***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
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    Input: The long-term effect of two parent training programs for conduct problem preschoolers is reported . Families of 54 behaviorally disturbed preschool-aged children were r and omly assigned to 1 of 3 treatment conditions : st and ard Parent – Child Interaction Therapy ( STD ) , an abbreviated form of PCIT ( ABB ) , and a no-treatment waitlist control group ( WL ) . Of the families who completed treatment ( STD and ABB ) , data were collected on 97 % and 94 % of families at 1- and 2-year follow-up , respectively . Follow-up assessment of parent report and independent observations indicated that treatment gains were largely maintained for both treatment conditions with little difference between the two treatments . The findings suggest that an abbreviated form of PCIT has long-term benefits for families with young children displaying early conduct problems This report describes the 3 year outcomes of three different variants of the  Triple P-Positive Parenting Program , a behavioural family intervention .  Families were r and omly assigned to one of three intervention conditions or to a waitlist condition . At 1 year follow-up there were similar improvements on observational and self-report measures of preschooler disruptive behaviour for Enhanced , St and ard and Self Directed variants of Triple P. At 3 year follow-up ( completed by 139 families ) , each condition showed a similar level of maintenance of intervention effects . Approximately 2/3 of preschoolers who were clinical ly elevated on  measures of disruptive behaviour  at pre-intervention moved from the clinical to the non- clinical range . Across conditions , there was a comparable preventive effect for each intervention for these high risk children . The implication s of the findings for the development of brief , cost effective  parenting interventions within a public health framework are discussed OBJECTIVE Despite recognition of the need for parenting interventions to prevent childhood behavioral problems , few community programs have been evaluated . This report describes the r and omized controlled evaluation of a four-session psychoeducational group for parents of preschoolers with behavior problems , delivered in community agencies . METHOD In 1998 , 222 primary caregivers , recruited through community ads , filled out question naires on parenting practice s and child behavior . Parents were r and omly assigned to immediate intervention or a wait-list control . The intervention comprised three weekly group sessions and a 1-month booster , the focus being to support effective discipline ( using the video 1 - 2 - 3 Magic ) and to reduce parent-child conflict . RESULTS Using an intent-to-treat analysis , repeated- measures analyses of variance indicated that the parents who received the intervention reported significantly greater improvement in parenting practice s and a significantly greater reduction in child problem behavior than the control group . The gains in positive parenting behaviors were maintained at 1-year follow-up in a subset of the experimental group . CONCLUSIONS This brief intervention program may be a useful first intervention for parents of young children with behavior problems , as it seems both acceptable and reasonably effective This study investigated the immediate impact of an 8-month center- and home-based prevention program for preschoolers at high risk for conduct problems . We report immediate program effects on observed and self-rated parenting practice s and observed child behavior with peers .  Ninety-nine preschool-age siblings of adjudicated youths and their families were r and omly assigned to an enhanced version of the Incredible Years Series ( Webster-Stratton , 1989 ; n = 50 ) or to a no-intervention control condition ( n = 49 ) . In an intent-to-treat design , the intervention yielded significant effects on negative parenting , parental stimulation for learning , and child social competence with peers . Improvements in negative parenting , stimulation for learning , and child social competence support the potential of the intervention to prevent later conduct problems in high-risk children OBJECTIVE To evaluate two different parent-based therapies for preschool attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder ( ADHD ) in a community sample . METHOD Three-year-old children displaying a preschool equivalent of ADHD ( n = 78 ) were r and omly assigned to either a parent training ( PT ; n = 30 ) , a parent counseling and support ( PCO&S ; n = 28 ) , or a waiting-list control group ( n = 20 ) . The PT group received coaching in child management techniques . The PC&S group received nondirective support and counseling .  