***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: Previous research suggests that gambling can induce effects that closely resemble a psychostimulant drug effect . Modest doses of addictive drugs can prime motivation for drugs with similar properties . Together , these findings imply that a dose of a psychostimulant drug could prime motivation to gamble in problem gamblers . This study assessed priming effects of oral D-amphetamine ( AMPH ) ( 30 mg ) in a within-subject , counter-balanced , placebo-controlled design in problem gamblers ( n=10 ) , comorbid gamblerdrinkers ( n=6 ) , problem drinkers ( n=8 ) , and healthy controls ( n=12 ) . Modified visual analog scales assessed addictive motivation and subjective effects . A modified rapid reading task assessed pharmacological activation of words from motivationally relevant and irrelevant semantic domains ( Gambling , Alcohol , Positive Affect , Negative Affect , Neutral ) . AMPH increased self-reported motivation for gambling in problem gamblers . Severity of problem gambling predicted positive subjective effects of AMPH and motivation to gamble under the drug . There was little evidence that AMPH directly primed motivation for alcohol in problem drinkers . On the reading task , AMPH produced undifferentiated improvement in reading speed to all word classes in Nongamblers . By contrast , in the two problem gambler groups , AMPH improved reading speed to Gambling words while profoundly slowing reading speed to motivationally irrelevant Neutral words . The latter finding was interpreted as directly congruent with models , which contend that priming of addictive motivation involves a linked suppression of motivationally irrelevant stimuli . This study provides experimental evidence that psychostimulant-like neurochemical activation is an important component of gambling addiction OBJECTIVE Addicted people are characterized by enhanced attention for drug cues leading to drug use . However , there is little research on the component processes of attention in individuals with alcoholism . Here , we examine 2 distinct components of attention in abstinent alcohol-dependent individuals and social drinkers of alcohol , that is to say , the initial orienting to alcohol-related cues , and the maintenance of attention to them . METHOD The present study used an " alcohol " version of the visual probe detection task with alcohol-related or neutral pictures being presented briefly ( i.e. , 50 ms ) , to assess initial orienting , or longer ( i.e. , 500 and 1,250 ms ) , to assess the maintenance of attention . RESULTS Only alcoholic patients were faster in detecting a probe displayed immediately after pictures related to alcohol presented for 50 ms than in detecting the same probe replacing non-alcohol-related pictures . However , when pictures were presented for 500 ms , only social alcohol drinkers were faster in detecting the probe replacing alcohol scenes . At a stimulus of 1,250 ms duration , no group showed attentional bias toward alcohol cues . In addition , the severity of alcoholism measured by the total number of prior detoxification treatments was positively correlated with the attentional bias ( or " attraction " ) for alcohol pictures presented for 50 ms . CONCLUSIONS These results show that , subsequent to initial visual orienting to alcohol-related cues , abstinent patients ' attention was disengaged from these stimuli , thus suggesting a visual approach-disengagement attentional pattern . The influence of these findings on relapse was discussed Previous research indicated shared neurochemical substrates for gambling and psychostimulant reward . This suggests that dopamine substrates may directly govern the reinforcement process in pathological gambling . To investigate this issue , the present study assessed the effects of the relatively selective dopamine D2 antagonist , haloperidol ( 3 mg , oral ) on responses to actual gambling ( 15 min on a slot machine ) in 20 non-comorbid pathological gamblers and 18 non-gambler controls in a placebo-controlled , double-blind , counterbalanced design . In gamblers , haloperidol significantly increased self-reported rewarding effects of gambling , post-game priming of desire to gamble , facilitation of reading speed to Gambling words , and gambling-induced elevation in blood pressure . In controls , haloperidol augmented gambling-induced elevation in blood pressure , but had no effect on other indices . The findings provide direct experimental evidence that the D2 substrate modulates gambling reinforcement in pathological gamblers BACKGROUND AND OBJECTIVES Over the last decade , there has been a surge of studies examining implicit processes underlying addiction . Some implicit measures are assumed to reflect " liking " whereas other implicit measures are assumed to reflect " wanting " . There is , however , little evidence to back up this cl aim . We examined whether implicit and explicit measures of wanting and of liking are differentially sensitive to manipulations of wanting and expected that these manipulations would affect primarily measures of wanting . METHODS Smokers and non-smokers performed both implicit and explicit measures that are assumed to assess wanting and liking for smoking . Smokers were tested once immediately after smoking , and once after 12 h of nicotine-deprivation . RESULTS IAT results suggested that smokers showed more implicit liking for nicotine when they were deprived than when they were satiated , whereas there were no differences in wanting . Smokers also seemed to show both more implicit wanting and more implicit liking for nicotine compared to non-smokers . Explicit measures did yield the expected results in that smokers reported to want nicotine more when they were deprived , whereas there were smaller differences in liking . CONCLUSIONS We found little support for the assumption that implicit measures of wanting and liking capture different processes . Research ers should thus be cautious in drawing conclusions about wanting and liking on the basis of these measures OBJECTIVES The hypotheses that automatic , non-volitional , attentional and memory