***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: Both menstrual phase and nicotine have been shown to affect task performance . Though conflicting results have been reported , at least one well-controlled study has demonstrated that women at midluteal phase show superior performance on speech articulation and speeded motor coordination tests , but poorer performance on perceptual-spatial tests , than during menses . Smokers have demonstrated superior performance on numerous tasks following nicotine than following placebo . To explore the separate and combined influence of these factors , we studied 13 regularly-menstruating smokers using a two ( smoking vs. 12 hours ' abstinence ) by two ( menstrual vs. midluteal phase ) factorial design . During each session , subjects completed a test battery including two speeded motor coordination tasks , a computerized reaction time test , and the Stroop ( 1935 ) color/word test .  Subjects completed the  Stroop color and color-word tasks  significantly faster after ad lib smoking than after overnight abstinence . No other significant differences emerged . Our findings replicate , in an all-female sample , previous reports that speed of cognitive processing is reduced by nicotine abstinence ( or enhanced by nicotine administration ) . Our failure to observe menstrual cycle effects raises the possibility that the anti-estrogenic effects of smoking may attenuate phase differences in performance Much research has shown that individuals exhibit an attentional bias to stimuli related to their current concerns or pathologies . Using the emotional Stroop task , we investigated attentional bias in smokers . Ninety-six smokers either abstained from smoking for 24 hr or smoked normally before color-naming smoking-related and neutral words . Both a blocked format ( smoking and neutral words presented in separate blocks ) and an unblocked format ( smoking and neutral words presented in a mixed r and om sequence ) were used . In the blocked format , abstinence caused an attentional bias to smoking-related stimuli , and the degree of attentional bias predicted the latency to the first cigarette of the morning . However , different results were obtained from the unblocked version of the task . We conclude that the emotional Stroop task is a useful tool to measure attentional bias in smokers and could be used in cessation studies The emotional Stroop task was used to examine the influence of opportunity to smoke on attentional bias to smoking-related stimuli . At the outset of the study , 92 nicotine-deprived smokers were told that they ( a ) would , ( b ) would not , or ( c ) might be able to smoke during the experiment . Next , participants completed an emotional Stroop task , in which they were presented with smoking-related or -unrelated words in an unblocked format . Smokers demonstrated interference to the smoking words , relative to matched neutral words , F(1 , 87 ) = 18.0 , p < .0001 . Moreover , smoking opportunity affected the degree of interference , F(2 , 87 ) = 4.35 , p < .02 , with participants who had been told they would be able to smoke during the study showing the most interference . The results suggest that smoking opportunity affects the salience of smoking-related stimuli among nicotine-deprived smokers Recent theories of addiction suggest that an attentional bias for drug-related cues plays an important role in maintaining drug-taking behaviours . A key feature of the present study is that it used three different meas ures of processing bias for linguistic and pictorial smoking-related cues : masked and unmasked conditions of the modified Stroop task , and a pictorial version of the visual probe task .  Participants were smokers ( n= 27 ) , who were tested twice , with deprivation level manipulated as a within-subjects variable . They were asked to abstain from smoking for 12 h before one session , and to smoke normally before the other . Results were consistent with an attentional bias for smoking-related pictures on the visual probe task , and for smoking-related words in the unmasked condition of the modified Stroop task . The latter bias was most strongly predicted by self-reported urge to smoke , rather than by the deprivation manipulation . There was no evidence of a preconscious bias for smoking cues . The three measures of cognitive bias ( from masked and unmasked Stroop and visual probe tasks ) were not significantly correlated with each other , which suggests they may tap different underlying mechanisms . We discuss the results with respect to conceptualizations ofselective attention , addiction and motivational states in general As many as one-half of smokers relapse in the first week following a quit attempt , and subjective reports of cognitive deficits in early abstinence are associated with increased relapse risk . This study examined whether objective cognitive performance after 3 days of abstinence predicts smoking resumption in a 7-day simulated quit attempt . Sixty-seven