***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: Prostate cancer incidence was prospect ively studied among 7999 men of Japanese ancestry who were first examined between 1965 and 1968 and then followed through 1986 . During this surveillance period , 174 incident cases of prostate cancer were recorded . Prostate cancer was not associated with any measure of socioeconomic status , including amount of education , type of occupation , and type of residence . There was also no relationship with the number of children , as a surrogate measure of sexual activity . Increased consumption of rice and tofu were both associated with a decreased risk of prostate cancer , while consumption of seaweeds was associated with an increased risk of prostate cancer . There was no relationship between prostate cancer and the intake of various nutrients , including total fat and total protein . Etiological implication s of these associations are discussed , but more research is needed on these dietary factors and the subsequent development of prostate cancer before any firm conclusions can be drawn Many epidemiologic studies have reported a positive association between dairy products and prostate cancer .  Calcium or saturated fatty acid in dairy products has been suspected as the causative agent . To investigate the association between dairy products , calcium , and saturated fatty acid and prostate cancer in Japan , where both the intake of these items and the incidence of prostate cancer are low , we conducted a population -based prospect i ve study in 43,435 Japanese men ages 45 to 74 years . Participants responded to a vali date d question naire that included 138 food items . During 7.5 years of follow-up , 329 men were newly diagnosed with prostate cancer .  Dairy products were associated with a dose-dependent increase in the risk of prostate cancer . The relative risks ( 95 % confidence intervals ) comparing the highest with the lowest quartiles of total dairy products , milk , and yogurt were 1.63 ( 1.14 - 2.32 ) , 1.53 ( 1.07 - 2.19 ) , and 1.52 ( 1.10 - 2.12 ) , respectively . A statistically significant increase in risk was observed for both calcium and saturated fatty acid , but the associations for these were attenuated after controlling for potential confounding factors . Some specific saturated fatty acids increased the risk of prostate cancer in a dose-dependent manner . Relative risks ( 95 % confidence intervals ) on comparison of the highest with the lowest quartiles of myristic acid and palmitic acid were 1.62 ( 1.15 - 2.29 ) and 1.53 ( 1.07 - 2.20 ) , respectively . In conclusion , our results suggest that the intake of dairy products may be associated with an increased risk of prostate cancer . ( Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2008;17(4):930–7 Abstract Background : Calcium , phosphorus , fructose , and animal protein are hypothesized to be associated with prostate cancer risk , potentially via their influence on 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D3 . We examined these nutrients and overall diet and prostate cancer risk in the Alpha-Tocopherol Beta-Carotene Cancer Prevention Study ( ATBC Study ) . Material s and methods : The ATBC Study was a r and omized 2 × 2 trial of alpha-tocopherol and beta-carotene on lung cancer incidence conducted among Finnish male smokers ; 27,062 of the men completed a food-use question naire at baseline , and comprise the current study population . There were 184 incident clinical ( stage 2–4 ) prostate cancer cases diagnosed between 1985 and 1993 . We used Cox proportional hazards models to examine associations between dietary intakes and prostate cancer . Results : We did not observe significant independent associations for calcium and phosphorus and prostate cancer risk . However , men with lower calcium and higher phosphorus intake had a multivariate relative risk of 0.6 ( 95 % CI 0.3–1.0 ) compared to men with lower intakes of both nutrients , adjusting for age , smoking , body mass index , total energy , education , and supplementation group . Of the other foods and nutrients examined , none was significantly associated with risk . Discussion : This study provides , at best , only weak evidence for the hypothesis that calcium and phosphorus are independently associated with prostate cancer risk , but suggests that there may be an interaction between these nutrients Background : Some studies suggest that elevated serum insulin-like growth factor (IGF)-I concentrations are associated with an increased risk of prostate cancer and , in particular , with an increased risk of advanced-stage prostate cancer . Methods : We analyzed the association between prediagnostic serum concentrations of IGF-I and IGF-binding protein-3 ( IGFBP-3 ) and prostate cancer risk in a case-control study nested in the European Prospect i ve Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition . This study includes 630 incident prostate cancer cases and 630 matched control subjects .  