***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: Ten men and nine women ages 35 to 55 consumed two diets for 6 weeks each in a cross-over design . The diets were composed of identical natural foods and 30 % of the calories as either sucrose or wheat starch . Carbohydrate , fat , and protein supplied 43 , 42 , and 15 % of the calories , respectively . Of the calories 10 % was eaten at breakfast ( 7:00 to 8:30 AM ) and 90 % at dinner ( 4:30 to 6:30 PM ) . Inital body weights were essentially maintained . Fasting serum insulin and glucose levels were significantly higher with the sucrose than with the starch diet . The insulin response and the insulin : glucose ratios after a sucrose load ( 2 g/kg body weight ) were greater after the subjects consumed the sucrose diet . Sucrose feeding produced increases in fasting serum insulin , the insulin : glucose ratio and the insulin response to a sucrose load that were of greater magnitude in a subgroup of nine subjects classified as potentially carbohydrate-sensitive than in normal subjects .  Glucose response to a sucrose load and fasting serum glucagon did not differ significantly with diet . Fasting insulin and glucose showed significant increases as a function of time on diet . These results indicate that sucrose feeding produces undersirable changes in several of the parameters associated with glucose tolerance To examine whether artificial sweeteners aid in the control of long-term food intake and body weight , we gave free-living , normal-weight subjects 1150 g soda sweetened with aspartame ( APM ) or high-fructose corn syrup ( HFCS ) per day . Relative to when no soda was given , drinking APM-sweetened soda for 3 wk significantly reduced calorie intake of both females ( n = 9 ) and males ( n = 21 ) and decreased the body weight of males but not of females . However , drinking HFCS-sweetened soda for 3 wk significantly increased the calorie intake and body weight of both sexes . Ingesting either type of soda reduced intake of sugar from the diet without affecting intake of other nutrients . Drinking large volumes of APM-sweetened soda , in contrast to drinking HFCS-sweetened soda , reduces sugar intake and thus may facilitate the control of calorie intake and body weight We have studied whether the sucrose-induced reduction of insulin sensitivity and cellular insulin binding in normal man is related to the fructose or the glucose moiety . Seven young healthy subjects were fed their usual diets plus 1000 kcal extra glucose per day and eight young healthy subjects were fed their usual diets with addition of 1000 kcal extra fructose per day . The dietary regimens continued for 1 week . Before change of diet there were no statistically significant differences between body weight and fasting plasma concentrations of glucose , insulin , and ketone bodies in the two groups studied . High-glucose feeding caused no significant changes in insulin binding or insulin sensitivity whereas high-fructose feeding was accompanied by a significant reduction both of insulin binding ( P less than 0.05 ) and insulin sensitivity ( P less than 0.05 ) . The changes in insulin binding and insulin sensitivity correlated linearly ( r = 0.52 , P less than 0.01 ) . We conclude that fructose seems to be responsible for the impaired insulin binding and insulin sensitivity induced by sucrose Ten men and nine women aged 35 to 55 consumed two diets for 6 weeks each in a cross-over design . The diets were composed of identical natural foods and 30 % of the calories as either sucrose or wheat starch . Carbohydrate , fat and protein supplied 43 , 42 , and 15 % of the calories , respectively . The dietary pattern consisted of two meals divided so as to provide 10 % of the calories at breakfast ( 7:00 to 8:30 AM ) and 90 % of the calories at dinner ( 4:30 to 6:30 PM ) . Initial body weights were essentially maintained . The gastric inhibitory polypeptide response after a sucrose load ( 2 g/kg body weight ) was significantly greater ( P < 0.01 ) after th subjects consumed the sucrose rather than the starch diet . The gastric inhibitory polypeptide response was significantly greater ( P < 0.01 ) after 6 weeks on diet than during pretest . These results suggest that the increases in insulin levels observed after sucrose feeding may be mediated by an effect on the enteric hormone gastric inhibitory polypeptide IMPORTANCE Increases in fructose consumption have paralleled the increasing prevalence of obesity , and high-fructose diets are thought to promote weight gain and insulin resistance . Fructose ingestion produces smaller increases in circulating satiety hormones compared with glucose ingestion , and central administration of fructose provokes feeding in rodents , whereas central ly administered glucose promotes satiety . OBJECTIVE To study neurophysiological factors that might underlie associations between fructose consumption and weight gain . DESIGN , SETTING , AND PARTICIPANTS Twenty healthy adult volunteers underwent 2 magnetic resonance imaging sessions at Yale University in conjunction with fructose or glucose drink ingestion in a blinded , r and om-order , crossover design . MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Relative changes in hypothalamic regional cerebral blood flow ( CBF ) after glucose or fructose ingestion . Secondary outcomes included whole-brain analyses to explore regional CBF changes , functional connectivity analysis to investigate correlations between the hypothalamus and other brain region responses , and hormone responses to fructose and glucose ingestion . RESULTS There was a significantly greater reduction in hypothalamic CBF after