***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: Background Declines in cognitive functioning are a normal part of aging that can affect daily functioning and quality of life . This study will examine the impact of an exercise training program , and a combined exercise and cognitive training program , on the cognitive and physical functioning of older adults . Methods / Design Fit Bodies , Fine Minds is a r and omized , controlled trial . Community-dwelling adults , aged between 65 and 75 years , are r and omly allocated to one of three groups for 16 weeks . The exercise-only group do three 60-minute exercise sessions per week . The exercise and cognitive training group do two 60-minute exercise sessions and one 60-minute cognitive training session per week . A no-training control group is contacted every 4 weeks . Measures of cognitive functioning , physical fitness and psychological well-being are taken at baseline ( 0 weeks ) , post-test ( 16 weeks ) and 6-month follop ( 40 weeks ) . Qualitative responses to the program are taken at post-test . Discussion With an increasingly aged population , interventions to improve the functioning and quality of life of older adults are particularly important . Exercise training , either alone or in combination with cognitive training , may be an effective means of optimizing cognitive functioning in older adults . This study will add to the growing evidence base on the effectiveness of these interventions .Trial Registration Australian Clinical Trials Register : BACKGROUND in a secondary analysis of a r and omised controlled trial , we investigated whether 6 months of music-based multitask training had beneficial effects on cognitive functioning and mood in older adults . METHODS 134 community-dwellers aged ≥65 years at increased risk for falling were r and omly assigned to either an intervention group ( n = 66 ) who attended once weekly 1-h supervised group classes of multitask exercises , executed to the rhythm of piano music , or a control group with delayed intervention ( n = 68 ) who maintained usual lifestyle habits , for 6 months . A short neuropsychological test battery was administered by an intervention-blinded neuropsychologist at baseline and Month 6 , including the mini-mental state examination ( MMSE ) , the clock-drawing test , the frontal assessment battery ( FAB ) and the hospital anxiety ( HADS-A ) and depression scale . RESULTS intention-to-treat analysis showed an improvement in the sensitivity to interference subtest of the FAB ( adjusted between-group mean difference ( AMD ) , 0.12 ; 95 % CI , 0.00 to 0.25 ; P = 0.047 ) and a reduction in anxiety level ( HADS-A ; AMD , -0.88 ; 95 % CI , -1.73 to -0.05 ; P = 0.039 ) in intervention participants , as compared with the controls . Within-group analysis revealed an increase in MMSE score ( P = 0.004 ) and a reduction in the number of participants with impaired global cognitive performance ( i.e. , MMSE score ≤23 ; P = 0.003 ) with intervention . CONCLUSION six months of once weekly music-based multitask training was associated with improved cognitive function and decreased anxiety in community-dwelling older adults , compared with non-exercising controls . Studies design ed to further delineate whether training-induced changes in cognitive function could contribute to dual-task gait improvements and falls reduction , remain to be conducted Background While many studies confirm the positive effect of cognitive and physical training on cognitive performance of older adults , only little is known about the effects of simultaneously performed cognitive and physical training . In the current study , older adults simultaneously performed a verbal working memory and a cardiovascular training to improve cognitive and motor-cognitive dual task performance . Twenty training sessions of 30 minutes each were conducted over a period of ten weeks , with a test session before , in the middle , and after the training . Training gains were tested in measures of selective attention , paired-associates learning , executive control , reasoning , memory span , information processing speed , and motor-cognitive dual task performance in the form of walking and simultaneously performing a working memory task . Results Sixty-three participants with a mean age of 71.8 ± 4.9 years ( range 65 to 84 ) either performed the simultaneous training ( N = 21 ) , performed a single working memory training ( N = 16 ) , or attended no training at all ( N = 26 ) . The results indicate similar training progress and larger improvements in the executive control task for both training groups when compared to the passive control group . In addition , the simultaneous training result ed in larger improvements compared to the single cognitive training in the paired-associates task and was able to reduce the step-to-step variability during the motor-cognitive dual task when compared to the single cognitive training and the