***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: Alcoholics have previously been found to be more sensitive to painful stimulation than controls , and more sensitive to the pain-reducing effects of alcohol . The present study was design ed to examine these effects in men at high familial-genetic risk for alcoholism and controls . Subjects were assigned to one of four alcohol doses [ 0.135 ( active placebo ) , 0.50 , 0.75 , or 1.00 ml 95 % USP alcohol/kg body weight ] .  Ratings of the amount of discomfort and pain experienced during an aversive shock procedure were taken immediately post-shock , both while subjects were sober and after they had consumed one of the four alcohol doses . High risk men were found to rate the experience of the shock as more uncomfortable and painful overall than the low risk controls . Pharmacologically significant levels of alcohol were found to reduce or eliminate these group differences , suggesting that alcohol has a “ normalizing ” effect on pain and discomfort perceptions in high risk men . Only the higher doses of alcohol were found significantly to dampen subjects ' shock rating scores . High risk males ' increased sensitivity to pain and discomfort , combined with the negatively reinforcing effects of reducing these perceptions at moderate to high alcohol doses , may play a role in predisposing high risk males for the development of alcoholism This study employed naloxone , an opiate antagonist , to explore whether a learned opioid response , mediated by drinking experience , accounts for ethanol and placebo analgesia . Cold pressor pain was evaluated before and after ethanol ( 0.5 g/kg ) , placebo , and no-alcohol control treatments ( administered in r and omized order ) and again after double-blind administration ( 6 mg/kg ) of naloxone to 11 men and  saline  to 9 . A triple interaction of treatments , antagonist conditions , and drinking experience indicated that naloxone as compared to saline diminished ethanol and placebo analgesia among experienced drinkers but had opposite effects among the same men in the control treatment . Six men , who reported that the injection of naloxone had an effect on pain , had higher drinking experience scores than the five men who reported naloxone had no effect . The similar pattern of response to both the alcohol and the placebo treatments suggests that the opioid system response to alcohol is learned Ethanol and nitrous oxide ( N2O ) are sometimes used in combination by recreational drug users . The subjective effects of this drug combination have not been examined , and was the basis for the present study . The effects of both drugs were examined alone and in combination . Dependent measures included mood , cognitive/psychomotor performance , and pain reports .  Volunteers ( N = 11 ) first consumed a drink containing ethanol ( 0 , 0.25 , or 0.5 g/kg ) , waited for 15 min , and then inhaled 100 % oxygen ( placebo ) or 30 % N2O in oxygen for 35 min . Thirty minutes into the inhalation , subjects immersed their non-dominant forearm in icy water for 3 min . Ethanol increased ratings of ' feel drug effect ' and ' drunk ' . N2O  affected several mood ratings , impaired cognitive/psychomotor performance , and reduced pain reports . There were several instances of ethanol potentiating the effects of N2O , and instances in which the drug combination produced effects that neither drug alone did . Ethanol did not potentiate the analgesic effects of N2O . Overall , the data obtained in the study did not convincingly demonstrate that the drug combination of N2O and ethanol had a greater abuse liability than did N2O alone , at the doses that were tested & NA ; Orally administered ethyl alcohol ( 100 % ) , mixed in a 1:1 ratio with tonic water at a dose of 2 mg/kg ( the equivalent of two cocktails ) produced tolerance to experimentally induced pain comparable to 0.17 mg/kg s.q . morphine ( 11.6 mg in a 70 kg person ) . Pain threshold i.e. , the initial awareness of pain , was not modified by either morphine or alcohol . The experiment was run using 18 paid subjects in an experimenter‐blinded design . Both a pharmacologically active placebo ( atropine ) as well as a totally inactive placebo ( saline ) were employed . Pain induction occurred via mechanical pressure on the Achilles tendon utilizing a device previously st and ardized in the clinical screening of over 100,000 patients for pain awareness . These results suggest that alcohol , in non‐intoxicating quantities , may be an effective adjunct to other analgesic modalities & NA ; Temporom and ibular disorders ( TMD ) represent a group of chronic painful conditions involving the muscles of mastication and the temporom and ibular joint . Several studies have reported that TMD is associated with enhanced sensitivity to experimental pain . Twenty‐three TMD subjects and 24 pain‐free matched control subjects participated in a set of studies which were design ed to evaluate whether the temporal integrative aspects of thermal pain perception are altered in TMD