***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: Oxytocin has numerous prosocial and antipsychotic-like effects in animals . Prosocial effects of acute intranasal oxytocin administration have also been reported in human subjects . We conducted a r and omized , placebo-controlled trial testing the effects of twice daily intranasal oxytocin treatment for 14 days on psychotic symptoms and social cognition in patients with schizophrenia .  PANSS scores declined significantly and several social cognition measures improved significantly or nearly significantly in oxytocin ( N=11 ) but not placebo ( N=9 ) recipients . Our results suggest that , in addition to reducing classic psychotic symptoms , oxytocin may diminish certain social cognition deficits that are not improved by current antipsychotic medications BACKGROUND Social impairments are central to the syndrome of autism . The neuropeptide oxytocin ( OT ) has been implicated in the regulation of social behavior in animals but has not yet been examined in autistic subjects . METHODS To determine whether autistic children have abnormalities in OT , midday plasma sample s from 29 autistic and 30 age-matched normal children , all prepubertal , were analyzed by radioimmunoassay for levels of OT . RESULTS Despite individual variability and overlapping group distributions , the autistic group had significantly lower plasma OT levels than the normal group . OT increased with age in the normal but not the autistic children .  Elevated OT was associated with higher scores on social and developmental measures for the normal children , but was associated with lower scores for the autistic children . These relationships were strongest in a subset of autistic children identified as aloof . CONCLUSIONS Although making inferences to central OT functioning from peripheral measurement is difficult , the data suggest that OT abnormalities may exist in autism , and that more direct investigation of central nervous system OT function is warranted The impact of lithium on arginine vasopressin ( AVP ) release has implication s for our underst and ing of the pathophysiology and treatment of mood disorders and for the interpretation of neuroendocrine studies . In this secondary analysis of neuroendocrine , data from 23 patients with chronic major depressive disorder , 41 patients with bipolar disorder and 18 healthy controls , we examine the relationship between  lithium therapy  , AVP levels and the cortisol response to the  dexamethasone/corticotropin-releasing hormone ( dex/CRH ) test .  These data demonstrate that patients taking lithium  have elevated post-dexamethasone AVP levels compared to both healthy controls and patients not on lithium BACKGROUND Previously , we found that mean plasma concentrations of arginine vasopressin ( AVP ) , but not of  oxytocin ( OT ) , were higher in depressed patients than in healthy controls .  Plasma AVP concentrations were positively correlated to clinical ly rated psychomotor retardation . To further explore this previously reported relation we studied psychomotor retardation by means of an activity monitor , which is a more fine-focused and more objective instrument to analyze motor retardation than a clinical rating scale . METHODS  Plasma AVP and OT concentrations , and day- and nighttime wrist activity were measured in 48 in- and out patients with major depression and 30 healthy controls during a period of 5 consecutive days and nights . RESULTS Principal components analysis revealed three components of motor activity : motor activity during wakefulness , motor activity during sleep , and the awake/sleep time ratio . In patients and controls an inverse relationship between plasma AVP concentrations and motor activity during wakefulness was found . Patients with elevated AVP plasma levels showed increased motor activity during sleep . CONCLUSIONS These results suggest that high plasma AVP levels are related to the clinical picture of daytime psychomotor retardation and nighttime motor activity in major depression . Mean plasma OT concentrations were not related to measures of motor activity Both oxytocin ( OT ) and vasopressin ( AVP ) are known to modulate social behavior , and dysfunction in both systems has been postulated as a potential cause of certain psychiatric disorders that involve social behavioral deficits . In particular , there is growing interest in intranasal OT as a potential treatment for certain psychiatric disorders , and preliminary pre- clinical and clinical studies suggest efficacy