Measures of child symptoms and mothers ' well-being were taken before and after intervention and at 15 weeks follow-up . RESULTS ADHD symptoms were reduced ( F2,74 = 11.64 ; p < .0001 ) and mothers ' sense of well-being was increased by PT relative to both other groups ( F2,74 = 10.32 ; p < .005 ) . Fifty-three percent of children in the PT group displayed clinical ly significant improvement ( chi 2 = 4.08 ; p = .048 ) . CONCLUSIONS PT is a valuable treatment for preschool ADHD . PC&S had little effect on children 's behavior . Constructive training in parenting strategies is an important element in the success of parent-based interventions . Psychostimulants are not a necessary component of effective treatment for many children with preschool ADHD Head Start centers were r and omly assigned to intervention ( parent training ) or control conditions , and the role of maternal mental health risk factors on participation in and benefit from parent training was examined . Parenting was measured by parent report and independent observation in 3 domains : harsh/negative , supportive/positive , inconsistent/ineffective parenting . Structural equation modeling showed that parent engagement training was associated with improved parenting in a dose-response fashion . Mothers with mental health risk factors ( i.e. , depression , anger , history of abuse as a child  , and substance abuse ) exhibited poorer parenting than mothers without these risk factors . However , mothers with risk factors were engaged in and benefited from the parenting training program at levels that were comparable to mothers without these risk factors Dissociative behaviors and their relation to both the self and self-organization were examined using the developmental psychopathology perspective in a prospect i ve longitudinal study of high-risk children . Participants were 168 young adults ( n = 79 females , n = 89 males , age = 18 - 19 years ) considered high-risk for poor developmental outcomes at birth due to poverty . The present study investigated whether  trauma , sense of self , quality of early mother-child relationship , temperament , and intelligence were related to dissociative symptomatology measured at four times across 19 years . Findings were ( a ) age of onset , chronicity and severity of trauma were highly correlated and predicted level of dissociation ; ( b ) both the avoidant and disorganized patterns of attachment were strong predictors of dissociation ; ( c ) dissociation in childhood may be a more normative response to disruption and stress , while dissociation in adolescence and young adulthood may be more indicative of psychopathology ; ( d ) preliminary support was found for a model proposed by G. Liotti that links disorganized attachment , later trauma , and dissociation in adulthood ; and ( e ) strong support was found for N. Waller , F. W. Putnam , and E. B. Carlson 's contention that psychopathological dissociation should not be viewed as the top end of a continuum of dissociative symptomatology , but as a separate taxon that represents an extreme deviation from normal development This study evaluated two variants of a behavioral parent training program known as Stepping Stones Triple P ( SSTP ) using 74 preschool-aged children with developmental disabilities . Families were r and omly allocated to an enhanced parent training intervention that combined parenting skills and care-giving coping skills ( SSTP-E ) , st and ard parent training intervention alone ( SSTP-S ) or waitlist control ( WL ) condition . At post-intervention , both programs were associated with lower levels of observed negative child behavior , reductions in the number of care-giving setting s where children displayed problem behavior , and improved parental competence and satisfaction in the parenting role as compared with the waitlist condition . Gains attained at post-intervention were maintained at 1-year follow-up . Both interventions produced significant reductions in child problem behavior , with 67 % of children in the SSTP-E and 77 % of children in the SSTP-S showing clinical ly reliable change from pre-intervention to follow-up . Parents reported a high level of satisfaction with both interventions The authors tested a 12-week parent training program with parents ( n = 208 ) and teachers ( n = 77 ) of 2 - 3-year-olds in day care centers serving low-income families of color in Chicago . Eleven centers were r and omly assigned to 1 of 4 conditions : ( a ) parent and teacher training ( PT + TT ) , ( b ) parent training ( PT ) , ( c ) teacher training ( TT ) , and ( d ) waiting list control ( C ) . After controlling for parent stress , PT and PT + TT parents reported higher self-efficacy and less coercive discipline and were observed to have more positive behaviors than C and TT parents . Among toddlers in high-risk behavior problem groups , toddlers in the experimental conditions showed greater improvement than controls . Most effects were retained 1 year later . Benefits were greatest when parents directly received training Adaptive problem solving contributes to individual and family health and development . In this article , the effect of the cooperative family learning approach ( CFLA ) on group family problem solving and on cooperative parenting communication is described . A pretest or posttest experimental design was used . Participant families were recruited from Head Start programs and exhibited two or more risk factors . Participant preschool children were screened to have two or more developmental delays .  