***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: OBJECTIVE To compare training and follow-up effects of combined aerobic and strength training versus aerobic-only training on cognitive and motor function in institutionalized patients with dementia and to explore whether improved motor function mediates improved cognitive function . METHODS Using a 9-week , parallel , three-group , single-blind , r and omized , controlled trial with a follow-up assessment at week 18 , we assessed 109 patients with dementia ( age 85.5 ± 5.1 years ) in a psycho-geriatric nursing home . Each 9-week intervention consisted of 36 , 30-minute sessions . A combined group ( N = 37 ) received and completed two strength and two walking sessions per week , an aerobic group ( N = 36 ) completed four walking sessions , and a social group ( N = 36 ) completed four social visits per  week . Cognitive and motor functions were assessed at baseline , after the 9-week intervention , and after a consecutive 9 weeks of usual care . RESULTS Baseline corrected post-test scores in the combined versus the social group were higher for global cognition , visual memory , verbal memory , executive function , walking endurance , leg muscle strength , and balance . Aerobic versus social group scores were higher for executive function . Follow-up effects reversed toward baseline values . Motor improvement did not significantly mediate cognitive improvement . CONCLUSION Compared with a nonexercise control group , a combination of aerobic and strength training is more effective than aerobic-only training in slowing cognitive and motor decline in patients with dementia . No mediating effects between improvements in cognitive function via improved motor function were found . Future research into the underlying mechanistic associations is needed Studies have shown that aerobic exercise has the potential to improve cognition and reduce brain atrophy in older adults . However , the literature is equivocal with regards to the specificity or generality of these effects . To this end , we report results on cognitive function and brain structure from a 6-month training intervention with 60 sedentary adults ( 64–78 years ) r and omized to either aerobic training or stretching and toning control training .  Cognitive functions were assessed with a neuropsychological test battery in which cognitive constructs were measured using several different tests . Freesurfer was used to estimate cortical thickness in frontal regions and hippocampus volume . Results showed that aerobic exercisers , compared to controls , exhibited a broad , rather than specific , improvement in cognition as indexed by a higher “ Cognitive score , ” a composite including episodic memory , processing speed , updating , and executive function tasks ( p = 0.01 ) . There were no group differences in cortical thickness , but additional analyses revealed that aerobic fitness at baseline was specifically related to larger thickness in dorsolateral prefrontal cortex ( dlPFC ) , and hippocampus volume was positively associated with increased aerobic fitness over time . Moreover , “ Cognitive score ” was related to dlPFC thickness at baseline , but changes in “ Cognitive score ” and dlPFC thickness were associated over time in the aerobic group only . However , aerobic fitness did not predict dlPFC change , despite the improvement in “ Cognitive score ” in aerobic exercisers . Our interpretation of these observations is that potential exercise-induced changes in thickness are slow , and may be undetectable within 6-months , in contrast to change in hippocampus volume which in fact was predicted by the change in aerobic fitness . To conclude , our results add to a growing literature suggesting that aerobic exercise has a broad influence on cognitive functioning , which may aid in explaining why studies focusing on a narrower range of functions have sometimes reported mixed results This study aim ed to evaluate the effects of different types of exercise on cognition . Eighty participants , 32 males and 48 females , aged 66.96 ± 11.73 , volunteered for this study . The participants were r and omly divided into the four following groups : Resistance Group ( RG ; n=20 ) , involved in high intensity strength training ; Cardiovascular Group ( CVG ; n=20 ) , involved in high intensity cardiovascular training ; Postural Group ( PG ; n=20 ) involved in low intensity training , based on postural and balance exercises ; and Control Group ( CG ; n=20 ) . Exercises were performed over the course of 12 weeks . All participants were tested for their cognitive functions pre- and post-intervention using the following neurocognitive tests : the Attentive Matrices Test , Raven 's Progressive Matrices , Stroop Color and Word Interference Test , Trail Making Test and Drawing Copy Test . Statistical analysis showed that the CVG group improved significantly in the Attentive Matrices Test and Raven 's Progressive Matrices ( both p=<0.05 ) , whereas the RG group improved in Drawing Copy Test time ( p=<0.05 ) . These results confirm that different types of exercise interventions  have unique effects on cognition .  