patients compared with control subjects . Specifically , we have examined in both TMD patients and in age‐ and gender‐matched control subjects : ( 1 ) the time‐course and magnitude of perceived pain evoked by the application of sustained 7‐s noxious thermal stimuli ( 45–48 ° C ) to the face and forearm , ( 2 ) the central summation of C‐fiber‐mediated pain produced by applying brief trains of noxious heat pulses to the skin overlying the ventral aspect of the right palm and ( 3 ) the ability to discriminate small increments in noxious heat applied to facial and volar forearm skin . Data collected from these studies indicate that TMD patients show enhanced temporal integration of thermal pain compared with control subjects . TMD patients show greater thermal C‐fiber‐mediated temporal summation than pain‐free subjects and they report a greater magnitude of sustained noxious heat pulses applied to either the face or the forearm than control subjects . In contrast to these findings , TMD and pain‐free subjects are equally able to discriminate and detect small increments of heat applied to noxious adapting temperatures . These findings suggest that the augmented temporal integration of noxious stimuli may result from alterations in central nervous system processes which contribute to the enhanced pain sensitivity observed in TMD patients UNLABELLED Our group previously demonstrated that changes in mood induced by pleasant or unpleasant odors affect the perceived unpleasantness of painful heat stimuli , without significantly altering perceived pain intensity . In the present study , we examined whether changing mood by viewing emotionally laden visual stimuli also preferentially alters pain unpleasantness .  Twelve female subjects  immersed their right h and in hot water while observing a video showing a person experiencing the same type of pain ( ie ,  model condition )  ,  unpleasant scenes not involving people  ( ie , disasters condition ) , or  a cityscape video ( ie , cityscape condition ) . Subjects were asked to rate pain intensity , pain unpleasantness , mood , anxiety/calmness , and video unpleasantness , and their skin conductance was measured throughout the experiment . Pain unpleasantness ( but not intensity ) ratings were higher during the disasters condition , which was associated with the worst mood , than during the cityscape condition ; neither mood nor pain unpleasantness was altered in the model video compared with the cityscape video . Moreover , mood was significantly correlated with pain unpleasantness but not with pain intensity . Because these results are similar to those observed when odors were used to alter mood , we conclude that the effects of mood on the affective components of pain are independent of mood induction technique used . PERSPECTIVE This article provides new evidence that changes in mood affect the pain experience by preferentially modulating pain unpleasantness . This finding could potentially help health professionals to treat pain symptoms in patients with altered mood , suggesting methods of pain management aim ed at easing the affective , along with the sensory , components of pain Effects of acute stress exposure on learning and memory have been frequently studied in both animals and humans . However , only a few studies have focused specifically on working memory performance and the available data are equivocal . The present study examined working memory performance during the Sternberg item recognition task after exposure to a predominantly adrenergic stressor . Twenty four healthy subjects were r and omly assigned to a stress group or a control group . The stress group was exposed to the cold pressor stress test ( CPS ; i.e. insertion of the dominant h and into ice water for 60s),while 37 degrees C warm water was used with the control group . Twenty minutes after the stress exposure , working memory performance was tested with the Sternberg item recognition task with three levels of cognitive load . Sympathetic nervous system and hypothalamic pituitary adrenocortical ( HPA ) axis activation during CPS , were assessed by measuring heart rate and salivary cortisol before and during ( heart rate ) or 30 min after ( cortisol ) the stress procedure . Exposure to the CPS test was associated with a significant increase in heart rate but no increase in salivary cortisol . Participants exposed to the stress procedure showed significantly shorter reaction times during trials with higher cognitive load but tended to show higher false alarm rates than control subjects . The present results indicate that exposure to CPS can be associated with signs of both enhanced and impaired working memory performance . The observed behavioral pattern might represent a form of streamlined information processing advantageous in a threatening situation The analgesic properties of ethyl alcohol administered i.v . were investigated , using elevation of the pain threshold for applied somatic stimuli as an index . Alcohol proved markedly superior to saline in this respect