***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: Little is known about the role that smoking cues play in relapse after smoking cessation . Two studies examined the psychophysiologic , behavioral and cognitive reactions of Ss who participated in a smoking cue-exposure trial ( CUET ) .  Study 1 compared male relapsers , long-term quitters and nevers-mokers ( controls ) . Relapsers had significantly higher anxiety and urges to smoke than either quitters or controls . Relapsers also had greater heart-rate ( HR ) reactivity and were rated by judges as having less effective coping skills than controls . In Study 2 the CUET was tested prospect ively in a treatment outcome study for smoking cessation . Responses on the CUET at pre-treatment were related to smoking status at 6 months post-treatment . Prospect i ve quitters had significantly less HR reactivity during the CUET and reported less anxiety than the smokers . There was some lack of consistency across response modes in the results of Studies 1 and 2 . Taken together , the two studies suggest that reactivity to smoking cues may play a role in smoking relapse INTRODUCTION Some studies using ecological momentary assessment ( EMA ) have revealed an association between craving for cigarettes and relapse . It is therefore important to underst and the correlates of craving during smoking cessation . Attentional bias to smoking cues is a potential correlate of craving , but it has not previously been assessed using EMA during smoking cessation . METHODS Smokers enrolled in a research smoking cessation study were offered the opportunity to take part in an EMA study . Volunteers carried around a personal digital assistant ( PDA ) for the first week of their quit attempt . They completed up to 4 r and om assessment s ( RAs ) per day as well as assessment s when they experienced a temptation to smoke and when they relapsed . Craving for cigarettes was assessed with a single item ( 1 - 7 scale ) . Attentional bias was assessed with a  smoking Stroop task ( a reaction time task ) at every other assessment , as was self-reported attention to cigarettes . RESULTS Data were available from 119 participants . Across 882 assessment s , participants exhibited a significant smoking Stroop effect . Linear mixed models revealed a significant between-subject association between craving and the smoking Stroop effect . Individuals with higher levels of craving exhibited greater attentional bias . The within-subject association was not significant . Similar results were obtained for the relationship between self-reported attention to cigarettes and attentional bias . CONCLUSIONS Attentional bias can be assessed in the natural environment using EMA during smoking cessation , and attentional bias is a correlate of craving during the early stages of a quit attempt A cue-reactivity paradigm was used to investigate the effects of personalizing imagery material s on smokers ' reactivity to smoking cues . Cigarette smokers ( n = 60 ) described situations used to create 4 personalized imagery scripts : positive mood/urge , positive mood/no urge , neutral mood/urge , and neutral mood/no urge . Their reactivity to these scripts as well as 4 st and ardized imagery scripts and 4 personalized scripts of another smoker was assessed . Personalization led to greater vividness , positive mood , and relevance ratings compared with the other 2 script types . Personalization of urge material did not enhance craving beyond that generated by the other 2 script types but did suppress craving under no-urge conditions . Findings st and in contrast to current conceptualizations of craving regarding the proposed impact of personalization on craving and suggest alternative mechanisms by which imagery cues influence craving generation The current study investigates effects of a brief mindfulness-based instruction set , based on Marlatt 's " urge surfing " technique ( Marlatt & Gordon , 1985 ) , on smoking-related urges and behavior .  Undergraduate smokers ( N = 123 ) who were interested in changing their smoking , but not currently involved in a cessation program , participated in a cue exposure paradigm design ed to elicit urges to smoke . They were r and omly assigned either to a group receiving brief mindfulness-based instructions or to a no-instruction control group . Results suggest that groups did not differ significantly on measures of urges . However , those in the mindfulness group smoked significantly fewer cigarettes over a 7-day follow-up period as compared to those in the control group . These findings suggest that the mindfulness techniques may not initially reduce urges to smoke but may change the response to urges . The study provides preliminary data for future studies examining both mechanisms and effectiveness of mindfulness-based interventions for cigarette smoking INTRODUCTION The objective of this study was to investigate the effect of smoking cues in movies on immediate smoking behavior . We tested whether smokers who are confronted with smoking characters in a movie  smoke more cigarettes while watching than those confronted with non-smoking characters and whether this effect is less profound when smokers are more involved in the narrative ( i.e. , transportation ) . METHOD Using an experimental design , 60 daily smokers were assigned r and omly to one of two movie conditions ( smoking vs. non-smoking characters ) . Participants were exposed to a 72-min movie clip and were allowed to smoke while watching the movie .  