***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: Studies of the effects of physical fitness on cognition suggest that exercise can improve cognitive abilities in healthy older adults , as well as delay the onset of age-related cognitive decline . The mechanisms for the positive benefit of exercise and how these effects interact with other variables known to influence cognitive function ( e.g. , involvement in cognitive activities ) are less well understood . The current study examined the associations between the physical fitness , cerebrovascular blood flow regulation and involvement in cognitive activities with neuropsychological function in healthy post-menopausal women . Methods : Forty-two healthy women between the ages of 55 and 90 were recruited .  Physical fitness ( V˙O2 max ) , cerebrovascular reserve ( cerebral blood flow during rest and response to an increase in end-tidal ( i.e. , arterial ) PCO2 ) , and cognitive activity ( self-reported number and hours of involvement in cognitive activities ) were assessed . The association of these variables with neuropsychological performance was examined through linear regression . Results : Physical fitness , cerebrovascular reserve and total number of cognitive activities ( but not total hours ) were independent predictors of cognitive function , particularly measures of overall cognitive performance , attention and executive function . In addition , prediction of neuropsychological performance was better with multiple variables than each alone . Conclusions : Cognitive function in older adults is associated with multiple factors , including physical fitness , cerebrovascular health and cognitive stimulation . Interestingly , cognitive stimulation effects appear related more to the diversity of activities , rather than the duration of activity . Further examination of these relationships is ongoing in a prospect i ve cohort study Although within-person comparisons allow direct assessment s of change , some of the observed change may reflect effects associated with prior test experience rather than the processes of primary interest . One method that might allow retest effects to be distinguished from other influences of change involves comparing the pattern of results in a longitudinal study with those in a study with a very short retest interval .  Three short-term retest studies with moderately large sample s of adults are used to provide this type of reference information about the magnitude of change , test-retest correlations , reliabilities of change , and correlations of the change in different cognitive variables with each other , and with other types of variables Abstract This study tested the common assumption that , to be most effective , working memory ( WM ) training should be adaptive ( i.e. , task difficulty is adjusted to individual performance ) . Indirect evidence for this assumption stems from studies comparing adaptive training to a condition in which tasks are practice d on the easiest level of difficulty only [ cf . Klingberg ( Trends Cogn Sci 14:317–324 , 2010 ) ] , thereby , however , confounding adaptivity and exposure to varying task difficulty . For a more direct test of this hypothesis , we r and omly assigned 130 young adults to one of the three WM training procedures ( adaptive , r and omized , or self-selected change in training task difficulty ) or to an active control group . Despite large performance increases in the trained WM tasks , we observed neither transfer to untrained structurally dissimilar WM tasks nor far transfer to reasoning . Surprisingly , neither training nor transfer effects were modulated by training procedure , indicating that exposure to varying levels of task difficulty is sufficient for inducing training gains Background A variety of studies have demonstrated gains in cognitive ability following  cognitive training interventions . However , other studies have not shown such gains , and questions remain regarding the efficacy of specific cognitive training interventions . Cognitive training research often involves programs made up of just one or a few exercises , targeting limited and specific cognitive endpoints . In addition , cognitive training studies typically involve small sample s that may be insufficient for reliable measurement of change . Other studies have utilized training periods that were too short to generate reliable gains in cognitive performance . Methods The present study evaluated an online cognitive training program comprised of 49  exercises  targeting a variety of cognitive capacities . The cognitive training program was compared to an active control condition in which participants completed crossword puzzles .  All participants were recruited , trained , and tested online ( N = 4,715 fully evaluable participants ) . Participants in both groups were instructed to complete one approximately 15-minute session at least 5 days per week for 10 weeks . Results Participants r and omly assigned to the treatment group improved significantly more on the primary outcome measure , an aggregate measure of neuropsychological performance , than did the active control group ( Cohen ’s d effect size = 0.255 ; 95 % confidence interval = [ 0.198 , 0.312 ] ) . Treatment participants showed greater improvements than controls on speed of processing , short-term memory , working memory , problem solving , and fluid reasoning assessment s. Participants in the treatment group also showed greater improvements on self-reported measures of cognitive functioning , particularly on those items related to concentration compared to the control group ( Cohen ’s d = 0.249 ; 95 % confidence interval = [ 0.191 , 0.306 ] ) . Conclusion Taken together , these results indicate that a varied training program composed of a number of tasks targeted to different cognitive functions can show transfer to a wide range of untrained measures of cognitive performance . Trial Registration Clinical Trials.gov Two experiments were conducted to compare thec ries of the functional organization of spatial working memory within the human prefrontal cortex . In Experiment I , memory set size for locations was parametrically varied , allowing for the assessment of BOLD signal across maintenance requirements . In the sec ond experiment , manipulation of spatial information held in working memory was contrasted with simple maintenance of that information . Both experiment evoked significant activity in a distributed spatia working memory network . Although dorsolateral prefrontal activation increased monotonically with memory set size , this region was differentially engaged in task conditions involving explicit manipulation of in ternal representations . Activation in the superior frontal sulcal region was associated with maintenance of spatial information , increasing with memory se size . In contrast , ventrolateral prefrontal activation was present only at the highest memory set size , possibly due to the differential use of organizational strategies with more complex stimuli . These results sup port cl aims that the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex is involved in the manipulation of internal representa tions and that the superior frontal sulcal region is involved in the maintenance of spatial information but they suggest a complex role for the ventrolatera prefrontal region Affective cognitive control capacity ( e.g. , the ability to regulate emotions or manipulate emotional material in the service of task goals ) is associated with professional and interpersonal success . Impoverished affective control , by contrast , characterizes many neuropsychiatric disorders . Insights from neuroscience indicate that affective cognitive control relies on the same frontoparietal neural circuitry as working memory ( WM ) tasks , which suggests that systematic WM training , performed in an emotional context , has the potential to augment affective control . Here we show , using behavioral and fMRI measures , that 20 d of training on a novel emotional WM protocol successfully enhanced the efficiency of this frontoparietal dem and network . Critically , compared with placebo training , emotional WM training also accrued transfer benefits to a “ gold st and ard ” measure of affective cognitive control – emotion regulation . These emotion regulation gains were associated with greater activity in the targeted frontoparietal dem and network along with other brain regions implicated in affective control , notably the subgenual anterior cingulate cortex . The results have important implication s for the utility of WM training in clinical , prevention , and occupational setting This article provides a Bayes factor approach to multiway analysis of variance ( ANOVA ) that allows research ers to state grade d evidence for effects or invariances as determined by the data . ANOVA is conceptualized as a hierarchical model where levels are clustered within factors . The development is comprehensive in that it includes Bayes factors for fixed and r and om effects and for within-subjects , between-subjects , and mixed design s. Different model construction and comparison strategies are discussed , and an example is provided . We show how Bayes factors may be computed with BayesFactor package in R and with the JASP statistical package 
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Importantly , all three groups were similar at pre-training for a variety of individual variables purported to moderate transfer of training to fluid intelligence , including personality traits , motivation to train , and expectations of cognitive improvement from training .