***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: The auditory brainstem response reflects neural encoding of the acoustic characteristic of a speech syllable with remarkable precision . Some children with learning impairments demonstrate abnormalities in this preconscious measure of neural encoding especially in background noise . This study investigated whether auditory training targeted to remediate perceptually-based learning problems would alter the neural brainstem encoding of the acoustic sound structure of speech in such children . Nine subjects , clinical ly diagnosed with a language -based learning problem ( e.g. , dyslexia ) , worked with auditory perceptual training software . Prior to beginning and within three months after completing the training program , brainstem responses to the syllable /da/ were recorded in quiet and background noise . Subjects underwent additional auditory neurophysiological , perceptual , and cognitive testing .  Ten control subjects , who did not participate in any remediation program , underwent the same battery of tests at time intervals equivalent to the trained subjects . Transient and sustained ( frequency-following response ) components of the brainstem response were evaluated . The primary pathway afferent volley -- neural events occurring earlier than 11 ms after stimulus onset -- did not demonstrate plasticity . However , quiet-to-noise inter-response correlations of the sustained response ( approximately 11 - 50 ms ) increased significantly in the trained children , reflecting improved stimulus encoding precision , whereas control subjects did not exhibit this change . Thus , auditory training can alter the preconscious neural encoding of complex sounds by improving neural synchrony in the auditory brainstem . Additionally , several measures of brainstem response timing were related to changes in cortical physiology , as well as perceptual , academic , and cognitive measures from pre- to post-training A speech processing algorithm was developed to create more salient versions of the rapidly changing elements in the acoustic waveform of speech that have been shown to be deficiently processed by language -learning impaired ( LLI ) children . LLI children received extensive daily training , over a 4-week period , with listening exercises in which all speech was translated into this synthetic form . They also received daily training with computer “ games ” design ed to adaptively drive improvements in temporal processing thresholds . Significant improvements in speech discrimination and language comprehension abilities were demonstrated in two independent groups of LLI children The current study was conducted to test the premise that computer-based intervention that targets auditory temporal processing combined with language exercises ( Fast ForWord ) is effective in remediating children with disorders of language and reading . Sixty-five middle school struggling readers were r and omly assigned to one of five groups and over a 12-week-period received one of the following interventions : ( 1 ) two phases of intervention with Fast ForWord ( FFW , experimental group ) , ( 2 ) two phases of intervention with SuccessMaker ( SM , active control group ) , ( 3 ) FFW followed by SM , ( 4 ) SM followed by FFW , or ( 5 ) no intervention beyond the regular class curriculum ( developmental control group ) . Changes in reading , phonemic awareness , spelling and language skills were assessed via a repeated measures MANOVA . Results indicated significant within-subjects effects ( i.e. , change for all participants over time ) , but no between-subject group differences , failing to show that Fast ForWord result ed in any gains over and above those seen in the other groups Musical training has been shown to positively influence linguistic abilities . To follow the developmental dynamics of this transfer effect at the preattentive level , we conducted a longitudinal study over 2 school years with nonmusician children r and omly assigned to music or to painting training .  We recorded the mismatch negativity ( MMN ) , a cortical correlate of preattentive mismatch detection , to syllables that differed in vowel frequency , vowel duration , and voice onset time ( VOT ) , using a test-training-retest procedure and 3 times of testing : before training , after 6 months and after 12 months of training . While no between-group differences were found before training , enhanced preattentive processing of syllabic duration and VOT , as reflected by greater MMN amplitude , but not of frequency , was found after 12 months of training in the music group only . These results demonstrate neuroplasticity in the child brain and suggest that active musical training rather than innate predispositions for music yielded the improvements in musically trained children . These results also highlight the influence of musical training for duration perception in speech and for the development of phonological representations in normally developing children . They support the importance of music-based training programs for children 's education and open new remediation strategies for children with language -based learning impairments We conducted a longitudinal study with 32 nonmusician children over 9 months to determine 1 ) whether functional differences between musician and nonmusician children reflect specific predispositions for music or result from musical training and 2 ) whether musical training improves nonmusical brain functions such as reading and linguistic