Cardiovascular training is effective in improving performance attentive and analytic tasks , whereas resistance training is effective in improving praxis . Further investigation is necessary to evaluate the combination of the two exercise types in order to ascertain if their respective effects can be summated when performed together Background A physically active lifestyle has the potential to prevent cognitive decline and dementia , yet the optimal type of physical activity/exercise remains unclear . Dance is of special interest as it complex sensorimotor rhythmic activity with additional cognitive , social , and affective dimensions . Objectives To determine whether dance benefits executive function more than walking , an activity that is simple and functional . Methods Two-arm r and omized controlled trial among community-dwelling older adults . The intervention group received 1 h of ballroom dancing twice weekly over 8 months ( ~69 sessions ) in local community dance studios . The control group received a combination of a home walking program with a pedometer and optional biweekly group-based walking in local community park to facilitate socialization . Main outcomes Executive function tests : processing speed and task shift by the Trail Making Tests , response inhibition by the Stroop Color-Word Test , working memory by the Digit Span Backwards test , immediate and delayed verbal recall by the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test , and visuospatial recall by the Brief Visuospatial Memory Test ( BVST ) . Results One hundred and fifteen adults ( mean 69.5 years , SD 6.4 ) completed baseline and delayed baseline ( 3 weeks apart ) before being r and omized to either dance ( n = 60 ) or walking ( n = 55 ) . Of those r and omized , 79 ( 68 % ) completed the follow-up measurements ( 32 weeks from baseline ) . In the dance group only , “ non-completers ” had significantly lower baseline scores on all executive function tests than those who completed the full program . Intention-to-treat analyses showed no group effect . In a r and om effects model including participants who completed all measurements , adjusted for baseline score and covariates ( age , education , estimated verbal intelligence , and community ) , a between-group effect in favor of dance was noted only for BVST total learning ( Cohen ’s D Effect size 0.29 , p = 0.07 ) and delayed recall ( Cohen ’s D Effect size = 0.34 , p = 0.06 ) . Conclusion The superior potential of dance over walking on executive functions of cognitively healthy and active older adults was not supported . Dance improved one of the cognitive domains ( spatial memory ) important for learning dance . Controlled trials targeting inactive older adults and of a higher dose may produce stronger effects , particularly for novice dancers . Trial registration Australian and New Zeal and Clinical Trials Register ( ACTRN12613000782730 ) Background Mild cognitive impairment ( MCI ) is a well-recognised risk factor for dementia and represents a vital opportunity for intervening . Exercise is a promising strategy for combating cognitive decline by improving brain structure and function . Specifically , aerobic training ( AT ) improved spatial memory and hippocampal volume in healthy community-dwelling older adults . In older women with probable MCI , we previously demonstrated that resistance training ( RT ) and AT improved memory . In this secondary analysis , we investigated : ( 1 ) the effect of RT and AT on hippocampal volume and ( 2 ) the association between change in hippocampal volume and change in memory . Methods 86 women aged 70–80 years with probable MCI were r and omly assigned to a 6-month , twice-weekly programme of : ( 1 ) AT , ( 2 ) RT or ( 3 ) balance and tone training ( BAT ; ie , control ) . At baseline and trial completion , participants performed a 3 T MRI scan to determine hippocampal volume . Verbal memory and learning were assessed by Rey 's Auditory Verbal Learning Test . Results Compared with the BAT group , AT significantly improved left , right and total hippocampal volumes ( p≤0.03 ) . After accounting for baseline cognitive function and experimental group , increased left hippocampal volume was independently associated with reduced verbal memory and learning performance as indexed by loss after interference ( r=0.42 , p=0.03 ) . Conclusions Aerobic training significantly increased hippocampal volume in older women with probable MCI . More research is needed to ascertain the relevance of exercise-induced changes in hippocampal volume on memory performance in older adults with MCI . Trail registration number NCT00958867 This study aim ed to investigate the effects of a long-term resistance exercise intervention on executive functions in