***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: Two studies were conducted to investigate the effects of red pepper ( capsaicin ) on feeding behaviour and energy intake . In the first study , the effects of dietary red pepper added to high-fat ( HF ) and high-carbohydrate ( HC ) meals on subsequent energy and macronutrient intakes were examined in thirteen Japanese female subjects . After the ingestion of a st and ardized dinner on the previous evening , the subjects ate an experimental breakfast ( 1883 kJ ) of one of the following four types : ( 1 ) HF ; ( 2 ) HF and red pepper ( 10 g ) ; ( 3 ) HC ; ( 4 ) HC and red pepper .  Ad libitum energy and macronutrient intakes were measured at lunch-time . The HC breakfast significantly reduced the desire to eat and hunger after breakfast . The addition of red pepper to the HC breakfast also significantly decreased the desire to eat and hunger before lunch . Differences in diet composition at breakfast time did not affect energy and macronutrient intakes at lunch-time . However , the addition of red pepper to the breakfast significantly decreased protein and fat intakes at lunch-time . In Study 2 , the effects of a red-pepper appetizer on subsequent energy and macronutrient intakes were examined in ten Caucasian male subjects . After ingesting a st and ardized breakfast , the subjects took an experimental appetizer ( 644 kJ ) at lunch-time of one of the following two types : ( 1 ) mixed diet and appetizer ; ( 2 ) mixed diet and red-pepper ( 6 g ) appetizer . The addition of red pepper to the appetizer significantly reduced the cumulative ad libitum energy and carbohydrate intakes during the rest of the lunch and in the snack served several hours later . Moreover , the power spectral analysis of heart rate revealed that this effect of red pepper was associated with an increase in the ratio sympathetic : parasympathetic nervous system activity . These results indicate that the ingestion of red pepper decreases appetite and subsequent protein and fat intakes in Japanese females and energy intake in Caucasian males . Moreover , this effect might be related to an increase in sympathetic nervous system activity in Caucasian males Objective : Bioactive food ingredients influence energy balance by exerting weak thermogenic effects . We studied whether the thermogenic effect of a combination of capsaicin , green tea extract ( catechins and caffeine ) , tyrosine , and calcium was maintained after 7-day treatment and whether local effects in the gastric mucosa were involved in the efficacy . Design : The present study was design ed as a 3-way crossover , r and omised , placebo-controlled , double-blinded intervention . Setting : Department of Human Nutrition , RVAU , Denmark . Subjects : A total of 19 overweight to obese men ( BMI : 28.0±2.7 kg/m2 ) were recruited by advertising locally . Intervention : The subjects took the supplements for a period of 7 days . The supplements were administrated as a simple supplement with the bioactive ingredients , a similar enterocoated version , or placebo . In all , 24-h energy expenditure ( EE ) , substrate oxidations , spontaneous physical activity ( SPA ) , and heart rate were measured in respiration chambers on the seventh day of each test period . Results : After adjustment for changes in body weight and SPA , 24-h EE was increased by 160 kJ/day ( 95 % CI : 15–305 ) by the simple preparation as compared to placebo , whereas the enterocoated preparation had no such effect ( 53 kJ/day , −92 to 198 ) ; simple vs enterocoated versions ( P=0.09 ) . The simple preparation produced a deficit in 24-h energy balance of 193 kJ/day ( 49–338 , P=0.03 ) . Fat and carbohydrate oxidation were equally increased by the supplements . Conclusion : A supplement containing bioactive food ingredients increased daily EE by ∼200 kJ or 2 % , without raising the heart rate or any observed adverse effects . The lack of effect of the enterocoated preparation suggests that a local action of capsaicin in the gastric mucosa is a prerequisite for exerting the thermogenic effect . Sponsorship : Supported by Science , Toxicology & Technology , San Francisco , CA , USA The aim of the present study was to investigate whether capsaicin assists weight maintenance by limiting weight regain after weight loss of 5 to 10 % . In this r and omized double-blind placebo-controlled study , ninety-one moderately overweight subjects were r and omly assigned to an intensive group that underwent all the measurements , and an extensive group that underwent the same measurements except the metabolism measurements . After a 4-week very-low-energy diet ( VLED ) intervention , a 3-month weight-maintenance period followed . During weight maintenance , subjects were divided into a capsaicin ( 135 mg capsaicin/d ) and a placebo group .  