The effect of different teacher literacy training programmes on student’s word reading abilities in government primary schools in Northern Nigeria

ABSTRACT This study in Kano State, Nigeria, uses a quasi-experimental design to investigate the effectiveness of two teacher training programmes (ESSPIN and Jolly Phonics) in 536 government primary schools. In total, 5,449 children were tested using the phonics screening check to determine which teacher training programme positively affects learning. The effects are greater when teachers have completed two different programmes using adaptive instruction and include elements of coaching and mentoring. A pupil whose teacher has undertaken both training programmes will score 6.062 (p < 0.001) points higher in Primary One and 4.344 (p < 0.01) points higher in Primary Two. English spoken in the home, being a boy, and being older in your year group have a significant positive effect on word reading score. This research highlights the importance of meaningful and impactful teacher training on children’s reading development in English, the medium of instruction in Nigeria from the 4th year of primary school.

Introduction
In Nigeria, learning to read is a significant concern not only for parents, schools, and communities but also for policymakers and the international development community. Illiteracy 1 accounts for just under 10 million young people (15-and 24-year-olds), representing 44% of the total population (United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization [UNESCO], 2020). Regional education quality indicators, such as the recruitment and retention of teachers (Humphreys & Crawfurd, 2014;Kontagora et al., 2018) (Adeniran et al., 2020). Low adult English literacy levels in rural areas (NBS, 2020) suggest the home language environment is not providing structured reading experiences for children in partnership with their schooling.
Research conducted in various African countries (Ghana, Kenya, Mali, Nigeria, Senegal, South Africa, Tanzania, and Uganda) identifies the difficulties in preparing and developing teachers' knowledge to cultivate learning experiences (Akinbote, 2007;Akyeampong & Stephens, 2002;Pryor et al., 2012;Taylor, 2019). This includes preparedness and early exposure to literacy and reading strategies. Teachers entering classrooms tend to be underprepared for skills-based teaching and lack critical insight to solve complex learning issues (Evans & Popova, 2016).
Teacher training in Nigeria has been criticised owing to overcrowded lecture halls (Adekola, 2007;Allsop & Howard, 2009;EDOREN, 2015) with the majority of students standing outside, unable to hear the lecturer or participate in the session (Humphreys et al., 2020). This results in poor interactions between the student teacher and the lecturers (Barnes et al., 2019;Olusola & Rotimi, 2012;Oritsebemigho, 2014). There are some concerns regarding the student teachers' own abilities in literacy and academic skills (Akinbote, 2007) with some low-quality teacher candidates being admitted onto teacher training programmes (Barnes et al., 2019;Oritsebemigho, 2014). With large numbers of students, there are inadequate learning resources (Burke, 2009;Edelenbosh & Short, 2009; Federal Ministry of Education [FME], 2009). Humphreys et al. (2020) found, in their study with 338 trainee teachers in two colleges of education in Nigeria, that there was an overwhelming desire for more learning resources. The students believed these were the most critical factor for improving Nigerian Certificate of Education (NCE) courses (p. 6). Typically, teacher training given in Nigeria lacks practical elements and teaching aids and is non-participatory (EDOREN, 2015;Humphreys et al., 2020). Student teachers are not prepared for the complexities of classroom instruction (Barnes et al., 2019).
A recent baseline assessment of pre-service teacher training in North Nigeria found there to be a lack of explicit literacy and reading instruction (Barnes & Boyle, 2018). In Nigeria, the English curriculum has included literacy instruction since 2012 (e.g., phonemic awareness and decoding skills). Explicit reading instructions in the Nigerian early primary curriculum tend to be haphazardly implemented and unconsidered (Barnes et al., 2019). Skills-based pedagogies, such as teaching phonics, requires teachers to understand the fundamental principles of basic language constructs (Binks-Cantrell et al., 2012). These principles are important as there is robust evidence that language development is influenced by the quantity of language input when exposed to a second language, which in this Nigerian context is English (Deanda et al., 2016).

