***TASK*** the task is to summarize an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***INPUT*** the input is a biomedical literature 
    ***OUTPUT*** the output is the summary of an input biomedical literature in six sentences 
    ***DOCUMENTATION*** 
    ***EXAMPLES*** 
    Input: Anxiety disorders are characterized by hyperactivity in both the amygdala and the anterior insula . Interventions that normalize activity in these areas may therefore be effective in treating anxiety disorders . Recently , there has been significant interest in the potential use of oxytocin ( OT ) , as well as vasopressin ( AVP ) antagonists , as treatments for anxiety disorders . In this double-blind , placebo-controlled , pharmaco- fMRI study , 153 men and 151 women were r and omized to treatment with either 24 IU intranasal OT , 20 IU intranasal AVP , or placebo and imaged with fMRI as they played the iterated Prisoner ’s Dilemma game with same-sex human and computer partners . In men , OT attenuated the fMRI response to unreciprocated cooperation ( CD ) , a negative social interaction , within the amygdala and anterior insula . This effect was specific to interactions with human partners . In contrast , among women , OT unexpectedly attenuated the amygdala and anterior insula response to unreciprocated cooperation from computer but not human partners . Among women , AVP did not significantly modulate the response to unreciprocated cooperation in either the amygdala or the anterior insula . However , among men , AVP attenuated the BOLD response to CD outcomes with human partners across a relatively large cluster including the amygdala and the anterior insula , which was contrary to expectations . Our results suggest that OT may decrease the stress of negative social interactions among men , whereas these effects were not found in women interacting with human partners . These findings support continued investigation into the possible efficacy of OT as a treatment for anxiety disorders BACKGROUND Current neurocircuitry models of anxiety disorders posit a lack of inhibitory tone in the amygdala during acquisition of Pavlovian fear responses and deficient encoding of extinction responses in amygdala-medial prefrontal cortex circuits . Competition between these two responses often results in a return of fear , limiting control over anxiety . However , one hypothesis holds that a pharmacologic strategy aim ed at reducing amygdala activity while simultaneously augmenting medial prefrontal cortex function could facilitate the extinction of conditioned fear . METHODS Key among the endogenous inhibitors of amygdala activity in response to social fear signals is the hypothalamic peptide oxytocin . To address the question whether oxytocin can strengthen Pavlovian extinction beyond its role in controlling social fear , we conducted a functional magnetic resonance imaging experiment with 62 healthy male participants in a r and omized , double-blind , parallel-group , placebo-controlled design . Specifically , subjects were exposed to a Pavlovian fear conditioning paradigm before receiving an intranasal dose ( 24 IU ) of synthetic oxytocin or placebo . RESULTS Oxytocin , when administered intranasally after Pavlovian fear conditioning , was found to increase electrodermal responses and prefrontal cortex signals to conditioned fear in the early phase of extinction and to enhance the decline of skin conductance responses in the late phase of extinction . Oxytocin also evoked an unspecific inhibition of amygdalar responses in both phases . CONCLUSIONS Collectively , our findings identify oxytocin as a differentially acting modulator of neural hubs involved in Pavlovian extinction . This specific profile of oxytocin action may open up new avenues for enhancing extinction-based therapies for anxiety disorders ABSTRACT Most intranasal oxytocin research to date has been carried out in men , but recent studies indicate that females ’ responses can differ substantially from males ’ . This r and omized , double‐blind , placebo‐controlled study involved an all‐female sample of 28 women not using hormonal contraception . Participants viewed animations of geometric shapes depicting either r and om movement or social interactions such as playing , chasing , or fighting . Probe questions asked whether any shapes were “ friends ” or “ not friends . ” Social videos were preceded by cues to attend to either social relationships or physical size changes . All subjects received intranasal placebo spray at scan 1 . While the experimenter was not blinded to nasal spray contents at Scan 1 , the participants were . Scan 2 followed a r and omized , double‐blind design . At scan 2 , half received a second placebo dose while the other half received 24 IU of intranasal oxytocin . We measured neural responses to these animations at baseline , as well as the change in neural activity induced by oxytocin . Oxytocin  reduced activation in early visual cortex and dorsal‐stream motion processing regions for the social > size contrast , indicating reduced activity related to social attention  . Oxytocin also reduced endorsements that shapes were “ friends ” or “ not friends , ” and this significantly correlated with reduction in neural activation . Furthermore , participants who perceived fewer social relationships at baseline were more likely to show oxytocin‐induced  increases in a broad network of regions involved in social perception and social cognition , suggesting that lower social processing at baseline may predict more positive neural responses to oxytocin . HIGHLIGHTSA r and omized , double‐blind , placebo‐controlled fMRI study of intranasal oxytocin .  