Body mass was measured before and after the VLED and after 1 , 2 and 3 months of weight maintenance . The mean body-mass loss during the VLED was 6.6 ( SD 2.0 ) kg ( 7.8 ( SD 1.8 ) % initial body mass ) , and was not different between the subsequent treatment and placebo group . During weight maintenance , mean % regain during treatment was not significantly different compared with placebo ( 33.3 ( SD 35.7 ) v. 19.2 ( SD 41.8 ) % , P=0.09 ) . RQ was significantly less increased during weight maintenance in the treatment group compared with placebo ( 0.04 ( SD 0.06 ) v. 0.07 ( SD 0.05 ) , P<0.05 ) , indicating a relatively more sustained fat oxidation . Fat oxidation ( g/h ) after weight maintenance was higher in the capsaicin group compared with placebo ( 4.2 ( SD 1.1 ) v. 3.5 ( SD 0.9 ) , P<0.05 ) . These results indicate that capsaicin treatment caused sustained fat oxidation during weight maintenance compared with placebo . However , capsaicin treatment has no limiting effect on 3-month weight regain after modest weight loss Background Dihydrocapsiate ( DCT ) is a natural safe food ingredient which is structurally related to capsaicin from chili pepper and is found in the non-pungent pepper strain , CH-19 Sweet . It has been shown to elicit the thermogenic effects of capsaicin but without its gastrointestinal side effects . Methods The present study was design ed to examine the effects of DCT on both adaptive thermogenesis as the result of caloric restriction with a high protein very low calorie diet ( VLCD ) and to determine whether DCT would increase post-pr and ial energy expenditure ( PPEE ) in response to a 400 kcal/60 g protein liquid test meal . Thirty-three subjects completed an outpatient very low calorie diet ( 800 kcal/day providing 120 g/day protein ) over 4 weeks and were r and omly assigned to receive either DCT capsules three times per day ( 3 mg or 9 mg ) or placebo . At baseline and 4 weeks , fasting basal metabolic rate and PPEE were measured in a metabolic hood and fat free mass ( FFM ) determined using displacement plethysmography ( BOD POD ) . Results PPEE normalized to FFM was increased significantly in subjects receiving 9 mg/day DCT by comparison to placebo ( p < 0.05 ) , but decreases in resting metabolic rate were not affected . Respiratory quotient ( RQ ) increased by 0.04 in the placebo group ( p < 0.05 ) at end of the 4 weeks , but did not change in groups receiving DCT . Conclusions These data provide evidence for postpr and ial increases in thermogenesis and fat oxidation secondary to administration of dihydrocapsiate . Trial registration clinical Dietary red pepper suppresses energy intake and modifies macronutrient intake . We have investigated whether a stimulus in the mouth and the sensation of spiciness are necessary for red pepper-induced changes in energy and macronutrient intake in human volunteers . In a preliminary test , sixteen Japanese male volunteers tasted sample s of a soup with grade d doses of red pepper in order to define a moderate and a maximum tolerable ( strong ) dose of red pepper . On the day of the experiment , a st and ardised breakfast was given to the volunteers . At lunchtime , the subjects ingested one of four experimental soups containing either a placebo , a moderate or a strong dose of red pepper plus placebo capsules , or a placebo soup plus capsules delivering a strong dose of red pepper . The rest of the meal was given ad libitum to all subjects . The amount of food , protein and carbohydrate ingested was similar for all conditions . Energy and fat intake were similar after the ingestion of the moderate soup compared with placebo . However , the strong soup significantly lowered fat intake compared with