***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: In anorexia nervosa ( AN ) , volitional inhibition of rewarding behaviors , such as eating , involves a conflict between the desire to suppress appetite and the inherent motive to consume . This conflict is thought to have costs that carry over into daily life , e.g. , triggering negative affect and /or recurring ruminations , which may ultimately impact long term outcome . Hence , increasing research effort is being dedicated to underst and the link between emotional and ruminative processes in the etiology and maintenance of AN . We investigated whether affective states influence disorder-related rumination in AN applying “ ecological momentary assessment ” , a method which allows the experimenter to gain insight into psychological processes in the natural environment and assess data in real time . Participants ( AN = 37 , healthy controls = 33 ) were given a smartphone for 14 days .  A ringtone signaled at six r and om time-points each day to fill in a question naire , which gauged disorder-typical thoughts about food and weight as well as affective state . Analyses , applying hierarchical linear models confirmed that AN patients spend more time thinking about food , body shape and weight than controls ( p < 0.001 ) . Additionally , the results support the hypothesis that momentary negative affect ( but not baseline depression ( p = 0.56 ) or anxiety symptoms ( p = 0.60 ) are positively associated with a higher amount of disorder-related rumination in patients ( p < 0.001 ) . Our findings are in line with theories which cl aim that ruminative thinking induces a vulnerability to negative stimuli which , in turn , fosters heightened negative affect . Thus , therapeutic interventions could be improved by implementing modules that specifically target disorder-related rumination Background Brain-derived neurotrophic factor ( BDNF ) links learning , memory and cognitive decline in elderly , but evidence linking BDNF allele variation , cognition and brain structural differences is lacking . Methods 367 elderly Swedish men ( n = 181 ) and women ( n = 186 ) from Prospect i ve Investigation of the Vasculature in Uppsala seniors ( PIVUS ) were genotyped and the BDNF functional rs6265 SNP was further examined in subjects who completed the Trail Making Task ( TMT ) , verbal fluency task , and had a magnetic resonance imaging ( MRI ) scan . Voxel-based morphometry ( VBM ) examined brain structure , cognition and links with BDNF . Results The functional BDNF SNP ( rs6265 , ) predicted better working memory performance on the TMT with positive association of the Met rs6265 , and was linked with greater cerebellar , precuneus , left superior frontal gyrus and bilateral hippocampal volume , and reduced brainstem and bilateral posterior cingulate volumes . Conclusions The functional BDNF polymorphism influences brain volume in regions associated with memory and regulation of sensorimotor control , with the Met rs6265 allele potentially being more beneficial to these functions in the elderly BACKGROUND Excessive discounting of future rewards has been observed in a variety of disorders and has been linked both to valuation of the past and to memory of past events . METHODS To explore the functionality of discounting and memory , we examined whether training of working memory would result in less discounting of future rewards . In this study , 27 adults in treatment for stimulant use were r and omly assigned to receive either  working memory training or control training according to a yoked experimental design . Measures of delay discounting and several other cognitive behaviors were assessed pre- and posttraining . RESULTS Rates of discounting of delayed rewards were significantly reduced among those who received memory training but were unchanged among those who received control training ; other cognitive assessment s were not affected by memory training .  Discount rates were positively correlated with memory training performance measures . CONCLUSIONS To our knowledge , this is the first study demonstrating that neurocognitive training on working memory decreases delay discounting . These results offer further evidence of a functional relationship between delay discounting and working memory Objective : Cognitive remediation therapy ( CRT ) is reported to improve neurocognitive and substance use disorder ( SUD ) outcomes in residential treatments . This National Institute of Drug Abuse funded pilot study reports on CRT as an augmentation to outpatient treatment for SUD . Method : Recovering outpatient veterans were r and omized into  CRT + Work Therapy ( n = 24 ) or work therapy ( n = 24 ) with treatment-as-usual . Blind assessment s of neurocognition and substance use were performed at baseline , 3 months ( end of treatment ) , and 6-month follow-up . Results : Baseline assessment s revealed high rates of cognitive impairment with 87.5 % showing significant decline from premorbid IQ on at least 1 measure ( median = 3/14 measures ) . Adherence to treatment was excellent . Follow-up rates were 95.7 % at 3 months and 87.5 % at 6 months . Mixed effects models of cognitive change over time revealed significant differences favoring CRT + Work Therapy on working memory ( WM ) and executive function indices . Global index of cognition showed a nonsignificant trend ( effect size [ ES ] = .37 ) favoring CRT + Work Therapy .  