***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: BACKGROUND The high smoking rate among patients with schizophrenia is an important public health problem , and research ers have been study ing how to change the status quo . OBJECTIVE We investigated the effects of high frequency ( 10Hz ) repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation on the amount of cigarette smoking in patients with schizophrenia . METHOD This study enrolled 37 male patients with schizophrenia who were at a stable stage of treatment . Patients were r and omly divided into a treatment group ( n=19 ) and a control group ( n=18 ) . The treatment group received repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation ( rTMS ) on the left prefrontal dorsolateral cortex ( DLPFC ) , and the control group received placebo treatment . The number of cigarettes smoked were recorded at 7 days before treatment , during the course of treatment ( i.e. for 21 days ) , and 3 weeks after treatment had ended . Assessment s using the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale ( PANSS ) , Wisconsin Card Sorting Test ( WCST ) , and Montgomery Asberg Depression Rating Scale ( MADRS ) were applied before and after treatment . RESULT Compared to the control group , the number of cigarettes smoked in the treatment group showed a statistically significant reduction in the first week after treatment . However , there was no significant correlation between the scores on PANSS , WCST and MADRS and the number of cigarettes smoked before and after treatment in both groups . DISCUSSION High frequency ( 10Hz ) repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation on the left prefrontal cortex can reduce the number of cigarettes smoked in patients with schizophrenia AIMS As alcohol dependency is characterized by severe executive function deficits , we examined the influence of high-frequency ( HF ) repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation ( rTMS ) applied to the right dorsolateral prefrontal cortex ( DLPFC ) on executive functioning in recently detoxified alcohol-dependent patients . METHODS In this r and omized , single blind , sham (placebo)-controlled , crossover study , we included 50 detoxified alcohol-dependent patients . We examined the effect of a single right DLPFC HF-rTMS session on commission errors , mean reaction times ( RTs ) and intra-individual reaction time variability ( IIRTV ) during a Go-NoGo task ( 50 % Go/50 % NoGo condition ) in 29 alcohol-dependent patients . Patients completed this cognitive task immediately before and immediately after the stimulation session . In order to avoid carry-over effects between stimulation sessions , a 1-week inter-session interval was respected . Because rTMS treatment has been shown to affect subjective craving , all patients were also assessed with the Obsessive Compulsive Drinking Scale ( OCDS ) . RESULTS After both stimulation conditions , we observed a significant decrease of commission errors , without differences between active and sham HF-rTMS stimulation . No significant difference was observed between active and sham stimulation on mean RT . However , only active stimulation result ed in a significant decrease in IIRTV . No effects of stimulation were found for the craving measurements . CONCLUSION Our findings suggest that in recently detoxified alcohol-dependent patients , one right-sided HF-rTMS session stabilizes cognitive performance during executive control tasks , implying that active stimulation reduces patients ' proneness to attentional lapses BACKGROUND Addiction is associated with dorso-lateral prefrontal cortex ( DLPFC ) dysfunction and altered brain-oscillations . High frequency repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation ( HFrTMS ) over DLPFC reportedly reduces drug craving . Its effects on neuropsychological , behavioural and neurophysiological are unclear . METHODS We assessed psychological , behavioural and neurophysiological effects of 4 sessions of 10-min adjunctive HFrTMS over the left DLPFC during two weeks during a residential programme for alcohol detoxification . Participants were r and omized to active HFrTMS ( 10 Hz , 100 % motor threshold ) or sham . Immediately before the first and after the last session , 32-channels EEG was recorded and alcohol craving Visual Analogue Scale , Symptom Check List-90-R ,  Numeric Stroop task  and Go/No-go task administered . Tests were repeated at 1-month follow-up . RESULTS 17 subjects ( mean age 44.7 years , 4 F ) were assessed . Active rTMS subjects performed better at Stroop test at end of treatment ( p=0.036 ) and follow up ( p=0.004 ) and at Go-NoGo at end of treatment ( p=0.05 ) and follow up ( p=0.015 ) . Depressive symptoms decreased at end of