***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: The Life Education organization offers a drug education programme to an estimated one million Australian primary schoolchildren . It is believed the programme delays experimentation with or initiation into smoking , alcohol use and the taking of analgesics . This study examined the short-term public health effects on 3000 11- and 12-year-old students , of whom 1700 were exposed to 5 consecutive years of the programme . The other 1300 students were not exposed to the programme .  After controlling for the known predictors of social drug use there was no evidence that  Life Education students , when compared with students receiving conventional school-based drug education , were less likely to have smoked , were less likely to have drunk or were less likely to have used analgesics .  Indeed , the evidence suggested that Life Education-students were slightly more likely to use these substances , and that the programme had different effects on boys ' and girls ' drug use . Given that these findings are consistent with previous research evaluating similar drug education programmes , it is hypothesized they are most likely to do with the design of the programme itself Objective : The aim of the present study was to conduct a cross-validation trial of the efficacy of a computerized school-based intervention for alcohol misuse in adolescents . Method : A cluster r and omized control trial was carried out . Intervention and control groups were assessed at baseline , immediately after and 6 months after the intervention . A total of 764 Year 8 students from 10 independent secondary schools in Sydney , Australia participated in the study . Half of the schools were r and omly allocated to the computerized prevention programme ( n=397 ) , and half to their usual classes ( n=367 ) . The six-lesson computerized intervention was evidence and curriculum based while having a focus on harm-minimization . Knowledge , expectancies , alcohol consumption ( frequency , quantity and binging ) , patterns of use , and harms associated with one 's own use of alcohol were assessed . Results : There were significant improvements in knowledge regarding alcohol use at immediate and 6 month follow up . Average weekly alcohol consumption was reduced immediately after the intervention . No differences between groups were found on alcohol expectancies , frequency of drinking to excess and harms related to alcohol use over time . Conclusions : The present results support the Climate Management and Treatment Education ( CLIMATE ) Schools : alcohol module as an effective intervention in increasing alcohol knowledge and reducing alcohol use in the short term AIMS The School Health and Alcohol Harm Reduction Project ( SHAHRP study ) aim ed to reduce alcohol-related harm in secondary school students . DESIGN The study used a quasi-experimental research design in which r and omly selected and allocated intervention and comparison groups were assessed at eight , 20 and 32 months after baseline . SETTING Metropolitan , government secondary schools in Perth , Western Australia . PARTICIPANTS The sample involved over 2300 students . The retention rate was 75.9 % over 32 months . INTERVENTION The evidence -based intervention , a curriculum programme with an explicit harm minimization goal , was conducted in two phases over a 2-year period . MEASURES Knowledge , attitude , total alcohol consumption , risky consumption , context of use , harm associated with own use and harm associated with other people 's use of alcohol . FINDINGS There were significant knowledge , attitude and behavioural effects early in the study , some of which were maintained for the duration of the study . The intervention group had significantly greater knowledge during the programme phases , and significantly safer alcohol-related attitudes to final follow-up , but both scores were converging by 32 months . Intervention students were significantly more likely to be non-drinkers or supervised drinkers than were comparison students . During the first and second programme phases , intervention students consumed 31.4 % and 31.7 % less alcohol . Differences were converging 17 months after programme delivery . Intervention students were 25.7 % , 33.8 % and 4.2 % less likely to drink to risky levels from first follow-up onwards . The intervention reduced the harm that young people reported associated with their own use of alcohol , with intervention students experiencing 32.7 % , 16.7 % and 22.9 % less harm from first follow-up onwards . There was no impact on the harm that students reported from other people 's use of alcohol . CONCLUSIONS The results of this study support the use of harm reduction goals