glucose vs fructose ingestion ( -5.45 vs 2.84 mL/g per minute , respectively ; mean difference , 8.3 mL/g per minute [ 95 % CI of mean difference , 1.87 - 14.70 ] ; P = .01 ) . Glucose ingestion ( compared with baseline ) increased functional connectivity between the hypothalamus and the thalamus and striatum . Fructose  increased connectivity between the hypothalamus and thalamus but not the striatum . Regional CBF within the hypothalamus , thalamus , insula , anterior cingulate , and striatum ( appetite and reward regions ) was reduced after glucose ingestion compared with baseline ( P < .05 significance threshold , family-wise error [ FWE ] whole-brain corrected ) . In contrast , fructose  reduced regional CBF in the thalamus , hippocampus , posterior cingulate cortex , fusiform , and visual cortex ( P < .05 significance threshold , FWE whole-brain corrected ) . In whole-brain voxel-level analyses , there were no significant differences between direct comparisons of fructose vs glucose sessions following correction for multiple comparisons . Fructose vs glucose ingestion result ed in lower peak levels of serum glucose ( mean difference , 41.0 mg/dL [ 95 % CI , 27.7 - 54.5 ] ; P < .001 ) , insulin ( mean difference , 49.6 μU/mL [ 95 % CI , 38.2 - 61.1 ] ; P < .001 ) , and glucagon-like polypeptide 1 ( mean difference , 2.1 pmol/L [ 95 % CI , 0.9 - 3.2 ] ; P = .01 ) . CONCLUSION AND RELEVANCE In a series of exploratory analyses , consumption of fructose compared with glucose result ed in a distinct pattern of regional CBF and a smaller increase in systemic glucose , insulin , and glucagon-like polypeptide 1 levels Objective The objective of the present study was to investigate associations between sugar intake and overweight using dietary biomarkers in the Norfolk cohort of the European Prospect i ve Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition ( EPIC-Norfolk ) . Design Prospect i ve cohort study . Setting EPIC-Norfolk in the UK , recruitment between 1993 and 1997 . Subjects Men and women ( n 1734 ) aged 39–77 years .  Sucrose intake  was assessed using 7 d diet diaries .  Baseline spot urine sample s were analysed for sucrose by GC-MS . Sucrose concentration adjusted by specific gravity was used as a biomarker for intake . Regression analyses were used to investigate associations between sucrose intake and risk of BMI > 25·0 kg/m2 after three years of follow-up . Results After three years of follow-up , mean BMI was 26·8 kg/m2 . Self-reported sucrose intake was significantly positively associated with the biomarker . Associations between the biomarker and BMI were positive ( β=0·25 ; 95 % CI 0·08 , 0·43 ) , while they were inverse when using self-reported dietary data ( β=−1·40 ; 95 % CI −1·81 , −0·99 ) . The age- and sex-adjusted OR for BMI > 25·0 kg/m2 in participants in the fifth v. first quintile was 1·54 ( 95 % CI 1·12 , 2·12 ; P trend=0·003 ) when using biomarker and 0·56 ( 95 % CI 0·40 , 0·77 ; P trend<0·001 ) with self-reported dietary data . Conclusions Our results suggest that sucrose measured by objective biomarker but not self-reported sucrose intake is positively associated with BMI . Future studies should consider the use of objective biomarkers of sucrose intake Overconsumption of fructose , particularly in the form of soft drinks , is increasingly recognized as a public health concern . The acute cardiovascular responses to ingesting fructose have not , however , been well-studied in humans . In this r and omized crossover study , we compared cardiovascular autonomic regulation after ingesting water and drinks containing either glucose or fructose in 15 healthy volunteers ( aged 21 - 33 yr ) . The total volume of each drink was 500 ml , and the sugar content 60 g. For 30 min before and 2 h after each drink , we recorded beat-to-beat heart rate , arterial blood pressure , and cardiac output . Energy expenditure was determined on a minute-by-minute basis . Ingesting the fructose drink significantly increased blood pressure , heart rate , and cardiac output but not total peripheral resistance . Glucose ingestion result ed in a significantly greater increase in cardiac output than fructose but no change in blood pressure and a concomitant decrease in total peripheral resistance . Ingesting glucose and fructose , but not water , significantly increased blood pressure variability and decreased cardiovagal baroreflex sensitivity . Energy expenditure increased by a similar amount after glucose and fructose ingestion , but fructose elicited a significantly greater increase in respiratory quotient . These results show that ingestion of glucose and fructose drinks is characterized by specific hemodynamic responses . In particular , fructose ingestion elicits an increase in blood pressure that is probably mediated by an increase in cardiac output without compensatory peripheral vasodilatation 
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Buijsse B , Boeing H , Drogan D , et al. Consumption of fatty foods and incident type 2 diabetes in population s from eight European countries .
Petersen KF , Laurent D , Yu C , Cline GW , Shulman GI .
Hawkins M , Gabriely I , Wozniak R , Vilcu C , Shamoon H , Rossetti L. Fructose improves the ability of hyperglycemia per se to regulate glucose production in type 2 diabetes .
Diabetes .
Sievenpiper JL , Chiavaroli L , de Souza RJ , et al. ‘ Catalytic ’ doses of fructose may benefit glycaemic control without harming cardiometabolic risk factors : a small meta- analysis of r and omised controlled feeding trials .
Egli L , Lecoultre V , Theytaz F , et al. Exercise  prevents fructose-induced hypertriglyceridemia  in healthy young subjects .