***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: The auditory brainstem response reflects neural encoding of the acoustic characteristic of a speech syllable with remarkable precision . Some children with learning impairments demonstrate abnormalities in this preconscious measure of neural encoding especially in background noise . This study investigated whether auditory training targeted to remediate perceptually-based learning problems would alter the neural brainstem encoding of the acoustic sound structure of speech in such children . Nine subjects , clinical ly diagnosed with a language -based learning problem ( e.g. , dyslexia ) , worked with auditory perceptual training software . Prior to beginning and within three months after completing the training program , brainstem responses to the syllable /da/ were recorded in quiet and background noise . Subjects underwent additional auditory neurophysiological , perceptual , and cognitive testing .  Ten control subjects , who did not participate in any remediation program , underwent the same battery of tests at time intervals equivalent to the trained subjects . Transient and sustained ( frequency-following response ) components of the brainstem response were evaluated . The primary pathway afferent volley -- neural events occurring earlier than 11 ms after stimulus onset -- did not demonstrate plasticity . However , quiet-to-noise inter-response correlations of the sustained response ( approximately 11 - 50 ms ) increased significantly in the trained children , reflecting improved stimulus encoding precision , whereas control subjects did not exhibit this change . Thus , auditory training can alter the preconscious neural encoding of complex sounds by improving neural synchrony in the auditory brainstem . Additionally , several measures of brainstem response timing were related to changes in cortical physiology , as well as perceptual , academic , and cognitive measures from pre- to post-training A speech processing algorithm was developed to create more salient versions of the rapidly changing elements in the acoustic waveform of speech that have been shown to be deficiently processed by language -learning impaired ( LLI ) children . LLI children received extensive daily training , over a 4-week period , with listening exercises in which all speech was translated into this synthetic form . They also received daily training with computer “ games ” design ed to adaptively drive improvements in temporal processing thresholds . Significant improvements in speech discrimination and language comprehension abilities were demonstrated in two independent groups of LLI children BACKGROUND Receptive language impairments in school-age children have a poor prognosis , yet there is a dearth of research on effective interventions . AIMS Children 's responses to a computerized grammatical training program were evaluated to consider whether repeated responding to spoken sentences with variable semantic content and the same syntactic structure would lead to consistent and fluent comprehension . METHODS & PROCEDURES Children with receptive language impairments aged from 8 to 13 years were r and omly assigned to three groups : Group S ( n = 12 ) responded to reversible sentences in a computerized game , using speech stimuli with pauses before critical phrases . Group M ( n = 12 ) had the same stimuli acoustically modified to lengthen and amplify dynamic portions of the signal . Group U ( n = 9 ) was an  untrained control group . On average , children in groups S and M completed over 1000 training trials , focusing on training comprehension of reversible sentences . OUTCOMES & RESULTS Although responses speeded up over the course of training , and most children performed well above chance , accuracy typically remained below 95 % correct for constructions such as above/below and reversible active/passive . Trained groups did not differ from untrained children on language or auditory outcomes . There was no evidence that acoustically modified speech input enhanced comprehension . CONCLUSIONS Rote training of comprehension of reversible sentences does not seem to be an effective approach to remediating such problems . For most children , the pattern of performance suggested that the problem was not a lack of syntactic knowledge , bur rather limited processing capacity that led to failures of on-line computation of meaning Seventy-seven children between the ages of 6 and 10 years , with severe mixed receptive-expressive specific language impairment ( SLI ) , participated in a r and omized controlled trial ( RCT ) of Fast ForWord ( FFW ; Scientific Learning Corporation , 1997 , 2001 ) . FFW is a computer-based intervention for treating SLI using acoustically enhanced speech stimuli . These stimuli are modified to exaggerate their time and intensity properties as part of an adaptive training process . All children who participated in the RCT maintained their regular speech and language therapy and school regime throughout the trial . St and ardized measures of receptive and expressive language were used to assess performance at baseline and to measure outcome from treatment at 9 weeks and 6 months . Children were allocated to 1 of 3 groups . Group A ( n = 23 ) received the FFW intervention as a home-based therapy for 6 weeks . Group B ( n = 27 ) received commercially available computer-based activities design ed to promote language as a control for computer games exposure . Group C ( n = 27 ) received no additional study intervention . Each group made significant gains in language scores , but there was no additional effect for either computer intervention . Thus , the findings from this RCT do not support the efficacy of FFW as an intervention for children with severe mixed receptive-expressive SLI PURPOSE The authors assessed comorbidity of auditory processing disorder ( APD ) , language impairment ( LI ) , and reading disorder ( RD ) in school-age children . METHOD Children ( N = 68 ) with suspected APD and nonverbal IQ st and ard scores of 80 or more were assessed using auditory , language , reading , attention , and memory measures .  