***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: Oxidative stress , inflammation , and increased cholesterol levels are all mechanisms that have been associated with Alzheimer ’s disease ( AD ) pathology . Several epidemiologic studies have reported a decreased risk of AD with fish consumption . This pilot study was design ed to evaluate the effects of supplementation with omega-3 fatty acids alone ( ω-3 ) or omega-3 plus alpha lipoic acid ( ω-3 + LA ) compared to placebo on oxidative stress biomarkers in AD . The primary outcome measure was peripheral F2-isoprostane levels ( oxidative stress measure ) . Secondary outcome measures included performance on : Mini-Mental State Examination ( MMSE ) , Activities of Daily Living/Instrumental Activities of Daily Living ( ADL/IADL ) , and Alzheimer Disease Assessment Scale-cognitive subscale ( ADAS-cog ) . Thirty-nine AD subjects were r and omized to one of three groups : 1 ) placebo , 2 ) ω-3 , or 3 ) ω-3 + LA for a treatment duration of 12 months . Eighty seven percent ( 34/39 ) of the subjects completed the 12-month intervention . There was no difference between groups at 12 months in peripheral F2-isoprostane levels ( p = 0.83 ) . The ω-3 + LA and ω-3 were not significantly different than the placebo group in ADAS-cog ( p = 0.98 , p = 0.86 ) and in ADL ( p = 0.15 , p = 0.82 ) . Compared to placebo , the ω-3+LA showed less decline in MMSE ( p < 0.01 ) and IADL ( p= 0.01 ) and the ω-3 group showed less decline in IADL ( p < 0.01 ) . The combination of ω-3+LA  slowed cognitive and functional decline in AD over 12 months . Because the results were generated from a small sample size , further evaluation of the combination of omega-3 fatty acids plus alpha-lipoic acid as a potential treatment in AD is warranted OBJECTIVES Docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ; 22:6 n-3 ) and arachidonic acid ( AA ; 20:4 n-6 ) are important for development of the central nervous system in mammals . There is a growth spurt in the human brain during the last trimester of pregnancy and the first postnatal months , with a large increase in the cerebral content of AA and DHA .  The fetus and the newborn infant depend on maternal supply of DHA and AA . Our hypothesis was that maternal intake of DHA during pregnancy and lactation is marginal and that high intake of this fatty acid would benefit the child . We examined the effect of supplementing pregnant and lactating women with very-long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids ( PUFAs ; cod liver oil ) on mental development of the children , compared with maternal supplementation with long-chain n-6 PUFAs ( corn oil ) . METHODS The study was r and omized and double-blinded . Pregnant women were recruited in week 18 of pregnancy to take 10 mL of cod liver oil or corn oil until 3 months after delivery . The cod liver oil contained 1183 mg/10 mL DHA , 803 mg/10 mL eicosapentaenoic acid ( 20:5 n-3 ) , and a total of 2494 mg/10 mL summation operator n-3 PUFAs . The corn oil contained 4747 mg/10 mL linoleic acid ( 18:2 n-6 ) and 92 mg/10 mL alpha-linolenic acid ( 18:3 n-3 ) . The amount of fat-soluble vitamins was identical in the 2 oils ( 117 micro g/mL vitamin A , 1 micro g/mL vitamin D , and 1.4 mg/mL dl-alpha-tocopherol ) . A total of 590 pregnant women were recruited to the study , and 341 mothers took part in the study until giving birth . All infants of these women were scheduled for assessment of cognitive function at 6 and 9 months of age , and 262 complied with the request . As part of the protocol , 135 subjects from this population were invited for intelligence testing  with the Kaufman Assessment Battery for Children ( K-ABC ) at 4 years of age . Of the 135 invited children , 90 came for assessment . Six children did not complete the examination . The K-ABC is a measure of intelligence and achievement design ed for children aged 2.5 years through 12.5 years . This multisubtest battery comprises 4 scales : Sequential Processing , Simultaneous Processing , Achievement ( not used in the present study ) , and Nonverbal Abilities . The Sequential