Transportation and smoking habits were assessed with a question naire afterward . RESULTS The results showed a significant interaction effect between movie condition and transportation on immediate smoking behavior , indicating that smokers who were less transported smoked significantly more cigarettes when they were exposed to smoking characters compared with non-smoking characters . DISCUSSION These results call for ( a ) increasing the awareness among people about the effect smoking cues in movies might have and ( b ) stricter control over smoking cues in movies Background Exposure to smoking-related cues leads to increased urge to smoke in regular cigarette smokers and resisting these urges requires considerable self-control . Purpose Adopting a re source depletion model , two studies tested the hypothesis that resisting smoking urges depletes self-control re sources . Methods Adopting a within- participants r and omized cross-over design , participants ( study 1 , N = 19 ; study 2 , N = 32 ) were exposed to smoking-related ( study 1 : smoking images ; study 2 : cigarette cue-exposure task ) and neutral ( study 1 : neutral images ; study 2 : drinking-straw task ) cues with presentation order r and omized . After each cue set , participants completed self-control tasks ( study 1 : h and grip task ; study 2 : h and grip and Stroop tasks ) , performance on which constituted dependent measures of self-control . Results Self-control task performance was significantly impaired when exposed to smoking-related cues compared to neutral cues . No significant presentation-order effects , or interaction effects between stimulus and presentation order , were found . Conclusions Findings corroborate our hypothesis that resisting smoking urges depletes cigarette smokers ’ self-control re sources and suggests that self-control capacity is governed by a limited re source Exposure to the sight and smell of food influences our momentary desire to consume it . This study explored the process by which cue exposure promotes greater consumption of food . Three hypotheses were explored , cue exposure : ( i ) increases the planned consumption of food ; ( ii ) increases tolerance of larger portion sizes ; ( iii ) arrests the development of satiety . Female participants ( n 50 ) were each tested in two conditions . In a ' cue condition ' they were exposed to the sight and smell of pizza for 60 s. Before and after this period they provided information about prospect i ve and maximum tolerated portion sizes and their desire to eat pizza and other non-cued foods . Participants then consumed a fixed portion of pizza , rated their hunger and were finally offered ad libitum access to pizza . In the ' no-cue condition ' , cue exposure was replaced with a cognitive task . Cueing had little effect on tolerance of larger portion sizes or on hunger after consuming the fixed portion . Instead , it increased prospect i ve pizza portion size and subsequent intake of pizza . Together , these results suggest that cueing increases the amount of food that people actively plan to eat . This plan is then executed , leading to greater intake .  Pizza cueing also increased prospect i ve portion size of other foods . Thus , contrary to previous reports , effects of exposure may generalize to other foods . Finally , we found evidence that restrained eaters are less ' cue reactive ' than unrestrained eaters . In future , our approach might be adapted to consider whether heightened ' cue reactivity ' represents a risk factor for obesity The effects of exposure to two classes of smoking-relevant cues ( environmental ; negative affect ) on desire to smoke and smoking topography were evaluated . Sixty chronic smokers were r and omly assigned to one of six groups in a two-way ANOVA design in which the salience of environmental cues and presence of negative affective cues were manipulated . This was followed by a 20-minute interval during which ad libitum smoking was videotaped in an unobtrusive manner . Results indicated that the experimental manipulations differentially influenced ratings of desire and topographical components of smoking behavior . Implication s are raised regarding the role of cue reactivity in the maintenance of smoking behavior AIMS Many theories of addiction assume that responses to drug cues maintain drug use and precipitate relapse . There is evidence that measures derived from experimental cognitive psychology yield important information about cue reactivity . We used a pictorial version of the visual probe task to evaluate : ( i ) whether minimally deprived smokers attend differentially to smoking cues ( attentional bias ) ; ( ii ) whether this bias is related to self-reported craving