placebo ( P=0.043 ) , and ingestion of strong capsules also tended to suppress it ( P=0.080 ) . Moreover , energy intake after strong soup and capsules tended to be lower than placebo ( P=0.089 and 0.076 , respectively ) . The present results indicate that the maximum tolerable dose is necessary to have a suppressive effect of red pepper  on fat intake . The main site of the action of red pepper is not in the mouth BACKGROUND : Decreased appetite and increased energy expenditure after oral consumption of red pepper has been shown . OBJECTIVE : The aim of the present study was to assess the relative oral and gastrointestinal contribution to capsaicin-induced satiety and its effects on food intake or macronutrient selection . METHODS : For 24 subjects ( 12 men and 12 women ; age : 35±10 y ; BMI : 25.0±2.4 kg/m2 ; range 20–30 ) , 16 h food intake was assessed four times during 2 consecutive days by offering macronutrient-specific buffets and boxes with snacks , in our laboratory restaurant . At 30 min before each meal , 0.9 g red pepper ( 0.25 % capsaicin ; 80 000 Scoville Thermal Units ) or a placebo was offered in either tomato juice or in two capsules that were swallowed with tomato juice . Hunger and satiety were recorded using Visual Analogue Scales . RESULTS : Average daily energy intake in the placebo condition was 11.5±1.0 MJ/d for the men and 9.4±0.8 MJ/d for the women . After capsaicin capsules , energy intake was 10.4±0.6 and 8.3±0.5 MJ/d ( P<0.01 ) ; after capsaicin in tomato juice , it was 9.9±0.7 and 7.9±0.5 MJ/d , respectively ( compared to placebo : P<0.001 ; compared to capsaicin in capsules : P<0.05 ) . En % from carbohydrate/protein/fat ( C/P/F ) : changed from 46±3/15±1/39±2 to 52±4/15±1/33±2 en% ( P<0.01 ) in the men , and from 48±4/14±2/38±3 to 42±4/14±2/32±3 en% ( P<0.01 ) in the women , in both capsaicin conditions . Satiety ( area under the curve ) increased from 689 to 757 mmh in the men and from 712 to 806 mmh in the women , both ( P<0.01 ) . Only in the oral exposure condition was the reduction in energy intake and the increase in satiety related to perceived spiciness . CONCLUSION : In the short term , both oral and gastrointestinal exposure to capsaicin  increased satiety and reduced energy and fat intake ; the stronger reduction with oral exposure suggests a sensory effect of capsaicin The biochemical and physiological indices were monitored in 44 subjects after 4-week capsinoids ( capsaicin analogues with low pungency ) intake . The subjects were r and omly assigned to 3 groups : CSNs3 ( 3 mg/kg of capsinoids ) , CSNs10 ( 10 mg/kg of capsinoids ) and the control ( placebo ) . Measurements were performed in the morning on overnight-fasted subjects . The oxygen consumption ( VO2 ) , resting energy expenditure ( REE ) and fat oxidation increased slightly compared to pre-administration values without any adverse effects , although the increase was not significant . The increase in fat oxidation was positively and significantly correlated with the body mass index ( BMI ) . A meta- analysis was therefore conducted on a subgroup consisting of subjects with BMI ≥ 25 ( n=28 ) . As a result , not only VO2 increased significantly ( p<0.05 ) in the CSNs10 group , but also REE in the CSNs10 group and fat oxidation in the CSNs3 and CSNs10 groups tended to increase ( p<0.1 ) . Consequently , a capsinoids intake would be able to enhance the energy expenditure and fat burning in humans , particularly those with high BMI The experiments reported here found that judgments of  ' burn ' intensity  are affected by long-term memory ( LTM ) . The implication of these findings for range-frequency theory and the role of LTM in intensity judgments are discussed OBJECTIVE : To describe the design , methods , and first year results of the Pound of Prevention ( POP ) study , a r and omized trial examining whether weight 
    Output:
    
Evidence indicates that capsaicin and capsiate both augment energy expenditure and enhance fat oxidation , especially at high doses .
Furthermore , the balance of the literature suggests that capsaicin and capsiate suppress orexigenic sensations .
The magnitude of these effects is small .
Purpose ful inclusion of these compounds in the diet may aid weight management , albeit modestly