***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: The effects of an enzyme-hydrolyzed arabinoxylan from wheat ( AXOS ) versus an intact arabinoxylan from flax ( FLAX ) added to a ready-to-eat cereal ( RTEC ) on the postpr and ial appetitive , hormonal , and metabolic responses in overweight women ( BMI 25.0–29.9 kg/m2 ) were evaluated . Subsequent meal energy intake was also assessed . Two r and omized , double-blind , crossover design studies were completed . For trial 1 , the participants consumed the following RTEC breakfast , matched for total weight and varied in energy content : low-fiber ( LF , 4 g ) ; high-fiber ( HF , 15 g ) as either AXOS or FLAX . For trial 2 , the participants consumed LF , HF-AXOS , and HF-FLAX RTECs but also consumed another LF breakfast that was isocaloric ( LF-iso ) to that of the HF breakfasts . Perceived appetite and blood sample s ( trial 2 only ) were assessed before and after breakfast . An ad libitum lunch was offered 4 h post-breakfast . No differences in postpr and ial appetite responses were observed among any breakfasts in either trial . The HF-AXOS and HF-FLAX led to increased postpr and ial GLP-1 and peptide YY ( PYY ) concentrations vs. LF-iso . No differences were observed in lunch meal energy intake among breakfast meals in either trial . Collectively , these data suggest that 15 g of low molecular weight fiber added to RTECs did not affect perceived appetite or subsequent energy intake despite differences in satiety hormone signaling in overweight females This study tested the hypothesis that the amount ( weight or volume ) of food consumed affects the satiating potency of a food , independent of its energy content . Normal-weight young men ( n = 20 ) were tested in a within-subjects design . Subjects were served a milk-based drink or no drink ( control ) , followed 30 min later by a self-selected lunch and > 4 h later by a self-selected dinner . Milk drinks were equal in energy content ( 2088 kJ , or 499 kcal ) and had similar proportions of fat ( 30.3 % ) , carbohydrate ( 54.7 % ) , and protein ( 15 % ) across three volumes : 300 , 450 , and 600 mL. Ratings of palatability , sensory properties , and energy content of the drinks and of hunger completed before consumption of the preloads were not significantly different among conditions . The results showed that preload volume affected energy intake at lunch ( P < or = 0.009 ) such that energy intake was less after the 600-mL preload than after the 300-mL preload . This effect was still present when energy intake at dinner was included ( P < or = 0.022 ) . At lunch , including energy from the preload , subjects overate relative to the control condition ( 4323 + /- 322 kJ ) after the 300- ( 5263 + /- 321 kJ ) and 450-mL ( 5011 + /- 300 kJ ) preloads but not after the 600-mL ( 4703 + /- 353 kJ ) preload . Thus , the best adjustment for the energy in the preloads was with the largest , least energy-dense drink . Consistent with the effects on intake , the volume of the drinks affected ratings of hunger and fullness . These results indicate that the volume consumed is an important determinant of satiety after milk drinks under these conditions BACKGROUND Cholecystokinin is associated with satiety . Fat stimulates cholecystokinin release , and fiber appears to prolong cholecystokinin elevation during the alimentary period . OBJECTIVE We tested whether adding fiber or fat to a low-fat , low-fiber meal increases cholecystokinin release and enhances subjective measures of satiety and whether the cholecystokinin response correlates with subjective measures of satiety . DESIGN Three isoenergetic breakfast meals were tested in a r and omized crossover design : low fiber , low fat ; high fiber , low fat ; and low fiber , high fat . Blood sample s were drawn from fasted subjects ( 7 men and 8 women ) before and at different time points after test meal consumption for 6 h. Plasma was analyzed for cholecystokinin , insulin , glucose , and triacylglycerols . Visual analogue scales were used to assess subjects ' hunger , desire to eat , fullness , and prospect i ve consumption . RESULTS In the women , the meals higher in fiber or in fat result ed in greater feelings of satiety and in significantly higher cholecystokinin responses than did the low-fat , low-fiber meal . In the men , the increase