***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: AIMS Previous studies have shown that abstinent heroin addicts exhibit an attentional bias to heroin-related stimuli . It has been suggested that attentional bias may represent a vulnerability to relapse into drug use . In the present study , the predictive value of pre-treatment attentional bias on relapse was examined in a population of abstinent heroin addicts . Further , the effect of cue exposure therapy ( CET ) on attentional bias was studied . DESIGN Participants were assigned r and omly to receive nine sessions of CET or placebo psychotherapy . SETTING An in-patient drug abuse treatment setting . PARTICIPANTS Abstinent heroin-dependent patients . MEASUREMENTS Participants completed the  emotional Stroop task  both before and after completing treatment . FINDINGS Pre-treatment attentional bias predicted relapse at 3-month follow-up , even when controlling for self-reported cravings at the test session . Further , attentional bias was reduced in both groups after therapy , independent of treatment condition . CONCLUSIONS Attentional bias may tap an important component of drug dependence as it is a predictor of opiate relapse . However , CET does not specifically reduce attentional bias Negative priming is a commonly observed after-effect in studies concerning inhibition . Effects of the preceding trial are also found in other paradigms , like the stop signal paradigm . In the present study , stop signals were introduced in a negative priming paradigm and the relation between stop signal inhibition and negative priming was investigated . In Experiment 1 , we used a  simple stop signal task .  Stopping data clearly suggest that stopping performance was not influenced by negative priming . Interestingly , on no-signal probes the negative priming effect disappeared after successful inhibition of the response on the prime trial . On the contrary , when inhibition failed , the negative priming effect remained . In Experiment 2 , we used the  selective stop signal task .  As in Experiment 1 , inhibition of motor responses was not influenced by negative priming . The hypothesis that negative priming disappeared due to a general nonspecific stop was confirmed in this experiment , as a negative priming effect was found after both successful and unsuccessful behavioral inhibition . The results of both experiments show that response inhibition is not influenced by negative priming , and that negative priming is only affected after a successful general stop The majority of regular adult smokers begin smoking in adolescence and there is a clear need for youth-targeted smoking cessation interventions . The present r and omized , controlled trial tested the effectiveness of motivational enhancement therapy ( MET ) to reduce  smoking among 81 adjudicated adolescents . Participants received either MET or an education control .  Smoking abstinence , quantity , and frequency were assessed at 1 and 6 months post treatment . Results suggest that although between-group differences on outcome measures were not significant at follow-up , smoking behavior decreased in both groups with approximately 10 % achieving 1-month smoking abstinence at 6-month follow-up . Furthermore , participant response to MET varied by level of alcohol use and impulsivity such that participants with lower levels of alcohol use and impulsivity had significantly greater response to MET . In contrast , participants who endorsed higher rates of alcohol use and impulsivity responded better to the control than the MET condition . Results suggest that MET may be an effective intervention for some adolescent smokers but may be contraindicated for adolescents who have concomitant problems with alcohol use or impulsivity Previous studies report reduced amplitude of the P300 event-related potential in cocaine-dependent individuals . Cocaine dependence is also associated with increased impulsivity , possibly due to deficits in cognitive function that are associated with reduced P300 amplitude . In the current study , the relationship between cocaine dependence , impulsivity , and P300 amplitude were examined . An auditory oddball event-related potential task along with self-report ( Barratt Impulsiveness Scale version 11 ) and behavioral laboratory ( Immediate and Delayed Memory Task ) measures of impulsivity were assessed in healthy controls ( n = 14 ) and subjects who met DSM-IV criteria for current cocaine dependence ( n = 17 ) .  