Learning the reading code
Effective reading programmes task the emergent reader with a range of code-related activities. These include learning basic alphabet principles and providing meaningbased experiences to help learners comprehend words (Davis & Evans, 2021;Gabas et al., 2019;Lesaux, 2012). For the L2 reader, both top-down and bottom-up experiences are complex, as the rules learnt in the L1 may affect L2 reading acquisition experiences. 2 There is consensus in the literature that identifying and making links between letter characters and their sounds is critical for reading success (Shanahan & Beck, 2006). Children who develop proficiencies in becoming phonemically aware are predictably more likely to become skilled readers, whether they are L1 or L2 learners (Shanahan & Lonigan, 2010). Specific to this study, whilst all Nigerian languages share the English alphabetic system, children's exposure to learning its core principles remains a challenge. For example, there is a debate surrounding the impact and use of a standardised Nigerian English phonology to facilitate the transfer from the speaker's L1 to English, but this remains inconclusive (Adetugbo, 2004;Jowitt, 2007). Phonics is a system and a pedagogical tool for accelerating reading mastery. As a system, it includes symbols and letters commonly used to form spoken components of a language (Joshi, 2019;Mesmer & Griffith, 2005). Teachers instruct learners to make connections between letters and symbols, found in the system, to construct words (Castles et al., 2018;Ehri et al., 2001). Teaching instruction has varied over many years and continues to foster debate on which type of phonics instruction is a useful precursor to reading (Bowers, 2020;Buckingham, 2020;Torgerson et al., 2019). Phonics pedagogy is varied in the literature referring to systematic, explicit, embedded/implicit, and holistic/ intrinsic methods (Bowers, 2020;Mesmer & Griffith, 2005;Rupley et al., 2009). Systematic-explicit methods involve teaching a sequence of letter-sound correspondences delivered within a broad curriculum. It typically involves synthetic techniques, which incorporate blending and decoding skills to promote early exposure of word construction. Implicit-intrinsic methods are quite the opposite, typically taking an inductive-analytic approach to word construction. In this way, learners will not segment letter sounds or learn them in isolation. Various meta-analysis and systematic reviews have found positive effects in systematic-explicit phonic approaches that have led to improved reading skills (Ehri et al., 2001;Jeynes, 2008;Richards-Tutor et al., 2016;Torgerson et al., 2019).
Studies that have evaluated phonic interventions in English as a second language (ESL) environments also report positive effects of systematic approaches (Jamaludin et al., 2016;Stuart, 2004;Vadasy & Sanders, 2010). A recent pilot study involving kindergarten children who all spoke different languages found explicit group instruction had positive effects on children's blending, segmenting, and real word reading (Dussling, 2018). In Hyderabad, India, Dixon et al. (2011) recruited over 500 children from 22 schools to take part in a 6-month intervention comparing traditional (whole-word/rote) and synthetic approaches. All teachers who delivered the phonics intervention were initially trained in synthetic pedagogies before teaching children for 1 hour each day. Dixon et al. found positive effects on reading, spelling, phonemic awareness, segmentation, and decoding with children from the synthetic phonics group outperforming the control group. Analysis of individual teacher effects on all measures indicated no statistically significant difference. This demonstrates teachers to be applying the same "systematic" approaches and thus provides further justification that instructional practices that are structured, fast-paced, and child-centred can accelerate children's reading acquisition (Dixon et al., 2011;Ehri & Flugman, 2018;Ehri et al., 2001). There is evidence that structured learning environments and intensive teacher training in phonic pedagogies have a positive effect on reading achievement (Ehri & Flugman, 2018).

The effectiveness of teacher training programmes in the global south
Typically, quality-teaching instruction for young children from developed countries leads to improved success in school and later in adult life (Chetty et al., 2011). This is also the case in developing country contexts. Research shows the importance and value that quality teacher training can have on children's successful learning (Conn, 2017;Evans & Acosta, 2021;Glewwe et al., 2014;Kremer et al., 2013;McEwan, 2015). Meta-analytical reviews report various teacher-training strategies across Sub-Saharan Africa and other developing countries. McEwan (2015) reviewed 77 experiments with 111 interventions carried out in primary schools in global south countries. Data show that effective teacher training produces a mean effect size of 0.12 SD (p < 0.001) improvement in children's learning. Interestingly, where the intervention carried out introduces instructional materials only (such as textbooks), the impact on children's learning is not as large as when combined with teacher training and the use of a well-articulated instructional model (Banerjee et al., 2007;Friedman et al., 2010;Lucas et al., 2014). A meta-analysis synthesising 56 articles consisting of 66 separate experiments with 83 pedagogical interventions carried out in Sub-Saharan Africa by Conn (2017) shows adaptive instruction sessions that include elements of coaching and mentoring are statistically significantly more effective than non-adaptive instruction (p < 0.1). The effect size is approximately 0.30 SD greater than all other types of programmes combined. Lucas et al. (2014) found statistically significant effects in children's oral literacy in Kenya and assessments on oral and written literacy in Uganda. In both countries, teachers were trained using local language instruction materials, received continuous adaptive mentoring support, and were provided instructions for on-going assessment monitoring.
Some studies report sizeable gains in literacy achievement when teacher training combines instructional techniques and the application of resources (Brunette et al., 2019;Piper et al., 2018). Other studies identify that teacher training methods need to be simplified focusing on practical skills (Evans & Popova, 2016;Pritchett & Beatty, 2015). Christina and Vinogradova (2017) compared three literacy programmes across Rwanda, Senegal, and the Philippines. Drawing upon data from the three study locations, they reported that teacher training methods that incorporate oral language activities and promote language skills and authentic writing experiences improve learning outcomes.
Teacher training reliant on non-adaptive instructional methods where trainee teachers learn techniques independently of the training and with limited support are less effective (Ganimian & Murnane, 2016). Limited one-off service teacher training events, typically organised as teacher-training conferences, have been shown to be ineffective. Teacher training interventions are effective when adapted to teachers' and learners' needs. Teacher training interventions have been shown to be more successful in improving pupil outcomes when they recognise adaptive pedagogies and a changing learning dynamic. Teacher training interventions are more effective when they are repeated, supported through on-going mentorship, and linked to a pedagogical tool. The evidence suggests successful teacher training programmes require on-going support and mentorship that can adapt to learners in classroom environments. Teacher training resources and the application of these materials also seem to be key in improving literacy skills (Conn, 2017;Evans & Acosta, 2021;Evans & Popova, 2016;McEwan, 2015).

