***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: INTRODUCTION Cognitive training ( CT ) offers a potential approach for dementia prevention and maintenance of cognitive function in older adults . Online delivery provides a cost-effective means of implementing CT compared with in-person interventions , with the potential of providing an effective public health intervention for risk reduction . METHODS A double-blind 6-month online r and omized controlled trial in adults older than 50 r and omized to General CT , Reasoning CT , or control . The primary outcome was instrumental activities of daily living ( IADL ) in adults older than 60 . Secondary outcomes were reasoning , verbal short-term memory , spatial working memory , verbal learning ( VL ) , and digit vigilance in adults older than 50 . Secondary analyses were performed with a group defined as showing age-associated impairment in reasoning according to baseline scores in this domain . RESULTS A total of 2912 adults older than 60 ( 6742 > 50 ) participated . General and reasoning packages conferred benefit to IADL ( P = .008 , P = .011 ) , reasoning ( P < 0.0001 , P < .0001 ) , and VL ( P = .007 , P = .008 ) at 6 months . Benefit in reasoning was evident from 6 weeks . Other benefits developed over 6 months . Analysis of participants with age-associated impairment also showed the same pattern of benefit . A clear dose-response effect was seen . CONCLUSIONS Online CT confers significant benefit to cognition and function in older adults , with benefit favoring the Reasoning package . Scale of benefit is comparable with in-person training , indicating its potential as a public health intervention . Impact on the group with age-associated impairment indicates a particular sensitivity to this at-risk group , which merits further investigation BACKGROUND Home-based computerised cognitive training ( CCT ) is ineffective at enhancing global cognition , a key marker of cognitive ageing . OBJECTIVES To test the effectiveness of supervised , group-based , multidomain CCT on global cognition in older adults and to characterise the dose-response relationship during and after training . DESIGN A r and omised , double-blind , longitudinal , active-controlled trial . SETTING Community-based training centre in Sydney , Australia Participants : Eighty nondemented community-dwelling older adults ( mean age = 72.1 , 68.8 % females ) with multiple dementia risk factors but no major neuropsychiatric or sensory disorder . Of the 80 participants admitted to the study , 65 completed post-training assessment and 55 were followed up one year after training cessation . INTERVENTIONS Thirty-six group-based sessions over three months of either CCT targeting memory , speed , attention , language and reasoning tasks , or active control training comprising audiovisual educational exercises . MEASUREMENTS Primary outcome was change from baseline in global cognition as defined by a composite score of memory , speed and executive function . Secondary outcome was 15-month change in Bayer Activities of Daily Living from baseline to one year post-training . RESULTS Intention-to-treat analyses revealed significant effects on global cognition in the cognitive training group compared to active control after three weeks of training ( ES = 0.33 , P=.039 ) that increased after 3 months of training ( ES = 0.49 , P=.003 ) and persisted three months after training cessation ( ES = 0.30 , P=0.023 ) . Significant and durable improvements were also noted in memory and processing speed . Dose-response characteristics differed among cognitive domains . Training effects waned gradually but residual gains were noted twelve months post-training . No significant effects on activities of daily living were noted and there were no adverse effects . CONCLUSIONS In older adults with multiple dementia risk factors , group-based CCT is a safe and effective intervention for enhancing overall cognition , memory and processing speed . Dose-response relationships vary for each cognitive domain , vital information for clinical and community implementation and further trial design Introduction Cognitive training improves cognitive performance and delays functional impairment , but its effects on dementia are not known . We examined whether three different types of cognitive training lowered the risk of dementia across 10 years of follow-up relative to control and if greater number of training sessions attended was associated with lower dementia risk . Methods The Advanced Cognitive Training in Vital Elderly ( NCT00298558 ) study was a r and omized controlled trial ( N = 2802 ) among initially healthy older adults , which examined the efficacy of three cognitive training programs ( memory , reasoning , or speed of processing ) relative to a no-contact control condition . Up to 10 training sessions were delivered over 6 weeks with up to