P300 amplitude was reduced and self-reported and behavioral laboratory impulsivity scores were elevated among the cocaine-dependent group compared to controls . There was a positive correlation between the question naire and behavioral laboratory measures of impulsivity , and a negative correlation between impulsivity measures and P300 amplitude . The correlation between self-reported impulsivity scores and P300 amplitude remained after taking into account the number of childhood conduct disorder symptoms . This study supports the hypothesis that the basic neurophysiology responsible for the P300 amplitude in cocaine-dependent individuals is associated with impulsivity independent of a history of childhood conduct disorder symptoms Little is known about the acute effects of drugs of abuse on impulsivity and self-control . In this study , impulsivity was assessed in humans using a computer task that measured delay and probability discounting . Discounting describes how much the value of a reward ( or punisher ) is decreased when its occurrence is either delayed or uncertain . Twenty-four healthy adult volunteers ingested a moderate dose of ethanol ( 0.5 or 0.8 g/kg ethanol : n = 12 at each dose ) or placebo before completing the discounting task . In the task the participants were given a series of choices between a small , immediate , certain amount of money and $ 10 that was either delayed ( 0 , 2 , 30 , 180 , or 365 days ) or probabilistic ( i.e. , certainty of receipt was 1.0 , .9 , .75 , .5 , or .25 ) . The point at which each individual was indifferent between the smaller immediate or certain reward and the $ 10 delayed or probabilistic reward was identified using an adjusting-amount procedure . The results indicated that ( a ) delay and probability discounting were well described by a hyperbolic function ; ( b ) delay and probability discounting were positively correlated within subjects ; ( c ) delay and probability discounting were moderately correlated with personality measures of impulsivity ; and ( d ) alcohol had no effect on discounting The clinical relevance of neuropsychological deficits in addicted individuals has fostered interest in treatment strategies aim ed to effectively target executive and decision-making dysfunction . One of the best-vali date d interventions for executive dysfunction is Goal Management Training ( GMT ) ( Robertson et al. , 2005 ) , an interactive program aim ed at improving participants ' organization and ability to achieve goals . Mindfulness-based meditation can complement GMT training in order to improve attentional scanning and " reading " of emotional signals involved in adaptive decision-making . In this pilot study we investigated the efficacy of a 7-week program including GMT+Mindfulness ( GMT+MF ) , as compared to st and ard treatment alone ( STx ) , for reducing executive and decision-making deficits in an outpatient sample of alcohol and polysubstance abusers . Eighteen participants were enrolled in the GMT+MF group , whereas 16 participants formed the STx group ; both groups were matched for relevant demographic and clinical variables , and pre-treatment degree of executive dysfunction . Results showed that the individuals enrolled in GMT+MF significantly improved their performance on neuropsychological measures of working memory ( Letter Number Sequencing ) , response inhibition ( Stroop ) and decision-making ( Iowa Gambling Task ) after the treatment ; whereas individuals enrolled in STx alone failed to show significant changes . These preliminary results indicate that the GMT+MF intervention may be effective in reducing executive and decision-making deficits in polysubstance abusers , and they support future r and omized controlled studies aim ed at examining the extent to which these improvements may generalize to every day functioning and may affect the capacity of addicted individuals to achieve and maintain abstinence BACKGROUND The dopamine precursor levodopa has shown some , albeit relatively weak , promise in treating cocaine dependence . This study sought to identify the most appropriate behavioral therapy platform for levodopa pharmacotherapy by evaluating its effect when administered in combination with behavioral platforms of varying intensities . METHOD A total of 161 treatment-seeking cocaine dependent subjects received sustained release levodopa/carbidopa ( 400/100 mg bid , Sinemet ) or placebo delivered in combination with Clinical Management ( ClinMan ) ; ClinMan+cognitive behavioral therapy ( CBT ) ; or ClinMan+CBT+voucher-based reinforcement therapy ( VBRT ) in a 12-week r and omized , placebo-controlled , double-blind ( for medication condition ) trial . Medication compliance was monitored with riboflavin ( 100mg/capsule ) and the Medication Event Monitoring System . Protocol compliance was addressed in weekly , 10-min nurse-delivered ClinMan sessions . Weekly , 1-h CBT sessions focused on coping skills training . VBRT ( with escalating reinforcer value ) provided cash-valued vouchers contingent on cocaine-negative urine toxicology results . Urine benzoylecgonine assays collected thrice-weekly were analyzed by intention-to-treat criteria using generalized linear mixed models . RESULTS Levodopa main effects were found on all outcome measures of cocaine use . Contrasts testing the levodopa-placebo difference within each behavioral platform found reliable effects , favoring levodopa , only in the VBRT platform . Levodopa treatment with vouchers produced higher proportions of cocaine-negative urines and longer periods of consecutive abstinence compared to other treatment combinations . CONCLUSION This is the first study to find a significant treatment effect for levodopa and , in doing so , to demonstrate that the magnitude of this effect is dependent upon conditions of the behavioral therapy platform . The data support use of levodopa with abstinence-based reinforcement therapy as one efficacious combination in cocaine dependence disorder treatment BACKGROUND The mechanisms by which behavioral therapies for substance use disorders ( SUDs ) exert their effects and the components of treatment that contribute most to substance use outcome remain unclear . Disruptions to aspects of impulse control and attention have been hypothesized to contribute to the development and maintenance of addiction ; moreover , alterations in these processes may underlie responses to treatment . METHODS Individuals participating in a r and omized clinical trial evaluating computer-assisted cognitive behavioral therapy ( CBT ) for substance abuse participated in fMRI Stroop before and after treatment .  