The present study
The present study concerns two overlapping literacy interventions implemented in Kano State, Nigeria. Kano state is one of 36 states and is located in the northern region of the country. It is the most populous in Nigeria and is made up of 44 local government areas. The first intervention was the Education Sector Support Programme in Nigeria (ESSPIN). This was a UK aid-funded programme, implemented from 2008 to 2017 in six selected states, including Kano State (ESSPIN, 2013). In Kano, ESSPIN reached 6,218 schools between 2013 and 2017, which equates to almost every school in the state, and 68,302 Grade 1 to 5 teachers (ESSPIN, 2017). 3 The second intervention is Jolly Phonics (JP), which has reached all states in Nigeria. The Jolly Phonics Project was initiated in Kano State in October 2017, when 538 Primary One teachers were trained. In December 2018, the project was expanded to reach a further 975 Primary One teachers. In March 2019, the project was then expanded again to reach 528 Primary Two teachers in the initial schools. This means that the Primary Two teachers in this study had been using Jolly Phonics for one term, but their pupils should have received a full year of Jolly Phonics teaching in Primary One.
There were some similarities between the two interventions -ESSPIN and JP. The model for training and supporting teachers was generally the same under each intervention. Initial workshops were followed by continuous school visits by School Support Officers (SSOs), the aim being to build on the gains achieved in the workshops. Both programmes also teach phonics in a systematic way. The same 42 sounds of the English language were taught independently in each programme and in a similar order. They both teach the skills of learning the letter sounds, letter formation, blending, segmenting, and "tricky words". There are similar activities for teaching these different skills, such as a story for each sound, the use of flashcards, and interactive formation strategies. Through these strategies, both programmes also emphasised the need for teaching to be childcentred, multi-sensory, and participatory.
There are also substantial differences between the two interventions. Importantly, ESSPIN selected teachers with the highest qualifications and a specialism in either English or mathematics (Cameron et al., 2016). There were no selection criteria for Jolly Phonics teachers. The ESSPIN teachers were then mostly provided with separate classrooms with better facilities and resources, and had more time dedicated to the teaching of literacy on their timetable (Cameron et al., 2016). This was not the case for the Jolly Phonics teachers that were not also part of ESSPIN. All Jolly Phonics teachers did receive teaching and learning materials. Importantly, pupils taught by a Jolly Phonics teacher were given a pupil workbook, whereas the ESSPIN-only pupils were not provided with dedicated literacy workbooks.
The model adopted for the training of teachers also differed. ESSPIN utilised a stepdown approach 4 , with the core technical team training government officials, mostly SSOs, who then trained teachers (Cameron et al., 2016). All Jolly Phonics training was provided directly to the classroom teachers by professional trainers, who had been recruited based on their level of technical expertise and experience of teaching Jolly Phonics in Nigerian classrooms.
The main focus of the teacher training within the ESSPIN programme was on key teaching skills. These included the use of teaching aids, giving feedback, pupil participation, differentiation, and classroom organisation. The aim was to develop a teacher with more proficient classroom skills, rather than focus on the literacy lesson content (Cameron et al., 2016). In contrast, the Jolly Phonics training worked through each of the phonics lessons one by one, focusing on ensuring that teachers developed knowledge and skills specific to the teaching of systematic phonics, such as practising the letter sounds and numerous blending activities, rather than developing broader teaching skills.
There were also differences in the content of the literacy lessons. Jolly Phonics intensively focused on word reading and writing development through a systematic phonics approach. This was only a small starter aspect of the ESSPIN lesson plans, which presented a more holistic approach to teaching English by also covering speaking and listening and more vocabulary and comprehension development. The ESSPIN lesson plans were more closely aligned with the broader Nigerian curriculum and conventional methods used in Nigeria's schools.
As a result of the more limited focus, the Jolly Phonics lessons had a simpler lesson structure. In Jolly Phonics, each of the 42 letter sounds was introduced with the same 8 steps: (1) Story, (2) Action, (3) Flashcards, (4) Formation, (5) Blending, (6) Sounding, (7) Dictation, (8) Jolly Song. This was followed by two repeating lesson structures for the later content. The narrow focus provided more teaching strategies for the teaching of each skill, particularly for blending and segmenting. Jolly Phonics teaches one sound per day, and by the end of Primary Two covers a range of reading and writing content including alternative spelling of the sounds, tricky words, and other spelling rules. Jolly Phonics used a pure systematic synthetic phonics approach.
In the ESSPIN plans, the same structure is generally followed in each lesson: (1) Letters and Sounds, (2) Introduction, (3) Main Activity, (4) Plenary. The type of activities within each component varies from day to day, with there being much more content to cover. Within each lesson, there tends to be one brief whole class blending activity with a limited strategy in place for each of the components. ESSPIN introduced one new sound per week and adopted a more whole-word approach to the teaching of reading and writing. Activities included the matching of words to pictures and whole class sentence reading. Some words used in these activities included sounds that children had not yet been taught. In this respect, ESSPIN adopted a more mixed-methods approach to the teaching of English literacy.