healthy elderly males , and to further underst and the potential neurophysiological mechanisms mediating the changes . The study assessed forty-eight healthy elderly males r and omly assigned to exercise ( n = 24 ) or control ( n = 24 ) groups . The assessment included neuropsychological and neuroelectric measures during a variant of the oddball task paradigm , as well as growth hormone ( GH ) , insulin-like growth factor-1 ( IGF-1 ) , and homocysteine levels at baseline and after either a 12 month intervention of resistance exercise training or control period . The results showed that the control group had a significantly lower accuracy rate and smaller P3a and P3b amplitudes in the oddball condition after 12 months . The exercise group exhibited improved reaction times ( RTs ) , sustained P3a and P3b amplitudes , increased levels of serum IGF-1 , and decreased levels of serum homocysteine . The changes in IGF-1 levels were significantly correlated with the changes in RT and P3b amplitude of the oddball condition in the exercise group . In conclusion , significantly enhanced serum IGF-1 levels after 12 months of resistance exercise were inversely correlated with neurocognitive decline in the elderly . These findings suggest that regular resistance exercise might be a promising strategy to attenuate the trajectory of cognitive aging in healthy elderly individuals , possibly mediated by IGF-1 The current study examined how a r and omized one-year aerobic exercise program for healthy older adults would affect serum levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor ( BDNF ) , insulin-like growth factor type 1 ( IGF-1 ) , and vascular endothelial growth factor ( VEGF ) - putative markers of exercise-induced benefits on brain function . The study also examined whether ( a ) change in the concentration of these growth factors was associated with alterations in functional connectivity following exercise , and ( b ) the extent to which pre-intervention growth factor levels were associated with training-related changes in functional connectivity . In 65 participants ( mean age=66.4 ) , we found that although there were no group-level changes in growth factors as a function of the intervention , increased temporal lobe connectivity between the bilateral parahippocampus and the bilateral middle temporal gyrus was associated with increased BDNF , IGF-1 , and VEGF for an aerobic walking group but not for a non-aerobic control group , and greater pre-intervention VEGF was associated with greater training-related increases in this functional connection . Results are consistent with animal models of exercise and the brain , but are the first to show in humans that  exercise-induced increases in temporal lobe functional connectivity are associated with changes in growth factors and may be augmented by greater baseline VEGF Importance Cross-sectional associations between engagement in mentally stimulating activities and decreased odds of having mild cognitive impairment ( MCI ) or Alzheimer disease have been reported . However , little is known about the longitudinal outcome of incident MCI as predicted by late-life ( aged ≥70 years ) mentally stimulating activities . Objectives To test the hypothesis of an association between mentally stimulating activities in late life and the risk of incident MCI and to evaluate the influence of the apolipoprotein E ( APOE ) & egr;4 genotype . Design , Setting , and Participants This investigation was a prospect i ve , population -based cohort study of participants in the Mayo Clinic Study of Aging in Olmsted County , Minnesota . Participants 70 years or older who were cognitively normal at baseline were followed up to the outcome of incident MCI . The study date s were April 2006 to June 2016 . Main Outcomes and Measures At baseline , participants provided information about mentally stimulating activities  within 1 year before enrollment into the study . Neurocognitive assessment was conducted at baseline , with evaluations at 15-month intervals . Cognitive diagnosis was made by an expert consensus panel based on published criteria . Hazard ratios ( HRs ) and 95 % CIs were calculated using Cox proportional hazards regression models after adjusting for sex , age , and educational level . Results The final cohort consisted of 1929 cognitively normal persons ( median age at baseline , 77 years [ interquartile range , 74 - 82 years ] ; 50.4 % [ n = 973 ] female ) who were followed up to the outcome of incident MCI . During a median follow-up period of 4.0 years , it was observed that playing games ( HR , 0.78 ; 95 % CI , 0.65 - 0.95 ) and engaging in craft activities ( HR , 0.72 ; 95 % CI , 0.57 - 0.90 
    Output:
    
In healthy older adults , dose-parameters did not predict the magnitude of exercise effects on cognition .
For older adults with cognitive impairments , exercise programs with shorter session duration and higher frequency may generate the best cognitive results .