Auditory processing tests included the Frequency Pattern Test ( FPT ; F. E. Musiek , 1994 ; D. Noffsinger , R. H. Wilson , & F. E. Musiek , 1994 ) ; the Dichotic Digit Test Version 2 ( DDT ; F. E. Musiek , 1983 ) ; the R and om Gap Detection Test ( R. W. Keith , 2000 ) ; the 500-Hz tone Masking Level Difference ( V. Aithal , A. Yonovitz , & S. Aithal , 2006 ) ; and a monaural low-redundancy speech test ( compressed and reverberant words ; A. Boothroyd & S. Nittrouer , 1988 ) . The Clinical Evaluation of Language Fundamentals , Fourth Edition ( E. Semel , E. Wiig , & W. Secord , 2003 ) was used to assess language abilities ( including auditory memory ) . Reading accuracy and fluency and phonological awareness abilities were assessed using the Wheldall Assessment of Reading Passages ( A. Madelaine & K. Wheldall , 2002 ) and the Queensl and University Inventory of Literacy ( B. Dodd , A. Holm , M. Orelemans , & M. McCormick , 1996 ) . Attention was measured using the Integrated Visual and Auditory Continuous Performance Test ( J. A. S and ford & A. Turner , 1995 ) . RESULTS Of the children , 72 % had APD on the basis of these test results . Most of these children ( 25 % ) had difficulty with the FPT bilaterally . A further 22 % had difficulty with the FPT bilaterally and had right ear deficits for the DDT . About half of the children ( 47 % ) had problems in all 3 areas ( APD , LI , and RD ) ; these children had the poorest FPT scores . More had APD-RD , or APD-LI , than APD , RD , or LI alone . There were modest correlations between FPT scores and attention and memory , and between DDT scores and memory . CONCLUSIONS LI and RD commonly co-occur with APD . Attention and memory are linked to performance on some auditory processing tasks but only explain a small amount of the variance in scores . Comprehensive assessment across a range of areas is required to characterize the difficulties experienced by children with APD PURPOSE A r and omized controlled trial was conducted to compare the language and auditory processing outcomes of children assigned to receive the Fast ForWord Language intervention ( FFW-L )  with the outcomes of children assigned to nonspecific or specific language intervention comparison treatments that did not contain modified speech . METHOD Two hundred sixteen children between the ages of 6 and 9 years with language impairments were r and omly assigned to 1 of 4 conditions : ( a ) Fast ForWord Language ( FFW-L ) , ( b ) academic enrichment ( AE ) , ( c ) computer-assisted language intervention ( CALI ) , or ( d ) individualized language intervention ( ILI ) provided by a speech- language pathologist . All children received 1 hr and 40 min of treatment , 5 days per week , for 6 weeks . Language and auditory processing measures were administered to the children by blinded examiners before treatment , immediately after treatment , 3 months after treatment , and 6 months after treatment . RESULTS The children in all 4 conditions improved significantly on a global language test and a test of backward masking . Children with poor backward masking scores who were r and omized to the FFW-L condition did not present greater improvement on the language measures than children with poor backward masking scores who were r and omized to the other 3 conditions . Effect sizes , analyses of st and ard error of measurement , and normalization percentages supported the clinical significance of the improvements on the Comprehensive Assessment of Spoken Language ( E. Carrow-Woolfolk , 1999 ) . There was a treatment effect for the Blending Words subtest of the Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing ( R. K. Wagner , J. K. Torgesen , & C. A. Rashotte , 1999 ) . Participants in the FFW-L and CALI conditions earned higher phonological awareness scores than children in the ILI and AE conditions at the 6-month follow-up testing . CONCLUSION Fast ForWord Language , the intervention that provided modified speech to address a hypothesized underlying auditory processing deficit , was not more effective at improving general language skills or temporal processing skills than a nonspecific comparison treatment ( AE ) or specific language intervention comparison treatments ( CALI and ILI ) that did not contain modified speech stimuli . These findings call into question the temporal processing hypothesis of language impairment and the hypothesized benefits of using acoustically modified speech to improve language skills . The finding that children in the 3 treatment conditions and the active comparison condition made clinical ly relevant gains on measures of language and temporal auditory processing informs our underst and ing of the variety of intervention activities that can facilitate development Children with language -based learning impairments ( LLIs ) have major deficits in their recognition of some rapidly successive phonetic elements and nonspeech sound stimuli . In the current study , LLI children were engaged in adaptive training exercises mounted as computer “ games ” design ed to drive improvements in their “ temporal processing ” skills . With 8 to 16 hours of training during a 20-day period , LLI children improved markedly in their abilities to recognize brief and fast sequences of nonspeech and speech stimuli PURPOSE The purpose of the present study was to determine whether kindergarten children with specific language impairment ( SLI ) could develop phonological awareness skills through computer intervention and whether speech manipulation ( i.e. , slowing speech rate and enhancing transitions ) in instruction produced additional learning . METHOD The effects of a computer-supported phonological awareness program on a variety of items , including word analysis , syllable analysis , rhyme , phoneme analysis , syllable synthesis , and phoneme synthesis , were tested following a pretest-posttest 1-posttest 2 design . Twenty-four kindergarten children with SLI in the Netherl and s received 3.5 hr of phonological awareness intervention via a computer program using either normal speech ( 12 children ) or manipulated speech ( 12 children ) . A control group of 12 kindergarten children with SLI played computer vocabulary games . RESULTS The results showed positive effects of the intervention for the normal speech group . Eighteen weeks later , the effect size was still substantial ; however , no additional effects of speech manipulation were found . CLINICAL IMPLICATION S The results suggest that kindergarten children with SLI benefit from computer intervention for phonological awareness skills 
    Output:
    
RESULTS Some support exists for the cl aim that auditory and language interventions can improve auditory functioning in children with APD and those with primary spoken language disorder .
There is little indication , however , that observed improvements are due to the auditory features of these programs .
Similarly , evidence supporting the effects of these programs on spoken and written language functioning is limited .