Method
The research question to be explored was: To what extent do different types of literacy training programmes affect word reading abilities in government primary school pupils in Northern Nigeria? This research utilised a quasi-experimental design and was undertaken in June 2019 with 5,449 Primary One and Two children. These children were attending 536 schools across 42 of the 44 local government districts in rural, semi-rural, and urban areas of Kano State, Nigeria. They were tested on their word reading ability in English.
In order to ensure that the selection of schools was unbiased, independent academics from the Nigeria Centre for Reading Research and Development, Bayero University, Kano, were asked to randomly select 13 schools in each local government district from a list of schools. Due to local logistics on the ground, a total of 536 schools took part in this research. Assessment training took place, which covered how to randomly sample classes and pupils and how to ensure that pupils were comfortable and assessment environments were conducive. The assessors were then provided with a list of schools and a timetable for when they should visit the schools to conduct the assessments. There was a mix of school characteristics within the sample, including schools from across urban, rural, and semi-rural contexts, and schools with varying levels of conduciveness for learning in terms of their facilities and building quality. This random sample also provided a mix of none, ESSPIN-only, Jolly Phonics-only, and both ESSPIN and Jolly Phonics interventions received amongst the teachers. The assessors were instructed to test a random sample of a maximum of 10 pupils in each class. In total, 5,449 pupils in Primary One and Two were assessed. The assessors informed the children they could stop the test at any time and that participation was voluntary.
Prior to the data gathering, schoolteachers, headteachers, and parents were invited to attend sessions where the concept of the research was explained. The Nigeria government granted permission for the study. All children and teachers volunteered to participate in this project. Parents/guardians were informed through their school that the purpose of the exercise was to compare different teacher training programmes within Kano State, that participation was voluntary, and the results of the assessment would be kept strictly confidential and for research use only.
The word reading test used was the UK Government's "Phonics Screening Check" from 2018. 5 This test assesses the pupil's ability to read 40 distinct words. These words contain both invented decodable words, such as "jub", and common decodable English words, such as "chop". Decodable means that the sounds in the words follow the standard English sound system, and so do not contain any irregularities in their spelling. If a pupil can read the words, it generally means that they know the grapheme-phoneme correspondences and have the phonemic awareness to be able to blend the different sounds together to read words.
The pupil stimulus for the test was displayed on a smartphone, via a dedicated assessment app, with each word appearing in large font on the app one by one. The assessor marked the child's answer as "correct", "incorrect", or "no answer", meaning that the data were instantly collated and synced to a central database. The assessors were SSOs that had been trained in the use of the app and phonics.