Odds ratios and their 95 % confidence intervals ( 95 % CI ) were calculated for prostate cancer risk associated with increasing IGF-I and IGFBP-3 concentrations using conditional logistic regression . Results : The risk of total prostate cancer in the highest versus the lowest third of serum peptide concentration was 1.35 ( 95 % CI , 0.99 - 1.82 ; Ptrend = 0.08 ) for IGF-I , 1.39 ( 95 % CI , 1.02 - 1.89 ; Ptrend = 0.12 ) for the IGF-I residuals after adjusting for IGFBP-3 , 1.22 ( 95 % CI , 0.92 - 1.64 ; Ptrend = 0.38 ) for IGFBP-3 , and 1.01 ( 95 % CI , 0.74 - 1.37 ; Ptrend = 0.75 ) for the IGFBP-3 residuals after adjusting for IGF-I. There was no significant difference in the association of peptide hormones and prostate cancer by stage of disease , although the association of serum IGF-I concentration with risk was slightly stronger for advanced-stage disease ; the odds ratio for the highest versus the lowest third was 1.65 ( 95 % CI , 0.88 - 3.08 ; Ptrend = 0.21 ) for IGF-I and 1.76 ( 95 % CI , 0.92 - 3.40 ; Ptrend = 0.11 ) for IGF-I adjusted for IGFBP-3 . Conclusions : In this large nested case-control study , serum IGF-I concentration is not strongly associated with prostate cancer risk , although the results are compatible with a small increase in risk , particularly for advanced-stage disease ; no association for IGFBP-3 was observed . ( Cancer Epidemiol Biomarkers Prev 2007;16(6):1121–7 We examined consumption of animal foods , protein and calcium in relation to  risk of prostate cancer among 142 251 men in the European Prospect i ve Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition . Associations were examined using Cox regression , stratified by recruitment centre and adjusted for height , weight , education , marital status and energy intake . After an average of 8.7 years of follow-up , there were 2727 incident cases of prostate cancer , of which 1131 were known to be localised and 541 advanced-stage disease . A high intake of dairy protein  was associated with an increased risk , with a hazard ratio for the top versus the bottom fifth of intake of 1.22 ( 95 % confidence interval ( CI ) : 1.07–1.41 , Ptrend=0.02 ) . After calibration to allow for measurement error , we estimated that a 35-g day−1 increase in consumption  of dairy protein  was associated with an increase in the risk of prostate cancer of 32 % ( 95 % CI : 1–72 % , Ptrend=0.04  ) .  Calcium from dairy products was also positively associated with risk , but not calcium from other foods . The results support the hypothesis that a high intake of protein or calcium from dairy products may increase the risk for prostate cancer BACKGROUND Dairy intake may increase  prostate cancer  risk , but whether this is due to calcium 's suppression of circulating vitamin D remains unclear . Findings on calcium and vitamin D intake and prostate cancer are inconsistent . OBJECTIVE We examined the association of dairy , calcium , and vitamin D intake with  prostate cancer .  DESIGN In a prospect i ve study of 3612 men followed from 1982 - 1984 to 1992 for the first National Health and Nutrition Examination Epidemiologic Follow-up Study , 131 prostate cancer cases were identified .  Dietary intake was estimated from question naires completed in 1982 - 1984 . Relative risk ( RR ) and 95 % CIs were estimated by using Cox proportional hazards models adjusted for age , race , and other covariates . RESULTS Compared with men in the lowest tertile for dairy food intake , men in the highest tertile had a relative risk ( RR ) of 2.2 ( 95 % CI : 1.2 , 3.9 ; trend P = 0.05 ) . Low-fat milk was associated with increased risk ( RR = 1.5 ; 95 % CI : 1.1 , 2.2 ; third compared with first tertile ; trend P = 0.02 ) , but whole milk was not ( RR = 0.8 ; 95 % CI : 0.5 , 1.3 ; third compared with first tertile ; trend P = 0.35 ) . Dietary calcium was also strongly associated with increased risk ( RR = 2.2 ; 95 % CI : 1.4 , 3.5 ; third