***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: This study aim ed to investigate the effects of a long-term resistance exercise intervention on executive functions in healthy elderly males , and to further underst and the potential neurophysiological mechanisms mediating the changes . The study assessed forty-eight healthy elderly males r and omly assigned to exercise ( n = 24 ) or control ( n = 24 ) groups . The assessment included neuropsychological and neuroelectric measures during a variant of the oddball task paradigm , as well as growth hormone ( GH ) , insulin-like growth factor-1 ( IGF-1 ) , and homocysteine levels at baseline and after either a 12 month intervention of resistance exercise training or control period . The results showed that the control group had a significantly lower accuracy rate and smaller P3a and P3b amplitudes in the oddball condition after 12 months . The exercise group exhibited improved reaction times ( RTs ) , sustained P3a and P3b amplitudes , increased levels of serum IGF-1 , and decreased levels of serum homocysteine . The changes in IGF-1 levels were significantly correlated with the changes in RT and P3b amplitude of the oddball condition in the exercise group . In conclusion , significantly enhanced serum IGF-1 levels after 12 months of resistance exercise were inversely correlated with neurocognitive decline in the elderly . These findings suggest that regular resistance exercise might be a promising strategy to attenuate the trajectory of cognitive aging in healthy elderly individuals , possibly mediated by IGF-1 Cognitive control functions decline with increasing age . The present study examines if different types of group-based and trainer-guided training effectively enhance performance of older adults in a task switching task , and how this expected enhancement is reflected in changes of cognitive functions , as measured in electrophysiological brain activity ( event-related potentials ) . One hundred forty-one healthy participants aged 65 years and older were r and omly assigned to one of four groups : physical training ( combined aerobic and strength training ) , cognitive training ( paper – pencil and computer-aided ) , relaxation and wellness ( social control group ) , and a control group that did not receive any intervention . Training sessions took place twice a week for 90 min for a period of 4 months . The results showed a greater improvement of performance for attendants of the cognitive training group compared to the other groups . This improvement was evident in a reduction of mixing costs in accuracy and intraindividual variability of speed , indexing improved maintenance of multiple task sets in working memory , and an enhanced coherence of neuronal processing . These findings were supported by event-related brain potentials which showed higher amplitudes in a number of potentials associated with response selection ( N2 ) , allocation of cognitive re sources ( P3b ) , and error detection ( Ne ) . Taken together , our findings suggest neurocognitive plasticity of aging brains which can be stimulated by broad and multilayered cognitive training and assessed in detail by electrophysiological methods The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of moderate strength and endurance training on cognition evaluated by event-related potentials ( ERP ) in older people . Thirty-six adults , aged 60 - 85 years , were r and omly divided into three groups : sedentary control ( C ) , strength training ( ST ) , and endurance training ( ET ) . Participants performed functional fitness tests and ERP data were recorded before and after nine weeks of training . Training involved three sessions per week . Functional fitness test performance improved significantly in the ST and ET groups . The latencies of the N1 , N2 , and P2 components and the amplitudes of the N1P2 , P2N2 , and N2P3 components differed significantly between groups ( p < 0.05 ) . After training , the latencies of the P2 and N2 components at the Fz and Cz sites , decreased significantly , and the amplitudes of the N1P2 , P2N2 , and N2P3 components at the Fz site and the N1P2 and N2P3 components at the Cz site , increased significantly in the ST group compared with the ET group . After training , the latencies of N1 , N2 , and P2 components shortened significantly , and the amplitudes of the N1P2 , P2N2 , and N2P3 components increased significantly in the ST group compared with the C group . The latencies of the N2 and P2 components shortened significantly in the ET group compared with the C group , although the amplitudes of the ERP recordings did not differ significantly between groups . These data suggest that strength training might facilitate early sensory processing and cognitive functioning in older individuals . Key PointsStrength training may have facilitating effects on early information processing and cognition in older people . It is interesting that only small improvements in functional fitness affected cognitive performance . More research is needed to determine how the different exercise regimens contribute to discrete changes in CNS functioning and how such changes affect the P3 component of the ERP This condensed review gives an overview about two method ological approaches to study the impact of physical activity on cognition in elderly , namely cross-sectional studies and r and omized controlled intervention studies with pre- and post- measures . Moreover , this review includes studies investigating different types of physical activity and their relation to cognitive functions in older age .  