***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: Objective : To examine the effects of iron deficiency and its treatment by iron supplementation or a high iron diet on fatigue and general health measures in women of childbearing age . Design : R and omised controlled trial to compare supplement and dietary treatment of iron deficiency . Subjects : 44 iron deficient ( serum ferritin < 15 μg/L or serum ferritin 15–20 μg/L , plus two of the following : serum iron < 10 μmol/L , total iron binding capacity > 68 μmol/L or transferrin saturation < 15 % ) and 22 iron replete ( hemoglobin ≥120 g/L and serum ferritin > 20 μg/L ) women 18 to 50 years of age were matched for age and parity . Interventions : Iron deficient women were r and omly allocated to either iron supplementation or a high iron diet for 12 weeks . Measures of Outcome : Iron deficient and iron replete participants had iron studies performed and completed the Piper Fatigue Scale ( PFS ) and the SF-36 general health and well-being question naire at baseline ( T0 ) , following the 12 week intervention ( T1 ) and again after a six-month non-intervention phase ( T2 ) . The SF-36 includes measures of physical ( PCS ) and mental ( MCS ) health and vitality ( VT ) . Results : MCS and VT scores were lower and PFS scores were higher for iron deficient women ( diet and supplement groups ) than iron replete women at baseline . Both intervention groups showed similar improvements in MCS , VT and PFS scores during the intervention phase , but mean increases in serum ferritin were greater in the supplement than the diet group . PCS scores were not related to iron status . Conclusions : Treatment of iron deficiency with either supplementation or a high iron diet results in improved mental health and decreased fatigue among women of childbearing age Background Vegetarian diets have been associated with lower risk of chronic disease , but little is known about the health effects of low meat diets and the reliability of self-reported vegetarian status . We aim ed to establish an analytical cohort over-represented with vegetarians , pescetarians and 1 day/week meat consumers , and to describe their lifestyle and dietary characteristics . In addition , we were able to compare self-reported vegetarians with vegetarians whose status has been confirmed by their response on the extensive food frequency question naire ( FFQ ) . Study methods Embedded within the Netherl and s Cohort Study ( n = 120,852 ; including 1150 self-reported vegetarians ) , the NLCS-Meat Investigation Cohort ( NLCS-MIC ) was defined by combining all FFQ-confirmed-vegetarians ( n = 702 ) , pescetarians ( n = 394 ) , and 1 day/week meat consumers ( n = 1,396 ) from the total cohort with a r and om sample of 2–5 days/week- and 6–7 days/week meat consumers ( n = 2,965 and 5,648 , respectively ) . Results Vegetarians , pescetarians , and 1 day/week meat consumers had more favorable dietary intakes ( e.g. higher fiber/vegetables ) and lifestyle characteristics ( e.g. lower smoking rates ) compared to regular meat consumers in both sexes . Vegetarians adhered to their diet longer than pescetarians and 1 day/week meat consumers . 75 % of vegetarians with a prevalent cancer at baseline had changed to this diet after diagnosis . 50 % of self-reported vegetarians reported meat or fish consumption on the FFQ . Although the misclassification that occurred in terms of diet and lifestyle when merely relying on self-reporting was relatively small , the impact on associations with disease risk remains to be studied . Conclusion We established an analytical cohort over-represented with persons at the lower end of the meat consumption spectrum which should facilitate prospect i ve studies of major cancers and causes of death using ≥20.3 years of follow-up BACKGROUND Gene mutations associated with iron overload have been identified . How food and nutrient intakes affect iron status in persons who may be at risk of iron overload because their genetic status is unknown . OBJECTIVE The objective was to determine the relation between food and nutrient intakes , HFE genotype , and iron status . Foods and nutrients associated with iron stores , with adjustment for gene mutations associated with hemochromatosis , were explored . DESIGN A prospect i ve cohort of women aged 35 - 69 y ( the UK Women 's Cohort Study ) provided information on diet through a question naire and food diary ;  6779 women in the cohort provided cheek cell sample s , blood sample s , or both , which were genotyped for C282Y and H63D mutations , and 2489 women also had their iron status assessed . Relations between serum ferritin and iron intake were investigated by using multiple linear regression , with adjustment for potential confounders . RESULTS The strongest dietary association with serum ferritin concentration was a positive association with heme iron and not with nonheme or total iron . Weaker positive associations were seen with red and white meat , and negative associations were seen with total energy and white and brown whole-meal bread , independent of genotype and other potential confounders . The effect of genotype on ferritin concentrations primarily occurred after menopause , at which time a strong interaction between genotype and heme iron intake was observed . Other factors associated with serum ferritin concentrations were age , body mass index , blood donation , menopausal status , and HFE genotype . CONCLUSIONS Postmenopausal women eating a diet rich in heme iron and who were C282Y homozygotes had the highest serum ferritin concentrations The effects of three diets -- high meat ( HM ) , low meat ( LM ) , or low meat with mineral supplements (LS)--on  zinc absorption , elemental balance , and related clinical indexes were investigated in a metabolic study of 14 women aged 51 - 70 y. The women ate each of the three diets for 7 wk in r and om order . Lean beef , chicken , ham , and tuna in the HM diet replaced foods with a low mineral content in the LM diet . The LS diet was similar to the HM diet in K , P , Fe , Mg , and Zn contents . Compared with the other diets , the HM diet increased zinc absorption and retention , and slightly increased urinary zinc . Nitrogen and calcium balances and urinary calcium were not different for the HM and