in cholecystokinin concentration did not differ between meals , but the 2 low-fat meals elicited a greater feeling of satiety than did the high-fat meal . The insulin response was significantly higher for the low-fiber , low-fat meal than for the other 2 meals , and the triacylglycerol response was greatest for the high-fat , low-fiber meal . CONCLUSION In women , the feeling of satiety caused by cholecystokinin release is enhanced by increasing either the fiber or fat content of a low-fat , low-fiber meal A novel substance called liquid fibre ( LF ) has been developed which gels in the stomach and dramatically delays gastric emptying . The prolonged stomach distension LF causes would be expected to reduce food intake . The present study tested whether LF affected psychological factors connected with eating behaviour and short-term food intake . Paired studies were carried out on seventeen healthy but overweight volunteers ( ten male , seven female ) with body mass indices of 24 - 34 kg/m2 who were non-restricted eaters . On one occasion ( r and omized ) they took drinks of LF ( 300 ml each ) at 09.05 , 11.55 and 18.00 hours , and on the other they took placebo drinks .  Subjective feelings were assessed by visual analogue scales . The amount of food consumed at an appetizing pre-selected meal presented at 12.15 hours was measured covertly . Food diaries were kept until 16.00 hours on the following day . The visual analogue scales indicated that LF reduced hunger and the amount of food desired , and increased fullness , all of which would be expected to cause a reduction in food intake . However , there were no differences in the amount or type of food eaten at the appetizing test-meal ( 6073 v. 5824 kJ , P = 0.41 ) . Food eaten later in the day was significantly delayed by LF ( 7.0 v. 5.9 h , P = 0.030 ) , and the amount tended to be reduced ( 4328 v. 5439 kJ , P = 0.088 ) . The energy consumed on the following day also tended to be lower after LF ( 3802 v. 4737 kJ , P = 0.130 ) . This suggests that gastric distension is a relatively unimportant influence on eating behaviour when non-restricted eaters are presented with an appetizing meal and that intestinal factors seem more important for prolonging satiety and reducing subsequent food intake Fourteen subjects consumed four realistic isoenergetic ( 2035 kJ ) breakfasts , varying in macronutrient content ( two fat-rich , two carbohydrate-rich ( low- and high-fibre ) ) , in r and om order on separate mornings . After breakfast , subjects left the laboratory and completed appetite and alertness ratings at specific times and recorded all subsequent fluid and food intake for the rest of the day . The high-fibre , carbohydrate-rich breakfast was the least palatable but most filling meal and was associated with less food intake during the morning and at lunch . Hunger returned at a slower rate after this meal than after the low-fibre , carbohydrate-rich meal . Both fat-rich breakfasts were more palatable but less satiating than the carbohydrate-rich meals and were followed by greater food intake during the morning , which may be a compensatory response to ingest a sufficient amount of food and /or carbohydrate to match the level of fullness produced by the subjects ' habitual breakfasts . By the end of the day , the average total energy intake was significantly greater after the fat-rich EB meal than after the high-fibre , carbohydrate-rich meal ( P < 0.05 ) . Total day fat intakes were also significantly greater when the high-fat breakfasts were eaten . For every individual test , alertness ratings increased immediately after breakfast was consumed . On average , the high-fibre carbohydrate-rich meal was associated with the highest post-breakfast alertness ratings and with the greatest cumulative amount of alertness during the period between breakfast and lunch ( AUC ) . Alertness AUC values up until lunch correlated positively with fullness AUC values ( r = 0.36 , P < 0.01 , n = 56 ) . The results confirm the relatively weak satiating power of fat-rich meals observed in controlled laboratory-based studies and indicate that a high-fibre , carbohydrate-rich breakfast may assist weight control efforts by maintaining fullness . Further research is required to determine whether satiety directly enhances alertness and whether low-GI carbohydrate-rich