compared with first tertile ; trend P = 0.001 ) . After adjustment for calcium intake , neither vitamin D nor phosphorus was clearly associated with risk . CONCLUSIONS Dairy consumption may increase prostate cancer risk through a calcium-related pathway . Calcium and low-fat milk have been promoted to reduce risk of osteoporosis and colon cancer . Therefore , the mechanisms by which dairy and calcium might increase prostate cancer risk should be clarified and confirmed BACKGROUND Laboratory studies have shown that n-3 fatty acids inhibit and n-6 fatty acids stimulate prostate tumor growth , but whether the dietary intake of these fatty acids affects prostate cancer risk in humans remains unclear . OBJECTIVE We prospect ively evaluated the association between intakes of alpha-linolenic ( ALA ; 18:3n-3 ) , eicosapentaenoic ( EPA ; 20:5n-3 ) , docosahexaenoic ( DHA ; 22:6n-3 ) , linoleic ( LA ; 18:2n-6 ) , and arachidonic ( AA ; 20:4n-6 ) acids and prostate cancer risk . DESIGN A cohort of 47 866 US men aged 40 - 75 y with no cancer history in 1986 was followed for 14 y. RESULTS During follow-up , 2965 new cases of total prostate cancer were ascertained , 448 of which were advanced prostate cancer . ALA intake was unrelated to the risk of total prostate cancer . In contrast , the multivariate relative risks ( RRs ) of advanced prostate cancer from comparisons of extreme quintiles of ALA from nonanimal sources and ALA from meat and dairy sources were 2.02 ( 95 % CI : 1.35 , 3.03 ) and 1.53 ( 0.88 , 2.66 ) , respectively .  EPA and DHA intakes were related to lower prostate cancer risk . The multivariate RRs of total and advanced prostate cancer from comparisons of extreme quintiles of the combination of EPA and DHA were 0.89 ( 0.77 , 1.04 ) and 0.74 ( 0.49 , 1.08 ) , respectively . LA and AA intakes were unrelated to the risk of prostate cancer . The multivariate RR of advanced prostate cancer from a comparison of extreme quintiles of the ratio of LA to ALA was 0.62 ( 0.45 , 0.86 ) . CONCLUSIONS Increased dietary intakes of ALA may increase the risk of advanced prostate cancer . In contrast , EPA and DHA intakes may reduce the risk of total and advanced prostate cancer Intake of calcium and /or dairy products has been associated with increased risk of prostate cancer  in some epidemiological studies . One potential biological mechanism is that high calcium intake down-regulates 1,25 dihydroxy vitamin D(3 ) , which may increase cell proliferation in the prostate . We examined the association between calcium , dairy intake , and prostate cancer incidence in the Cancer Prevention Study II Nutrition Cohort , a prospect i ve cohort of elderly United States adults . Participants in the study completed a detailed question naire on diet , medical history , and lifestyle at enrollment in 1992 - 1993 . After excluding men with a history of cancer or incomplete dietary information , 65,321 men remained for analysis . During follow-up through August 31 , 1999 , we documented 3811 cases of incident prostate cancer . Multivariate-adjusted rate ratios ( RRs ) were calculated using Cox proportional hazards models . Total calcium intake ( from diet and supplements ) was associated with modestly increased risk of prostate cancer [ RR = 1.2 , 95 % confidence interval ( CI ) = 1.0 - 1.6 for > or=2000 versus < 700 m 
    Output:
    
Intakes of total dairy products [ summary RR : 1.07 ( 95 % CI : 1.02 , 1.12 ; n = 15 ) per 400 g/d ] , total milk [ summary RR : 1.03 ( 95 % CI : 1.00 , 1.07 ; n = 14 ) per 200 g/d ] , low-fat milk [ summary RR : 1.06 ( 95 % CI : 1.01 , 1.11 ; n = 6 ) per 200 g/d ] , cheese [ summary RR : 1.09 ( 95 % CI : 1.02 , 1.18 ; n = 11 ) per 50 g/d ] , and dietary calcium [ summary RR : 1.05 ( 95 % CI : 1.02 , 1.09 ; n = 15 ) per 400 mg/d ] were associated with increased total prostate cancer risk .
Total calcium and dairy calcium intakes , but not nondairy calcium or supplemental calcium intakes , were also positively associated with total prostate cancer risk .
Supplemental calcium was associated with increased risk of fatal prostate cancer .
CONCLUSIONS High intakes of dairy products , milk , low-fat milk , cheese , and total , dietary , and dairy calcium , but not supplemental or nondairy calcium , may increase total prostate cancer risk .
The diverging results for types of dairy products and sources of calcium suggest that other components of dairy rather than fat and calcium may increase prostate cancer risk .