active treatment ( p=0.036 ) . Active-TMS showed an overall decrease of fast EEG frequencies after treatment compared to sham ( p=0.026 ) . No significant modifications over time or group emerged for craving and number of drinks at follow up . CONCLUSION 4 HFrTMS sessions over two weeks on the left DLPFC can improve inhibitory control task and selective attention and reduce depressive symptoms . An overall reduction of faster EEG frequencies was observed . Nonetheless , this schedule is ineffective in reducing craving and alcohol intake Cognitive deficits that are reported in heavy marijuana users  ( attention , memory , affect perception , decision-making ) appear to be completely reversible after a prolonged abstinence period of about 28 days . However , it remains unclear whether the reversibility of these cognitive deficits indicates that ( 1 ) chronic marijuana use is not associated with long-lasting changes in cortical networks or ( 2 ) that such changes occur but the brain adapts to and compensates for the drug-induced changes . Therefore , we examined whether chronic marijuana smokers would demonstrate a differential pattern of response in comparison to healthy volunteers on a decision-making paradigm ( Risk Task ) while undergoing sham or active transcranial direct current stimulation ( tDCS ) of the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex ( DLPFC ) . Twenty-five chronic marijuana users who were abstinent for at least 24h were r and omly assigned to receive left anodal/right cathodal tDCS of DLPFC ( n=8 ) , right anodal/left cathodal tDCS of DLPFC ( n=9 ) , or sham stimulation ( n=8 ) ; results on  Risk Task  during sham/active tDCS were compared to healthy volunteers from a previously published data set . Chronic marijuana users demonstrated more conservative ( i.e. less risky ) decision-making during sham stimulation . While right anodal stimulation of the DLPFC enhanced conservative decision-making in healthy volunteers , both right anodal and left anodal DLPFC stimulation increased the propensity for risk-taking in marijuana users . These findings reveal alterations in the decision-making neural networks among chronic marijuana users . Finally , we also assessed the effects of tDCS on marijuana craving and observed that right anodal/left cathodal tDCS of DLPFC is significantly associated with a diminished craving for marijuana Preliminary small studies have shown that transcranial direct current stimulation ( tDCS ) reduces craving in alcoholic subjects . It is unclear whether tDCS also leads to changes in clinical ly meaningful outcomes for alcohol dependence in a properly powered phase II r and omized clinical trial . We aim ed to investigate whether repetitive tDCS changes the risk of alcohol use relapse in severe alcoholics from outpatient services . Thirty-five subjects were r and omized to receive active bilateral [ left cathodal/right anodal over the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex ( dlPFC ) ] repetitive ( five consecutive days ) tDCS ( 2 mA , 35 cm2 , two times daily stimulation for 13 min with a 20-min interval ) or sham-tDCS . There were two dropouts before treatment . From 33 alcoholic subjects , 17 ( mean age 45.5±8.9 s.d . , 16 males ) were r and omized to sham and 16 ( 44±7.8 s.d . , 16 males ) to real tDCS treatment . By the end of the six months of follow-up , two subjects treated with sham ( 11.8 % ) and eight treated with real tDCS ( 50 % ) were still alcohol-abstinent [ p=0.02 , Long-rank ( Mantel-Cox ) Test , HR=0.35 ( 95 % CI , 0.14 - 0.85 ) ] . No differences with regard to changes on scores of craving , frontal function , global mental status , depressive or anxiety symptoms were observed between groups . However , subjects from the tDCS group improved with regard to their overall perception of quality of life ( p=0.02 ) , and increased their scores in the environment domain ( p=0.04 ) after treatment . Bilateral tDCS over dlPFC reduces relapse probability in severe alcoholic subjects and results in improved perception of quality of life Previous neurobiological and neuropsychological investigations have shown that risk-taking behaviors and addictions share many structural and functional aspects . In particular , both are characterized by an irresistible need to obtain immediate rewards and by specific alterations in brain circuits responsible for such behaviors . In this study , we used transcranial direct-current stimulation over the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex ( DLPFC ) of two sample s of subjects ( 18 dependent cocaine users and 18 control subjects ) to investigate the effects of left and right cortical excitability on two risk tasks : ( 1 ) the balloon analog risk task ( BART ) and ( 2 ) the game of