pitch processing . Event-related brain potentials were recorded while 8-year-old children performed tasks design ed to test the hypothesis that musical training improves pitch processing not only in music but also in speech . Following the first testing sessions nonmusician children were pseudor and omly assigned to music or to painting training for 6 months and were tested again after training using the same tests . After musical ( but not painting ) training , children showed enhanced reading and pitch discrimination abilities in speech . Remarkably , 6 months of musical training thus suffices to significantly improve behavior and to influence the development of neural processes as reflected in specific pattern of brain waves . These results reveal positive transfer from music to speech and highlight the influence of musical training . Finally , they demonstrate brain plasticity in showing that relatively short periods of training have strong consequences on the functional organization of the children 's  brain PURPOSE A r and omized controlled trial was conducted to compare the language and auditory processing outcomes of children assigned to receive the Fast ForWord Language intervention ( FFW-L )  with the outcomes of children assigned to nonspecific or specific language intervention comparison treatments that did not contain modified speech . METHOD Two hundred sixteen children between the ages of 6 and 9 years with language impairments were r and omly assigned to 1 of 4 conditions : ( a ) Fast ForWord Language ( FFW-L ) , ( b ) academic enrichment ( AE ) , ( c ) computer-assisted language intervention ( CALI ) , or ( d ) individualized language intervention ( ILI ) provided by a speech- language pathologist . All children received 1 hr and 40 min of treatment , 5 days per week , for 6 weeks . Language and auditory processing measures were administered to the children by blinded examiners before treatment , immediately after treatment , 3 months after treatment , and 6 months after treatment . RESULTS The children in all 4 conditions improved significantly on a global language test and a test of backward masking . Children with poor backward masking scores who were r and omized to the FFW-L condition did not present greater improvement on the language measures than children with poor backward masking scores who were r and omized to the other 3 conditions . Effect sizes , analyses of st and ard error of measurement , and normalization percentages supported the clinical significance of the improvements on the Comprehensive Assessment of Spoken Language ( E. Carrow-Woolfolk , 1999 ) . There was a treatment effect for the Blending Words subtest of the Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing ( R. K. Wagner , J. K. Torgesen , & C. A. Rashotte , 1999 ) . Participants in the FFW-L and CALI conditions earned higher phonological awareness scores than children in the ILI and AE conditions at the 6-month follow-up testing . CONCLUSION Fast ForWord Language , the intervention that provided modified speech to address a hypothesized underlying auditory processing deficit , was not more effective at improving general language skills or temporal processing skills than a nonspecific comparison treatment ( AE ) or specific language intervention comparison treatments ( CALI and ILI ) that did not contain modified speech stimuli . These findings call into question the temporal processing hypothesis of language impairment and the hypothesized benefits of using acoustically modified speech to improve language skills . The finding that children in the 3 treatment conditions and the active comparison condition made clinical ly relevant gains on measures of language and temporal auditory processing informs our underst and ing of the variety of intervention activities that can facilitate development OBJECTIVE Impaired verbal memory in schizophrenia is a key rate-limiting factor for functional outcome , does not respond to currently available medications , and shows only modest improvement after conventional behavioral remediation . The authors investigated an innovative approach to the remediation of verbal memory in schizophrenia , based on principles derived from the basic neuroscience of learning-induced neuroplasticity . The authors report interim findings in this ongoing study . METHOD Fifty-five clinical ly stable schizophrenia subjects were r and omly assigned to either 50 hours of computerized auditory training or a control condition using computer games . Those receiving auditory training engaged in daily computerized exercises that placed implicit , increasing dem and s on auditory perception through progressively more difficult auditory-verbal working memory and verbal learning tasks . RESULTS Relative to the control group , subjects who received active training showed significant gains in global cognition , verbal working memory , and verbal learning and memory . They also showed reliable and significant improvement in auditory psychophysical performance ; this improvement was significantly correlated with gains in verbal working memory and global cognition . CONCLUSIONS Intensive training in early auditory processes and auditory-verbal learning results in substantial gains in verbal cognitive processes relevant to psychosocial functioning in schizophrenia . These gains may be due to a training method that addresses the early perceptual impairments in the illness , that exploits intact mechanisms of repetitive practice in schizophrenia , and that uses an intensive , adaptive training approach OBJECTIVE This study examined the plasticity of the central auditory pathway and accompanying cognitive changes in children with learning problems . METHODS Children diagnosed with a learning disability and /or attention deficit disorder worked with commercial auditory processing training software for 8 weeks ; control groups consisted of normal-learning and learning-impaired children who did not participate in any remedial programs .  