Direct behavioral observation measures were used to determine group family problem solving and cooperative parenting communication outcomes . Few group family problem-solving behaviors were coded , and they displayed little variability . However , intervention parents increased the length of time they played and extended the cooperative parent-child interactions . The evidence shows that CFLA has the potential to enhance parentalmodeling of cooperative behavior while engaged in play activities with preschoolers . Direct measurement of group family problem solving was difficult . Solutions are suggested Objective To evaluate the effectiveness of a parenting programme as a preventive intervention with parents of preschool children considered to be at risk of developing conduct disorder . Design Pragmatic r and omised controlled trial using a block design with allocation by area . Setting Eleven Sure Start areas in north and mid-Wales . Participants 153 parents from socially disadvantaged areas , with children aged 36 - 59 months at risk of conduct disorder defined by scoring over the clinical cut off on the Eyberg child behaviour inventory . Participants were r and omised on a 2:1 basis , 104 to intervention and 49 to remaining on the  wait  listing ( control ) . Twenty ( 13 % ) were lost to follow-up six months later , 18 from the intervention group . Intervention The Webster-Stratton Incredible Years basic parenting programme , a 12 week group based intervention . Main outcome measures Problem behaviour in children and parenting skills assessed by self reports from parents and by direct observation in the home . Parents ' self reported parenting competence , stress , and depression . St and ardised and well vali date d instruments were used throughout . Results At follow-up , most of the measures of parenting and problem behaviour in children showed significant improvement in the intervention group . The intention to treat analysis for the primary outcome measure , the Eyberg child behaviour inventory , showed a mean difference between groups of 4.4 points ( 95 % confidence interval 2.0 to 6.9 , P<0.001 ) on the problem scale with an effect size of 0.63 , and a mean difference of 25.1 ( 14.9 to 35.2 , P<0.001 ) on the intensity scale with an effect size of 0.89 . Conclusion This community based study showed the effectiveness of an evidence based parenting intervention delivered with fidelity by regular Sure Start staff . It has influenced policy within Wales and provides lessons for Engl and where , to date , Sure Start programmes have not been effective . Trial registration IS RCT Background Conduct problems are common , disabling and costly . The prognosis for children with conduct problems is poor , with outcomes in adulthood including criminal behaviour , alcoholism , drug abuse , domestic violence , child abuse and a range of psychiatric disorders . There has been a rapid expansion of group based parent-training programmes for the treatment of children with conduct problems  in a number of countries over the past 10 years . Existing review s of parent training have method ological limitations such as inclusion of non-r and omised studies , the absence of investigation for heterogeneity prior to meta- analysis or failure to report confidence intervals . The objective of the current study was to systematic ally review r and omised controlled trials of parenting programmes for the treatment of children with conduct problems .  Methods St and ard systematic review methods were followed including duplicate inclusion decisions , data extraction and quality assessment . Twenty electronic data bases from the fields of medicine , psychology , social science and education were comprehensively search ed for RCTs and systematic review s to February 2006 . Inclusion criteria were : r and omised controlled trial ; of structured , repeatable parenting programmes ; for parents/carers of children up to the age of 18 with a conduct problem ; and at least one measure of child behaviour . Meta- analysis and qualitative synthesis were used to summarise included studies . Results 57 RCTs were included . Studies were small with an average group size of 21 . Meta-analyses using both parent ( SMD -0.67 ; 95 % CI : -0.91 , -0.42 ) and independent ( SMD -0.44 ; 95 % CI : -0.66 , -0.23 ) reports of outcome showed significant differences favouring the intervention group . There was insufficient evidence to determine the relative effectiveness of different approaches to delivering parenting programmes . Conclusion Parenting programmes are an effective treatment for children with conduct problems . The relative effectiveness of different parenting programmes requires further research Despite the early onset of attention deficit disorder with hyperactivity ( ADDH ) , there is a dearth of treatment studies with presch 
    Output:
    
There is , insufficient evidence to reach firm conclusions regarding the role that such programmes might play in the primary prevention of such problems .