treatment-seeking smokers received either varenicline or placebo ( r and omized double-blind ) for 21 days . Following medication run-up ( days 1 - 10 ) , there was a 3-day m and atory ( biochemically confirmed ) abstinence period ( days 11 - 13 ) during which working memory ( Letter-N-Back Task ) and sustained attention ( Continuous Performance Task ) were assessed ( day 13 ) . Participants were then exposed to a scheduled smoking lapse and instructed to try to remain abstinent for the next 7 days ( days 15 - 21 ) . Poorer cognitive performance ( slower correct reaction time on Letter-N-Back task ) during abstinence predicted more rapid smoking resumption among those receiving placebo ( p=0.038 ) but not among those receiving varenicline . These data lend further support for the growing recognition that cognitive deficits involving working memory are a core symptom of nicotine withdrawal and a potential target for the development of pharmacological and behavioral treatments Rationale Attentional biases and executive control deficits may play a role in smoking cessation failure . Objectives The object of this study was to determine whether smokers ' pre-quit reaction times on a computerized modified Simon task ( which assesses attentional biases and executive control deficits ) predict abstinence following a quit attempt . Methods Participants ( N = 365 ) in a larger smoking cessation clinical trial completed the modified Simon task twice ( while 10-h nicotine-deprived vs. not deprived ) . In the task , two photographs ( i.e. , two digital slides ) were displayed — one always neutral , the other positive , negative , smoking-relevant , or neutral . A probe ( < < < or > > > ) then appeared to the left or right of center , and participants indicated the arrow 's direction ( left or right ) which was either congruent or incongruent with the arrow 's location on the screen . The incongruency effect , a measure of executive control , was calculated by subtracting the reaction time to congruent probes from the reaction time to incongruent probes . Results Greater impairment in executive control ( i.e. , greater probe incongruency effects ) after viewing positive and smoking slides relative to negative slides predicted an inability to establish initial cessation and to maintain abstinence up to 8 weeks post-quit . Conclusions These effects may be because smokers who avoid/escape from processing negative affect are more likely to fail in a cessation attempt . Differences in relatively automatic responses to affective cues distinguish smokers who are successful and unsuccessful in their smoking cessation attempts , but effects were modest in size The discovery of the role of nicotinic receptors in attention and memory has led to the testing of nicotinic analogs as cognitive enhancing agents in patient population s. Empirical information about nicotine 's ability to enhance elements of attention and memory in normal individuals might guide development of therapeutic uses of nicotine in cognitively impaired population s. The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of nicotine on continuous attention , working memory , and computational processing in tobacco-deprived and nondeprived smokers . A total of 28 smokers ( 14 men , 14 women ) participated in a double-blind , placebo-controlled , within-subject study , in which they were overnight ( 12 h ) tobacco deprived at one session and smoked ad libitum before the other session . At each session , participants received 0 , 1 , and 2 mg nicotine via nasal spray in r and om order at 90 min intervals . Before and after each dose , a battery of cognitive , subjective , and physiological measures was administered , and blood sample s were taken for plasma nicotine concentration . Overnight tobacco deprivation result ed in impaired functioning on all cognitive tests and increased self-reports of tobacco craving and negative mood ; nicotine normalized these deficits . In the nondeprived condition , nicotine enhanced performance on the continuous performance test ( CPT ) and an arithmetic test in a dose-related manner , but had no effect on working memory . In general , women were more sensitive than men to the subjective effects of nicotine . These results provide an unequivocal determination that nicotine enhanced attentional and computational abilities in nondeprived smokers and suggest these cognitive domains as substrates for novel therapeutic indications INTRODUCTION A significant percentage of smokers attempting cessation lapse to smoking within a matter of days , and current models of relapse devote insufficient attention to such early smoking lapse . Studies attempting to relate severity of nicotine withdrawal symptoms to short-term smoking cessation outcomes have yielded equivocal results . How one reacts to the discomfort of nicotine withdrawal and quitting smoking ( i.e. , distress tolerance ) may be a more promising avenue of investigation with important treatment implication s. METHODS The present