meals enhance alertness to a greater degree than high-GI meals Background Dietary fibers are associated with enhanced satiety . However , the mechanism of different dietary fibers contributing to satiety-related gastrointestinal ( GI ) peptide release , especially in an obese population , is still poorly understood . Polydextrose ( PDX ) , a water-soluble glucose polymer , has demonstrated its ability to reduce energy intake at a subsequent meal , but its mechanism of action requires further research . Also , there is limited evidence on its capacity to regulate subjective feelings of appetite . This study examines the effects of PDX on postpr and ial secretion of satiety-related GI peptides , short chain fatty acids ( SCFAs ) , lactic acid , and subjective appetite ratings in obese participants . Methods 18 non-diabetic , obese participants ( 42.0 y , 33.6 kg/m2 ) consumed a high-fat meal ( 4293 kJ , 36 % from fat ) with or without PDX ( 15 g ) in an acute , multicenter , r and omized , double-blind , placebo-controlled and crossover trial . Postpr and ial plasma concentrations of satiety-related peptides , namely ghrelin , cholecystokinin ( CCK ) , glucagon-like peptide 1 ( GLP-1 ) , and peptide YY ( PYY ) , as well as SCFAs and lactic acid were assessed . GI peptide , SCFA and lactate concentrations were then modeled using a linear mixed-effects model . The subjective feelings of hunger , satisfaction , and desire to eat were evaluated using visual analogue scales ( VAS ) , which were analyzed as incremental areas under the curve ( iAUC ) during the satiation and satiety periods . Results We found that PDX supplementation increased plasma GLP-1 levels more than the placebo treatment ( P = 0.02 ) . In the whole group , GLP-1 concentrations found in participants older than 40 years old were significantly lower ( P = 0.01 ) as compared to those aged 40 years or less . There were no statistically significant differences in postpr and ial ghrelin , CCK , or PYY responses . The lactic acid concentrations were significantly ( P = 0.01 ) decreased in the PDX group , while no significant changes in SCFAs were found . PDX  reduced iAUC for hunger by 40 % ( P = 0.03 ) and marginally increased satisfaction by 22.5 % ( P = 0.08 ) during the post-meal satiety period . Conclusion Polydextrose increased the postpr and ial secretion of the satiety hormone GLP-1 and reduced hunger after a high-fat meal . PDX also reduced the elevated postpr and ial lactic acid levels in plasma . Therefore , PDX may offer an additional means to regulate inter-meal satiety and improve postpr and ial metabolism in obese participants BACKGROUND The effective energy density ( ED ) diet model for customized meal plans has not been adequately explored , and the specific differences in appetite sensation among age groups remain unclear . DESIGN A r and omized , crossover study was conducted in 2010 to examine the effects of lunches with different dietary EDs on sensory properties across age groups . PARTICIPANTS / SETTING In this experiment , 276 healthy Japanese subjects aged 22 to 59 years consumed packed lunches over six sessions . Using the control meal ( 150 g cooked rice , sautéed beef menu containing 40 g raw beef , and 240 g vegetable ) as a reference , a high-meat/low-rice meal , a low-vegetable meal , a medium-fat/low-vegetable meal , a high-fat meal , and a high-fat/low-vegetable meal were served as modified test meals with varying macronutrient distribution and ED . MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Subjective levels of fullness and satisfaction were assessed over time by visual analogue scale ratings . STATISTICAL ANALYSES PERFORMED Data were analyzed using analysis of variance with body mass index as a covariate followed by Bonferroni post hoc tests . RESULTS Meals with high vegetable content result ed in greater fullness and satisfaction than meals with 
    Output:
    
Conclusions Owing to high energy density , fat ( per kJ ) had a weak effect on satiation as determined by the effect per gram for each unit of energy .
The addition of fibre theoretically improves satiety by slowing the absorption of various nutrients including fat , although the meta- analysis as part of this review was unable to demonstrate an effect , perhaps reflecting a lack of sensitivity in research design .