***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: The possible differences in processing gustatory stimuli in anorexic patients compared to healthy control subjects was investigated by electrophysiological methods . The  electroencephalogram ( EEG )  was recorded in out patients treated with anorexia nervosa ( AN ) and age-matched controls after exposure to sweet ( milk chocolate ) and bitter ( black tea ) taste stimuli . Power spectrum analysis was performed on EEG epochs recorded in the above conditions . Compared to controls a significantly higher percent of theta , and lower percent of alpha1 b and power was found in anorexic patients , irrespective of the kind of taste effects and hemispheric side . The pattern of activation caused by sweet and bitter stimuli was found to be different in these two groups , possibly indicating altered gustatory processing mechanisms in AN We evaluated the changes in taste responsiveness of anorexia nervosa ( AN ) patients during behavior therapy .  Taste responsiveness of AN patients was lower at admission when compared to controls but it improved significantly over the course of treatment ( p < 0.01 ) . Taste responsiveness improved prior to increase in body weight . No significant correlation was noted between weight gain and improvement in taste responsiveness . The period required to reach a food intake of 1600 Kcal/day and the duration of hospitalization were highly correlated ( r = 0.72 , p < 0.05 ) . Those who reached 1600 Kcal/day earlier showed more rapid improvements in taste responsiveness . These results suggest that decreased taste responsiveness in AN patients can rapidly improve and such early improvement may result in better progression of treatment Taste responses to sucrose and fat-containing stimuli were examined in a population of young women with eating disorders . Anorectic-restrictor and anorectic-bulimic patients were compared with normal-weight bulimic patients and with normal-weight control subjects .  Sensory estimates of sweetness and fat content of 20 different mixtures of milk , cream , and sugar did not differ among subject groups . In contrast , relative preferences for sugar vs fat as determined by the Response Surface Method differed between patients with eating disorders and control subjects . Normal-weight bulimic patients preferred sweeter stimuli than did control subjects . Anorectic-restrictor and anorectic-bulimic patients liked sweet but disliked high-fat stimuli and showed elevated optimal sugar : fat ( S : F ) ratios . This pattern of response did not change following weight regain . The stability of preference profiles suggests that taste responsiveness may be independent of diagnostic categories , bulimic behaviors , or acute changes in body weight Assessment of gustatory sensitivity in a clinical setting is the prerequisite for correct diagnosis and adequate treatment of taste dysfunction . Despite of this , no taste test has been established for the routine clinical testing . The aim of the present study was to create a protocol which is easy to administer . The presently used technique is based on strips made from filter paper which were impregnated with different taste solutions ( four concentrations each for sweet , sour , salty and bitter ) . These strips are placed on the tongue and subjects are asked to identify the taste quality . After establishing the concentration range of the taste solutions , the test was tried in 69 subjects . Each subject received eighteen taste strips ( four concentrations of each taste quality plus two blanks ) in a pseudo-r and omized sequence . Results from this new procedure correlated significantly with the results of the well established extensive three-drop-technique ( r69 = 0.67 ) . Repeated measures indicated good reproducibility of the results for the taste strips ( r69 = 0.68 ) . These data suggest the usefulness of this new technique in routine clinical practice . Major advantages are long shelf-life , convenience of administration , short time needed for testing ( approximately 8 min ) , and the possibility to test each side of the tongue separately OBJECTIVE Impaired interoceptive awareness ( IA ) , the subjective perception of internal body sensations , has been proposed as a vulnerability or maintaining factor in anorexia nervosa ( AN ) . We examined whether IA of heartbeat and breathing sensations was impaired in AN across a range of arousal levels , and whether it was influenced by meal anticipation and consumption . METHOD IA was assessed using r and omized , double-blinded , bolus intravenous infusions of isoproterenol , a peripheral beta-adrenergic sympathetic agonist , and saline .  Fifteen women with AN and 15 age- , and sex- matched healthy comparisons ( HC ) were evaluated before and after  consumption of a 1,000 Calorie meal .  