in alleviating some of the associated symptoms . However , the vast majority of research participants in these studies have been male , and there is evidence for sexually differentiated effects of nonapeptides in both humans and non-human animals . To date , no study has investigated the effect of intranasal OT on brain function in human males and females within the same paradigm . Previously , in a r and omized , placebo-controlled , double-blind fMRI study , we reported effects of intranasal OT and AVP on behavior and brain activity of human males as they played an interactive social game known as the Prisoner 's Dilemma Game . Here , we present findings from an identical study in human females , and compare these with our findings from males . Overall , we find that both behavioral and neural responses to intranasal OT and AVP are highly sexually differentiated . In women , AVP increased conciliatory behavior , and both OT and AVP caused women to treat computer partners more like humans . In men , AVP increased reciprocation of cooperation from both human and computer partners . However , no specific drug effects on behavior were shared between men and women . During cooperative interactions , both OT and AVP increased brain activity in men within areas rich in OT and AVP receptors and in areas playing a key role in reward , social bonding , arousal and memory ( e.g. , the striatum , basal forebrain , insula , amygdala and hippocampus ) , whereas OT and AVP either had no effect or in some cases actually decreased brain activity in these regions in women . OT treatment rendered neural responses of males more similar to responses of females in the placebo group and vice versa , raising the prospect of an inverted u-shaped dose response to central OT levels . These findings emphasize the need to fully characterize the effects of intranasal OT and AVP in both males and females and at multiple doses before widespread clinical application will be warranted Of heuristic value in underst and ing the neurochemistry of major depression is whether the hypothalamo-pituitary-adrenocortical ( HPA ) axis hyperactivity that occurs in this illness can be related to putative neurotransmitter dysfunction(s ) . Cholinergic neurotransmission stimulates hypothalamic corticotropin releasing hormone ( CRH ) and arginine vasopressin ( AVP ) secretion , both of which stimulate pituitary corticotropin ( ACTH ) secretion , but whether the HPA axis in humans is activated only by doses of cholinergic agonists that produce noxious side effects remains controversial . To test the hypothesis of increased cholinergic sensitivity in major depression , physostigmine ( PHYSO ) , a reversible cholinesterase inhibitor , was administered to patients and control subjects at a dose that elevated plasma ACTH , cortisol , and AVP concentrations but produced few or no side effects . Exogenous AVP also was administered to determine if it would augment the effect of low-dose PHYSO on the HPA axis . Twelve premenopausal or estrogen-replaced female major depressives , 12 individually matched female control subjects , eight male major depressives , and eight matched male control subjects underwent four test sessions 5 - 7 days apart : PHYSO ( 8 microg/kg IV ) , AVP ( 0.08 U/kg IM ) , PHYSO + AVP , and saline control . Serial blood sample s were taken before and after pharmacologic challenge and analyzed for ACTH1 - 39 , cortisol , and AVP . Estradiol and testosterone were also measured at each test session . PHYSO ( 8 microg/kg ) significantly increased plasma ACTH , cortisol , and AVP , while producing no side effects in approximately half the subjects and predominantly mild side effects in the other half . These hormone increases following PHYSO occurred primarily in the female depressives and the male control subjects and were not significantly related to the presence or absence of side effects . The greater the ACTH and AVP responses to PHYSO , the stronger their correlation , suggesting that AVP may have been acting as a secretagogue for ACTH . Administered AVP significantly increased the secretion of ACTH in the patients and control subjects to a similar degree , and AVP given after PHYSO did not augment the HPA axis response to a greater degree in the depressives than in the control subjects . Plasma estradiol and testosterone were within the normal range for all four groups of subjects and were not significantly related to their HPA axis hormone responses . The study results support the hypothesis of heightened