passive control group . Conclusions The simultaneous training of cognitive and physical abilities presents a promising training concept to improve cognitive and motor-cognitive dual task performance , offering greater potential on daily life functioning , which usually involves the recruitment of multiple abilities and re sources rather than a single one Background Physical activity reduces the incidence and progression of cognitive impairment . Cognitive-motor dual-task training , which requires dividing attention between cognitive tasks and exercise , may improve various cognitive domains ; therefore , we examined the effect of dual-task training on the executive functions and on plasma amyloid β peptide ( Aβ ) 42/40 ratio , a potent biomarker of Alzheimer ’s disease , in healthy elderly people . Methods Twenty-seven sedentary elderly people participated in a 12-week r and omized , controlled trial . The subjects assigned to the dual-task training ( DT ) group underwent a specific cognitive-motor dual-task training , and then the clinical outcomes , including cognitive functions by the Modified Mini-Mental State ( 3MS ) examination and the Trail-Making Test ( TMT ) , and the plasma Aβ 42/40 ratio following the intervention were compared with those of the control single-task training ( ST ) group by unpaired t-test . Results Among 27 participants , 25 completed the study . The total scores in the 3MS examination as well as the muscular strength of quadriceps were equally improved in both groups after the training . The specific cognitive domains , “ registration & recall ” , “ attention ” , “ verbal fluency & underst and ing ” , and “ visuospatial skills ” were significantly improved only in the DT group . Higher scores in “ attention ” , “ verbal fluency & underst and ing ” , and “ similarities ” were found in the DT group than in the ST group at post-intervention . The absolute changes in the total ( 8.5 ± 1.6 vs 2.4 ± 0.9 , p = 0.004 , 95 % confidence interval ( CI ) 0.75―3.39 ) and in the scores of “ attention ” ( 1.9 ± 0.5 vs −0.2 ± 0.4 , p = 0.004 , 95 % CI 2.25―9.98 ) were greater in the DT group than in the ST group . We found no changes in the TMT results in either group . Plasma Aβ 42/40 ratio decreased in both groups following the training ( ST group : 0.63 ± 0.13 to 0.16 ± 0.03 , p = 0.001 ; DT group : 0.60 ± 0.12 to 0.25 ± 0.06 , p = 0.044 ) , although the pre- and post-intervention values were not different between the groups for either measure . Conclusions Cognitive-motor dual-task training was more beneficial than single-task training alone in improving broader domains of cognitive functions of elderly persons , and the improvement was not directly due to modulating Aβ metabolism We have recently shown that a single bout of acute cardiovascular exercise improves motor skill learning through an optimization of long-term motor memory . Here we exp and this previous finding , to explore potential exercise-related biomarkers and their association with measures of motor memory and skill acquisition .  Thirty-two healthy young male subjects were r and omly allocated into either an exercise or control group . Following either an intense bout of cycling or rest subjects practice d a visuomotor tracking task .  Motor skill acquisition was assessed during practice and retention 1 h , 24 h and 7 days after practice . Plasma levels of brain-derived neurotrophic factor ( BDNF ) , vascular endothelial growth factor ( VEGF ) , insulin-like growth factor ( IGF-1 ) , epinephrine , norepinephrine , dopamine and lactate were analyzed at baseline , immediately after exercise or rest and during motor practice . The exercise group showed significantly better skill retention 24h and 7 days after acquisition . The concentration of all blood compounds increased significantly immediately after exercise and remained significantly elevated for 15 min following exercise except for BDNF and VEGF . Higher concentrations of norepinephrine and lactate immediately after exercise were associated with better acquisition . Higher concentrations of BDNF correlated with better retention 1 h and 7 days after practice . Similarly , higher concentrations of norepinephrine were associated with better retention 7 days after practice whereas lactate correlated with better retention 1h as well as 24 h and 7 days after practice . Thus , improvements in motor skill acquisition and retention induced by acute cardiovascular exercise are associated with increased concentrations of biomarkers involved in memory and learning processes . More mechanistic studies are required to eluci date the specific role of each biomarker in the formation of motor memory The purpose of the present investigation was to examine the impact of speed of processing training on the cognitive and everyday abilities of older adults with initial processing speed or processing difficulty . Participants were r and omized to either a  speed of processing