Results
SPSS statistical software (Version 26) was used to analyse associations among variables. Multilevel modelling was also performed to take account of the hierarchical structure of the data (district, school, and pupil) using Stata (Version 15). Before proceeding to the full analysis, it is worth considering some basic descriptive statistics. There is about a 50:50 split in gender in both year groups, with 50.1% (n = 1,384) girls in Primary One and 49.6% (n = 1,340) girls in Primary Two. In Primary One the mean age is 7.2, and in Primary Two the mean age is almost 9 years old (8.73 years). The majority of children (52%) are from rural areas (Table 1).
In Primary One and Primary Two, very few families are using English at home, with almost 70% in both groups stating they never use English at home (Table 2). Table 3 shows that the language of instruction in school is typically a mixture of mother tongue and English in both Primary One and Two (97%). Table 4 shows the number of pupils being taught by teachers trained by the different programmes, that is, none, ESSPIN only, Jolly Phonics only, both Jolly Phonics and ESSPIN. Around half of the children in each year group have teachers that experienced both ESSPIN and JP training programmes.
The boxplots in Figures 1 and 2 show how children score in Primary One and Two in the word assessment in relation to the training their teacher has received. These diagrams show initially, when comparing the raw data scores, that children that have teachers that experience both programmes seem to perform better than the others. However, having a teacher who has experienced some training provides an advantage in assessment scores. It is interesting to note that for Primary One and Two, there are no outliers for those being taught by teachers who have received both training programmes. In the case of Primary One, this is also true for those taught by teachers receiving only Jolly Phonics training.
Checks were performed for normality, and the word assessment score was in an acceptable range (skewness = 1.389, Kurtosis = 0.769). The one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) is considered a robust test tolerating violations to its normality assumption well, as long as departure from normality is moderate (Humble, 2020;Keppel, 1982;Montgomery, 1991), the populations have the same distributional shape (Kirk, 2013), and the sample sizes are large and equal (Winer et al., 1991). Blanca et al. (2017) provide empirical evidence of the robustness of an ANOVA in a wider variety of nonnormal distributions. Initial analysis using an ANOVA shows that various teacher training methods have a significant effect on the word assessment score in Primary One (F(3, 2739) = 126.366, p < 0.001) and Primary Two (F(3, 2679) = 70.466, p < 0.001). This is clearly illustrated by a post hoc Scheffe Test (Table 5) that demonstrates the significant subsets of mean scores for the individual training methods and the combined training method in Primary One and Primary Two; the mean word assessment scores for combined training being significantly higher than individual or no training. Figures 1 and 2 and Table 5 seem to show that there are differences between teacher training programmes, and these are significantly affecting children's reading ability as taken by the reading test scores. However, it is important to consider a more sophisticated   Multilevel modelling (Goldstein, 2003) is a development of regression analysis, which takes into account data that are grouped into similar clusters at different levels. In these data, there are three levels with individual pupils grouped in a school and those schools grouped within districts. Note that the pupils in each school have all been taught by the same teacher. Multilevel modelling allows us to take account of the hierarchical structure of the data and produce more accurate predictions, as well as estimates of the differences between pupils, between schools, and between districts.
The multilevel model was therefore set up with three levels: (1) District (42 in total) (2) School (275 in Primary One and 261 in Primary Two) (3) Pupil (Pupils in Primary One 2,760 and Primary Two 2,689) Comparing the base case with the final model shows how much of the variation in the word score achievement across school and district is accounted for. Explanatory  independent variables are introduced into the model to try and explain part of the variability in the word score across schools and districts. The residual variance is much lower in the final model than in the base model. The residual variance is lower because the district and school variances are partly explained by the introduction of these variables. The introduction of these independent variables to our base model leads to a greater decrease in the school-level variance than in the district and pupil variance. This suggests that school level is rather internally homogeneous with respect to these independent variables and that these variables may play an important role at school level. In Primary Two, the total variance is equal to 43.814 + 39.879 + 12.925 = 96.618. This gives the variance at district level as 13. 3% (12.925/96.618), as opposed to the variance at school and pupil level of 41.3% (39.879/96.618) and 45.3% (43.814/96.618), respectively. This suggests that the main variation in word scores is happening over the different schools and the pupils within those schools.
The Level 2 intra-class correlation is 12.925/(39.879 + 12.925) = 24.4%, seen in Table 6 as the school variance as 39.879. This means that the school variance is only partly accounted for through the three independent variables (number in school, building quality, and facilities quality). As far as the multilevel modelling goes, if we take two classes in the same district and calculate the word score in one class, this will be a reasonable predictor of the other classes in the same district around one quarter of the time. In Primary One and Two, being taught by teachers who have been trained in more than one method of phonics training is clearly the most important factor in the pupil obtaining a higher word test score. Speaking English at home also has a statistically significant positive effect on word scores. Quasi-effect sizes (Schagen, 2004) are used to assess the relative strengths of different factors and illustrate how much difference each makes on the expected pupil word score. Table 7 shows the outcomes that are significant, multiplied by 100 for clarity. These quasieffect sizes convey the average change in the outcome, expressed as a percentage of the outcome standard deviation, for an average change in the background variable.
These results show the change in the word assessment score expressed as a percentage for an average change in the background variable. Your word assessment score would be 6.062 points higher in Primary One if you were taught by a teacher who had both Jolly Phonics and ESSPIN training (Table 6). Looking at the quasi-effect size (Table  7), you can say this increases your word score by 39.94% of the word score standard deviation. Similarly, we can say that in Primary Two your word score would be 4.344 points higher and increased by 28.62% if you were taught by a teacher who had both Jolly Phonics and ESSPIN training. In Primary One, your word assessment score would be 3.233 points higher if you were taught by a teacher who had trained in Jolly Phonics only compared to the base case (i.e., no training). Looking at the quasi-effect size, this increases your word score by 17.04%. There is no statistically significant difference between the word scores of children that are taught by teachers with no training (base case) and those having received ESSPIN training only. Speaking English at home, as we may have thought, also increases your word score, being 0.759 and 0.605 points higher in Primary One and Two, respectively. Being older in your year group and being a boy also have a significant effect on your word score.