SUD outcomes were excellent for both conditions . CRT + Work Therapy had a mean of 97 % days of abstinence at 3 months , 94 % in the 30 days prior to 6-month follow-up , and 24/26 weeks of total abstinence ; differences between conditions were not significant . Conclusions and Implication s for Practice : CRT was well accepted by outpatient veterans with SUDs and led to significant improvements in WM and executive functions beyond that of normal cognitive recovery . No difference between conditions was found for SUD outcomes , perhaps because work therapy obscured the benefits of CRT Early life adversity , such as social isolation , causes a variety of changes to the development of cognitive abilities and the nervous system . Increasing evidence has shown that epigenetic modifications mediate gene-environment interactions throughout the lifespan . In this study , we investigated the effect of adolescent  social isolation on cognitive behaviours and epigenetic alterations of the brain-derived neurotrophic factor ( BDNF ) gene . Male Sprague Dawley rats were r and omly assigned to either group-reared or isolation-reared conditions during post-natal days ( PNDs ) 21 - 34 . On PND 56 , all rats underwent behavioural testing and were then sacrificed for biochemical testing . Adolescent social isolation induced impaired PPI . Regarding BDNF , the isolation-reared rats demonstrated increased BDNF mRNA levels , H3 acetylation at the BDNF gene and BDNF protein expression in the medial prefrontal cortex ( mPFC ) . In contrast , the BDNF mRNA levels , H3 acetylation of the BDNF gene and BDNF protein expression were decreased in the hippocampus of the isolation-reared rats . The present study indicated that epigenetic regulation of BDNF may be one of the molecular mechanisms that mediated the cognitive dysfunction . Moreover , the interaction between the mPFC and hippocampus might play an important role in the regulation of cognitive behaviour Studies suggest that stimulation of the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex ( DLPFC ) reduces food craving in bulimic patients , but evidence supporting repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation ( rTMS ) as a therapeutic tool is lacking . We investigated the safety and therapeutic efficacy of an adjunct high-frequency rTMS programme targeting the left DLPFC . Forty-seven women with bulimia nervosa were r and omised to a real or sham stimulation group . The real group underwent 10 rTMS sessions , each consisting of 20 trains of 5 seconds with 55-second intervals between trains , at a frequency of 10 Hz . The main outcome was the number of binge episodes in the 15 days following the end of stimulation . Overall , no significant improvement in bingeing and purging symptoms was noted after the programme . rTMS was well tolerated . This suggests that 10 sessions of high-frequency rTMS to the left DLPFC provide no greater benefit than placebo . Future studies should consider method ological issues as well as alternative targets . Copyright © 2016 John Wiley & Sons , Ltd and Eating Disorders Association Working memory ( WM ) impairments are often observed in alcohol‐dependent individuals , especially in early abstinence , which may contribute to an increased relapse risk after detoxification . Brain imaging studies on visuospatial WM in alcohol‐dependent patients compared to controls indicate that information processing requires compensatory increased neural activation to perform at a normal level . However , to date , no study tested whether such increased neural WM activation patterns or the lack thereof predict relapse behavior in alcohol‐dependent individuals , and whether such differences persist when adequately correcting for individual grey matter differences . We combined analyses of neural activation during an n‐back task and local grey matter volumes using Biological Parametric Mapping in 40 detoxified alcohol‐dependent patients and 40 matched healthy controls ( HC ) , and assessed prospect i ve relapse risk during a 7‐month follow‐up period . Despite equal task performance , we found increased functional activation during high versus low cognitive WM load ( 2‐back–0‐back ) in bilateral rostral prefrontal cortex ( BA10 ) and bilateral ventrolateral prefrontal cortex ( BA45,47 ) in prospect i ve abstainers versus relapsers , and further in left/right