Neural response of females was measured during animations of interacting shapes . Oxytocin ( OXT ) reduced activation in early visual cortex and dorsal stream regions . OXT reduced perception of social relationships . OXT increased social cognition networks in females with lower baseline ABSTRACT The hypothalamic neuropeptide oxytocin ( OT ) has received increasing attention for its role in modulating social‐emotional processes across species . Previous studies on using intranasal‐OT in humans point to a crucial engagement of the amygdala in the observed neuromodulatory effects of OT under task and rest conditions . However , the amygdala is not a single homogenous structure , but rather a set of structurally and functionally heterogeneous nuclei that show distinct patterns of connectivity with limbic and frontal emotion‐processing regions . To determine potential differential effects of OT on functional connectivity of the amygdala subregions , 79 male participants underwent resting‐state fMRI following r and omized intranasal‐OT or placebo administration .  In line with previous studies OT increased the connectivity of the total amygdala with dorso‐medial prefrontal regions engaged in emotion regulation . In addition , OT enhanced coupling of the total amygdala with cerebellar regions . Importantly , OT differentially altered the connectivity of amygdala subregions with distinct up‐stream cortical nodes , particularly prefrontal/parietal , and cerebellar down‐stream regions . OT‐induced  increased connectivity with cerebellar regions were largely driven by effects on the centromedial and basolateral subregions , whereas increased connectivity with prefrontal regions were largely mediated by right superficial and basolateral subregions . OT decreased connectivity of the centromedial subregions with core hubs of the emotional face processing network in temporal , occipital and parietal regions . Preliminary findings suggest that effects on the superficial amygdala‐prefrontal pathway were inversely associated with levels of sub clinical depression , possibly indicating that OT modulation may be blunted in the context of increased pathological load . Together , the present findings suggest a subregional‐specific modulatory role of OT on amygdala‐centered emotion processing networks in humans . HighlightsEffects of oxytocin ( OT ) on amygdala subregional rsFC were examined . OT differentially altered rsFC of amygdala subregions . Increased connectivity with PFC regions were driven by SF and BLA.OT  decreased rsFC of the CM with the face processing network . Effects on the SF‐mPFC pathway were associated with depression Humans display an intriguing propensity to help the victim of social norm violations or punish the violators which require theory-of-mind (ToM)/mentalizing abilities . The hypothalamic peptide oxytocin ( OXT ) has been implicated in modulating various pro-social behaviors/perception including trust , cooperation , and empathy . However , it is still elusive whether OXT also influences neural responses during third-party altruistic decisions , especially in ToM-related brain regions such as the temporo-parietal junction ( TPJ ) . To address this question , we conducted a pharmacological functional magnetic resonance imaging experiment with healthy male participants in a r and omized , double-blind , cross-over design . After the intranasal administration synthetic OXT ( OXTIN ) or placebo ( PLC ) , participants could transfer money from their own endowment to either punish a norm violator or help the victim . In some trials , participants observed the decisions made by a computer . Behaviorally , participants under OXTIN showed a trend to accelerate altruistic decisions . At the neural level , we observed a strong three-way interaction between drug treatment  ( OXT/PLC )  , agency ( self/computer ) , and decision ( help/punish ) , such that OXTIN selectively enhanced activity in the left TPJ during observations of others being helped by the computer . Collectively , our findings indicate that OXT enhances prosocial-relevant perception by increasing ToM-related neural activations In human evolution , social group living and Pavlovian fear conditioning have evolved as adaptive mechanisms promoting survival and reproductive success . The evolutionarily conserved hypothalamic peptide oxytocin is a key modulator of human sociality , but its effects on fear conditioning are still elusive . In the present r and omized