***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: The influence of information about the fat content of food and cardiovascular disease ( CVD ) prevention on taste ratings and food intake in a test meal was examined . Forty Ss were allocated at r and om to CVD information or control conditions . Ss rated 2 br and s of yogurt and 2 cheese s and wiches , with 1 flavor of each food labeled full-fat and the other low-fat . In fact , fat levels were identical , and the label-flavor pairings were counterbalanced . Overall , Ss gave lower liking ratings to the low-fat labeled foods . However , Ss in the information condition tended to eat a smaller proportion of the full-fat s and wiches . The results supported the utility of a laboratory setting for evaluating the influence of health-relevant information on responses to food OBJECTIVES This study examined the effects of pricing and promotion strategies on purchases of low-fat snacks from vending machines . METHODS  Low-fat snacks were added to 55 vending machines in a convenience sample of 12 secondary schools and 12 worksites . Four pricing levels ( equal price , 10 % reduction , 25 % reduction , 50 % reduction ) and 3 promotional conditions ( none , low-fat label , low-fat label plus promotional sign ) were crossed in a Latin square design . Sales of low-fat vending snacks were measured continuously for the 12-month intervention . RESULTS Price reductions of 10 % , 25 % , and 50 % on low-fat snacks were associated with significant increases in low-fat snack sales ; percentages of low-fat snack sales increased by 9 % , 39 % , and 93 % , respectively . Promotional signage was independently but weakly associated with increases in low-fat snack sales . Average profits per machine were not affected by the vending interventions . CONCLUSIONS Reducing relative prices on low-fat snacks was effective in promoting lower-fat snack purchases from vending machines in both adult and adolescent population The present study examined whether low-fat labeling and caloric information affect food intake , calorie estimates , taste preference , and health perceptions .  Participants included 175 female undergraduate students who were r and omly assigned to one of four experimental conditions . A 2 × 2 between subjects factorial design was used in which the fat content label and caloric information of chocolate c and y was manipulated . The differences in food intake across conditions did not reach statistical significance . However , participants significantly underestimated the calorie content of low-fat-labeled c and y. Participants also rated low-fat-labeled c and y as significantly better tasting when they had caloric information available . Participants endorsed more positive health attributions for low-fat-labeled c and y than for regular-labeled c and y , independent of caloric information . The inclusion of eating attitudes and behaviors as covariates did not alter the results . The study findings may be related to the " health halo " associated with low-fat foods and add to the research base by examining the interaction between low-fat and calorie labeling Systematic review s of health systems research commonly limit studies for evidence synthesis to r and omized controlled trials . However , well-conducted quasi-experimental studies can provide strong evidence for causal inference . With this article , we aim to stimulate and inform discussion s on including quasi-experiments in systematic review s of health systems research . We define quasi-experimental studies as those that estimate causal effect sizes using exogenous variation in the exposure of interest that is not directly controlled by the research er . We incorporate this definition into a non-hierarchical three-class taxonomy of study design s - experiments , quasi-experiments , and non-experiments . Based on a review of practice in three disciplines related to health systems research ( epidemiology , economics , and political science ) , we discuss five commonly used study design s that fit our definition of quasi-experiments : natural experiments , instrumental variable analyses , regression discontinuity analyses , interrupted times series studies , and difference studies including controlled before- and -after design s , difference-in-difference design s and fixed effects analyses of panel data . We further review current practice s regarding quasi-experimental studies in three non-health fields that utilize systematic review s ( education , development , and environment studies ) to inform the design of approaches for synthesizing quasi-experimental evidence in health systems research . Ultimately , the aim of any review is practical : to provide useful information for policymakers , practitioners , and research ers . Future work should focus on building a consensus among users and producers of systematic review s regarding the inclusion of quasi-experiments The effect of information about fat content on expected and actual sensory and hedonic ratings of regular- and reduced-fat Bologna sausages was studied using 115 young men . All the subjects rated the expected pleasantness , juiciness , saltiness and fattiness of " Bologna " . Subsequently , a sub-group of subjects ( " No information " , N=54 ) rated the unlabelled sample s after tasting . Another sub-group ( " Information " , N=61 ) rated the expected and actual pleasantness and attribute intensities of sample s labelled as " Regular type of Bologna ( 20 % fat ) " and " Light Bologna ( 10 % fat ) " . The sample s were not rated significantly different by the " No information " group . In the " Information " group , " Light Bologna " was expected to be less fatty , less salty , less juicy and less pleasant than " Regular type of Bologna " . After