dice task ( GDT ) . All subjects r and omly received a left anodal/right cathodal stimulation ( LAn+ ) , a right anodal/left cathodal stimulation ( RAn+ ) , and a sham ( placebo ) stimulation each run at least 48 h apart . Participants were asked to perform the BART and the GDT immediately before and after each stimulation . Our results reveal that the activation of the DLPFC ( left and right ) results in a reduction of risky behaviors at the BART task both in controls subjects and cocaine dependent users . The effect of tDCS on GDT , instead , is more complex . Cocaine users increased safe behavior after right DLPFC anodal stimulation , while risk-taking behavior increased after left DLPFC anodal stimulation . Control subjects ’ performance was only affected by the anodal stimulation of the right DLPFC , result ing in an increase of safe bets . These results support the hypothesis that excessive risk propensity in dependent cocaine users might be due to a hypoactivation of the right DLPFC and an unbalance interhemispheric interaction . In conclusion , since risky decision-making seems to be , at least in part , responsible for maintenance and relapse of addiction , we argue that a neuromodulation-based approach could represent a valuable adjunct in the clinical treatment of addiction BACKGROUND Cognitive bias modification ( CBM ) can be used to retrain automatic approach tendencies for alcohol . We investigated whether changing cortical excitability with transcranial direct current stimulation ( tDCS ) could enhance CBM effects in hazardous drinkers . We also studied the underlying mechanisms by including behavioral ( craving , implicit associations , approach tendencies ) and electrophysiological ( event-related potentials ) measurements . METHODS The analytical sample consisted of 78 hazardous drinkers ( Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test > 8) r and omly assigned to 4 conditions in a 2-by-2 factorial design ( control/active CBM and sham/active tDCS ) . The intervention consisted of 3 sessions of CBM , specifically alcohol approach bias retraining , combined with 15 minutes 1 mA tDCS over the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex . There was a pre- and post assessment before and after the intervention that included experimental tasks ( Approach Avoidance Task , Implicit Association Task ) and an electroencephalogram with an oddball and cue-reactivity task . RESULTS tDCS decreased cue-induced craving ( but not overall craving ) on post assessment . CBM did not induce an avoidance bias during assessment . During the training , active and control-CBM only differed in bias score during the first session . We found no enhancement effects of tDCS on CBM . Electrophysiological data showed no clear effects of active tDCS or CBM on the P300 . CONCLUSIONS There were no electrophysiological or behavioral effects of repeated CBM and /or tDCS , except for an effect of tDCS on craving . Applied in these specific ways these techniques appear to have limited effects in a hazardous drinking population BACKGROUND AND PURPOSE Assessment of the quality of r and omized controlled trials ( RCTs ) is common practice in systematic review s. However , the reliability of data obtained with most quality assessment scales has not been established . This report describes 2 studies design ed to investigate the reliability of data obtained with the Physiotherapy Evidence Data base ( PEDro ) scale developed to rate the quality of RCTs evaluating physical therapist interventions . METHOD In the first study , 11 raters independently rated 25 RCTs r and omly selected from the PEDro data base . In the second study , 2 raters rated 120 RCTs r and omly selected from the PEDro data base , and disagreements were resolved by a third rater ; this generated a set of individual rater and consensus ratings . The process was repeated by independent raters to create a second set of individual and consensus ratings . Reliability of ratings of PEDro scale items was calculated using multirater kappas , and reliability of the total ( summed ) score was calculated using intraclass correlation coefficients ( ICC [ 1,1 ] ) . RESULTS The kappa value for each of the 11 items ranged from.36 to.80 for individual assessors and 
    Output:
    
The executive function domain most positively affected was social cognition followed by memory & learning , response inhibition , cognitive flexibility and attention .
Nevertheless , the results of these studies are promising in light of improvement of current treatment .
This will significantly increase the comparability of the studies and thereby accelerate and clarify the conclusion on whether non-invasive neuromodulation is an effective add-on treatment for substance dependence