Discussion
Nigeria has very high levels of youth illiteracy (National Population Commission, 2015) and a deep learning crisis in the north of the country in particular, which some argue requires a systematic overhaul of policy and practice (Adeniran et al., 2020). It has been highlighted how explicit reading instruction in the Nigerian early primary curriculum tends to lack considered implementation (Barnes et al., 2019). Despite there being a broad consensus that the teaching of phonics is fundamental, others have identified a significant lack of teacher training in effective literacy teaching strategies, particularly with regards to phonics (Adamu et al., 2020).
Contributing to these discussions, this paper considers the findings from a large study that took place in Kano State, Nigeria. Over 5,000 Primary One and Two children across 42 local government areas took part in this study, in order to assess the effectiveness of multiple training approaches on children's word reading development. The findings show that teachers trained in a systematic phonic approach (Jolly Phonics) were able to significantly improve pupils' English word reading abilities. This is consistent with other studies that have demonstrated teachers trained in systematic phonic pedagogies improve children's word reading attainment in challenging learning environments (Dixon et al., 2011;Jamaludin et al., 2016). It also reflects the importance of adopting a rigorous reading strategy to train teachers (Binks-Cantrell et al., 2012). The findings also show that this effect was even greater where teachers had also received training in a second broader curriculum-based English literacy programme (ESSPIN). It has been shown that there is a greater likelihood that children's reading scores will be statistically significantly higher if the teacher has been trained in both ESSPIN and Jolly Phonics programmes. In agreement with Conn (2017), the ESSPIN and JP training programmes that used adaptive instruction sessions and elements of coaching and mentoring were shown to be statistically significantly effective in raising pupil outcomes as defined by test scores. However, where teachers receive no training or training on ESSPIN only, there was no statistically significant difference for the children's word assessment score. One possibility for the difference between ESSPIN only and Jolly Phonics only could be the pedagogical variation between each training type. Jolly Phonics lessons are restricted in the content that they cover, implemented through a systematic approach that follows a simple repeating lesson plan structure, using dedicated pupil workbooks. ESSPIN lessons cover a much broader curriculum-based content, including English speaking and listening, with the type of activities varying from day to day. Because of this focus, Jolly Phonics lessons provide more time and depth to the teaching of word recognition skills. The findings match Ehri et al. (2001) inferring structured and well-paced systematic approaches are effective in raising reading achievement. More specifically, the relative effectiveness of Jolly Phonics only (focusing on decoding and word acquisition) over ESSPIN only (focusing more on comprehension and whole-word strategies) supports bottom-up process models of reading development (Gibb, 2017). It further suggests that L2 learners benefit greatly from the explicit development of word recognition skills from the start of L2 literacy development (Deanda et al., 2016). However, it would be necessary to assess pupils again at a later date with regards to their reading comprehension abilities in order to discover whether word reading abilities indeed predict future comprehension success (Gibb, 2017).
Moreover, Jolly Phonics teaches the phonics content at a much faster pace than the ESSPIN literacy programme (one sound per day compared to one sound per week). As a result of this pace difference, the Jolly Phonics programme covers considerably more phonics content than ESSPIN in both Primary One and Two. Hence, a possible cause of the differences in word reading abilities of the Jolly Phonics and ESSPIN groups could simply be the result of Jolly Phonics pupils having been taught more in a given time period, further supporting the findings of Ehri et al. (2001).
At a more practical level, the improvement in reading scores could be due to the model and content of teacher training. ESSPIN utilised a step-down approach, with the core technical team training government officials, mostly SSOs, who then trained teachers. The content of the training focused on broad teaching skills rather than specific lesson content (Cameron et al., 2016). All Jolly Phonics training was provided by professional trainers, who had been recruited based on their level of technical expertise and experience of teaching Jolly Phonics in Nigerian classrooms. The training was focused specifically on teaching the Jolly Phonics literacy content. It is possible that this greater technical focus to the Jolly Phonics training provided teachers with a better understanding of how to deliver the systematic phonics content, again highlighting the importance of adopting a rigorous reading strategy to train teachers (Binks-Cantrell et al., 2012;Ehri & Flugman, 2018).
When teachers had both Jolly Phonics and ESSPIN training, a pupil's word reading score was statistically significantly higher than when teachers had Jolly Phonics training only. More training time overall was experienced by teachers undertaking both ESSPIN and Jolly Phonics programmes. In addition to the literacy lesson content training, under ESSPIN they have been trained in more general teaching principles, such as classroom management, use of instructional materials, differentiation, and other teaching pedagogy. ESSPIN-trained teachers were provided with better facilities, more resources, and more time dedicated to the teaching of literacy. Before these two interventions were brought to Kano State, it was highly likely that the teachers had received no training in the teaching of reading and writing, especially concerning the teaching of phonics, as such training was simply not available (Adamu et al., 2020). From this, we can assume that these factors would make the ESSPIN and Jolly Phonics training combined better placed to bring about improvements in pupils' word reading abilities. Together, the two programmes could be argued to contain both of the components of effective reading programmes, supporting componential models of reading development (Joshi, 2019;Lesaux, 2012). This complementary mixture coming together seems to have provided enhanced teacher training that has resulted in improved pupil outcomes.
Although the above findings from these data are clear and interesting, note should be taken of some caveats about over-interpretation of the results of the analysis. Statistical analysis can only control for factors which have been measured. It also assumes that measurements in different settings are truly equivalent. Furthermore, statistical analysis cannot make clear to us the reasons why the teacher training programmes appear to be having the observed effect, and these reasons may be worth further investigation. Further research is required in relation to teacher training programmes that focus on primary schooling in the global south investigating the possible effects associated with cross-language transfer and reading performance. Using a mixed-method approach and gathering additional qualitative data would help to enhance the understanding of the effectiveness of teacher training programmes in such settings. Studying how one language influences the other and the relative effect on children's reading performance might be an area of future inquiry. Dialectal and regional languages could also be considered in this regard to take into account the impact they have on developing phonological processes used as a proxy for understanding word reading success. Studies might consider developing cross-state/region interventions to mitigate the findings of this study.
This research highlights the importance of teacher training for children's proficiency in English within primary schools in Nigeria. For the first 3 years in school, the language of instruction is either Yoruba, Igbo, or Hausa. However, in Primary Four, English becomes the medium of instruction. Without a foundation of English on which to build, children who are moving into a system where all subjects are taught in English are severely disadvantaged. Not having been provided appropriate skills to read, write, and speak in English will detrimentally affect proficiency in other school subjects and future learning (Oyewole, 2017). At the end of Primary Six, children take the Primary School Leaving Certificate, and at the end of Junior Secondary education (Grades 7-9) the Basic Education Certificate (BEC). Subjects are taught in English, and students need to achieve passes in six subjects to be awarded the BEC. The research set out here shows how important teacher training is in the first 2 years of primary schooling for children's achievement in English. Providing meaningful and impactful teacher training programmes is the first step on the road to give every child the opportunity to succeed in the Nigerian education system whilst English remains the medium of instruction. Notes 1. Illiteracy according to the UNESCO definition is a given age group that cannot read and write.
Literacy rates consider the proportion of the population that have acquired the ability of using the written word. 2. In this context, L1 would be Yoruba, Igbo, or Hausa and L2 English. L1 is a speaker's first language and L2 their second. 3. This was continued by the Nigeria government under the £34 million "Teacher Development Programme" (TDP) 6090 funded by the Department for International Development (DFID), the then government department of the United Kingdom responsible for administering foreign aid. 4. This is a term used by ESSPIN/UKaid documents, that is, learning is "stepped down" through the system of State School Improvement Teams (SSITs) to School Support Officers (SSO). 5. The test and guidance can be found here: https://www.gov.uk/government/publications/ phonics-screening-check-2018-materials. Prior to this research, a small pilot study was undertaken by members of the research team in Ghana with 100 primary school children to check the reliability of the "Phonics Screening Check" reading test in a west African setting. Cronbach's alpha at 0.84 demonstrated good internal consistency.