four sessions of booster training delivered at 11 months and a second set of up to four booster sessions at 35 months . Outcome assessment s were taken immediately after intervention and at intervals over 10 years . Dementia was defined using a combination of interview- and performance-based methods . Results A total of 260 cases of dementia were identified during the follow-up . Speed training result ed in reduced risk of dementia ( hazard ratio [ HR ] 0.71 , 95 % confidence interval [ CI ] 0.50–0.998 , P = .049 ) compared to control , but memory and reasoning training did not ( HR 0.79 , 95 % CI 0.57–1.11 , P = .177 and HR 0.79 , 95 % CI 0.56–1.10 , P = .163 , respectively ) . Each additional speed training session was associated with a 10 % lower hazard for dementia ( unadjusted HR , 0.90 ; 95 % CI , 0.85–0.95 , P < .001 ) . Discussion Initially , healthy older adults r and omized to speed of processing cognitive training had a 29 % reduction in their risk of dementia after 10 years of follow-up compared to the untreated control group BACKGROUND / OBJECTIVES There is no consensus on the efficacy of cognitive training in persons with mild cognitive impairment ( MCI ) because of the paucity of well- design ed r and omized controlled trials . The objective was to assess the effect of memory training on the cognitive functioning of persons with MCI and its durability and to evaluate whether this effect generalizes to daily life and whether positive effects could be obtained from psychosocial intervention . DESIGN Single-blind r and omized controlled trial . SETTING Research centers of the Institut Universitaire de Gériatrie de Montréal and Institut Universitaire en Santé Mentale de Québec . PARTICIPANTS Older adults meeting criteria for amnestic MCI ( N = 145 ) . INTERVENTION Participants were r and omized to cognitive training , a psychosocial intervention , or a no-contact control condition .  Interventions were provided in small groups in eight 2-hour sessions . MEASUREMENT Outcome measures were immediate and delayed composite performance memory scores , psychological health ( depression , anxiety , well-being ) , and generalization effects of the intervention ( strategy use in everyday life , difficulties in complex activities of daily living , memory complaints ) . Testing was administered before training and immediately , 3 months , and 6 months after training . RESULTS Participants in the cognitive training condition improved on the delayed composite memory score and on strategy use in everyday life . Improvement was maintained at the 3- and 6-month follow-up assessment s. Participants in the psychosocial and no-contact conditions did not show any significant improvement . CONCLUSION Cognitive training improves the memory of persons with amnestic MCI . The effect persists over a 6-month period , and learned strategies are used in everyday life . Cognitive training is a valid way to promote cognition in MCI The purpose of the present investigation was to examine the impact of speed of processing training on the cognitive and everyday abilities of older adults with initial processing speed or processing difficulty . Participants were r and omized to either a  speed of processing intervention or a social- and computer-contact control group . Results indicate that speed of processing training not only improves processing speed , as indicated by performance on the Useful Field of View test ( UFOV ® ) , but also transfers to certain everyday functions , as indicated by improved performance on Timed Instrumental Activities of Daily Living ( Timed IADL ) . Transfer of speed of processing training to other cognitive domains was not evident . This study provides additional evidence that  speed of processing training has the potential to enhance everyday functions that maintain independence and quality of life , particularly when the training is targeted toward individuals who most need it . Further study is needed to learn about the long-term effects of such training in relation to everyday abilities CONTEXT Cognitive function in older adults is related to independent living and need for care . However , few studies have addressed whether improving cognitive functions might have short- or long-term effects on activities related to living independently . OBJECTIVE To evaluate whether 3 cognitive training interventions improve mental abilities and daily functioning in older , independent-living adults . DESIGN R and omized , controlled , single-blind trial with recruitment conducted from March 1998 to October 1999 and 2-year follow-up through December 2001 . SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS Volunteer sample of 2832 persons aged 65 to 94 years recruited from senior housing , community centers , and hospital/clinics in 6 metropolitan areas in the United States . INTERVENTIONS Participants were r and omly assigned