and produced an effect equivalent to that of i.v . morphine BACKGROUND Although personality factors and family history of substance abuse influence how individuals experience pain and respond to analgesics , the combined effects of those factors have not been extensively studied . The objective of this study was to consider the possible role of personality trait of neuroticism and family history of alcoholism on the experience of pain and their role in the analgesic response to an ethanol challenge . METHODS Forty-eight healthy subjects participated in this study ; thirty-one had a positive family history of alcoholism ( FHP ) , seventeen had a negative family history of alcoholism ( FHN ) . They were also categorized based on their neuroticism ( N ) scores ( low N = 28 , and high N = 20 ) . This was a double-blind , placebo-controlled , r and omized , within-subject design study of intravenous administration of three doses of ethanol . The testing consisted of 3 separate test days scheduled at least 3 days apart . Test days included a placebo day ( saline solution ) , low-exposure ethanol day ( targeted breathalyzer = 0.040 g/dl ) , and high-exposure ethanol day ( targeted breathalyzer = 0.100 g/dl ) . Noxious electrical stimulation and pain assessment s were performed prior to start of infusion and at the 60-minute infusion mark . RESULTS The analgesic effect of ethanol was mediated by an interaction between the personality trait of neuroticism and family history . Individuals with family history of alcoholism and high N scores reported significantly more analgesia on low dose of ethanol than those with low N scores . There was no difference in the analgesic response to ethanol among FHNs with low and high N scores . CONCLUSION These findings support the conclusion that neuroticism and family history of alcoholism both influence the analgesic response of alcohol . Individuals with high N scores and FHP have the strongest response to ethanol analgesia particularly on the low exposure to alcohol & NA ; The effect of emotions on pain perception is generally recognized but the underlying mechanisms remain unclear . Here , emotions related to pain were induced in healthy volunteers using  hypnosis  , during 1‐min immersions of the h and in painfully hot water . In Experiment 1 , hypnotic suggestions were design ed to induce various positive or negative emotions . Compared to a control condition with hypnotic‐relaxation , negative emotions produced robust increases in pain . In Experiment 2 , induction of pain‐related anger and sadness were found to increase pain . Pain increases were associated with increases in self‐rated desire for relief and decreases in expectation of relief , and with increases in arousal , negative affective valence and decreases in perceived control . In Experiment 3 , hypnotic suggestions specifically design ed to increase and decrease the desire for relief produced increases and decreases in pain , respectively . In all three experiments , emotion‐induced changes in pain were most consistently found on ratings of pain unpleasantness compared to pain intensity . Changes in pain‐evoked cardiac responses ( R – R interval decrease ) , measured in experiments 2 and 3 , were consistent with changes in pain unpleasantness . Correlation and multiple regression analyses suggest that negative emotions and desire for relief influence primarily pain affect and that pain‐evoked autonomic responses are strongly associated with pain affect . These results confirm the hypothesized influence of the desire for relief on pain perception , and particularly on pain affect , and support the functional relation between pain affect and autonomic nociceptive responses . This study provides further experimental confirmation that pain‐related emotions influence pain perception and pain‐related physiological responses OBJECTIVES This study investigated racial differences in orofacial pain symptoms in a sample of older adults . Orofacial pain prevalence , persistence , severity , and behavioral impact were assessed . We also tested whether sex and race interact , such that racial differences are only observed for a single sex , or whether sex differences only occur within a single racial group . METHODS Telephone interviews were conducted with a stratified r and om sample of 1,636 community-dwelling older ( age 65 + years ) north Floridians . RESULTS Racial differences were not found for 12-month prevalence or pain ratings for any painful oral symptom , or in the total number of symptoms . The most consistent racial differences were in behavioral impact associated with pain . Blacks reported greater behavioral impact as defined by pain having reduced their daily activities or motivating them to take some action in response to pain . For toothache pain , that action was more likely to have been some form of self-medication . These relationships persisted after controlling for socio 
    Output:
    
The results of these studies suggest that alcohol does in fact have pain-dampening effects .