***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: Background : Tobacco smoking is an integral part of prison life and an established part of the culture . Little attention has been paid to prevention of smoking in prison . Approximately 70–80 % of prisoners have been identified as current smokers . Aim : To assess the effectiveness of smoking cessation intervention among male prisoners at Central Jail , Bangalore city . Aim : To assess the effectiveness of smoking cessation intervention among male prisoners at Central Jail , Bangalore city . Material s and Methods : A r and omized controlled trial was planned among male prisoners in Central Jail , Bangalore city . There were 1600 convicted prisoners . A self-administered question naire was given to the prisoners to assess their smoking behavior by which prevalence of tobacco smoking was found . Exactly 1352 tobacco users were studied . Among them , there were 1252 smokers . Based on inclusion criteria and informed consent given by the prisoners , a sample of 600 was chosen for the study by systematic r and om sampling . Among the 600 prisoners , 300 were r and omly selected for the study group and 300 for the control group . Results : Prevalence of tobacco smoking among the prisoners was 92.60 % . In the present study , after smoking cessation intervention , 17 % showed no change in smoking , 21.66 % reduced smoking , 16 % stopped smoking , and 45.33 % relapsed ( P < 0.0001 ) at the end of 6-month follow-up in the study group . Conclusion : Tobacco use was high among the prisoners .  Tobacco reduction is possible in the prison even if the living conditions are not favorable . Relatively high rate of relapse in our study indicates that some policies should be adopted to improve smokers ’ information on consequences of tobacco on health and motivational intervention should be added to prisoners CONTEXT Smoking is associated with an increased risk of total and cause-specific death , but the rate of mortality risk reduction after quitting compared with continuing to smoke is uncertain . There is inadequate or insufficient evidence to infer the presence or absence of a causal relationship between smoking and ovarian cancer and colorectal cancer . OBJECTIVE To assess the relationship between cigarette smoking and smoking cessation on total and cause-specific mortality in women . DESIGN , SETTING , AND PARTICIPANTS Prospect i ve observational study of 104,519 female participants in the Nurses ' Health Study with follow-up from 1980 to 2004 . MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE Hazard ratios ( HRs ) for total mortality , further categorized into vascular and respiratory diseases , lung cancer , other cancers , and other causes . RESULTS A total of 12,483 deaths occurred in this cohort , 4485 ( 35.9 % ) among never smokers , 3602 ( 28.9 % ) among current smokers , and 4396 ( 35.2 % ) among past smokers . Compared with never smokers , current smokers had an increased risk of total mortality ( HR , 2.81 ; 95 % confidence interval [ CI ] , 2.68 - 2.95 ) and all major cause-specific mortality . The HR for cancers classified by the 2004 surgeon general 's report to be smoking-related was 7.25 ( 95 % CI , 6.43 - 8.18 ) and 1.58 ( 95 % CI , 1.45 - 1.73 ) for other cancers . Compared with never smokers , the HR for colorectal cancer was 1.63 ( 95 % CI , 1.29 - 2.05 ) for current smokers and 1.23 ( 95 % CI , 1.02 - 1.49 ) for former smokers . A significant association was not observed for ovarian cancer . Significant trends were observed for earlier age at initiation of smoking for total mortality ( P = .003 ) , respiratory disease mortality ( P = .001 ) , and all smoking-related cancer mortality ( P = .001 ) . The excess risk for all-cause mortality decreases to the level of a never smoker 20 years after quitting , with different time frames for risk reduction observed across outcomes . Approximately 64 % of deaths among current smokers and 28 % of deaths among former smokers were attributable to cigarette smoking . CONCLUSIONS Most of the excess risk of vascular mortality due to smoking in women may be eliminated rapidly upon cessation and within 20 years for lung diseases . Postponing the age of smoking initiation reduces the risk of respiratory disease , lung cancer , and other smoking-related cancer deaths but has little effect on other cause-specific mortality . These data suggest that smoking is associated with an increased risk of colorectal cancer mortality but not ovarian cancer mortality Abstract Objective To compare the hazards of cigarette smoking in men who formed their habits at different periods , and the extent of the reduction in risk when cigarette smoking is stopped at