and classroom approaches in school drug education AIMS To determine the impact of a school-based harm minimization smoking intervention compared to traditional abstinence-based approaches . DESIGN , SETTING AND PARTICIPANTS A school-based cluster r and omized trial was conducted in Perth , Western Australia in 30 government high schools from 1999 to 2000 . Over 4000 students were recruited to participate and schools were assigned r and omly to either the harm minimization intervention or a st and ard abstinence-based programme . INTERVENTION The harm minimization intervention comprised eight 1-hour lessons over 2 years , quitting support from school nurses and enactment of policies to support programme components . Comparison schools implemented st and ard abstinence-based programmes and policies . MEASURES Cigarette smoking was categorized at two levels : regular smoking , defined as smoking on 4 or more days in the previous week ; and 30-day smoking as any smoking within the previous month . FINDINGS At immediate post-test ( 20 months post-baseline ) , after accounting for baseline differences , school-level clustering effects , socio-economic status , gender and family smoking , intervention students were less likely to smoke regularly [ OR = 0.51 , 95 % confidence interval ( CI ) = 0.36 , 0.71 ] or to have smoked within the previous 30 days ( OR = 0.69 , 95 % CI = 0.53 , 0.91 ) . CONCLUSION The school-based adolescent harm minimization intervention appears to have been more effective than the abstinence-based social influences programme at reducing regular smoking CONTEXT Selective interventions targeting personality risk are showing promise in the prevention of problematic drinking behavior , but their effect on illicit drug use has yet to be evaluated . OBJECTIVE To investigate the efficacy of targeted coping skills interventions on illicit drug use  in adolescents with personality risk factors for substance misuse . DESIGN R and omized controlled trial . SETTING Secondary schools in London , United Kingdom . PARTICIPANTS A total of 5302 students were screened to identify 2028 students aged 13 to 16 years with elevated scores on self-report measures of hopelessness , anxiety sensitivity , impulsivity , and sensation seeking . Seven hundred thirty-two students provided parental consent to participate in this trial . INTERVENTION Participants were r and omly assigned to a control no-intervention condition or a 2-session group coping skills intervention targeting 1 of 4 personality profiles . MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES The trial was design ed and powered to primarily evaluate the effect of the intervention on the onset , prevalence , and frequency of illicit drug use over a 2-year period . RESULTS Intent-to-treat repeated- measures analyses on continuous measures of drug use revealed time x intervention effects on the number of drugs used ( P < .01 ) and drug use frequency ( P < .05 ) , whereby the control group showed significant growth in the number of drugs used as well as more frequent drug use over the 2-year period relative to the intervention group . Survival analysis using logistic regression revealed that the intervention was associated with reduced odds of taking up the use of marijuana ( beta = -0.3 ; robust SE = 0.2 ; P = .09 ; odds ratio = 0.7 ; 95 % confidence interval , 0.5 - 1.0 ) , cocaine ( beta = -1.4 ; robust SE = 0.4 ; P < .001 ; odds ratio = 0.2 ; 95 % confidence interval , 0.1 - 0.5 ) , and other drugs ( beta = -0.7 ; robust SE = 0.3 ; P = .03 ; odds ratio = 0.5 ; 95 % confidence interval , 0.3 - 0.9 ) over the 24-month period . CONCLUSION This study extends the evidence that brief , personality-targeted interventions can prevent the onset and escalation of substance misuse in high-risk adolescents . TRIAL REGISTRATION clinical trials.gov Identifier : NCT00344474 This study examined the impact of a school-based preventive intervention on  cannabis use in adolescence  , using a cluster-r and omized trial of a multilevel intervention aim ed at improving social relationships within schools by promoting change in school environment . Four waves of data were collected at baseline ( 1997 , Year 8 : mean age 13 years ) and six , 18 , and 30 months later ( 1999 , Year 10 : mean age 16 years ) . Self-reported substance use , school engagement , and sociodemographic data were collected using computer-administered question naires . Some 2.678(74 % ) Year 8 students participated ( wave 1 ) with minimal attrition ( 10 % by wave 4 ) . Adjusting for baseline use , weak evidence existed for an intervention effect on the prevalence of any use at Year 10 ( OR 0.75 , 95 % CI 0.54 , 1.05 ) and incident weekly use ( OR 0.72 , 95 % CI 0.39 , 1.33 ) . These effects were reduced after adjusting for confounders . Moderate evidence suggested an interaction effect between intervention group and tobacco use ( p = 0.04 ) , suggesting the intervention was more effective for non-smokers at baseline ( Adj . OR 0.50 , 95 % CI 0.26 , 0.98 ) . This study indicates that a multi-level school-based program may provide an innovative direction for sustainable school interventions with the potential to reduce substance use INTRODUCTION AND AIMS This study aim ed to examine : ( a ) the influence of family factors relative to school , peer and individual influences on the development of adolescent alcohol use during the first year of secondary school ; and ( b ) the feasibility of preventing adolescent alcohol use by modifying family factors . DESIGN AND METHODS Twenty-four schools in Melbourne , Australia were r and omly assigned to either the ' Resilient Families ' intervention or a control condition . A baseline cohort of 2315 grade 7 students ( mean age 12.3 years ) were followed-up one year later ( n=2128 for longitudinal analyses ) . A sub-set of parents ( n=1166 ) also returned baseline surveys . RESULTS The prevalence of lifetime alcohol use in year 7 was 33 % and rose to 47 % by year 8 . Student-reported predictors of year 8 alcohol use included baseline alcohol [ Odds Ratio ( OR ) 3.64 ] and tobacco use ( 2.68 ) , and school friend 's alcohol ( 1.41 ) and tobacco use ( 1.64 ) . After adjusting for other influences , student-reported family factors were not maintained as significant predictors of year 8 alcohol use . Parent-report predictors of student-reported alcohol use included allowing alcohol use in the home ( 2.55 ) , parental alcohol use ( 1.88 ) and child hyperactivity ( 1.85 ) . Protective factors included attendance at brief parent education ( 0.60 ) and parent involvement in school education ( 0.65 ) . DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS The intervention appeared to benefit education-related outcomes , but no overall effect in reducing student alcohol use was found in year 8 . Intervention effects on alcohol misuse may become significant in later secondary school once the entire program has been implemented . Considerable alcohol use was detected in early secondary school , suggesting that interventions to reduce alcohol use may be usefully implemented prior to this period AIMS Hazardous alcohol use is a leading cause of death among adolescents and young adults world-wide , yet few effective prevention interventions exist . This study was the first to examine a computerized harm minimization intervention to reduce alcohol misuse and related harms in adolescents . DESIGN Cluster r and omized controlled trial of a six-session curriculum-integrated harm minimization prevention program . The intervention was delivered by computer in the form of a teenage drama , which provided education through alcohol-related scenarios to which young people could relate . SETTING Schools in Australia . PARTICIPANTS A total of 1466 year 8 students ( 13 years ) from 16 high schools in Australia were allocated r and omly to a computerized prevention program ( n = 611 , eight schools ) or usual classes ( n = 855 , eight schools ) . MEASUREMENTS Change in knowledge , alcohol use , alcohol-related harms and alcohol expectancies . FINDINGS A computerized prevention program was more effective than usual classes in increasing alcohol-related knowledge of facts that would inform safer drinking choices and decreasing the positive social expectations which students believed alcohol may afford . For females it was effective in decreasing average alcohol consumption , alcohol-related harms and the frequency of drinking to excess ( more than four st and ard drinks ; 10 g ethanol ) . For males the behavioural effects were not significant . CONCLUSIONS A harm minimization approach is effective in educating young people about alcohol-related risks and is effective in reducing risky drinking and harms among girls . Reduction of problems among boys remains a challenge Objective . The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of a single drug , i.e. , alcohol , against a multiple drug preventive intervention . Methods . A controlled trial was conducted with 448 8th grade students ( mean age = 13 years old ) from an inner-city middle school ( n = 216 ) and a rural junior high school ( n = 232 ) in 2000–2001 . Students were r and omized within school , and 3-month post-intervention follow-up data were collected . Results . 
    Output:
    
Existing school-based prevention programs have shown to be efficacious in the Australian context .
The findings challenge the commonly held view that school-based prevention programs are not effective