***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: Background A physically active lifestyle has the potential to prevent cognitive decline and dementia , yet the optimal type of physical activity/exercise remains unclear . Dance is of special interest as it complex sensorimotor rhythmic activity with additional cognitive , social , and affective dimensions . Objectives To determine whether dance benefits executive function more than walking , an activity that is simple and functional . Methods Two-arm r and omized controlled trial among community-dwelling older adults . The intervention group received 1 h of ballroom dancing twice weekly over 8 months ( ~69 sessions ) in local community dance studios . The control group received a combination of a home walking program with a pedometer and optional biweekly group-based walking in local community park to facilitate socialization . Main outcomes Executive function tests : processing speed and task shift by the Trail Making Tests , response inhibition by the Stroop Color-Word Test , working memory by the Digit Span Backwards test , immediate and delayed verbal recall by the Rey Auditory Verbal Learning Test , and visuospatial recall by the Brief Visuospatial Memory Test ( BVST ) . Results One hundred and fifteen adults ( mean 69.5 years , SD 6.4 ) completed baseline and delayed baseline ( 3 weeks apart ) before being r and omized to either dance ( n = 60 ) or walking ( n = 55 ) . Of those r and omized , 79 ( 68 % ) completed the follow-up measurements ( 32 weeks from baseline ) . In the dance group only , “ non-completers ” had significantly lower baseline scores on all executive function tests than those who completed the full program . Intention-to-treat analyses showed no group effect . In a r and om effects model including participants who completed all measurements , adjusted for baseline score and covariates ( age , education , estimated verbal intelligence , and community ) , a between-group effect in favor of dance was noted only for BVST total learning ( Cohen ’s D Effect size 0.29 , p = 0.07 ) and delayed recall ( Cohen ’s D Effect size = 0.34 , p = 0.06 ) . Conclusion The superior potential of dance over walking on executive functions of cognitively healthy and active older adults was not supported . Dance improved one of the cognitive domains ( spatial memory ) important for learning dance . Controlled trials targeting inactive older adults and of a higher dose may produce stronger effects , particularly for novice dancers . Trial registration Australian and New Zeal and Clinical Trials Register ( ACTRN12613000782730 ) Background Stepping impairments are associated with physical and cognitive decline in older adults and increased fall risk . Exercise interventions can reduce fall risk , but adherence is often low . A new exergame involving step training may provide an enjoyable exercise alternative for preventing falls in older people . Purpose To assess the feasibility and safety of unsupervised , home-based step pad training and determine the effectiveness of this intervention on stepping performance and associated fall risk in older people . Design Single-blinded two-arm r and omized controlled trial comparing step pad training with control ( no-intervention ) . Setting / Participants Thirty-seven older adults residing in independent-living units of a retirement village in Sydney , Australia . Intervention Intervention group ( IG ) participants were provided with a computerized step pad system connected to their TVs and played a step game as often as they liked ( with a recommended dose of 2–3 sessions per week for 15–20 minutes each ) for eight weeks . In addition , IG participants were asked to complete a choice stepping reaction time ( CSRT ) task once each week . Main Outcome Measures CSRT , the Physiological Profile Assessment ( PPA ) , neuropsychological and functional mobility measures were assessed at baseline and eight week follow-up . Results Thirty-two participants completed the study ( 86.5 % ) . IG participants played a median 2.75 sessions/week and no adverse events were reported . Compared to the control group , the IG significantly improved their CSRT ( F31,1 = 18.203 , p<.001 ) , PPA composite scores ( F31,1 = 12.706 , p = 0.001 ) , as well as the postural sway ( F31,1 = 4.226 , p = 0.049 ) and contrast sensitivity ( F31,1 = 4.415 , p = 0.044 ) PPA sub-component scores . In addition , the IG improved significantly in their dual-task ability as assessed by a timed up and go test/verbal fluency task ( F31,1 = 4.226 , p = 0.049 ) . Conclusions Step pad training can be safely undertaken at home to improve physical and cognitive parameters of fall risk in older people without major cognitive and physical impairments . Trial Registration Australian New Zeal and Clinical Trials Registry ACTRN12611001081909 Different