cholinergic sensitivity in premenopausal female , but not in male , patients with major depression . The low dose of PHYSO used may represent a useful paradigm for central cholinergic stimulation of the HPA axis OBJECTIVE These studies were design ed to evaluate the efficacy and tolerability of the first nonpeptide vasopressin V(1b ) receptor antagonist , SSR149415 , in the treatment of major depressive disorder ( MDD ) and generalized anxiety disorder ( GAD ) . METHOD Studies were r and omized 8-week , double-blind , placebo-controlled trials evaluating 100- and 250-mg twice daily doses of SSR149415 , placebo , and escitalopram 10 mg/day or paroxetine 20 mg/day , conducted from August 2006 through February 2008 . Participants met the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders , Fourth Edition , Text Revision criteria for MDD or GAD .  Baseline Montgomery-Asberg Depression Rating Scale ( MADRS ) and Hamilton Depression Rating Scale ( HDRS ) total scores were ≥ 24 and 18 , respectively , and in the GAD trial baseline Hamilton Anxiety Rating Scale ( HARS ) score was ≥ 22 . Primary efficacy variables included changes from baseline in total score on HDRS or HARS and MADRS , and the secondary variable included changes in the Clinical Global Impressions-Severity of Illness score ( CGI-S ) . A 4-week , double-blind , placebo-controlled study evaluating the effect of 100- and 250-mg twice daily doses of SSR149415 on the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal ( HPA ) axis in MDD patients was also conducted . RESULTS In the GAD trial , SSR149415 did not separate from placebo on the primary ( HARS-100 mg : P = .29 ; 250 mg : P = .21 ) and secondary ( CGI-S-100 mg : P = .18 ; 250 mg : P = .24 ) outcome measures , while paroxetine  demonstrated efficacy ( HARS : P = .003 ; CGI-S : P = .01 ) . In 2 MDD trials , SSR149415-treated patients did not show significant improvement from baseline on any outcome measure compared with placebo-treated patients ( HDRS-100 mg : P = .21 and .48 , respectively ; 250 mg : P = .22 and P = .46 , respectively ; CGI-S-100 mg : P = .64 and P = .82 , respectively ; 250 mg : P = .33 and P = .08 , respectively ) . In the third MDD study , SSR149415 250 mg ( P = .04 ) , but not escitalopram ( P = .15 ) , demonstrated significant improvement compared to placebo on the HDRS total score at week 8 . SSR149415 had no deleterious effects on the HPA axis . CONCLUSIONS These studies demonstrate that SSR149415 may not be useful for the treatment of GAD and that its antidepressant potential needs to be further evaluated . TRIAL REGISTRATION Clinical Trials.gov identifiers : NCT00374166 ( Sanofi ID number : DFI5880 ) , NCT00361491 ( Sanofi ID number : DFI5879 ) , NCT00358631 ( Sanofi ID number : DFI5878 ) , NCT01606384 ( Sanofi ID number : PDY5467 ) Human beings exhibit substantial interpersonal trust-even with strangers . The neuroactive hormone oxytocin facilitates social recognition in animals , and we examine if oxytocin is related to trustworthiness between humans . This paper reports the results of an experiment to test this hypothesis , where trust and trustworthiness are measured using the sequential anonymous " trust game " with monetary payoffs . We find that oxytocin levels are higher in subjects who receive a monetary transfer that reflects an intention of trust relative to an unintentional monetary transfer of the same amount . In addition , higher oxytocin levels are associated with trustworthy behavior ( the reciprocation of trust ) . Absent intentionality , both the oxytocin and behavioral responses are extinguished . We conclude that perceptions of intentions of trust affect levels of circulating oxytocin Background There are no effective medications for the treatment of social cognition/function deficits in autism spectrum disorder ( ASD ) , and adult intervention literature in this area is sparse . Emerging data from animal models and genetic association studies as well as early , single-dose intervention studies suggest that the oxytocin system may be a potential therapeutic target for social cognition/function deficits in ASD . The primary aim of this study was to examine the safety/therapeutic effects of intranasal oxytocin versus placebo in adults with ASD , with respect to the two core symptom domains of social cognition/functioning and repetitive behaviors . Methods This was a pilot , r and om 
    Output:
    
There is no convincing evidence that peripheral ADH or OT might be reliable biomarkers in psychiatric disorders .