LM diets . Iron balance was not different for the HM and LS diets with similar iron content , but the HM diet was unexpectedly associated with lower iron status ( higher iron-binding capacity and lower ferritin than LM and LS diets ) . These results indicate that 0.8 g protein/kg body wt meets protein requirements in older women , and that high meat consumption increases zinc retention without compromising calcium status and may reduce indexes of iron status , in contrast with iron absorption results from studies with radiolabeled test meals BACKGROUND Despite the possible overall health benefits of a vegetarian diet , there is concern that some vegetarians and infrequent meat eaters , particularly females , may have inadequate iron status because of low or no heme-iron intakes . OBJECTIVE The objective was to investigate the nutritional intake and iron status of vegetarian women . DESIGN The nutritional intakes of 50 free-living vegetarian women aged 18 - 45 y and 24 age-matched omnivorous control women were assessed by using 12-d weighed dietary records .  Iron status was assessed by measuring hemoglobin and serum ferritin concentrations . RESULTS There was no significant difference between mean ( + /-SD ) daily iron intakes of vegetarians and omnivores ( 10.7 + /- 4.4 and 9.9 + /- 2.9 mg , respectively ) , although heme-iron intakes were low in the vegetarians . Vegetarians had significantly lower intakes of protein ( P < 0.01 ) , saturated fat ( P < 0.01 ) , and cholesterol ( P < 0.001 ) , and significantly higher intakes of dietary fiber ( P < 0.001 ) and vitamin C ( P < 0.05 ) . Mean serum ferritin concentrations were significantly lower ( P = 0.025 ) in vegetarians ( 25.0 + /- 16.2 microg/L ) than in omnivores ( 45.5 + /- 42.5 microg/L ) . However , similar numbers of vegetarians ( 18 % ) and omnivores ( 13 % ) had serum ferritin concentrations < 12 microg/L , which is a value often used as an indicator of low iron stores . Hemoglobin concentrations were not significantly different . CONCLUSION It is important that both vegetarian and omnivorous women maintain an adequate iron status and follow dietary practice s that enhance iron absorption Forty-seven previously sedentary women participating in a 12-wk moderate aerobic-exercise program were r and omly assigned to one of four dietary groups : 50-mg/d iron supplement and a low food-iron diet ( 50 FE + EX ) , 10-mg/d iron supplement and a low food-iron diet ( 10 FE + EX ) , placebo and unrestricted diet ( P + EX ) , and meat supplement and high food-iron diet ( M + EX ) . A sedentary control group ( n = 13 ) received no dietary interventions . Hematocrit , total iron-binding capacity , and hemoglobin , serum iron , serum ferritin , and serum albumin concentrations were measured every 4 wk . Hemoglobin values decreased at the end of 4 wk in all exercising groups compared with the control group . Iron status in the 50 FE + EX and M + EX groups improved after week 4 as indicated by an increase in serum ferritin , serum iron , and hemoglobin concentrations , and a decline in total iron-binding capacity . Thus , short-term , moderate aerobic exercise result ed in compromised iron status that was offset to varying degrees by ingesting iron or meat supplements . However , meat supplements were more effective in protecting hemoglobin and ferritin status than were iron supplements OBJECTIVES To describe the concentrations of serum ferritin among Australian adults by age and sex . Further , the relationships of various social , lifestyle and health factors with serum ferritin concentrations were explored . DESIGN A total of 1634 adults aged < or=25 years from six r and omly selected urban centres in Queensl and , Australia participated in the study that was conducted between October and December 2000 . RESULTS Prevalence of depleted iron stores , based on low serum ferritin concentration , was 10.6 % among females aged<50 years , 2.8 % among females aged < or=50 years and virtually nil among males . In contrast , 16 % of the males and 20 % of the females aged < or=50 years had elevated se-rum ferritin concentrations . Significantly higher serum ferritin concentrations were found among females of both age groups who consumed alcohol at a rate of > 60 drinks/month , and females aged<50 years who were obese . Lower serum ferritin concentrations were found only among females aged<50 years , with higher education attainment . In multivariable analysis , only the association between higher serum ferritin and obesity was consistent across age-sex groups and statistically significant . CONCLUSION Iron deficiency may be a problem among Australian females of reproductive age . Further research is needed to identify the determinants of low iron concentrations in younger females and elevated concentrations of serum ferritin in males and older females in order to develop preventive measures Young overweight women are at risk of iron and zinc deficiency . This study assessed iron , zinc and inflammatory status during a 12-month weight loss trial in young women ( 18 - 25 y ; BMI > = 27.5 kg/m2 ) r and omised to a  higher-protein  ( HP : 32 % protein ; 12.2 mg/day iron ; 11.7 mg/day zinc ) or lower-protein ( LP : 20 % ; 9.9 mg/day ; 7.6 mg/day respectively ) diet with contrasting haem iron and zinc content . In completers ( HP : n=21 ; LP : n=15 ) , HP participants showed higher median ferritin ( 52.0 vs 39.0 μg/L ; p=0.021 ) and lower median soluble transferrin receptor-ferritin index ( sTfR-F ; 0.89 vs 1.05 ; p=0.024 ) although concentrations remained within normal range for both diets . Median C-reactive protein ( CRP ; HP : 3.54 ; LP : 4.63 mg/L ) and hepcidin ( HP : 5.70 ; LP : 8.25 ng/mL ) were not elevated at baseline , and no longitudinal between-diet differences were observed for zinc and CRP . Compared to those with < 5 % weight loss , HP participants losing > = 10 % weight showed lower median sTfR-F ( 0.76 vs 1.03 ; p=0.019 ) at six months . Impact of > = 10 % weight loss on iron was more apparent in LP participants who exhibited greater mean serum iron ( 20.0 vs 13.5 μmol/L ; p=0.002 ) , transferrin saturation ( 29.8 % vs 19.4 % 
    Output:
    
However , the optimum quantity or frequency of flesh intake required to maintain or achieve a healthy iron status remains unclear .