different ages . Design Prospect i ve study that has continued from 1951 to 2001 . Setting United Kingdom . Participants 34 439 male British doctors . Information about their smoking habits was obtained in 1951 , and periodically thereafter ; cause specific mortality was monitored for 50 years . Main outcome measures Overall mortality by smoking habit , considering separately men born in different periods . Results The excess mortality associated with smoking chiefly involved vascular , neoplastic , and respiratory diseases that can be caused by smoking . Men born in 1900 - 1930 who smoked only cigarettes and continued smoking died on average about 10 years younger than lifelong non-smokers . Cessation at age 60 , 50 , 40 , or 30 years gained , respectively , about 3 , 6 , 9 , or 10 years of life expectancy . The excess mortality associated with cigarette smoking was less for men born in the 19th century and was greatest for men born in the 1920s . The cigarette smoker versus non-smoker probabilities of dying in middle age ( 35 - 69 ) were 42 % ν24 % ( a twofold death rate ratio ) for those born in 1900 - 1909 , but were 43 % ν 15 % ( a threefold death rate ratio ) for those born in the 1920s . At older ages , the cigarette smoker versus non-smoker probabilities of surviving from age 70 to 90 were 10 % ν 12 % at the death rates of the 1950s ( that is , among men born around the 1870s ) but were 7 % ν 33 % ( again a threefold death rate ratio ) at the death rates of the 1990s ( that is , among men born around the 1910s ) . Conclusion A substantial progressive decrease in the mortality rates among non-smokers over the past half century ( due to prevention and improved treatment of disease ) has been wholly outweighed , among cigarette smokers , by a progressive increase in the smoker ν non-smoker death rate ratio due to earlier and more intensive use of cigarettes . Among the men born around 1920 , prolonged cigarette smoking from early adult life tripled age specific mortality rates , but cessation at age 50 halved the hazard , and cessation at age 30 avoided almost all of it Background : The prevalence of hepatitis C ( HCV ) is elevated within prison population s , yet diagnosis in prisons remains low . Dried blood spot testing ( DBST ) is a simple procedure for the detection of HCV antibodies ; its impact on testing in the prison context is unknown . Methods : We carried out a stepped-wedge cluster-r and omized control trial of DBST for HCV among prisoners within five male prisons and one female prison . Each prison was a separate cluster . The order in which the intervention ( training in use of DBST for HCV testing and logistic support ) was introduced was r and omized across clusters . The outcome measure was the HCV testing rate by prison . Imputation analysis was carried out to account for missing data . Planned and actual intervention times differed in some prisons ; data were thus analysed by intention to treat ( ITT ) and by observed step times . Results : There was insufficient evidence of an effect of the intervention on testing rate using either the ITT intervention time ( OR : 0.84 ; 95 % CI : 0.68–1.03 ; P = 0.088 ) or using the actual intervention time ( OR : 0.86 ; 95 % CI : 0.71–1.06 ; P = 0.153 ) . This was confirmed by the pooled results of five imputed data sets . Conclusions : DBST as a st and -alone intervention was insufficient to increase HCV diagnosis within the UK prison setting . Factors such as staff training and allocation of staff time for regular clinics are key to improving service delivery . We demonstrate that prisons can conduct rigorous studies of new interventions , but data collection can be problematic . Trial registration : International St and ard R and omized Controlled Trial Number Register ( IS RCT N number IS RCT N05628482 ) OBJECTIVES We tested the efficacy of a combined pharmacologic and behavioral smoking cessation intervention among women in a state prison in the southern United States . METHODS The study design was a r and omized controlled trial with a 6-month waitlist control group . The intervention was a 10-week group intervention combined with nicotine replacement therapy .  Two hundred and fifty participants received the intervention , and 289 were in the control group .  