Behavioral data are considered but the main focus lies on neuroscientific methods like event-related potentials ( ERPs ) and functional magnetic resonance imaging ( fMRI ) Cardiovascular fitness is thought to offset declines in cognitive performance , but little is known about the cortical mechanisms that underlie these changes in humans . Research using animal models shows that aerobic training increases cortical capillary supplies , the number of synaptic connections , and the development of new neurons . The end result is a brain that is more efficient , plastic , and adaptive , which translates into better performance in aging animals . Here , in two separate experiments , we demonstrate for the first time to our knowledge , in humans that increases in cardiovascular fitness results in increased functioning of key aspects of the attentional network of the brain during a cognitively challenging task . Specifically , highly fit ( Study 1 ) or aerobically trained ( Study 2 ) persons show greater task-related activity in regions of the prefrontal and parietal cortices that are involved in spatial selection and inhibitory functioning , when compared with low-fit ( Study 1 ) or nonaerobic control ( Study 2 ) participants . Additionally , in both studies there exist groupwise differences in activation of the anterior cingulate cortex , which is thought to monitor for conflict in the attentional system , and signal the need for adaptation in the attentional network . These data suggest that increased cardiovascular fitness can affect improvements in the plasticity of the aging human brain , and may serve to reduce both biological and cognitive senescence in humans The present study examined the effects of a 9-month r and omized control physical activity intervention aim ed at improving cardiorespiratory fitness on changes in working memory performance in preadolescent children relative to a waitlist control group . Participants performed a modified Sternberg task , which manipulated working memory dem and s based on encoding set sizes , while task performance and the contingent negative variation ( CNV ) event-related brain potential were measured . Analyses revealed that the physical activity intervention led to increases in cardiorespiratory fitness and improved Sternberg task performance . Further , the beneficial effects of the physical activity intervention were greater for a task condition requiring greater working memory dem and s. In addition , the intervention group exhibited larger initial CNV at the frontal electrode site , relative to the waitlist group at post-test ; an effect not observed during the pre-test . These results indicate that increases in cardiorespiratory fitness are associated with improvements in the cognitive control of working memory in preadolescent children Older and younger aerobically trained and sedentary adults participated in an S1-S2-S3 paradigm design ed to elicit event-related potential ( ERP ) and behavioral responses to determine the influence of cardiovascular fitness on cognitive and motor processes . The paradigm provided warning ( S1 ) as to the difficulty level of an upcoming decision task ( S2 ) . Participants had to decide the taller of two bars on presentation of S2 but hold their response until S3 , to which they indicated their choice motorically . Results revealed age-related differences for ERP measures as older participants showed increased amplitude of the stimulus preceding negativity ( SPN ) prior to S2 , and longer latencies and equipotentiality of P3 in response to S2 . Fitness effects were also observed for the contingent negative variation ( CNV ) with decreased amplitude for fit relative to sedentary individuals . Age interacted with fitness for P3 latency to S2 as older sedentary individuals showed the longest latency followed by older fit and both younger groups . No significant group differences were observed for reaction time ( RT ) to S3 . Therefore , physical fitness is associated with attenuation of cognitive decline in older individuals and greater economy of motor preparation for both young and older participants BACKGROUND Cerebral vascular disorder ( CVD ) might result in a quantifiable decrease in quality of life , which is determined not only by the neurological deficits but also by impairment of cognitive functions . There are few studies that report on the cognitive effect of Tai Chi exercise ( Tai Chi ) on the elderly with CVD . The purpose of the present study was to examine the cognitive effect of Tai Chi on the elderly with CVD using P300 measurement , in addition to the General Health Question naire ( GHQ ) and Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index ( PSQI ) . METHODS A total of 34 patients with CVD were recruited from outpatient Akistu-Kounoike Hospital and r and omly assigned to receive Tai Chi ( n= 17 ) or rehabilitation ( n= 17 ) in group sessions once a week for 12 weeks . To examine the time courses of each score ( P300 amplitude , P300 latency , GHQ score and PSQI score ) , repeated- measures analysis of variance was carried out with groups and time as factors . RESULTS For the time courses of P300 amplitudes and latencies , there were no significant effects of interaction between group and time . However , significant time-by-group interactions were found for Sleep Quality ( P= 0.006 ) , GHQ total score ( P= 0.005 ) , anxiety/insomnia score ( P= 0.034 ) , and severe depression score ( P= 0.020 ) . CONCLUSIONS Tai Chi might therefore be considered a useful non-pharmacological approach , along with rehabilitation , for the maintenance of cognitive function in the elderly with CVD and might be a more useful non-pharmacological approach for the improvement of sleep quality and depressive symptoms in the elderly with CVD than rehabilitation 
    Output:
    
The obtained results showed that physically active elderly people have shortened P300 latency and higher amplitude .
Physical exercise , especially those involving aerobic or resistance training , seems to have marked beneficial effects on P300 in the elderly .
Evidence shows that physical activity and physical exercise positively influence cortical activities related to cognitive functions , as indicated by P300 , in elderly people