lateral/medial premotor cortex ( BA6,8 ) in abstainers versus HC . In prospect i ve abstainers , but not relapsers , subtle cognitive impairment was associated with increased neural task activity in the premotor cortex . These findings suggest that in prospect i ve abstainers , higher functional engagement of presumably less impaired neural re sources in executive behavioral control brain areas ( BA10 , 45 , 47 , 6 , 8) may constitute a resilience factor associated with good treatment outcome Rationale Smoking withdrawal has been widely established to produce a range of impairments to the quality of several major domains of cognitive function including attention , working memory and episodic memory . Objectives This study was conducted to determine the degree to which smoking withdrawal will produce impairments in cognitive function in phase I clinical trials . Methods Healthy male volunteers who were housed in a clinical trial facility for 16 days underwent periods of ad libitum smoking and smoking withdrawal .  Results Smoking withdrawal disrupted aspects of attention and episodic verbal recall and recognition . Conclusions This study confirms previous work showing cognitive declines in smoking withdrawal and illustrates that such effects occur in ongoing safety and tolerability studies of new medicines and thus require careful consideration for the assessment of cognitive function in such trials as well as the accurate attribution of adverse events to the safety profiles of the medicines Long-term cocaine use is a risk factor for the onset of neurocognitive impairment . This study sought to determine whether the cholinesterase inhibitor rivastigmine could improve neurocognitive performance in cocaine-dependent individuals . Cocaine-dependent individuals who were not seeking treatment at the time of enrollment in the study were r and omly assigned to receive placebo ( n=16 ) , rivastigmine 3 mg ( n=13 ) , or rivastigmine 6 mg ( n=12 ) . The baseline neurocognitive assessment , which included measures of attention/information processing ( as measured by the Continuous Performance Task-II ( CPT-II ) ) , verbal learning/episodic memory ( as measured by the Hopkins Verbal Learning Test-Revised ( HVLT-R ) ) , and working memory ( as measured by the Dual N-Back Task ) , was conducted prior to the administration of study medication ( Day 0 ) . The follow-up assessment was conducted on Day 8 after the participants had received rivastigmine or placebo for 7days ( Day 2 - 8 ) . Rivastigmine administration significantly improved performance on one measure of working memory span ( mean n-back span ) . This study provides additional data showing that cocaine-associated neurocognitive impairment , specifically working memory deficits , can be remediated , at least to some degree Children diagnosed with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ; n = 142 ) were prospect ively monitored into adolescence ( 13 - 18 years old ) to evaluate their risk for elevated substance use relative to same-aged adolescents without ADHD ( n = 100 ) . Prob and s reported higher levels of alcohol , tobacco , and illicit drug use than did controls . Group differences were apparent for alcohol symptom scores but not for alcohol or marijuana disorder diagnoses . Within prob and s , severity of childhood inattention symptoms predicted multiple substance use outcomes : childhood oppositional defiant disorder/conduct disorder ( ODD/CD ) symptoms predicted illicit drug use and CD symptoms . Persistence of ADHD and adolescent CD were each associated with elevated substance use behaviors relative to controls . Further study of the mediating mechanisms that explain risk for early substance use and abuse in children with ADHD is warranted Pediatric traumatic brain injury ( TBI ) places children at risk for deficits in working memory ( WM ; comprising a central executive [ CE ] , and two storage systems : phonological loop [ PL ] and visuospatial sketchpad [ VSSP ] ) , which is strongly related to attention and academic skills in childhood . This study aim ed to examine whether different components of WM can be improved following adaptive WM training ( Cogmed ) and whether improvements in WM generalize to other cognitive ( attention ) and academic skills ( reading and mathematics ) in children with TBI . Twenty-seven children with moderate to severe TBI were r and omized to adaptive ( Cogmed ; n = 13 ) or non-adaptive training ( active placebo ; n = 14 ) and evaluated at baseline , post-training , and 3-months follow-up . Three children in the adaptive group and one child in the non-adaptive group withdrew from the study before completion of training . Complete 
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We also consider the link between WM and cognitive control in people with SUD who are prone to ' jumping to conclusions ' and reduced epistemic foraging .