Qualities of an Ideal Effective Teaching for Primary and Secondary School Teachers in Tanzania

Over the years in Tanzania, qualities for effective teaching in both primary and secondary schools have been propounded in different ways depending on the knowledge that teachers acquired during their training. These qualities have been largely dominated by attributes of teachers such as personality traits, sex, age, knowledge, classroom management skills, teaching methods and in-service training which might have had a bearing on the teaching effectiveness.  This paper attempts  to deplore and analyze various theoretical thought on how effective teaching can be attained among primary and secondary school and thus proposing the best theory that can fit the Tanzanian context. Key words: Qualities, effective teaching, pedagogy, classroom management, teacher education, Professional development, teaching professional DOI: 10.7176/JEP/11-9-26 Publication date: March 31 st 2020

Product variables refer to all the desired educational outcomes that are desired by teachers and that have formed a basis of teachers' planning of lessons and criteria they use or others use to judge the teaching effectiveness. In this regards, the most important educational outcomes for pupils/students would appear to be:  Increased knowledge and skills  Increased interaction in the subject or topic  Increased intellectual motivation  Increased academic self-confidence and self-esteem  Increased autonomy  Increased social development Borich (2007) and Galton (2007) maintain that many of these outcomes can be measured by tests, but others are often based on subjective forms of assessment, such as the teachers' opinion as supported by Creemers and Kyriakides (2008) and Haydin (2007). Figures 1 and 2 show below the three classes of variables for effective teaching required for teachers.
Nevertheless, Petty (1973) and Kiwia (1993) still maintain that the overall framework of context-process-product has provided the basis for educational scholars to think more on how effective teaching among student-teachers may provide good pedagogical skills during the teaching process.
In putting forward the context variables, it is clear that there are a vast number of aspects to the context of teaching situation that may have a bearing on its success. The variety of ways in which these aspects can be combined to define a particular context in detail is enormous. The context for teaching in schools can range from a lesson based on adding small numbers for a mixed-ability class of five years old pupils in a rural primary school, to a lesson on electrolysis for a top-ability group of 16 years old pupils doing natural science subjects in a large urban secondary school.
On the other hand,it is clear and obviously that there are a large number of aspects of classroom activities that may well be related for teaching effectiveness. Education scholars have been confronted with the problem of how best to identify, monitor and record various aspects of teacher and pupil/student behavior and the learning activities. When we consider the product variable, one critical question is raised about the emerging student-teachers interaction. For example, how can we judge whether there is effective teaching? In other words, it is essential to know how a teacher can successfully bring about the desired pupil/student learning. The goals of effective teaching in this category are to emphasize cognitive (intellectual) aspects of learning or effective (social, emotional and attitudinal) aspect of learning; they may emphasize short-term goals (achievable by the end of the lesson) or longterm goals (achievable at the end of a course or even later (Galton, 2007).
Journal of Education and Practice www.iiste.org ISSN 2222-1735 (Paper) ISSN 2222-288X (Online) Vol.11, No.9, 2020 Some scholars like Hydin (2007) and Roth (1998) point out clearly some of the qualities for teaching effectiveness. That is a good teacher is someone that creates a well-ordered learning environment, explains the work that hasa to be done and helps the learner and finally is is friendly and supportive. In this regard, good teachers are often described by pupils/students as making use of a variety of teaching methods and learning activities, using a range of skills to maintain pupils/ students' interest and to diffuse discipline problems quickly, and managing the lessons, and pupils/students are kept engaged in what the teachers want them to do. Pointing out the qualities of effective teaching, again Averch (1972) and Barber (1990) still argue that a well trained teacher should have a full dose of pedagogical skills in order to enable him/her to deliver his/her materials effectively. The pedagogical skills referred to here are: the planning the lesson carefully; selecting appropriate materials; making goals clear to the students; simplifying preparation by using real life experiences in order to make learning simple; checking students' work regularly and teaching materials again where students have trouble learning; making good use of the time they handle on each instructional tasks; having coherent strategies for instruction like assessing, monitoring evaluating feedback and developing skills. Likewise, Frasier (1956) commented on some qualities of effective teaching by asking himself, who is a good and bad teacher. In answering the question, he (ibid) argues that the difference between is the aspect of personality and ability to teach the discipline, competence in the classroom management, teaching methods, subject matter and the teacher-student relationship. According to him (ibid) a good teacher is seen to perform positively while a bad teacher always performs poorly in teaching processes. In addition, Good and Brophy (1986), Petty (1973) and Smith (2009) have typically identified ten (10) Vol.11, No.9, 2020  making use of variety of learning activities  establishing a momentum and pace for the lesson  encouraging pupils' participation and getting all pupils involved  monitoring pupils' progress and attending quickly to pupils' needs  delivering a well-structured and well-organized lesson  providing pupils with positive and constructive feedback  ensuring coverage of the educational objectives  making good use of questioning