investigation examined distress tolerance and early smoking lapse using a prospect i ve design . Participants were 81 adult daily smokers recruited through newspaper advertisements targeted at smokers planning to quit smoking without assistance ( i.e. , no pharmacotherapy or psychosocial treatment ; 42 males and 39 females ; mean age = 42.6 years , SD = 12.20 ) . RESULTS As hypothesized , both greater breath-holding duration and carbon dioxide-enriched air persistence were associated with a significantly lower risk of smoking lapse following an unaided quit attempt . These effects were above and beyond the risk associated with levels of nicotine dependence , education , and history of major depressive disorder , suggesting that distress tolerance and task persistence may operate independently of risk factors such as nicotine dependence and depressive history . In contrast to expectation , persistence on the Paced Auditory Serial Addition Test ( a psychological challenge task ) was not a significant predictor of earlier smoking lapse . DISCUSSION These results are discussed in relation to refining theoretical models of the role of distress tolerance in early smoking lapse and the utility of such models in the development of specialized treatment approaches for smoking cessation Rationale Smokers report enhanced concentration after cigarette smoking and difficulty concentrating when abstinent from smoking . These perceived effects may contribute to smoking cessation failures , and if so , clarification of their cognitive bases could inform treatment strategies . Selective attention may be important in this regard , but earlier literature presents inconsistent findings on how smoking abstinence and resumption of smoking influence this cognitive function . Objectives We aim ed to compare smokers and nonsmokers on selective attention , and in smokers , to test the effects of overnight abstinence from smoking and of acute smoking on selective attention . Material s and methods Smokers and nonsmokers ( n = 43 ) performed a Stroop test ( two test days , two test blocks per day ) . Smokers participated after overnight abstinence and also within 1-h of ad libitum smoking .  Smokers each smoked a cigarette between test blocks on each day ; nonsmokers did not . Results Smokers demonstrated longer response latencies for both congruent and incongruent stimuli after overnight than brief abstinence , but no deficit specifically related to selective attention . Whereas nonsmokers showed no changes in performance in the second test block , smoking between blocks reduced the Stroop effect when smokers were abstinent overnight . Conclusions These data are consistent with the hypothesis that abstinence from smoking among nicotine-dependent individuals has deleterious effects on cognitive performance , but do not indicate that selective attention is adversely effected . Improvement in selective attention after terminating abstinence with one cigarette may also contribute to smokers ’ perceived enhanced ability to concentrate after smoking The aim of this study was to investigate selective processing biases towards smoking-related stimuli in relation to acute abstinence and smoking history . Differences in the processing of smoking-related and control cues in current smokers , ex-smokers and never-smokers on the modified Stroop task were investigated , with smokers r and omized to either abstain or smoke normally for a period of 24 h. The results indicated no significant effect of deprivation ( abstinent versus non-abstinent smokers ) , or of smoking history ( ex- versus never-smokers ) on colour-naming times for smoking-related versus control words . However , there was a significant effect of smoking status ( current versus non-smokers ) on colour-naming times for smoking words compared to control words ( i.e. slower colour-naming of smoking-related words in smokers ) . This effect approached significance when stimuli were presented in a masked exposure condition . Among smokers , colour-naming interference was associated with the personality trait of Sensitivity to Reward . These results indicate a processing bias for smoking-related cues in current smokers . However , this bias does not appear to be a permanent feature of nicotine addiction , given the lack of difference between ex-smokers and never-smokers Smokers ( n = 315 ) who wished to quit were r and omly assigned in a double-blind manner to groups using either nicotine or placebo gum . Self-reported and observed symptoms of  tobacco withdrawal  were collected before cessation and at follow-ups of 1 to 2 weeks , 1 month , and 6 months . Self-reported and /or observed anger , anxiety , craving , difficulty concentr 
    Output:
    
Compared with satiated smokers , acutely abstinent smokers display higher delay discounting , lower response inhibition , impaired arithmetic and recognition memory performance .
However , reaction-time measures of cognitive bias appear to be unaffected by acute tobacco abstinence .