Assessment s occurred at baseline ; end of treatment ; 3 , 6 , and 12 months after treatment ; and at weekly sessions for participants in the intervention group . RESULTS The intervention was efficacious compared with the waitlist control group . Point prevalence quit rates for the intervention group were 18 % at end of treatment , 17 % at 3-month follow-up , 14 % at 6-month follow-up , and 12 % at 12-month follow-up , quit rates that are consistent with outcomes from community smoking-cessation interventions . CONCLUSIONS Female prisoners are interested in smoking cessation interventions and achieved point-prevalence quit rates similar to community sample s. Augmenting tobacco control policies in prison with smoking cessation interventions has the potential to address a significant public health need Background Prisoners have extremely high rates of smoking with rates 3–4 times higher than the general community . Many prisoners have used heroin . The aims of this study were to investigate the impact of heroin use on smoking cessation and the social determinants of health among prisoners . Methods Secondary analysis of data from a r and omised controlled trial of a multi-component smoking cessation intervention involving 425 Australian male prisoners . Inmates who , prior to imprisonment , used heroin regularly were  compared to those who did not use heroin regularly .  Self-reported smoking status was vali date d at baseline and each follow-up by measuring carbon monoxide levels . Readings exceeding 10 ppm were defined as indicating current smoking . Results Over half ( 56.5 % ) of the participants had ever used heroin while 37.7 % regularly ( daily or almost daily ) used heroin in the year prior to entering prison . Prisoners who regularly used heroin had significantly worse social determinants of health and smoking behaviours , including lower educational attainment , more frequent incarceration and earlier initiation into smoking . Prisoners who regularly used heroin also used and injected other drugs significantly more frequently . At 12-month follow-up , the smoking cessation of prisoners who had regularly used heroin was also significantly lower than prisoners who did not regularly use heroin , a finding confirmed by logistic regression . Conclusions Regular heroin use prior to imprisonment is an important risk factor for unsuccessful attempts to quit smoking among prisoners and is also associated with worse social determinants of health , higher drug use , and worse smoking behaviours . More effective and earlier smoking cessation interventions are required for particularly disadvantaged groups . Trial registration This trial is registered with the Australian New Zeal and Clinical Trials Registry 12606000229572 Background The prevalence of smoking is much higher in prisoners than it is in the general population . Prisoners who smoke cause many health problems for themselves and other prisoners . Therefore , we should help them stop smoking . Objective To compare the effects of motivational interviewing-based ( MI-based ) treatment and its combination with nicotine replacement therapy ( NRT ) on smoking cessation in prisoners at Mashhad Central Prison . Methods The study was design ed as a double-blind , r and omized , controlled clinical trial , and it began in February 2013 and ended in February 2014 . Two hundred and thirteen prisoners met the inclusion criteria and were enrolled in the study . They were divided r and omly into three groups , i.e. , MI-based treatment , MI with NRT , and the control group , which did n’t receive any therapy . The outcome measures were reported after intervention and at a 90-day follow-up , and changes in the CO levels in expired air and nicotine dependency were measured . Results The average age of the subjects was 37.59 ± 8.76 , and their mean duration of imprisonment was 3.3 ± 1.90 years . They smoked an average of 21.84 ± 8.72 cigarettes per day . Analysis of the concentration of CO in expired air in the pre-test , post-test , and at the follow-up for the three groups showed that the variations in the mean CO concentrations in the MI group and the MI with NRT group at the pre-test and at the post-test were statistically significant ( p < 0.001 ) , but no significant changes occurred between the post-test and the follow-up ( p > 0.050 ) . In addition , the results indicated that 
    Output:
    
Data synthesis Cessation programmes , including free nicotine replacement therapy and /or behavioural counselling can significantly increase the likelihood of quitting in prison and increase abstinence postrelease .
Indoor bans have little impact on prisoner smoking behaviour .
Prisoners who experience a complete smoking ban typically resume smoking shortly after release from prison .
Bans may result in adverse behavioural outcomes , but these are generally minimal and short-lived .
Conclusions While there is limited evidence to inform tobacco control policies in custodial setting s , outcomes of this review suggest that cessation programmes/bans can be an effective mechanism to interrupt prisoner smoking behaviour when properly enforced