***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: OBJECTIVE It is often believed that people overeat the foods they like . We investigated whether environmental cues such as packaging and container size are so powerful that they can increase our intake of foods that are less palatable . DESIGN , SETTING , AND PARTICIPANTS In a 2 x 2 between-subjects design , 158 moviegoers in Philadelphia ( 57.6 % male ; 28.7 years ) were r and omly given a medium ( 120 g ) or a large ( 240 g ) container of free popcorn that was either fresh or stale ( 14 days old ) . Following the movie , consumption measures were taken , along with measures of perceived taste . OUTCOME MEASURES AND RESULTS Moviegoers who were given fresh popcorn ate 45.3 % more popcorn when it was given to them in large containers . This container-size influence is so powerful that even when the popcorn was disliked , people still ate 33.6 % more popcorn when eating from a large container than from a medium-size container . CONCLUSIONS AND IMPLICATION S Even when foods are not palatable , large packages and containers can lead to overeating . The silver lining of these findings may be that portion size can also be used to increase the consumption of less preferred healthful foods , such as raw vegetables Young and Nestle suggested that the increase in the portion size of food products evident in the United States during the past 20 years may be responsible for the epidemic of overweight and obesity . They based their conclusion on statistical correlations . The purpose of the present study was to provide experimental evidence to support their proposal . Cornell undergraduate students were given access to a buffet lunch on Monday , Wednesday , and Friday and were told this was a test of flavor enhancers . They were instructed to eat as much or as little as they wanted . On the same days of the following week , the subjects were divided into 3 groups . Each group was served either 100 % , 125 % , or 150 % of the amount of food they had consumed the previous week . When larger amounts were served , significantly greater amounts of food were consumed . Each of the 4 foods that comprised the meal ( soup , pasta , breadsticks , ice cream ) increased significantly in proportion to the portion size . The data clearly support the hypothesis proposed by Young and Nestle and support the powerful role that environment plays in determining energy intake and potential increases in body weight In an effort to define human cortical gustatory areas we review ed functional neuroimaging data for which coordinates st and ardized in Talairach proportional space were available . We observed a wide distribution of peaks within the insula and parietal and frontal opercula , suggesting multiple gustatory regions within this cortical area . Multiple peaks also emerged in the orbitofrontal cortex . However , only two peaks , both in the right hemisphere , were observed in the caudolateral orbitofrontal cortex , the region likely homologous to the secondary taste area described in monkeys . Overall significantly more peaks originated from the right hemisphere suggesting asymmetrical cortical representation of taste favoring the right hemisphere Almost 50 years ago Neel proposed a hypothesis to explain the prevalence of  obesity and diabetes in modern society — the ‘ thrifty gene ’ hypothesis . The fundamental basis of the hypothesis was that , in our early evolutionary history , genes , that promoted efficient fat deposition would have been advantageous because they allowed their holders to survive at periods of famine . In modern society , such genes are disadvantageous because they promote fat deposition in preparation for a famine that never comes , and the result is widespread obesity and diabetes . In recent years I , and others , have question ed some of the fundamental assumptions of this hypothesis — particularly focusing on whether differential survival of lean against obese in famines provides sufficient selective pressure for the spread of so-called ‘ thrifty genes ’ . These arguments have been criticized because famines not only affect survival but also fecundity , and obese people would be expected to sustain fecundity longer in the face of food shortages . In this paper , I show that the reduced fecundity argument is flawed because famines are almost universally followed by periods of enhanced fecundity , which offsets the decline observed during the famine itself . The net effect of famines on fecundity is consequently insufficient to rescue the thrifty gene idea . Elsewhere , I have suggested an alternative scenario that subsections of the population have a genetic predisposition to obesity due to an absence of selection , combined with genetic drift . The scenario presented earlier was based on evidence from prehistory concerning the release of our ancestors from heavy predation pressure around 2 million years ago . I suggest here that this is one of a number of potential scenarios based on r and om genetic drift that may explain the specific aetiology of the obesity epidemic . Together , these alternatives , based on central notion that genetic drift rather than positive selection was a dominant factor , may be called the ‘ drifty gene ’ hypothesis AIM Persuasive marketing techniques , such as promotional characters , influence children 's food preferences and requests for foods . The aim of this research was to describe the techniques used to market unhealthy foods and beverages to children on Sydney free-to-air television . METHODS Marketing techniques design ed to appeal to children were identified from international literature and summarised into a systematic coding tool . Using this tool , the marketing techniques used in a r and om sample of 100 unique food advertisements , broadcasted on Sydney free-to-air television , were coded . Frequency of marketing techniques was analysed overall and for use in advertisements marketing unhealthy foods , emotionally or verbally appealing to parents , or featuring child actors . RESULTS Advertisers ' use of persuasive techniques generally did not differ by type of food advertised . Marketing techniques with greater prominence in unhealthy food advertising were palatability ( 54 % of unhealthy food advertisements ) , convenience ( 52 % ) , fantasy/imagination ( 28 % ) , fun/happiness ( 17 % ) and cartoon characters ( 9 % ) . Advertisements emotionally appealing to parents ( 24 % ) were significantly more likely to make general health or nutrition statements ( 38 % vs. 17 % ) , and appealed to children concurrently through fun/happiness and fantasy/imagination appeals . Children were depicted in advertisements as eating with friends or family , situated within the home and frequently snacking on less healthy foods . CONCLUSIONS Food and beverage advertisers use a range of visual , audio and emotive techniques to appeal to children and their parents that do not discriminate by the type of food advertised . The range and complexity of these techniques complicate the restriction of their use in food advertising to children OBJECTIVE To examine whether parents offering a sticker reward to their child to taste a vegetable the child does not currently consume is associated with improvements in children 's liking and consumption of the vegetable . DESIGN A r and omized controlled trial evaluated the effectiveness of exposure only ( EO ) and exposure plus reward ( E + R ) , relative to a control group , on children 's liking and consumption of a target vegetable . Assessment s were conducted at baseline and 2 weeks from baseline ( post-intervention ) . Follow-up assessment s were conducted at 4 weeks and 3 months from baseline . SETTING The study took place in Adelaide , South Australia . Participants were self-selected in response to local media advertisements seeking to recruit parents finding it difficult to get their children to eat vegetables . SUBJECTS Participants were 185 children ( 110 boys , seventy-five girls ) aged 4 - 6 years and their primary caregiver/parent ( 172 mothers , thirteen fathers ) . RESULTS The E + R group was able to achieve more days of taste exposure . Both EO and E + R increased liking at post-intervention compared with control and no further change occurred over the follow-up period . All groups increased their intake of the target vegetable at post-intervention . Target vegetable consumption continued to increase significantly over the follow-up period for E + R and control but not for EO . CONCLUSIONS The findings provide support for the effectiveness of using a sticker reward with a repeated exposure strategy . In particular , such rewards can facilitate the actual tastings necessary to change liking BACKGROUND Because people eat most of what they serve themselves , any context ual cues that lead them to over-serve should lead them to over-eat . In building on the size-contrast illusion , this research examines whether the size of a bowl or serving spoon unknowingly biases how much a person serves and eats . METHODS The 2 x 2 between-subjects design involved 85 nutrition experts who were attending an ice cream social to celebrate the success of a colleague in 2002 . They were r and omly given either a smaller ( 17 oz ) or a larger ( 34 oz ) bowl and either a smaller ( 2 oz ) or larger ( 3 oz ) ice cream scoop . After serving themselves , they completed a brief survey as their ice cream was weighed . The analysis was conducted in 2003 . RESULTS Even when nutrition experts were given a larger bowl , they served themselves 31.0 % more ( 6.25 vs 4.77 oz , F(1 , 80 ) = 8.05 , p < 0.01 ) without being aware of it . Their servings increased by 14.5 % when they were given a larger serving spoon ( 5.77 vs 5.04 oz , F(1 , 80)=2.70 , p = 0.10 ) . CONCLUSIONS People could try using the size of their bowls and possibly serving spoons to help them better control how much they consume . Those interested in losing weight should use smaller bowls and spoons , while those needing to gain weight -- such as the undernourished or aged -- could be encouraged to use larger ones . Epidemiologic implication s are discussed OBJECTIVE We tested the effect on energy intake of increasing the portion size of all foods and beverages served over 2 consecutive days . DESIGN The study used a r and omized crossover design . SUBJECTS/ SETTING Subjects were 32 adults from a university community . INTERVENTION For 2 consecutive days in each of 3 weeks , subjects ate their main meals in a controlled setting and were given snacks for consumption between meals . We used the same two daily menus each week , but varied the portion sizes of all foods and beverages served in a given week ( either 100 % , 150 % , or 200 % of baseline amounts ) . MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Energy intake and ratings of hunger and satiety were measured . STATISTICAL ANALYSES PERFORMED A linear mixed model with repeated measures was used . RESULTS There was a significant effect of portion size on energy intake in both men and women ( P<0.0001 ) . Increasing portions by 50 % increased daily energy intake by 16 % ( women : 335 kcal/day ; men : 504 kcal/day ) , and increasing portions by 100 % increased intake by 26 % ( women : 530 kcal/day ; men : 812 kcal/day ) . Energy intake did not differ between the 2 days of each week . Daily ratings of fullness were lowest in the 100 % portion condition ( P=0.0004 ) , but did not differ significantly in the 150 % and 200 % conditions . CONCLUSIONS Increasing the portion size of all foods result ed in a significant increase in energy intake that was sustained over 2 days . These data support suggestions that large portions are associated with excess energy intake that could contribute to increased body weight 
    Output:
    
Increased intake of energy-dense foods high in fat and sugar is not only adding more energy , but may also corrupt neural functions of brain systems involved in nutrient sensing as well as in hedonic , motivational and cognitive processing .