Disclosure statement
No potential conflict of interest was reported by the authors.

Funding
The authors reported there is no funding associated with the work featured in this article.

Notes on contributors
Chris Counihan is a lecturer in Education at the Centre for Social Innovation, Teesside University, and a Teaching Fellow of the Higher Education Academy (HEA). Dr Counihan completed a PhD in education at Newcastle University, which studied the effects of a peer-mediated literacy intervention with children from rural India.
Steve Humble, MBE, is a senior lecturer in International Development in the School of Education, Communication and Language Sciences, Newcastle University. He carries out research in Sub-Saharan Africa and India around the Sustainable Development Goals.
Louise Gittins is an advisor to national and regional governments on education and reading. She gained her PhD from York University on a rights-based approach to improving early grade literacy in Nigeria.
Pauline Dixon, PhD, is Professor of International Development and Education in the School of Education, Communication and Language Sciences, Newcastle University. She is the co-director of the Global Challenges Academy at Newcastle and has worked in the area of development for over 20 years.


The use of social media in EFL learning and teaching in higher education of Afghanistan

Abstract Social media has been widely used in EFL programs in higher education and they play an important role in transforming learning and teaching. This study investigated the use of social media in EFL learning and teaching in Afghanistan. Moreover, it explored the preference and the frequency of the use of social media in EFL learning and teaching. A survey questionnaire was administered to gather the data from 170 randomly chosen participants from Takhar University based in Taloqan City, a northeastern city in Afghanistan. The researchers used Statistical Package for Social Sciences to analyze the data. The study found that Facebook and WhatsApp were among the highly preferred social networking sites and they were frequently used in EFL learning and teaching in Afghanistan. The results of the study showed statistically significant differences in the frequency of the use of social media by the students’ gender, age and class. Female participants used social media more frequently than their male peers and senior and older students used social media more frequently than junior and younger students. The results of the study suggest that higher education leaders and policy-makers should encourage the use of social media and provide more technological facilities to improve students’ achievement and quality of education.

PUBLIC INTEREST STATEMENT
The purpose of this study was to investigate the use of social media in EFL learning and teachingin higher education of Afghanistan. The study found that Facebook, WhatsApp and YouTube were among the highly used social media, and Imo, Twitter and Viber were the least used social media in EFL learning and teaching in Afghanistan. This study is significant because it will help educational leaders and policy makers to address the limitation of resources by providing more technological facilities and encouraging the use of social media in EFL learning and teaching to improve students' achievement and education quality.