Models for Having effective Teaching
The three variables discussed above (context, process and product) may help teachers to think about the effective teaching, Invoking Kyriacou (2009) who developed three models of effective teaching based on two words; what and how it is argued that effective teaching is concerned with what aspects of learning experience will contribute to its effectiveness and how these aspects affect what is is done in the whole process of teaching and learning. In trying to use these two words (what and how) of effective teaching, three models of effective teaching have emerged ( Figure 2). These models are complementary and consistent with each other. They represent three ways of looking at the same phenomena, but differ in the basic framework. Each model elaborates on the key elements employed. Further, each model has its own developmental history and its own distinctive contribution in the full understanding of effective teaching.

Model 1: A Surface Level of Analysis
According to Kyriacou (2009) , the model derives primarily from research studies and theorizes on effective teaching. The approach has focused on two complementary constructs that appear to be crucial determinants of effectiveness. The first construct is Active Learning Time (ALT), which is also often referred to as "academic learning time" or "time-on-task". This refers to the amount of time spent by pupils/students actively engaged in the learning task.

Model 2: A Psychological Level Analysis
This model attempts to identify the major psychological variables involved in effective teaching. It represents an elaboration of the surface level of analysis from a psychological perspective. The model itself makes it clear about the psychological conditions necessary for learning to occur. If certain process variables influence education outcomes, they must be doing so through influencing the pupils'/ students' psychological state and processes. A vast number of psychological concepts, principles and processes have been identified as underlying effective teaching as what stated by Slavin (2006) and Woolfolk et al., (2008). These include things like: attention, memory, information, transfer of learning, reinforcement, feedback, motivation, ability expectations and self-concept to mention a few.
In this case, pupils/students should have the following aspects to enable the learning process to take place:that the pupils/students must be attending to the learning experience, the pupils/students must be receptive to the learning experience (in the sense of being motivated and having willingness to learn and respond to the experience) and the learning experience must be appropriate for intended learning outcomes (taking particular account of the pupils' initial knowledge and understanding).
These three aspects form the basis of general conditions required for learning to take place. The analysis of effective teaching from psychological perspective focuses on those three conditions and the factors that facilitate or hinder teachers in their efforts to achieve them.
 Learning should take place in different contexts such as at home, in the community, during field work and visits  Pupils' work should be presented in variety of ways  Learning activities should help pupils to develop positive attitudes about the subject and also desirable personal qualities such as perseverance