biases for addiction-related constructs exist is tested with compulsive gamblers . DESIGN An independent groups design was employed . Processing of gambling , compared to neutral and drug-related information was examined in 15 gamblers recruited from new members of Gamblers Anonymous . Comparisons were made with the performance of their spouses ( N = 15 ) to help distinguish addiction mechanisms from more non-specific emotional experiences with gambling , and an independent control group ( N = 15 ) , recruited from the staff and students of a university department . METHODS A modified Stroop procedure was first employed . Automative cognitive interference was assessed relatively , by comparing  colour-naming times on the gambling , drug and neutral Stroops . A subsequent word-stem completion task of implicit memory was then used to assess selective and automatic priming of the gambling constructs in memory . RESULTS Only the gamblers showed selective and automatic interference for gambling-related constructs on the Stroop task . Spouses behaved like the control group on this task . An implicit memory bias for gambling-related words was statistically detected only in the gamblers compared to the control group , although the trend was similar in the comparison with spouses . Further evidence for the specificity of these effects was obtained in subgroup comparisons involving fruit-machine with racing gamblers . CONCLUSIONS Results are generally consistent with an automaticity in the cognitive biases gamblers show for gambling-related information . Implication s for cognitive underst and ing and treatments are highlighted A new training to decrease attentional bias ( attentional bias modification training , ABM ) was tested in a r and omized controlled experimental study with alcohol-dependent patients as an addition to cognitive behavioral therapy . In alcohol dependence , attentional bias has been associated with severity of alcoholism , craving , treatment outcome , and relapse . Forty-three patients with DSM-IV diagnosis of alcohol dependence were r and omly assigned to an ABM intervention or control training . The procedure consisted of five sessions in which patients were trained to disengage attention from alcohol-related stimuli ( ABM condition ) or in which they were trained on an irrelevant reaction-time test ( control condition ) . We measured the effects of  ABM  on the visual-probe task , with stimuli that were presented in the ABM and with new stimuli .  Craving was measured with the Desires for Alcohol Question naire . Follow-up data were gathered for overall treatment success , and relapse up to 3 months after the intervention . ABM was effective in increasing the ability to disengage from alcohol-related cues . This effect generalized to untrained , new stimuli . There were no significant effects on subjective craving . For other outcome measures there were indications of clinical ly relevant effects . Results indicate that ABM among alcohol-dependent patients was effective and that it may affect treatment progression . Large-scale trials are warranted to further investigate this new field Background Previous research has shown attentional bias toward alcohol-related stimuli in non-dependent social drinkers . The aim of this study was to investigate whether attentional bias towards alcohol-related stimuli would increase after priming with either one of two doses of alcohol ( 0.3 or 0.6 g/kg ) or placebo . Methods Question naires were used to measure alcohol use , mood states , craving for alcohol and alcohol outcome expectancies . Attentional bias was assessed using a dot-probe detection task and a modified Stroop task . Results Mood ratings showed dose dependent increases in positive mood after the alcohol pre-load . In the dot-probe task , all subjects showed an attentional bias towards the alcohol-related stimuli over neutral stationery-related items , although the attentional bias was significantly positive only at the low alcohol dose . In addition , a negative correlation was found between the attentional bias under the high alcohol dose and the alcohol use question naire score . In the Stroop task , a dose related effect of alcohol was found , with subjects making more errors for alcohol-related words under the high alcohol dose . Conclusions These data support ideas derived from the incentive learning theories of drug addiction . Furthermore , these data suggest that history of alcohol exposure may influence the priming effects of an alcohol pre-load on attentional bias According to recent models of addiction , negative affect plays an important role in maintaining drug dependence . The study investigated the effect of negative mood on attentional biases for smoking-related cues and smoking urge in cigarette smokers . Eye movements to smoking-related and control pictures , and manual response times to probes , were recorded during a visual probe task . Smoking urges and mood were assessed by self-report measures . Negative affect was manipulated experimentally as a within- participants independent variable ; that is , each participant received negative and neutral mood induction procedures , in counterbalanced order in separate sessions , before the attentional task . There were two groups of participants : smokers and nonsmokers . Smokers showed ( i ) a greater tendency to shift gaze initially towards smoking-related cues , and ( ii ) greater urge to smoke when they were in negative mood compared with neutral mood . Manual response time data suggested that smokers showed a greater tendency than nonsmokers to maintain attention on smoking-related cues , irrespective of mood . The results offer partial support for the view that negative mood increases selective attention to drug cues , and urge to smoke , in smokers . The findings are discussed in relation to an affective processing model of negative reinforcement in drug dependence 
    Output:
    
Key findings are that problem and pathological gamblers seem to exhibit attentional bias toward gambling-related stimuli across different measuring paradigms , although some negative findings were reported .