and dependence ; and ( iii ) whether it predicted outcome in a subsequent cessation attempt . DESIGN Participants took part in a structured smoking cessation program . Each participant completed the visual probe task roughly 2 weeks before quitting while non-deprived . SETTING A research smoking cessation clinic . PARTICIPANTS 141 heavy smokers seeking treatment for smoking cessation . MEASUREMENTS The computerized attentional bias measure and self-reported urge were taken in a laboratory session . Participants also monitored their smoking and craving on electronic diaries both when smoking ad libitum and for up to 6 weeks post-cessation . FINDINGS Participants were faster and more accurate in responding to a visual probe that replaced a smoking picture than to a neutral picture , indicating that they showed attentional bias towards the smoking cues . Attentional bias on the first half of the task correlated with pre-task craving , indicating that the bias may tap motivational processes , but it did not predict outcome in smoking cessation . CONCLUSIONS The visual probe task can add useful information about attentional responses to drug cues . Further work is required to uncover the theoretical significance and utility of this measure Using Tiffany 's ( 1990 ) cognitive model of drug use and craving as a theoretical basis , the present experiments investigated whether cravings for food expend limited cognitive re sources . Cognitive performance was assessed by simple reaction time ( Experiment 1 ) and an established measure of working memory capacity , the operation span task ( Experiment 2 ) . In each experiment , female undergraduate students were r and omly assigned to a  craving or control condition .  Participants in the craving condition abstained from eating chocolate for 24 hours prior to testing and performed the cognitive task in the presence of chocolate , a manipulation that successfully elicited chocolate cravings . In both experiments , there was no main effect of craving condition on cognition , but there was a significant interaction between condition and trait chocolate craving . In support of Tiffany 's model , our results show that habitual food cravers direct limited cognitive re sources to craving-related cues , at the cost of competing cognitive dem and Recent theories of addiction suggest that an attentional bias for drug-related cues plays an important role in maintaining drug-taking behaviours . A key feature of the present study is that it used three different meas ures of processing bias for linguistic and pictorial smoking-related cues : masked and unmasked conditions of the modified Stroop task , and a pictorial version of the visual probe task .  Participants were smokers ( n= 27 ) , who were tested twice , with deprivation level manipulated as a within-subjects variable . They were asked to abstain from smoking for 12 h before one session , and to smoke normally before the other . Results were consistent with an attentional bias for smoking-related pictures on the visual probe task , and for smoking-related words in the unmasked condition of the modified Stroop task . The latter bias was most strongly predicted by self-reported urge to smoke , rather than by the deprivation manipulation . There was no evidence of a preconscious bias for smoking cues . The three measures of cognitive bias ( from masked and unmasked Stroop and visual probe tasks ) were not significantly correlated with each other , which suggests they may tap different underlying mechanisms . We discuss the results with respect to conceptualizations ofselective attention , addiction and motivational states in general The construct validity of smoking urge was examined through investigation of the effects of an environmental smoking cue manipulation on subjective smoking urge ratings and on the physiological , behavioral and cognitive responses hypothesized to relate to smoking urges . Forty-eight moderate cigarette smokers served as participants . All participants underwent an exposure to smoking cues condition and a nonexposure condition . Order of conditions was counterbalanced across participants . Results indicated that measures of physiological response , cognitions , and behavior vary with urge to smoke . Higher physiological indices and closer association between specific cognitive measures and smoking urges occurred under the cue exposure manipulation . Results were interpreted as preliminary data supporting the construct validity of smoking urge BACKGROUND There is evidence that exerting self-control during alcohol craving can diminish performance on subsequent tasks that require self-control . Based on the re source depletion model ( Muraven and Baumeister , 2000 ) , we examined the influence of alcohol cue exposure on detoxified alcohol-dependent patients ' ability to inhibit ongoing responses . METHODS Twenty alcohol-dependent patients were 
    Output:
    
Evidence generally indicates an effect of cue exposure on both target-syntonic and target-dystonic behavior , and that self-report cue-reactivity predicts immediate target-syntonic outcomes .