types of exercise training have the potential to induce structural and functional brain plasticity in the elderly . Thereby , functional brain adaptations were observed during cognitive tasks in functional magnetic resonance imaging studies that correlated with improved cognitive performance . This study aim ed to investigate if exercise training induces functional brain plasticity during challenging treadmill walking and elicits associated changes in cognitive executive functions . Forty-two elderly participants were recruited and r and omly assigned to either interactive cognitive-motor video game dancing ( DANCE ) or balance and stretching training ( BALANCE ) . The 8-week intervention included three sessions of 30 min per week and was completed by 33 participants ( mean age 74.9 ± 6.9 years ) . Prefrontal cortex ( PFC ) activity during preferred and fast walking speed on a treadmill was assessed applying functional near infrared spectroscopy pre- and post-intervention . Additionally , executive functions comprising shifting , inhibition , and working memory were assessed . The results showed that both interventions significantly reduced left and right hemispheric PFC oxygenation during the acceleration of walking ( p < 0.05 or trend , r = 0.25–0.36 ) , while DANCE showed a larger reduction at the end of the 30-s walking task compared to BALANCE in the left PFC [ F(1 , 31 ) = 3.54 , p = 0.035 , r = 0.32 ] . These exercise training induced modulations in PFC oxygenation correlated with improved executive functions ( p < 0.05 or trend , r = 0.31–0.50 ) . The observed reductions in PFC activity may release cognitive re sources to focus attention on other processes while walking , which could be relevant to improve mobility and falls prevention in the elderly . This study provides a deeper underst and ing of the associations  between exercise training , brain function during walking , and cognition in older adults The purpose of this study was to investigate the effects of the addition of a dual task to multicomponent training on cognition of active older adults . Eighty physically active older adults were divided into an intervention group ( IG ) and a control group ( CG ) . Both groups performed multicomponent training over 12 weeks . The IG simultaneously performed exercises and cognitive tasks . The  Mini-Mental State Examination , the Montreal Cognitive Assessment , and the Clock Drawing Test  were used for cognitive assessment s. The  Timed Up and Go Test associated with a cognitive task  was used for dual-task assessment . Significant interactions were not observed between groups in terms of the cognitive variables or the dual-task performance . An interaction was observed only for Timed Up and Go Test performance , which was better in the CG than in the IG . Active older adults showed no improvement in cognition following the addition of the dual task to the multicomponent training OBJECTIVES To examine the effects of exercise training on cognitive function in individuals at risk of or diagnosed with Alzheimer 's disease ( AD ) . DESIGN Meta- analysis . SETTING PubMed , Scopus , Clinical Trials.gov , and ProQuest were search ed from inception until August 1 , 2017 . PARTICIPANTS Nineteen studies with 23 interventions including 1,145 subjects with a mean age of 77.0 ± 7.5 were included . Most subjects were at risk of AD because they had mild cognitive impairment ( 64 % ) or a parent diagnosed with AD ( 1 % ) , and 35 % presented with AD . INTERVENTION Controlled studies that included an exercise-only intervention and a nondiet , nonexercise control group and reported pre- and post-intervention cognitive function measurements . MEASUREMENTS Cognitive function before and after the intervention and features of the exercise intervention . RESULTS Exercise interventions were performed 3.4 ± 1.4 days per week at moderate intensity ( 3.7 ± 0.6 metabolic equivalents ) for 45.2 ± 17.0 minutes per session for 18.6 ± 10.0 weeks and consisted primarily of aerobic exercise ( 65 % ) . Overall , there was a modest favorable effect  of exercise on cognitive function ( d+ = 0.47 , 95 % confidence interval ( CI ) = 0.26 - 0.68 ) . Within-group analyses revealed  that exercise improved cognitive function ( d+w = 0.20 , 95 % CI = 0.11 - 0.28 ) , whereas cognitive function declined in the control group ( d+w = -0.18 , 95 % CI = -0.36 to 0.00 ) . Aerobic exercise had a moderate favorable effect on cognitive function ( d+w = 0.65 , 95 % CI = 0.35 - 0.95 ) , but other exercise types did not ( d+w = 0.19 , 95 % CI = -0.06 - 0.43 ) . CONCLUSION Our findings suggest that exercise training may delay the decline in cognitive function that occurs in individuals who are at risk of or have AD  , with aerobic exercise possibly having the most favorable effect . Additional r and omized controlled clinical trials that