During each infusion participants rated their moment-to-moment intensity of heartbeat and breathing sensations with a dial . To measure IA we evaluated interoceptive detection thresholds , retrospective ratings of palpitation and dyspnea intensity , and interoceptive accuracy via correlations between subjective dial ratings and observed heart rate responses . RESULTS Contrary to prediction the AN group was more likely to report detection of interoceptive sensations across all conditions , an effect driven by false discriminations at low arousal levels . Concordant with prediction , meal anticipation was associated with intensified interoceptive sensations , particularly dyspnea . There were no differences in interoceptive accuracy . DISCUSSION This represents the first demonstration of interoceptive prediction errors in AN . Although IA is unimpaired at high arousal levels in AN , prediction signals are abnormal at low arousal levels , especially during meal anticipation . Altered interoceptive prediction signaling during meal anticipation could contribute to phenotypes of high anxiety in AN or alternatively , might be explained by enhanced meal associated anxiety Background : Taste abnormalities are common among cancer patients after starting radiotherapy or chemotherapy .  Considering the role of zinc and reports on its beneficial effects in taste perception , we evaluated the preventive effects of zinc sulfate on radiation-induced taste alterations . Material s and Methods : In a r and omized , placebo-controlled trial , adult patients with head and neck cancers who were on schedule for radiotherapy , with or without chemotherapy  , were allocated to receive zinc sulfate ( 50 mg , three times a day ) or placebo ; started with beginning of radiotherapy and continued for one month later . Taste acuity was determined by measuring detection and recognition thresholds for four taste qualities at baseline , at the end of radiotherapy , and a month later using the Henkin method . Results : Thirty-five patients ( mean age = 59.2 ± 16.5 , 60 % male ) completed the trial . The two groups were similar at baseline . After radiotherapy , and one month later , there was a significant increase in taste perception threshold for bitter , salty , sweet , and sour tastes in the placebo group ( P = 0.001 ) . In those who received zinc , there was only slight increase in threshold for perception of the salty taste ( P = 0.046 ) . No relevant side effects due to zinc sulfate were reported . Conclusion :  Zinc supplementation in head/neck cancer patients under radiotherapy can prevent radiation-induced taste alterations . Further studies with longer follow-ups and with different doses of zinc supplementation are warranted in this regard The influence of sweet taste sensitivity on food intake is not well understood . We investigated the involvement of salivary leptin and SNP of the sweet taste receptor genes ( TAS1R2/TAS1R3 ) on sweet taste sensitivity , sensory-specific satiety ( SSS ) and macronutrient intake in healthy human adults . In all , nineteen high sweet sensitivity ( HS ) and eleven low sweet sensitivity ( LS ) subjects were classified based on the sweetness perception of one solution ( 9 mm sucrose ) forced-choice triangle test . All participants completed a r and omised crossover design experiment where they consumed one of three iso-energetic soup preloads differing in primary taste quality ( sweet , non-sweet taste-control or no-taste energy-control ) . A period of 1 h after the preload , participants were offered a buffet meal consisting of foods varying in taste ( sweet or non-sweet ) and fat content . Subjective measures included hunger/fullness and SSS for sweetness . Saliva and buccal cells were collected to measure leptin level and to study the TAS1R2/TAS1R3 specific SNP , respectively . Salivary leptin concentrations were significantly higher in LS than HS participants ( P<0·05 ) . In addition , HS showed stronger sweet SSS compared with LH participants ( P<0·05 ) , and consumed less carbohydrate ( % energy ) and more non-sweet foods than LS ( P<0·01 and P<0·05 , respectively ) . Alleles from each TAS1R2 locus ( GG compared with AA alleles of rs12033832 , and CT/CC compared with TT alleles of rs35874116 ) were related to higher consumption of carbohydrates ( % energy ) and higher amount of sweet foods , respectively ( P<0·05 ) . In contrast , no associations were found for the TAS1R3 alleles . These results contribute to underst and the links between taste sensitivity , macronutrient appetite and food consumption Previous research has shown that patients with bulimia nervosa ( B ) , anorexia nervosa , restricting type , or restrictive-anorectic ( RA ) , and anorexia nervosa , binge eating , purging type , or anorectic-bulimic ( AB ) exhibit a reduced hedonic response to sucrose compared with control subjects . We hypothesized that this response could be linked to an excessive fear of weight gain rather than a decreased ability to experience pleasure . We therefore compared the hedonic responses to sucrose solutions in B , RA and AB women ( n=20/group ) in two different