tasting , saltiness and fattiness of " Light Bologna " were rated lower while pleasantness and juiciness of the sample s were not significantly different . Actual saltiness and fattiness of " Light Bologna " were assimilated to the low expected intensities . Even that the hedonic ratings of " Light " and " Regular type of Bologna " differed only slightly , low expected pleasantness , juiciness and other attribute intensities imply that young men would not choose the product . Other information strategies might result in better acceptance by this target group There is some evidence for paradoxical effects of nutritional labelling on energy intake particularly amongst restrained eaters and those with a higher body mass index ( BMI ) result ing in greater consumption of energy from foods with a positive health message ( e.g. " low-fat " ) compared with the same foods , unlabelled . This study aim ed to investigate , in a UK general population sample , the likelihood of paradoxical effects of nutritional labelling on energy intake .  Participants ( n = 287 ) attended a London cinema  and were offered a large tub of salted or toffee popcorn . Participants were r and omised to receive their selected flavour with one of three labels : a green low-fat label , a red high-fat label or no label . Participants watched two film clips while completing measures of demographic characteristics , emotional state and taste of the popcorn . Following the experiment , popcorn consumption was measured . There were no main effects of nutritional labelling on consumption . Contrary to predictions neither BMI nor weight concern moderated the effect of label on consumption . There was a three-way interaction between low-fat label , weight concern and socioeconomic status ( SES ) such that weight-concerned participants of higher SES who saw a low-fat label consumed more than weight unconcerned participants of similar SES ( t = -2.7 , P = .04 ) . By contrast , weight-concerned participants of lower SES seeing either type of label , consumed less than those seeing no label ( t = -2.04 , P = .04 ) . Nutritional labelling may have different effects in different socioeconomic groups . Further studies are required to underst and fully the possible contribution of food labelling to health inequalities BACKGROUND In the U.S. , limited evidence exists on the impact of colors and br and imagery used in cigarette pack design . PURPOSE This study examined the impact of pack design , product descriptors , and health warnings on risk perception and br and appeal . METHODS A cross-sectional mall-intercept study was conducted with 197 adult smokers and 200 nonsmokers in Buffalo NY from June to July 2009 ( data analysis from July 2009 to December 2010 ) . Participants were shown 12 sets of packs r and omly ; each set varied by a particular design feature ( color , descriptor ) or warning label style ( text versus graphic , size , attribution , message framing ) . Packs were rated on criteria including risk perceptions , quit motivation , and purchase interest . RESULTS Participants selected larger , pictorial , and loss-framed warning labels as more likely to attract attention , encourage thoughts about health risks , motivate quitting , and be most effective . Participants were more likely to select packs with lighter color shading and descriptors such as light , silver , and smooth as delivering less tar , smoother taste , and lower health risk , compared to darker-shaded or full-flavor packs . Additionally , participants were more likely to select the br and ed compared to plain white pack when asked which delivered the most tar , smoothest taste , was more attractive , appealed to youth aged < 18 years , and contained cigarettes of better quality . CONCLUSIONS The findings support larger , graphic health warnings that convey loss-framed messages as most effective in communicating health risks to U.S. adults . The results also indicate that color and product descriptors are associated with false beliefs about risks . Plain packaging may reduce many of the erroneous misperceptions of risk communicated through pack design features This study examined the effects of an environmental intervention promoting more non-energy-containing beverage consumption compared to sugar-sweetened soft drink consumption through vending machines in an urban college setting . Eight soft drink vending machines were r and omly selected and assigned to one of three conditions over a 9-week period : energy-content labels on non-energy-containing beverage selection panels ( intervention I ) , labels plus motivational posters ( intervention II ) , or control . The totals of all beverages sold and machine revenue were recorded at baseline ( 2 weeks ) , intervention ( 5 weeks ) , and postintervention ( 2 weeks ) periods . Use of energy-content labels and motivational posters , compared with control group , result ed in a significantly lower growth rate of sugar-sweetened beverage sales ( P<0.05 ) . Total revenue for all beverages increased during the intervention period . It is estimated that the non-energy-containing beverages combined accounted for 70.52 % of the increased revenue . Results of this study suggest that energy-content labels and motivational posters on beverage vending machines may be an effective way to influence beverage sales 
    Output:
    
Overall very low quality evidence suggested that exposure to ‘ Low alcohol ’ and equivalent labelling on alcohol , food and tobacco products can shift consumer perceptions of products , with the potential to ‘ self-licence ’ excess consumption .
Conclusions Considerable uncertainty remains about the effects of labels denoting low alcohol , and equivalent labels , on alcohol , food and tobacco selection and consumption .