controlled study involving 97 healthy male subjects , we therefore employed functional magnetic resonance imaging and simultaneous skin conductance response ( SCR ) measures to characterize the modulatory influence of intranasal oxytocin ( 24 IU ) on Pavlovian fear conditioning . We found that the peptide strengthened conditioning on both the behavioral and neural levels . Specifically , subjects exhibited faster task-related responses and enhanced SCRs to fear-associated stimuli in the late phase of conditioning , which was paralleled by heightened activity in cingulate cortex subregions in the absence of changes in amygdala function . This speaks against amygdalocentric views of oxytocin having pure anxiolytic-like effects . Instead , it suggests that the peptide enables extremely rapid and flexible adaptation to fear signals in social context s , which may confer clear evolutionary advantages but could also elevate vulnerability for the pathological sequelae of interpersonal trauma BACKGROUND Current neuroimaging perspectives on a variety of mental disorders emphasize dysfunction of the amygdala . The neuropeptide oxytocin ( OXT ) , a key mediator in the regulation of social cognition and behavior , accumulates in cerebrospinal fluid after intranasal administration in macaques and humans and modulates amygdala reactivity in both species . However , the translation of neuromodulatory OXT effects to novel treatment approaches is hampered by the absence of studies defining the most effective dose and dose-response latency for targeting the amygdala . METHODS To address this highly relevant issue , a total of 116 healthy men underwent functional magnetic resonance imaging using a r and omized , double-blind , placebo-controlled crossover study design . The experimental rationale was to systematic ally vary dose-test latencies ( 15 - 40 , 45 - 70 , and 75 - 100 minutes ) and doses of OXT ( 12 , 24 , and 48 international units ) in order to identify the most robust effects on amygdala reactivity . During functional magnetic resonance imaging , subjects completed an emotional face recognition task including stimuli with varying intensities ranging from low ( highly ambiguous ) to high ( less ambiguous ) . RESULTS Our results indicate that the OXT-induced inhibition of amygdala responses to fear was most effective in a time window between 45 and 70 minutes after administration of a dose of 24 international units . Furthermore , the observed effect was most evident in subjects scoring high on measures of autistic-like traits .  Behavioral response patterns suggest that OXT specifically reduced an emotional bias in the perception of ambiguous faces . CONCLUSIONS These findings provide initial evidence of the most effective dose and dose-test interval for future experimental or therapeutic regimens aim ed at targeting amygdala functioning using intranasal OXT administration Abstract This study investigates paternal brain function with the hope of better underst and ing the neural basis for variation in caregiving involvement among men . The neuropeptides oxytocin ( OT ) and vasopressin ( AVP ) are implicated in paternal caregiving in humans and other species . In a double‐blind , placebo‐controlled , within‐subject pharmaco‐functional MRI experiment , we r and omized 30 fathers of 1–2 year old children to receive either 24 IU intranasal OT before one scan and placebo before the other scan ( n = 15 ) or 20 IU intranasal AVP before one scan and placebo before the other scan ( n = 15 ) . Brain function was measured with fMRI as the fathers viewed pictures of their children , unknown children and unknown adults , and as they listened to unknown infant cry stimuli . Intranasal OT , but not AVP , significantly increased the BOLD fMRI response to viewing pictures of own children within the cau date nucleus , a target of midbrain dopamine projections , as well as the dorsal anterior cingulate ( dACC ) and visual cortex , suggesting that intranasal oxytocin augments activation in brain regions involved in reward , empathy and attention in human fathers . OT effects also varied as a function of order of administration such that when OT was given before placebo , it increased activation within several reward‐related structures ( substantia nigra , ventral tegmental area , putamen ) more than when it was given after placebo . Neither OT nor AVP had significant main effects on the neural response to cries . Our findings suggest that the hormonal changes associated with the transition to fatherhood are likely to facilitate increased approach motivation and empathy for children , and call for future research that evaluates the potential of OT to normalize deficits in paternal motivation , as might be found among men suffering from post‐partum depression 
    Output:
    
The meta- analysis identified task-related IN-OXT increases in activity within a cluster of the left superior temporal gyrus during tasks of emotion processing .
These findings are important as they implicate regions beyond the amygdala in the neural effects of IN-OXT .