intervention or a social- and computer-contact control group . Results indicate that speed of processing training not only improves processing speed , as indicated by performance on the Useful Field of View test ( UFOV ® ) , but also transfers to certain everyday functions , as indicated by improved performance on Timed Instrumental Activities of Daily Living ( Timed IADL ) . Transfer of speed of processing training to other cognitive domains was not evident . This study provides additional evidence that  speed of processing training has the potential to enhance everyday functions that maintain independence and quality of life , particularly when the training is targeted toward individuals who most need it . Further study is needed to learn about the long-term effects of such training in relation to everyday abilities CONTEXT Cognitive function in older adults is related to independent living and need for care . However , few studies have addressed whether improving cognitive functions might have short- or long-term effects on activities related to living independently . OBJECTIVE To evaluate whether 3 cognitive training interventions improve mental abilities and daily functioning in older , independent-living adults . DESIGN R and omized , controlled , single-blind trial with recruitment conducted from March 1998 to October 1999 and 2-year follow-up through December 2001 . SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS Volunteer sample of 2832 persons aged 65 to 94 years recruited from senior housing , community centers , and hospital/clinics in 6 metropolitan areas in the United States . INTERVENTIONS Participants were r and omly assigned to 1 of 4 groups : 10-session group training for memory ( verbal episodic memory ; n = 711 ) , or reasoning ( ability to solve problems that follow a serial pattern ; n = 705 ) , or speed of processing ( visual search and identification ; n = 712 ) ; or a no-contact control group ( n = 704 ) . For the 3 treatment groups , 4-session booster training was offered to a 60 % r and om sample 11 months later . MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES Cognitive function and cognitively dem and ing everyday functioning . RESULTS Thirty participants were incorrectly r and omized and were excluded from the analysis . Each intervention improved the targeted cognitive ability compared with baseline , durable to 2 years ( P<.001 for all ) . Eighty-seven percent of speed- , 74 % of reasoning- , and 26 % of memory-trained participants demonstrated reliable cognitive improvement immediately after the intervention period . Booster training enhanced training gains in speed ( P<.001 ) and reasoning ( P<.001 ) interventions ( speed booster , 92 % ; no booster , 68 % ; reasoning booster , 72 % ; no booster , 49 % ) , which were maintained at 2-year follow-up ( P<.001 for both ) . No training effects on everyday functioning were detected at 2 years . CONCLUSIONS Results support the effectiveness and durability of the cognitive training interventions in improving targeted cognitive abilities . Training effects were of a magnitude equivalent to the amount of decline expected in elderly persons without dementia over 7- to 14-year intervals . Because of minimal functional decline across all groups , longer follow-up is likely required to observe training effects on everyday function Background The efficacy of non-pharmacological intervention approaches such as physical activity , strength , and cognitive training for improving brain health has not been established . Before definitive trials are mounted , important design questions on participation/adherence , training and interventions effects must be answered to more fully inform a full-scale trial . Methods SHARP-P was a single-blinded r and omized controlled pilot trial of a 4-month physical activity training intervention ( PA ) and /or cognitive training intervention ( CT ) in a 2 × 2 factorial design with a health education control condition in 73 community-dwelling persons , aged 70 - 85 years , who were at risk for cognitive decline but did not have mild cognitive impairment . Results Intervention attendance rates were higher in the CT and PACT groups : CT : 96 % , PA : 76 % , PACT : 90 % ( p=0.004 ) , the interventions produced marked changes in cognitive and physical performance measures ( p≤0.05 ) , and retention rates exceeded 90 % . There were no statistically significant differences in  
    Output:
    
It appears that either simultaneous or subsequently combined physical and cognitive training is more successful compared to single physical or single cognitive exercise .
Training characteristics like length , frequency , duration , intensity and level of task difficulty seem to determine cognitive performance .
However , the articles show that cognitive improvement seems to remain somewhat confined to trained cognitive functions rather than generalising to other cognitive or daily-living skills .