include objective measurements of cognitive function are needed to confirm our findings Background To examine the effect of multicomponent exercise program on memory function in older adults with mild cognitive impairment ( MCI ) , and identify biomarkers associated with improvement of cognitive functions . Methodology /Principal Findings Subjects were 100 older adults ( mean age , 75 years ) with MCI . The subjects were classified to an amnestic MCI group ( n = 50 ) with neuroimaging measures , and other MCI group ( n = 50 ) before the r and omization . Subjects in each group were r and omized to either a multicomponent exercise or an education control group using a ratio of 1∶1 . The exercise group exercised for 90 min/d , 2 d/wk , 40 times for 6 months . The exercise program was conducted under multitask conditions to stimulate attention and memory . The control group attended two education classes . A repeated- measures ANOVA revealed that no group × time interactions on the cognitive tests and brain atrophy in MCI patients . A sub- analysis of amnestic MCI patients for group × time interactions revealed that the exercise group exhibited significantly better Mini-Mental State Examination ( p = .04 ) and logical memory scores ( p = .04 ) , and reducing whole brain cortical atrophy ( p<.05 ) compared to the control group . Low total cholesterol levels before the intervention were associated with an improvement of logical memory scores ( p<.05 ) , and a higher level of brain-derived neurotrophic factor was significantly related to improved ADAS-cog scores ( p<.05 ) . Conclusions / Significance The results suggested that an exercise intervention is beneficial for improving logical memory and maintaining general cognitive function and reducing whole brain cortical atrophy in older adults with amnestic MCI . Low total cholesterol and higher brain-derived neurotrophic factor may predict improvement of cognitive functions in older adults with MCI . Further studies are required to determine the positive effects of exercise on cognitive function in older adults with MCI . Trial Registration UMIN-CTR UMIN000003662 ctr.cgi?function = brows&action = brows&type = summary & recptno = R000004436 & language = Background While many studies confirm the positive effect of cognitive and physical training on cognitive performance of older adults , only little is known about the effects of simultaneously performed cognitive and physical training . In the current study , older adults simultaneously performed a verbal working memory and a cardiovascular training to improve cognitive and motor-cognitive dual task performance . Twenty training sessions of 30 minutes each were conducted over a period of ten weeks , with a test session before , in the middle , and after the training . Training gains were tested in measures of selective attention , paired-associates learning , executive control , reasoning , memory span , information processing speed , and motor-cognitive dual task performance in the form of walking and simultaneously performing a working memory task . Results Sixty-three participants with a mean age of 71.8 ± 4.9 years ( range 65 to 84 ) either performed the simultaneous training ( N = 21 ) , performed a single working memory training ( N = 16 ) , or attended no training at all ( N = 26 ) . The results indicate similar training progress and larger improvements in the executive control task for both training groups when compared to the passive control group . In addition , the simultaneous training result ed in larger improvements compared to the single cognitive training in the paired-associates task and was able to reduce the step-to-step variability during the motor-cognitive dual task when compared to the single cognitive training and the passive control group . Conclusions The simultaneous training of cognitive and physical abilities presents a promising training concept to improve cognitive and motor-cognitive dual task performance , offering greater potential on daily life functioning , which usually involves the recruitment of multiple abilities and re sources rather than a single one BACKGROUND The present study examined whether aerobic fitness training of older humans can increase brain volume in regions associated with age-related decline in both brain structure and cognition . METHODS Fifty-nine healthy but sedentary community-dwelling volunte 
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Also , no differences in effects were found between older adults with and without mild cognitive impairments .
Conclusion Findings of the current meta- analysis suggest that PA programs for older adults could integrate challenging cognitive exercises to improve cognitive health .
Sufficient cognitive challenge seems more important to obtain cognitive effects than high doses of intervention sessions