***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: This individual differences study examined the separability of three often postulated executive functions-mental set shifting ( " Shifting " ) , information updating and monitoring ( " Updating " ) , and inhibition of prepotent responses ("Inhibition")- and their roles in complex " frontal lobe " or " executive " tasks . One hundred thirty-seven college students performed a set of relatively simple experimental tasks that are considered to predominantly tap each target executive function as well as a set of frequently used executive tasks : the Wisconsin Card Sorting Test ( WCST ) , Tower of Hanoi ( TOH ) , r and om number generation ( RNG ) , operation span , and dual tasking .  Confirmatory factor analysis indicated that the three target executive functions are moderately correlated with one another , but are clearly separable . Moreover , structural equation modeling suggested that the three functions contribute differentially to performance on complex executive tasks . Specifically , WCST performance was related most strongly to Shifting , TOH to Inhibition , RNG to Inhibition and Updating , and operation span to Updating . Dual task performance was not related to any of the three target functions . These results suggest that it is important to recognize both the unity and diversity of executive functions and that latent variable analysis is a useful approach to study ing the organization and roles of executive functions Event-related functional magnetic resonance imaging was used to measure blood oxygenation level-dependent responses in 13 young healthy human volunteers during performance of a probabilistic reversal-learning task .  The task allowed the separate investigation of the relearning of stimulus – reward associations and the reception of negative feedback . Significant signal change in the right ventrolateral prefrontal cortex was demonstrated on trials when subjects stopped responding to the previously relevant stimulus and shifted responding to the newly relevant stimulus . Significant signal change in the region of the ventral striatum was also observed on such reversal errors , from a region of interest analysis . The ventrolateral prefrontal cortex and ventral striatum were not significantly activated by the other , preceding reversal errors , or when subjects received negative feedback for correct responses . Moreover , the response on the final reversal error , before shifting , was not modulated by the number of preceding reversal errors , indicating that error-related activity does not simply accumulate in this network . The signal change in this ventral frontostriatal circuit is therefore associated with reversal learning and is uncontaminated by negative feedback . Overall , these data concur with findings in rodents and nonhuman primates of reversal-learning deficits after damage to ventral frontostriatal circuitry , and also support recent clinical findings using this task OBJECTIVES The hypotheses that automatic , non-volitional , attentional and memory biases for addiction-related constructs exist is tested with compulsive gamblers . DESIGN An independent groups design was employed . Processing of gambling , compared to neutral and drug-related information was examined in 15 gamblers recruited from new members of Gamblers Anonymous . Comparisons were made with the performance of their spouses ( N = 15 ) to help distinguish addiction mechanisms from more non-specific emotional experiences with gambling , and an independent control group ( N = 15 ) , recruited from the staff and students of a university department . METHODS A modified Stroop procedure was first employed . Automative cognitive interference was assessed relatively , by comparing  colour-naming times on the gambling , drug and neutral Stroops . A subsequent word-stem completion task of implicit memory was then used to assess selective and automatic priming of the gambling constructs in memory . RESULTS Only the gamblers showed selective and automatic interference for gambling-related constructs on the Stroop task . Spouses behaved like the control group on this task . An implicit memory bias for gambling-related words was statistically detected only in the gamblers compared to the control group , although the trend was similar in the comparison with spouses . Further evidence for the specificity of these effects was obtained in subgroup comparisons involving fruit-machine with racing gamblers . CONCLUSIONS Results are generally consistent with an automaticity in the cognitive biases gamblers show for gambling-related information . Implication s for cognitive underst and ing and treatments are highlighted It has been suggested that a crucial dimension of alcohol " craving " includes the concept of both obsessive thoughts about alcohol use and compulsive behaviors toward drinking . An interview-based rating scale , the Yale-Brown Obsessive Compulsive Scale-heavy drinkers ( YBOCS-hd ) , has been found useful in quantifying this concept in alcohol-dependent individuals . A self-rating scale , the Obsessive Compulsive Drinking Scale ( OCDS ) has been developed by us as a modification of the YBOCS-hd . The YBOCS-hd showed excellent interrater reliability in our h and s. The correlation between the YBOCS-hd and the OCDS total scores obtained on 60 alcohol-dependent individuals was 0.83 . The test-retest correlation for the OCDS total score was 0.96 , and the obsessive and compulsive subscales test-retest correlations were 0.94 and 0.86 , respectively . The internal consistency of the items in the OCDS was high ( 0.86 ) and did not improve significantly with removal of individual items . The shared variance between the OCDS scores and alcohol consumption during the period of evaluation was only approximately 20 % , indicating that the dimension measured by the scale was somewhat independent of actual drinking . As such , it might act as an independent measure of the " state of illness " for alcohol-dependent individuals . When used during a prospect i ve 12-week treatment research study , initial results indicate that the OCDS seems to validly measure a dimension of alcohol dependence , because it decreased from baseline during alcohol reduction and increased in relationship to relapse drinking . ( ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS Decision making deficits play an important role in the definition of pathological gambling ( PG ) . However , only few empirical studies are available regarding decision making processes in PG . This study therefore compares decision making processes in PG and normal controls in detail using three decision making tasks examining general performance levels on these tasks as well as feedback processing using reaction time analyses . To investigate the specificity of decision making deficits in PG , a substance dependence group ( alcohol dependence ; AD ) and an impulse control disordered group ( Tourette syndrome ; TS ) were included . The PG group ( n = 48 ) , AD group ( n = 46 ) , TS group ( n = 47 ) , and a normal control ( NC ) group ( n = 49 ) were administered ( 1 ) the Iowa Gambling Task ( IGT ) , an ecologically valid gambling task ; ( 2 ) the Card Playing Task , a task measuring perseveration for reward ; and ( 3 ) a Go/No-Go discrimination task , a task measuring reward and response cost sensitivity . The PG group showed a diminished performance on all tasks and deficient feedback processing as compared to the NC group on the IGT and the Card Playing Task . In general , performance measures were not associated with levels of comorbidity or with self-reported motivational measures . For the larger part , deficiencies in decision making processes in the PG group were also present in the AD group , but not in the TS group . Subgroup analyses revealed larger decision making deficits in pathological slot machine gamblers than in pathological casino gamblers . Deficits in decision making and feedback processing in PG should be addressed in treatment and incorporated more explicitly in theoretical models of PG Background Gambling is a form of nonsubstance addiction classified as an impulse control disorder . Pathologic gamblers are considered healthy with respect to their cognitive status . Lesions of the frontolimbic systems , mostly of the right hemisphere , are associated with addictive behavior . Because gamblers are not regarded as “ brain-lesioned ” and gambling is nontoxic , gambling is a model to test whether addicted “ healthy ” people are relatively impaired in frontolimbic neuropsychological functions . Methods Twenty-one nonsubstance dependent gamblers and nineteen healthy subjects underwent a behavioral neurologic interview  centered on incidence , origin , and symptoms of possible brain damage , a neuropsychological examination , and an electroencephalogram . Results Seventeen gamblers ( 81 % ) had a positive medical history for brain damage ( mainly traumatic head injury , pre- or perinatal complications ) . The gamblers , compared with the controls , were significantly more impaired in concentration , memory , and executive functions , and evidence d a higher prevalence of non – right-h and edness ( 43 % ) and , non – left-hemisphere language dominance ( 52 % ) . Electroencephalogram ( EEG ) revealed dysfunctional activity in 65 % of the gamblers , compared with 26 % of controls . Conclusions This study shows that the “ healthy ” gamblers are indeed brain-damaged . Compared with a matched control population , pathologic gamblers evidence d more brain injuries , more fronto-temporo-limbic neuropsychological dysfunctions and more EEG abnormalities . The authors thus conjecture that addictive gambling may be a consequence of brain damage , especially of the frontolimbic systems , a finding that may well have medicolegal consequences 
    Output:
    
Our meta‐analyses indicate significant deficits in individuals with gambling disorder  in cognitive flexibility , attentional set‐shifting , and attentional bias .
Overall , these findings support the idea that compulsivity‐related performance deficits characterize gambling disorder .
This association may provide a possible link between impairments in executive functions related to compulsive action .