Auditory brainstem function was evaluated in response to click and speech stimuli in quiet ;  cortical responses to speech stimuli were obtained in quiet and noise .  Academic achievement and cognitive abilities were assessed with st and ardized measures . RESULTS Compared to controls , the trained group improved on measures of auditory processing and exhibited changes in cortical responses in quiet and in noise . In quiet , cortical responses reflected an accelerated maturational pattern ; in background noise , cortical responses became more resistant to degradation . Brainstem responses did not change with training . CONCLUSIONS Children with learning problems who practice d with auditory training software exhibited plasticity of neural encoding of speech sounds at the cortical , but not subcortical , level of the auditory pathway . This plasticity was accompanied by improvement in behavioral performance . SIGNIFICANCE This study demonstrates that in learning-impaired children working with commercial auditory processing training programs affects both the perception and the cortical representation of sound The present experiment investigated the effect of a music program on phonological awareness in preschoolers . In particular , the effects of a music program and a phonological skills program on phonological awareness were compared . If language and music share basic processing mechanisms , the effect of both programs on enhancing phonological awareness should be similar . Forty-one preschoolers ( 22 boys ) were r and omly assigned to a phonological skills program , a music program , and a control group that received sports training ( from which no effect was expected ) . Preschoolers were trained for 10 min on a daily basis over a period of 20 weeks . In a pretest , no differences were found between the three groups in regard to age , gender , intelligence , socioeconomic status , and phonological awareness . Children in the phonological skills group and the music group showed significant increases in phonological awareness from pre- to post-test . The children in the sports group did not show a significant increase from pre- to post-test . The enhancement of phonological awareness was basically driven by positive effects of the music program and the phonological skills program on phonological awareness for large phonological units . The data suggests that phonological awareness can be trained with a phonological skills program as well as a music program . These results can be interpreted as evidence of a shared sound category learning mechanism for language and music at preschool age UNLABELLED It is of paramount importance to install hearing rehabilitation programs for the elderly . AIM To check the efficacy of a forma auditory training program for elderly patients fitted with hearing aids for at least three months , by means of speech recognition tests and self- assessment question naires . METHODS Longitudinal contemporary cohort study . We selected 13 elderly hearing aid users , using intra-canal hearing aids in both ears , from both genders , with average age of 65.3 years . This group was r and omly divided in Experiment Group and Control Group . The Experiment Group underwent seven formal auditory training sessions , aim ing at stimulating their hearing skills for hearing closing , memory , attention , background figure and binaural integration . The participants were assessed by three behavioral tests and one self assessment question naire . RESULTS The elderly from the Experiment Group had significantly better performance in the assessment s after auditory training in comparison to the Control Group . CONCLUSION The formal auditory training program in a soundproof booth , associated with the use of hearing aids , improves speech recognition performance and reduces the perception of auditory h and icap for the elderly who use intra-canal hearing aids PURPOSE To underst and the components of auditory learning in typically developing children by assessing generalization across stimuli , across modalities ( i.e. , hearing , vision ) , and to higher level language tasks . METHOD Eighty-six 8- to 10-year-old typically developing children were quasi-r and omly assigned to 4 groups . Three of the groups received twelve 30-min training sessions on multiple st and ards using either an auditory frequency discrimination task ( AFD group ) , auditory phonetic discrimination task ( PD group ) , or visual frequency discrimination task ( VFD group ) over 4 weeks . The 4th group , which was the no-intervention control ( NI ) group , did not receive any training . Thresholds on all tasks ( AFD , PD , and VFD ) were assessed immediately before and after training , along with performance on a battery of language assessment s. RESULTS Relative to the other groups 
    Output:
    
Of the three approaches , studies that investigated the use of software and musical training had the highest levels of evidence ; however , these studies also raised concerns about the hypothesized relationship between auditory temporal processing and language .