but we often let our desire for immediate gratification lead us to devalue larger future consequences in favor of smaller immediate rewards . Discounting large future rewards in favor of smaller immediate rewards is known as delay discounting and increases with greater temporal distance between the rewards ( Bickel & Marsch , 2001 ) . One approach to reducing delay discounting is episodic future thinking ( Atance & O'Neill , 2001 ) . Episodic future thinking engages the episodic memory in prospect ively experiencing future events ( Atance & O'Neill , 2001 ; Schacter , Addis , & Buckner , 2007 ) and activates brain regions involved in prospect i ve thinking ( Benoit , Gilbert , & Burgess , 2011 ; Schacter et al. , 2007 ) . Episodic future thinking during intertemporal decision making reduces delay discounting , with the vividness of prospect i ve imagery predicting the degree of the reduction ( Peters & Buchel , 2010 ) . The inability to delay gratification is related to obesity ( Davis , Patte , Curtis , & Reid , 2010 ; Francis & Susman , 2009 ; Weller , Cook , Avsar , & Cox , 2008 ) .  Delay discounting  predicts intake of energy-dense convenience foods in obese women ( Appelhans et al. , 2012 ) , and poor impulse control predicts a lack of success in weight loss ( Best et al. , 2012 ) . To determine episodic future thinking 's effect on impulsive behavior , we assessed whether episodic future thinking , compared with engagement in a control imagery task , reduced impulsivity and energy intake in overweight and obese individuals Despite the potential influence of sex on delay-discounting rates , there is no previous evidence with regard to the effect of this variable on the clinical interventions aim ed at modifying delay-discounting rates . This study assessed the effect of sex on the association between the type of treatment received ( either cognitive-behavioral treatment [ CBT ] alone or combined with contingency management [ CM + CBT ] ) and delay-discounting changes at end of treatment and 6-month follow-up . This aim was addressed after controlling for the influence of baseline delay discounting . Treatment-seeking smokers ( N = 116 ) were r and omly assigned to either CM + CBT ( n = 69 ) or CBT alone ( n = 47 ) . Participants completed  delay-discounting assessment  s at intake , at end of treatment , and at 6-month follow-up . Results showed that there was a significant interaction effect of treatment type and sex , such that women who received CM  decreased their discounting more than women who did not . However , this effect was not found among men . Participants who discounted most at intake showed the greatest delay-discounting decreases . Lastly , smoking abstinence did not affect changes in delay discounting . The current results suggest that CM intervention may have a differential effect on delay-discounting changes as a function of sex . This finding supports the relevance of considering the effect of individual variables when assessing changes in delay discounting due to clinical interventions Obese individuals tend to behave more impulsively than healthy weight individuals across a variety of measures , but it is unclear whether this pattern can be altered . The present study examined the effects of a mindful eating behavioral strategy on impulsive and risky choice patterns for hypothetical food and money . In Experiment 1 , 304 participants completed computerized delay and probability discounting tasks  for food-related and monetary outcomes . High percent body fat ( PBF ) predicted more impulsive choice for food , but not small-value money , replicating previous work . In Experiment 2 , 102 r and omly selected participants from Experiment 1 were assigned to participate in a 50-min workshop on mindful eating or to watch an educational video . They then completed the discounting tasks again . Participants who completed the mindful eating session showed more self-controlled and less risk-averse discounting patterns for food compared to baseline ; those in the control condition discounted similarly to baseline rates . There were no changes in discounting for money for either group , suggesting stimulus specificity for food for the mindful eating condition Enhancing prospect i ve thinking by tagging the future with specific episodic events has been shown to reduce delay discounting in young age ( “ tag-effect ” ) . So far , it is unclear whether such beneficial effect extends to old adulthood . Since the general ability of future thinking and cognitive control are crucial modulators of temporal discount 
    Output:
    
Overall , results indicated that DD can be decreased , showing that DD is profoundly context dependent and changeable .