A non-substance-using comparison group performed the same task under test-retest conditions . RESULTS The patient group demonstrated decreased Stroop-related BOLD signal in regions including the anterior cingulate , inferior frontal gyrus and midbrain at post-treatment relative to pre-treatment , and displayed a greater decrease in the subthalamic nucleus and surrounding regions compared to healthy controls following test-retest . CONCLUSIONS Behavioral therapies may be associated with reduction in substance use and effects on neural systems involved in cognitive control , impulsivity , motivation and attention OBJECTIVE A positive association between delay discounting and substance use has been documented ; substance users tend to discount future rewards more than non-users . However , studies detailing the responsiveness of delay discounting to interventions are lacking , and few have examined how any behavioral intervention affects delay discounting and whether these effects moderate changes in substance abuse . This study assesses the effectiveness of a money management intervention , Advisor-Teller Money Manager ( ATM ) , in reducing delay discounting over time and the relationship of these effects to changes in cocaine use . METHOD Ninety psychiatric patients with histories of cocaine and /or alcohol use were r and omly assigned to 36-weeks of ATM treatment or to a minimal-attention control condition .  Delay discounting and cocaine use were measured throughout the intervention with a 52-week follow up measure of cocaine use . Analyses were conducted of ( a ) the effect of ATM on slopes of delay discounting and cocaine abstinence and ( b ) the relationship between change in delay discounting and change in cocaine abstinence . RESULTS The ATM intervention was associated with significantly less delay discounting and less cocaine use over time relative to controls . Increases in delay discounting were associated with decreased abstinence from cocaine . CONCLUSIONS ATM treatment decreased delay discounting rates and these effects extended to cocaine use . Concrete conceptualizations of future events , as occur in financial planning , with higher perceived probability may account for higher valuation of future rewards in counseled patients Delay discounting is an index of impulsive decision-making and reflects an individual 's preference for smaller immediate rewards relative to larger delayed rewards . Multiple studies have indicated comparatively high rates of discounting among tobacco , alcohol , cocaine , and other types of drug users , but few studies have examined discounting among marijuana users . This report is a secondary analysis of data from a clinical trial that r and omized adults with marijuana dependence to receive one of four treatments that involved contingency management ( CM ) and cognitive-behavioral therapy interventions . Delay discounting  was assessed with the Experiential Discounting Task  ( Reynolds & Schiffbauer , 2004 ) at pretreatment in 93 participants and at 12 weeks posttreatment in 61 participants . Results indicated that higher pretreatment delay discounting ( i.e. , more impulsive decision-making ) significantly correlated with lower readiness to change marijuana use ( r = -0.22 , p = .03 ) and greater number of days of cigarette use ( r = .21 , p = .04 ) . Pretreatment discounting was not associated with any marijuana treatment outcomes . CM treatment significantly interacted with time to predict change in delay discounting from pre- to posttreatment ; participants who received CM did not change their discounting over time , whereas those who did not receive CM significantly increased their discounting from pre- to posttreatment . In this sample of court-referred young adults receiving treatment for marijuana dependence 
    Output:
    
Although conceptual/ method ological heterogeneity and lack of replication are key limitations of studies in this area , findings speak for a prominent role of cognitive disinhibition , delay discounting and impulsive decision-making in the ability to successfully achieve and maintain abstinence during and following addiction treatment .
In contrast , indices of motor disinhibition appear to be unrelated to abstinence levels .
Whereas the relationship between impulsivity and treatment retention needs to be examined more extensively , preliminary evidence suggests that impulsive/risky decision-making is unrelated to premature treatment drop-out among individuals with a substance use disorder .