***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: Background Maternal glucose and lipid levels are associated with neonatal anthropometry of the offspring , also independently of maternal body mass index ( BMI ) . Gestational weight gain , however , is often not accounted for . The objective was to explore whether the effects of maternal glucose and lipid levels on offspring ’s birth weight and subcutaneous fat were independent of early pregnancy BMI and mid-gestational weight gain . Methods In a population -based , multi-ethnic , prospect i ve cohort of 699 women and their offspring , maternal anthropometrics were collected in gestational week 15 and 28 .  Maternal fasting plasma lipids , fasting and 2-hour glucose post 75 g glucose load , were collected in gestational week 28 . Maternal risk factors were st and ardized using z-scores . Outcomes were neonatal birth weight and sum of skinfolds in four different regions . Results Mean ( st and ard deviation ) birth weight was 3491 ± 498 g and mean sum of skinfolds was 18.2 ± 3.9 mm . Maternal fasting glucose and HDL-cholesterol were predictors of birth weight , and fasting and 2-hour glucose were predictors of neonatal sum of skinfolds , independently of weight gain as well as early pregnancy BMI , gestational week at inclusion , maternal age , parity , smoking status , ethnic origin , gestational age and offspring ’s sex . However , weight gain was the strongest independent predictor of both birth weight and neonatal sum of skinfolds , with a 0.21 kg/week increased weight gain giving a 110.7 ( 95 % confidence interval 76.6 - 144.9 ) g heavier neonate , and with 0.72 ( 0.38 - 1.06 ) mm larger sum of skinfolds . The effect size of mother ’s early pregnancy BMI on birth weight was higher in non-Europeans than in Europeans .  Conclusions Maternal fasting glucose and HDL-cholesterol were predictors of offspring ’s birth weight , and fasting and 2-hour glucose were predictors of neonatal sum of skinfolds , independently of weight gain . Mid-gestational weight gain was a stronger predictor of both birth weight and neonatal sum of skinfolds than early pregnancy BMI , maternal glucose and lipid levels BACKGROUND Compromised fetal growth may program chronic diseases of adulthood , and it has been suggested that maternal nutrition is a major determinant of fetal growth . We previously found no clinical ly significant associations between maternal diet and the size of the infant and placenta at birth in a large cohort of white women living in the United Kingdom . OBJECTIVE The objective was to examine the relations between indexes of maternal nutritional status in pregnancy and the birth and placental weights of infants born at term . DESIGN We conducted a prospect i ve cohort study of 798 white nulliparous women with singleton pregnancies . Blood sample s were obtained at approximately 16 and 28 wk of gestation . RESULTS The concentration of most nutrients was not associated with pregnancy outcome . High retinol and hemoglobin concentrations in late , but not in early , pregnancy were strongly and independently associated with lower birth weight and smaller placental size at birth . Each 0.1- micro mol increase in retinol predicted a 20.8-g ( 95 % CI : 9.2 , 32.5 g ) decrease in birth weight ( P < 0.001 ) , and each 0.1-g/L increase in hemoglobin predicted a 61.5-g ( 95 % CI : 28.5 , 94.4 g ) decrease in birth weight ( P < 0.001 ) . CONCLUSIONS We found negative associations between birth and placental weights and maternal retinol and hemoglobin concentrations . These relations may be causal or may reflect an underlying metabolic dysfunction , such as failure of plasma volume expansion . Our results provide no evidence that having high circulating nutrient concentrations , for example , through the use of supplements , would improve infant and placental growth CONTEXT Elevated lipid levels during late pregnancy are associated with complications and adverse outcome for both mother and newborn . However , it is inconclusive whether a disturbed lipid profile during early pregnancy has similar negative associations . OBJECTIVE Our objective was to investigate whether nonfasting maternal total cholesterol and triglyceride levels during early pregnancy are associated with six major adverse pregnancy outcomes . METHODS Data were derived from the Amsterdam Born Children and Their Development ( ABCD ) cohort study . R and om blood sample s of nonfasting total cholesterol and triglyceride levels were determined during early gestation ( median = 13 , interquartile range = 12 - 14 wk ) . Outcome measures were pregnancy-induced hypertension ( PIH ) , preeclampsia , preterm birth , small/large for gestational age ( SGA/LGA ) , and child loss .  