Relevance of the Models of Effective teaching In Tanzanian Environment
In trying to explore the application of the models of effective teaching (surface level of analysis, psychological level of analysis and pedagogical level of analysis of teaching) in Tanzania, we find that these models cannot adequately explain the teaching -leaner context in Tanzanian because of the following reasons: First, the teaching and learning environment in Tanzania does not support the learners to adequately acquire knowledge due to the fact that most of the schools have inadequate facilities such as few desks, blackboard, textbooks and visual aid; mismatch of teacher-pupil ratio, high pupil' dropout rates; teachers' absenteeism; low level of education among the pupils' parents; frequently changes of schools' curricular; high level of poverty among parents; low motivation among teachers and lack of schools' inspections (Meli, 2004 and2014). Therefore, it is observed that an alternation model of effective teaching which can fit among teachers is 5Es of instructional mode of effective teaching as analyzed by Trownbrige and Bybee (1996) to be best model which can fit in Tanzanian scenario due the following reasons: Fist, all the situations delineated above are more likely to hinder Kyriacou's model of effective teaching. Kyriacou's models of effective teaching always uphold the reality of teaching in classroom situations where the teacher will have to bear with his/her students as they pursue their studies, until their desired outcomes are reached as per teacher-student negotiated conclusion. In other words, there would be no basis for the teacher to judge the students wrongly as the students can defend their construct of a teaching concept.
An alternative model of effective teaching which can provide fruitful results to both teachers and students in developing nations like Tanzania is the 5Es of Instructional Model of teaching as developed by Trownbridge and Byebee (1996) as figure 3 as indicated in Trowbridge and Bybee (1996), the modern advocators of constructivism developed a teaching and learning model known as "an Instructional Model of teaching and learning for teachers. They describe their model as an important instrument enabling teachers teach their students effectively within the classroom. Such model helps teachers to become competent in preparing lesson plans, schemes of work and prepare enough materials for the students. The instructional model always provides chances to teachers to think more about students' learning and see how they can solve learning problems. Trowbridge and Bybee (1996) and Roth (1998) believe that the Instructional model of teaching and learning for teachers should be taught effectively during the training period for teachers and training should be for a long period of time. That will enable teachers to have good pedagogical skills of teaching students (ibid). Trowbridge and Bybee (1996) suggested that in designing lessons, teachers should base on 5Es, ie Exploration, Explanation, Elaboration, Engagement and Evaluation phases (see Figure 1.1).

Figure 3: 5Es: Instructional Model
Source: Adapted from Trowbridge and Bybee (1996). Trowbridge and Bybee's (1996) argument is that, teachers are not just there to provide learners with resources and instructions to follow, but also to plan and design in the manner to translate instructional strategies for learners to be involved in learning activities. The model uses activities to learn concepts rather than verify concepts (Trowbridge and Bybee, 1996). The following information shows how the 5Es are applicable in the study:

Exploration Stage
Exploration stage enables teachers to explore more relevant teaching materials applicable to their students. This stage makes them decide suitable materials needed in their subjects matter. This, to a large extent, makes the lesson to be highly understood by students. In addition, the stage gives students time to think, plan, investigate and organize collected information given by their teachers. Through this stage, the researcher will observe teachers' abilities in deciding suitable materials for teaching because not all materials are relevant.

Explanation Stage
In the explanation stage, teachers normally attempt to explain and make clarification of concepts to students. Teachers encourage students to explain concepts and definitions in their own words and use students' previous experiences to provide new definitions as well as explanation of concepts. In this study, the stage will enable the researcher to see teachers' abilities in explaining concepts clearly in front of students and students being able to provide definitions using their own words.

Elaboration Stage:
This stage is very essential for both teachers and students because it provides chances to teachers and students to develop concepts together as well as encourage students to apply the concepts in a new situation. It makes teachers ask students, what do you know? Also, why do you think so? The role of the researcher here is to see how students are able to apply the concepts in their environment correctly.

Engagement Stage
This stage leads teachers to raise questions, create interests and generate curiosity among the students about the subject matter. It is a stage in which teachers prepare and present enough questions to students. Under this stage, the researcher will be able to see whether or not teachers are preparing enough questions to ask students within the classroom and expect to see positive responses from students.

Evaluation Stage
This stage is normally an assessment stage. The teachers' role is to assess students' understanding capacities and abilities to see whether or not students have followed properly teachers' instructions. Teachers will also observe how students are applying new concepts and skills and how they manage to exchange their own learning by asking open-ended questions like, why do you think so?, what evidences do you have in that regard? Finally, what do you know? Therefore, through using the 5Es as explained by Trownbridge and Bybee (1996), teachers' efficiency would be observed between normal and licensed trained teachers in secondary schools.

Conclusion
This paper has attempted to map the best qualities for effective teaching to both primary and secondary teachers in Tanzania, specifically; the student-teachers who are expected to become professional teachers after completion of their training course. We began with by conceptualizing how effective teaching among teachers can be attained in order to deliver their teaching and learning materials in the classroom.
We then discussed the most important variables for having effective teaching classroom practices such as context, process, and product variables in the teachers' classroom management as well as three models guiding effective teaching as developed by Kyriacou's model (2009). Finally, the paper finalizes the discussion by highlighting the best model which can fit to explain the teacher -student scenario of all levels in Tanzanian context as developed by Trowbridge and Bybee's (1996).