Processing and Simultaneous Processing scales are hypothesized to reflect the child 's style of problem solving and information processing . Scores from these 2 scales are combined to form a Mental Processing Composite , which serves as the measure of intelligence in the K-ABC . RESULTS We received dietary information from 76 infants ( 41 in the cod liver oil group and 35 in the corn oil group ) , documenting that all of them were breastfed at 3 months of age . Children who were born to mothers who had taken cod liver oil ( n = 48 ) during pregnancy and lactation scored higher on the Mental Processing Composite of the K-ABC at 4 years of age as compared with children whose mothers had taken  corn oil  ( n = 36 ; 106.4 [ 7.4 ] vs 102.3 [ 11.3 ] ) . The Mental Processing Composite score correlated significantly with head circumference at birth ( r = 0.23 ) , but no relation was found with birth weight or gestational length . The children 's mental processing scores at 4 years of age correlated significantly with maternal intake of DHA and eicosapentaenoic acid during pregnancy . In a multiple regression model , maternal intake of DHA during pregnancy was the only variable of statistical significance for the children 's mental processing scores at 4 years of age . CONCLUSION Maternal intake of very-long-chain n-3 PUFAs during pregnancy and lactation may be favorable for later mental development of children Background : Intestinal damage and malabsorption caused by chronic environmental enteropathy are associated with growth faltering seen in infants in less-developed countries . Evidence has suggested that supplementary omega-3 ( n−3 ) long-chain PUFAs ( LC-PUFAs ) might ameliorate this damage by reducing gastrointestinal inflammation . LC-PUFA supplementation may also benefit cognitive development . Objective : We tested whether early n−3 LC-PUFA supplementation improves  infant intestinal integrity , growth , and cognitive function . Design : A r and omized , double-blind , controlled trial [ 200 mg DHA and 300 mg EPA or 2 mL olive oil/d for 6 mo ] was conducted in a population of 172 rural Gambian infants aged 3–9 mo . The primary endpoints were anthropometric measures and gut integrity [ assessed by using urinary lactulose : mannitol ratios ( LMRs ) ] . Plasma fatty acid status , intestinal mucosal inflammation ( fecal calprotectin ) , daily morbidity , and cognitive development ( 2-step means-end test and an attention assessment ) were secondary endpoints . Results : PUFA supplementation result ed in a significant increase in plasma n−3 LC-PUFA concentrations ( P < 0.001 for both DHA and EPA ) and midupper arm circumference ( MUAC ) ( effect size : 0.31 z scores ; 95 % CI : 0.06 , 0.56 ; P = 0.017 ) at 9 mo of age . At 12 mo , MUAC remained greater in the intervention group , and we observed significant increases in skinfold thicknesses ( P ≤ 0.022 for all ) . No other significant differences between treatment groups were detected for growth or LMRs at 9 mo or for secondary outcomes . Conclusions : Fish-oil supplementation successfully increased plasma n−3 fatty acid status . However , in young , breastfed Gambian infants , the intervention failed to improve linear growth , intestinal integrity , morbidity , or selected measures of cognitive development . The trial was registered at www.is rct n.org as IS RCT N66645725 Abstract This trial investigated the efficacy of omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid ( n-3 PUFA ) treatment for improving depressive symptoms and cognitive performance in patients with coronary artery disease ( CAD ) participating in cardiac rehabilitation . Patients with CAD aged 45 to 80 years were r and omized to receive either 1.9-g/d n-3 PUFA treatment or placebo for 12 weeks . Depressive symptoms were measured using the Hamilton Depression Rating Scale ( HAM-D , primary outcome ) and the Beck Depression Inventory II ( BDI-II ) . Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders , Fourth Edition , criteria were used to identify a depressive episode at baseline . Cognitive performance was measured using a st and ardized battery for vascular cognitive impairment . In 92 patients ( age , 61.7 ± 8.7 y ; 76 % male , 40 % depressed ; HAM-D , 6.9 ± 5.9 ; BDI-II , 12.3 ± 10.9 ; n = 45 n-3 PUFA , n = 47 placebo ) , depression decreased ( HAM-D , F3,91 = 2.71 and P = 0.049 ; BDI-II , F3,91 = 6.24 and P < 0.01 ) , and cognitive performance improved ( attention/processing speed , F1,91 = 5.57 , P = 0.02 ; executive function , F1,91 = 14.64 , P < 0.01 ; visuospatial memory , F1,91 = 4.01 , P = 0.04 ) over cardiac rehabilitation . Omega-3 PUFA treatment increased plasma eicosapentaenoic acid ( F1,29 = 33.29 , P < 0.01 ) and docosahexaenoic acid ( F1,29 = 15.29 , P < 0.01 ) concentrations but did not reduce HAM-D ( F3,91 = 1.59 , P = 0.20 ) or BDI-II ( F3,91 = 0.46 , P = 0.50 ) scores compared with placebo . Treatment did not improve cognitive performance ; however , n-3 PUFAs significantly increased verbal memory compared with placebo in a subgroup of nondepressed patients ( F1,54 = 4.16 , P = 0.04 ) . This trial suggests that n-3 PUFAs do not improve depressive and associated cognitive symptoms in those with CAD . The possible benefits of n-3 PUFAs for verbal memory may warrant investigation in well-powered studies Objective : To test the hypothesis that higher levels of red blood cell ( RBC ) docosahexaenoic acid ( DHA ) and eicosapentaenoic acid ( EPA ) have a protective association with domain-specific cognitive function in women aged 65 years and older . Methods : A total of 2,157 women with normal cognition enrolled in a clinical trial of postmenopausal hormone therapy  were followed with annual cognitive testing for a median of 5.9 years . In this retrospective cohort study , we assessed the relationship between prer and omization RBC DHA + EPA levels and a ) cognitive measures at baseline , and b ) cognitive change over time . Endpoints were composite cognitive function and performance in 7 cognitive domains : fine motor speed , verbal memory , visual memory , spatial ability , verbal knowledge , verbal fluency , and working memory . Results : After adjustment for demographic , clinical , and behavioral characteristics , no significant ( p < 0.01 ) cross-sectional cognitive differences were found between women in the high and low DHA + EPA tertiles at the time of the first annual cognitive battery . In addition , no significant ( p < 0.01 ) differences were found between the high and low DHA + EPA tertiles in the rate of cognitive change over time . Conclusions : We did not find an association between RBC DHA + EPA levels and age-associated cognitive decline in a cohort of older , dementia-free women Depressive symptoms may increase the risk of progressing from mild cognitive impairment ( MCI ) to dementia . Consumption of n-3 PUFA may alleviate both cognitive decline and depression . The aim of the present study was to investigate the benefits of supplementing a diet with n-3 PUFA , DHA and EPA , for depressive symptoms , quality of life ( QOL ) and cognition in elderly people with MCI . We conducted a 6-month double-blind , r and omised controlled trial . A total of fifty people aged > 65 years with MCI were allocated to receive a supplement rich in EPA ( 1·67 g EPA + 0·16 g DHA/d ; n 17 ) , DHA ( 1·55 g DHA + 0·40 g EPA/d ; n 18 ) or the n-6 PUFA linoleic acid ( LA ; 2·2 g/d ; n 15 ) . Treatment allocation was by minimisation based on age , sex and depressive symptoms ( Geriatric Depression Scale , GDS ) . Physiological and cognitive assessment s , question naires and fatty acid composition of erythrocytes were obtained at baseline and 6 months ( 
    Output:
    
Results Current evidence indicates that n-3 LC-PUFAs administered during pregnancy or breastfeeding have no effect on the skills or cognitive development of children in later stages of development .
Evidence regarding the improvement of cognitive function during childhood and youth or in attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder is inconclusive .
Moreover , it is still unclear if n-3 LC-PUFAs can improve cognitive development or prevent cognitive decline in young or older adults