Only nondiabetic women with singleton deliveries were included ; the baseline sample consisted of 4008 women . Analysis for PIH and preeclampsia were performed in nulliparous women only ( n = 2037 ) . RESULTS Mean ( sd ) triglyceride and total cholesterol levels were 1.33 ( 0.55 ) and 4.98 ( 0.87 ) mmol/liter , respectively . The incidence of pregnancy complications and perinatal outcomes were as follows : PIH , 4.9 % ; preeclampsia , 3.7 % ; preterm birth , 5.3 % ; SGA , 9.3 % ; LGA , 9.3 % ; and child loss , 1.4 % . After adjustments , every unit increase in triglycerides was linearly associated with an increased risk of PIH [ odds ratio ( OR ) = 1.60 , P = 0.021 ] , preeclampsia ( OR = 1.69 , P = 0.018 ) , LGA ( OR = 1.48 , P < 0.001 ) , and induced preterm delivery ( OR = 1.69 , P = 0.006 ) . No associations were found for SGA or child loss . Total cholesterol was not associated with any of the outcome measures . CONCLUSIONS Elevated maternal triglyceride levels measured during early pregnancy are associated with pregnancy complications and adverse pregnancy outcomes . These results suggest that future lifestyle programs in women of reproductive age with a focus on lowering triglyceride levels ( i.e. diet , weight reduction , and physical activity ) may help to prevent hypertensive complications during pregnancy and adverse birth outcomes OBJECTIVE To investigate whether r and omly sample d maternal  total cholesterol ( TC )  and  triglycerides ( TG ) levels during early pregnancy are associated with birth weight ( BW ) and postnatal growth . STUDY DESIGN Data were derived from the prospect i ve Amsterdam Born Children and their Development cohort study .  R and omly sample d TC and TG levels were determined in early gestation ( median , 13 ; IQR , 12 - 14 weeks ) . Outcome measures were BW SDS and weight-for-gestational age ; postnatal outcome measures were SDS in weight , length , and body mass index during the first year of life ( total n = 2502 ) . RESULTS The highest TG level was associated with a higher BW SDS ( differences 0.20 ± 0.06 between highest and middle quintile ; P = .002 ) and with a higher prevalence ( 13 % ) of an infant large for gestational age compared with middle quintile ( 9 % ; P = .04 ) . Infants from mothers in the lowest TG quintile had lower SDS in weight , length , and body mass index until age 3 months , and displayed accelerated postnatal growth patterns . Maternal TC was not associated with BW or postnatal growth . CONCLUSION High maternal TG levels in the first term of pregnancy were associated with higher BWs and subsequently a higher occurrence of infants large for gestational age , whereas low TG levels were associated with accelerated postnatal growth Objective To determine whether elevated midpregnancy maternal serum lipid levels predict newborn weight at term and the risk of large for gestational age ( LGA ) infants in women with positive diabetic screen but normal glucose tolerance test . Methods Japanese gravidas who had positive diabetic screens and normal 75-g oral glucose tolerance tests ( GTT ) at 24–32 weeks were enrolled . Subjects with complications , including diabetes , hypertension , or fetal anomalies were excluded , as were women with multifetal gestations .  