conditions : sucrose solution swallowed vs. sucrose solution spit . Under double-blind conditions and according to a Latin square design , patients received sucrose in solution ( 0 , 5 , 10 , 20 , and 40 % ) and rated each concentration for pleasantness on a nine-point scale . The two test conditions were r and omly administered . The threshold concentration of sweet taste perception was also assessed , and the subjects filled out Chapman 's Social and Physical Anhedonia Scale . The hedonic response to sucrose adjusted for the sweet taste perception threshold was significantly lower in the ' swallow ' than in the ' spit ' condition . There was a significant effect of sucrose concentrations as well as a significant condition by concentration interaction . When ' fear to swallow ' sucrose solution responses were included as a covariate , the significant difference between the conditions of ' swallow ' or ' spit ' disappeared , but there was a significant concentration by condition by fear to swallow interaction and an almost significant covariate effect . When ' Drive for Thinness ' on the Eating Disorder Inventory was included as a covariate , similar results were obtained . Social Anhedonia but not Physical Anhedonia correlated positively with ' Drive for Thinness ' and ' fear of swallowing sucrose solutions ' , and correlated inversely with maximal hedonic response to the ' swallow ' condition . ' We conclude that the hedonic responses to sucrose in patients with eating disorders are decreased when solutions are swallowed . This may reflect excessive fear of gaining weight rather than decreased ability to experience pleasure ' Anorexia Nervosa ( AN ) is a disorder of self-starvation characterized by decreased meal size and food intake . While it is possible that reduced food intake in AN reflects an excess of inhibitory factors , e.g. , cognitive inhibition related to fear of weight gain or abnormal postingestive negative feedback , it is also possible that decreased intake reflects diminished orosensory stimulation of food intake . This has been difficult to test directly because the amount of food ingested during a test meal by patients with AN reflects an integration of orosensory excitatory , and cognitive , learned , and postingestive inhibitory controls of eating . To begin to dissociate these controls , we adapted the modified sham feeding technique ( MSF ) to measure the intake of a series of sweetened solutions in the absence of postingestive stimulation . Subjects with AN ( n=24 ) and normal controls ( NC , n=10 ) were r and omly presented with cherry Kool Aid solutions sweetened with five concentrations of aspartame ( 0 , 0.01 , 0.03 , 0.08 and 0.28 % ) in a closed opaque container fitted with a straw . They were instructed to sip as much as they wanted of the solution during 15 1-minute trials and to spit the fluid out into another opaque container . Subjects with AN sipped less unsweetened solution than NC ( p<0.05 ) . Because this difference appeared to account completely for the smaller intakes of sweetened solutions by AN , responsiveness of intake to sweet taste per se was not different in AN and NC . Since MSF eliminated postingestive and presumably cognitive inhibitory controls , and the orosensory response to sweet taste was not different in AN than NC , we conclude that decreased intake by AN subjects under these conditions reflects the increased inhibition characteristic of this disorder that is presumably learned , with a possible contribution of decreased potency of orosensory stimulation by the sipped solutions BACKGROUND The majority of studies on taste and smell in eating disorders have revealed several alterations of olfactory or gustatory functions . Aim of this prospect i ve study was to employ detailed olfactory and gustatory testing in female subjects of three homogenous groups - anorexia nervosa , bulimia nervosa and healthy controls - and to look at the effects of treatment on these measures . METHODS Sixteen hospitalized female patients with anorexia ( restricting type , mean age [M]=24.5 years ) , 24 female patients with bulimia ( purging type , M=24.3 years ) as well as 23 healthy controls ( M=24.5 years ) received  olfactory ( " Sniffin ' Sticks " ) and gustatory testing ( " Taste Strips " ) . Group differences in olfactory and gustatory sensitivity , body mass index ( BMI ) , the Beck depression inventory , the eating attitudes test ( EAT ) , and the influence of therapy on gustatory and olfactory function were investigated . RESULTS ( 1 ) Group differences were present for odor discrimination and overall olfactory function with anorexic patients having the lowest scores 
    Output:
    
RESULTS The review of the findings suggest that individuals with AN may experience reduced taste sensitivity that may improve following recovery .
DISCUSSION This review suggests that altered taste sensitivity could represent a component in the wider altered taste processing observed in anorexia nervosa .