***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: Oppositional defiant disorder ( ODD ) and attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) are characterized by symptoms that hinder successful positive interaction with peers . The main goal of this study was to examine if the presence of symptoms of ODD and ADHD affects the relationship between positive social behavior and peer status found in 7–9-year-old children who show symptoms typical of ADHD and /or ODD . Furthermore , the possible interaction with sex was investigated . We used data collected in the first wave of The Bergen Child Study of mental health ( BCS ) , a prospect i ve longitudinal total population study of children 's developmental and mental health . The target population consisted of children in the second to the fourth , in all public , private , and special schools in Bergen , Norway , in the fall of 2002 ( N = 9430 ) . All 79 primary schools in Bergen participated in the study . Both teacher ( 8809 complete cases ) and parent ( 6253 complete cases ) report were used in the analyses . ADHD and ODD scores were estimated using the Swanson Nol and and Pelham rating scale version IV ( SNAP-IV ) , and peer problems and prosocial behavior were assessed using the Strengths and Difficulties Question naire ( SDQ ) . We replicated the relationship between peer problems and prosocial behavior found previously in typically developing children . Our results showed that the relationship between peer problems and prosocial behavior became weaker as the ODD symptoms increased in number and severity . For ADHD this effect was only found in the teacher report of the children . A sex effect for ODD symptoms was found only using the parent report : boys with ODD symptoms showed less prosocial behavior than girls with similar levels of ODD symptoms . Since this effect was not found using the teacher data , it may imply a situational effect ( school/home ) for girls with high levels of ODD . The moderator effect of ODD/ADHD was comparable for boys and girls . Our findings suggest that even if children with ADHD/ODD symptoms have the opportunity to practice their social skills in peer relationships , this is not necessarily accompanied by an increase in prosocial behavior Three experiments ( total N=140 ) tested the hypothesis that 5-year-old children 's membership in r and omly assigned " minimal " groups would be sufficient to induce intergroup bias .  Children  were r and omly assigned to groups and engaged in tasks involving judgments of unfamiliar in-group or out-group children . Despite an absence of information regarding the relative status of groups or any competitive context , in-group preferences were observed on explicit and implicit measures of attitude and re source allocation ( Experiment 1 ) , behavioral attribution , and expectations of reciprocity , with preferences persisting when groups were not described via a noun label ( Experiment 2 ) . In addition , children systematic ally distorted incoming information by preferentially encoding positive information about in-group members ( Experiment 3 ) . Implication s for the developmental origins of intergroup bias are discussed In a prospect i ve , longitudinal study we examined the psychometric properties of the self-perception scales of the Berkeley Puppet Interview ( BPI ) .  A total sample of 97 young children were assessed with the BPI at 3 time points : preschool , kindergarten , and first grade . The BPI assesses young children 's  self-perceptions of their school adjustment in 6 domains : academic competence , achievement motivation , social competence , peer acceptance , depression-anxiety , and aggression-hostility . Results showed that 4 1/2- to 7 1/2-year-olds possess a multidimensional self-concept that can be reliably measured and that the BPI is sensitive to normative changes and individual differences in young boys ' and girls ' views of themselves . Support for the method 's validity was derived from consistent and meaningful patterns of convergence between children 's self-perceptions and ratings by adult informants -- mothers , fathers , and teachers -- as well as st and ardized test scores . In fact , in this study , the concordance between young children 's self-reports and parallel ratings by teachers or mothers were consistently as strong as if not stronger than the concordance between mothers ' and teachers ' ratings In a retrospective survey , 487 research projects approved by the Central Oxford Research Ethics Committee between 1984 and 1987 , were studied for evidence of publication bias . As of May , 1990 , 285 of the studies had been analysed by the investigators , and 52 % of these had been published . Studies with statistically significant results were more likely to be published than those finding no difference between the study groups ( adjusted odds ratio [ OR ] 2.32 ; 95 % confidence interval [ Cl ] 1.25 - 4.28 ) . Studies with significant results were also more likely to lead to a greater number of publications and presentations and to be published in journals with a high citation impact factor . An increased likelihood of publication was also associated with a high rating by the investigator of the importance of the study results , and with increasing sample size . The tendency towards publication bias was greater with observational and laboratory-based experimental studies ( OR = 3.79 ; 95 % Cl = 1.47 - 9.76 ) than with r and omised clinical trials ( OR = 0.84 ; 95 % Cl = 0.34 - 2.09 ) . We have confirmed the presence of publication bias in a cohort of clinical research studies . These findings suggest that conclusions based only on a review of published data should be interpreted cautiously , especially for observational studies . Improved strategies are needed to identify the results of unpublished as well as published studies 
    Output:
    
Our review suggests that from early on in childhood development , externalizing symptoms are accompanied by prosocial behaviour deficits such as lower levels of helping or cooperating , whereas internalizing symptoms may be accompanied by either deficient or excessive levels of prosocial behaviour .
Exhibiting social initiative such as initiating contact with others or communicating one ’s own needs seems to be impaired in children with internalizing symptoms .