Fasting serum triglyceride , free fatty acids , and total cholesterol levels were measured at the time of GTT . We tested the association between maternal variables and birth weight by univariable analysis . We used multivariable analysis to test whether the association between fasting lipids and birth weight was independent of prepregnant maternal body mass index ( BMI ) , maternal weight gain during pregnancy , and plasma glucose levels at GTT . We also used multiple logistic regression analysis to determine whether maternal hyperlipidemia , defined as more than the 75th percentile of each lipid , is a risk factor for having an LGA infant . Results We enrolled 146 subjects . Among measured maternal lipids , only triglyceride levels correlated with birth weight in univariable analysis ( r = 0.22 , P = .009 ) . Birth weight also was correlated with prepregnant maternal BMI ( r = 0.18 , P = .04 ) and fasting plasma glucose levels ( r = 0.17 , P = .04 ) . The association between maternal fasting triglyceride level and birth weight remained significant after adjusting for prepregnant BMI , maternal weight gain , fasting plasma glucose levels , fetal gender , and gestational age at birth ( P = .01 ) . Logistic regression analysis showed that fasting maternal hypertriglyceridemia ( over 259 mg/dL ) was the significant predictor of LGA infants , independent of prepregnant BMI , maternal weight gain , and maternal plasma glucose levels ( odds ratio 11.6 ; 95 % confidence interval 1.1 , 122 ; P = .04 ) . Conclusion In women with positive diabetic screens but normal GTTs , fasting triglyceride levels at 24–32 weeks correlated positively with newborn weight at term , independent of maternal plasma glucose levels and obesity . Maternal fasting serum triglyceride levels in midpregnancy might be an independent predictor of fetal macrosomia in those women OBJECTIVE Factors associated with increasing  maternal triglyceride concentrations in late pregnancy include gestational age , obesity , preeclampsia , and altered glucose metabolism . In a subgroup of women in the Metformin in Gestational Diabetes ( MiG ) trial , maternal plasma triglycerides increased more between enrollment ( 30 weeks ) and 36 weeks in those treated with metformin compared with insulin . The aim of this study was to explain this finding by examining factors potentially related to triglycerides in these women . RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS Of the 733 women r and omized to metformin or insulin in the MiG trial , 432 ( 219 metformin and 213 insulin ) had fasting plasma triglycerides measured at enrollment and at 36 weeks . Factors associated with maternal triglycerides were assessed using general linear modeling . RESULTS Mean plasma triglyceride concentrations were 2.43 ( 95 % CI 2.35–2.51 ) mmol/L at enrollment . Triglycerides were higher at 36 weeks in women r and omized to metformin ( 2.94 [ 2.80–3.08 ] mmol/L ; + 23.13 % [ 18.72–27.53 % ] ) than insulin ( 2.65 [ 2.54–2.77 ] mmol/L , P = 0.002 ; + 14.36 % [ 10.91–17.82 % ] , P = 0.002 ) . At 36 weeks , triglycerides were associated with HbA1c ( P = 0.03 ) , ethnicity ( P = 0.001 ) , and treatment allocation ( P = 0.005 ) . In insulin-treated women , 36-week triglycerides were associated with 36-week HbA1c ( P = 0.02 ) , and in metformin-treated women , they were related to ethnicity . CONCLUSIONS At 36 weeks , maternal triglycerides were related to glucose control in women treated with insulin and ethnicity in women treated with metformin . Whether there are ethnicity-related dietary changes or differences in metformin response that alter the relationship between glucose control and triglycerides requires further study Background : High maternal dietary intakes in pregnancy may lead to increased fetal growth and program neuroendocrine pathways that result in greater appetite , energy intake , and adiposity in offspring later in life . Few prospect i ve dietary studies have explored this relation . Objective : The objective was to assess associations of maternal dietary intake in pregnancy and maternal and paternal dietary intake postnatally with child dietary intake and adiposity . Design : Dietary intakes of energy , protein , total fat , and carbohydrate were assessed prospect ively in mothers during pregnancy , in mothers and their partners at 47 mo postnatally , and in children at 10 y ( n = 5717 mother-child pairs prenatally , 5593 mother-child pairs postnatally , and 300 
    Output:
    
RESULTS Data from 46 publications including 31,402 pregnancies suggest that maternal high triglycerides and low high-density-lipoprotein cholesterol levels throughout pregnancy are associated with increased birthweight , higher risk of large for gestational age and macrosomia and lower risk of small-for-gestational age .
The findings were consistent across the studied population s , but stronger associations were observed in women who were overweight or obese prior to pregnancy .