to 1 of 4 groups : 10-session group training for memory ( verbal episodic memory ; n = 711 ) , or reasoning ( ability to solve problems that follow a serial pattern ; n = 705 ) , or speed of processing ( visual search and identification ; n = 712 ) ; or a no-contact control group ( n = 704 ) . For the 3 treatment groups , 4-session booster training was offered to a 60 % r and om sample 11 months later . MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Cognitive function and cognitively dem and ing everyday functioning . RESULTS Thirty participants were incorrectly r and omized and were excluded from the analysis . Each intervention improved the targeted cognitive ability compared with baseline , durable to 2 years ( P<.001 for all ) . Eighty-seven percent of speed- , 74 % of reasoning- , and 26 % of memory-trained participants demonstrated reliable cognitive improvement immediately after the intervention period . Booster training enhanced training gains in speed ( P<.001 ) and reasoning ( P<.001 ) interventions ( speed booster , 92 % ; no booster , 68 % ; reasoning booster , 72 % ; no booster , 49 % ) , which were maintained at 2-year follow-up ( P<.001 for both ) . No training effects on everyday functioning were detected at 2 years . CONCLUSIONS Results support the effectiveness and durability of the cognitive training interventions in improving targeted cognitive abilities . Training effects were of a magnitude equivalent to the amount of decline expected in elderly persons without dementia over 7- to 14-year intervals . Because of minimal functional decline across all groups , longer follow-up is likely required to observe training effects on everyday function We investigated the potential benefits of a novel cognitive-training protocol and an aerobic exercise intervention , both individually and in concert , on older adults ' performances in laboratory simulations of select real-world tasks . The cognitive training focused on a range of cognitive processes , including attentional coordination , prospect i ve memory , and retrospective-memory retrieval , processes that are likely involved in many everyday tasks , and that decline with age . Primary outcome measures were 3 laboratory tasks that simulated everyday activities : Cooking Breakfast , Virtual Week , and Memory for Health Information . Two months of cognitive training improved older adults ' performance on prospect ive-memory tasks embedded in Virtual Week .  Cognitive training , either alone or in combination with 6 months of aerobic exercise , did not significantly improve Cooking Breakfast or Memory for Health Information . Although gains in aerobic power were comparable with previous reports , aerobic exercise did not produce improvements for the primary outcome measures . Discussion focuses on the possibility that cognitive-training programs that include explicit strategy instruction and varied practice context s may confer gains to older adults for performance on cognitively challenging everyday tasks OBJECTIVES To determine the effects of cognitive training on cognitive abilities and everyday function over 10 years . DESIGN Ten-year follow-up of a r and omized , controlled single-blind trial ( Advanced Cognitive Training for Independent and Vital Elderly ( ACTIVE ) ) with three intervention groups and a no-contact control group . SETTING Six U.S. cities . PARTICIPANTS A volunteer sample of 2,832 persons ( mean baseline age 73.6 ; 26 % African American ) living independently . INTERVENTION Ten training sessions for memory , reasoning , or speed of processing ; four sessions of booster training 11 and 35 months after initial training . MEASUREMENTS Objective ly measured cognitive abilities and self-reported and performance-based measures of everyday function . RESULTS Participants in each intervention group reported less difficulty with instrumental activities of daily living ( IADLs ) ( memory : effect size = 0.48 , 99 % confidence interval ( CI ) = 0.12 - 0.84 ; reasoning : effect size = 0.38 , 99 % CI = 0.02 - 0.74 ; speed of processing : effect size = 0.36 , 99 % CI = 0.01 - 0.72 ) . At a mean age of 82 , approximately 60 % of trained participants , versus 50 % of controls ( P < .05 ) , were at or above their baseline level of self-reported IADL function at 10 years . The reasoning and speed-of-processing interventions maintained their effects on their targeted cognitive abilities at 10 years ( reasoning : effect size = 0.23 , 99 % CI = 0.09 - 0.38 ; speed of processing : effect size = 0.66 , 99 % CI =  
    Output:
    
While variation in study protocol , outcome measurement , and effect size reporting precluded further inferential statistical analysis , our review found a sizable number of studies showing improvement in IADL .
Cognitive training may have some benefit in improving IADL function in older adults without major neurocognitive disorder .