Introduction
Social media has transformed the way in which people communicate and interrelate in society. The use of social media has been increasing among the young generation (Mahmud & Amin, 2017), for example, Facebook is counted as one the most famous social networking sites which is used for different purposes in Afghanistan. Averagely, people use it for 30 minutes every day (Orfan 2021a). The massive use of social media has infiltrated learning and teaching in higher education. Many students and lecturers use social media to share their messages and communicate with each other. Social media has played a significant role in advancing communication and interaction among students and lecturers. Students of the twenty-first century have been experiencing the integration of technology and social media in their learning . They have grown into a generation who are expected to use different information communication technologies in their learning (Aragon, 2007). Social media helps students to interact with their lecturers, classmates and get new information about their courses (Pempek et al., 2009). Of the hundreds of social media available around the world, social networking sites like Facebook, WhatsApp, Telegram, Twitter, Viber, YouTube and Wikis are among the widely used social media in communication between students and lecturers. Students use them to communicate with their classmates and academic staff or to read the information they need. Lecturers use social media to share the information of their courses and teaching materials with their students.
Long lasted war and political instabilities negatively impacted higher education in Afghanistan Noori et al., 2020;Orfan, 2021b;Taheryar, 2017). For example, during the regime of the Taliban, many schools and universities were closed and war destroyed infrastructure (Noori, 2021a). After the new government was established in 2001, universities and schools reopened and educational institutions started the integration of technology in learning and teaching (Babury & Hayward, 2014). Unfortunately, the new government could not lead the country appropriately and conflicts were rising day by day. As a result, most of the government's budget was spent on security affairs and less attention was paid to education in the country (Fukuyama, 2006). Other countries spend a huge amount of money to transform their education system and provide more technological facilities to the educational institutions (Sife et al., 2007). However, in the Afghan context, the resources and technological facilities are limited to support students' learning. For instance, there are no computers and projectors provided by the government to the classrooms and the students do not have access to the Internet at the universities. Even in most faculties, lecturers have problems accessing a speedy Internet. In addition, libraries are not equipped with modern technologies, which hinder the use of ICT in learning and teaching (Khalid, 2020).
Due to lack of Internet facilities at the universities, some of the students and lecturers were utilizing the Internet of mobile tele-communication companies to connect with each other. A large number of lecturers used WhatsApp and Facebook in their personal interactions, but few of them used for class communication. After the spread of the COVID-19 in early 2020, the Afghan government closed schools and universities and asked the educational institutions to conduct online classes (Orfan). Since then, the use and integration of technology in learning and teaching became more popular and the Ministry of Higher Education introduced a learning management system (HELMS). Unfortunately, this system was not as effective as expected since some of the students were living in rural areas where the Internet connection was poor. Therefore, some of the lecturers started using other platforms (e.g., Zoom, google classroom, and WhatsApp to share teaching materials with the students, which enhanced the usage of social media in learning and teaching (Noori, 2021a).
Many studies have examined the use of social media in learning and teaching. Zgheib and Dabbagh (2013) studied the perception of students and lecturers about the use of social media in university learning and teaching and found that lecturers and students perceived social media as a learning tool to trigger students to new technology and enhance their learning. Haidari et al. (2020) explored the usage of social media and Wikis in the teaching of writing and found that they helped students overcoming different problems in their writing and generic skills. The study also revealed that the usage of social media had a good impact on learners' performance because they improved their language skills, teamwork, collaborative learning, and critical thinking. Salih and Elsaid (2018) found that students did not only use social media to communicate, but they also used them to gain knowledge and fulfill their educational needs. Rodriguez (2011) explored the use of social media in university learning and teaching and found that the lecturers incorporated social media in their instruction to enhance students' engagement and motivation. Li (2017) stated that social media is used by students to share information and get learning materials. The respondents used social media to get updates about their class assignments and projects. Esteve et al. (2017) indicated that social media was widely used in teaching and their usage helped instructors to stay informed and learn about the students' performance. Moghavvemi et al. (2018) explored the usage of social networking sites as a complementary learning tool in learning and teaching and examined YouTube as a case in Malaysian higher education. The study found that YouTube was a useful learning tool to improve students' motivation and learning performance. The study also revealed that the students used YouTube to find information and entertain in the learning environment. Mwalimu et al. (2018) studied the use of social media at the University of Zambia and declared that social media was more frequently used by younger lecturers for educational purposes. The study also emphasized that Facebook and YouTube were among the highly preferred social media used by lecturers and students. Tantarangsee et al. (2017) found out the usage of social media in university learning and teaching in Thailand and found that YouTube was the most commonly used social media. However, they added that Facebook was the least repeatedly used social media in university teaching and learning.
Social media like Facebook are massively used by students in daily communications (Prescott et al., 2013). Donlan (2014) examined the usage of Facebook in learning and teaching in the United Kingdom and found that the students used Facebook for communication and the assessment of their group work. Thalluri and Penman (2015) believed that the use of Facebook was beneficial to provide an innovative learning environment and it fostered students' interaction in Australian higher education. Van et al. (2020) reported that social networking sites were used to improve teaching and motivate the students. The study recounted that Facebook and Twitter were among the highly used social networking sites in the classrooms. Alabdulkareem (2015) examined the usage and the impact of social networking sites in learning and teaching in Saudi Arabia and found that social networking sites were used to enhance students' learning outcomes and socialization. The study also revealed that almost all the teachers and students widely used WhatsApp in their daily communication. Xodabande (2017) investigated the effectiveness of using social networking sites among Iranian EFL learners. The researcher divided the respondents into experimental and control groups. He compared the performance of the students using t-test and found that the pronunciation of the participants in the experimental group improved more than those of the control group. The study also revealed that the usage of social networking sites was effective in language learning and teaching. For example, Telegram significantly contributed to improve the participants' pronunciation performance. Ansari and Khan (2020) concluded that social media was used for collaborative learning to advance communication and knowledge sharing.
The use of technology has been rapidly growing in Afghanistan and they have become popular among university students and lecturers (Mushtaq & Benraghda, 2018). The rationale behind the usage of social networking sites is to provide a platform for educational purposes and fulfill the needs of the Y generation. In addition to traditional classes and lectures, online discussions and communicational tools have become the potential platforms to enhance students' learning and engagement Rasiah, 2014). Since the outbreak of the COVID-19 and paradigm shifts in higher education, different online platforms became popular and the usage of social networking sites dramatically increased in learning and teaching in Afghanistan (Naim & Sandaran, 2020). This study will be significant because most of the studies were conducted in developed and developing countries where there are better infrastructure and facilities, though, Afghanistan has been facing decades of war and instabilities which resulted in the scarcity of resources and limitation of technological facilities. Unfortunately, no study was found to focus on the use of social media in EFL learning and teaching in Afghanistan. Therefore, this research will address the gap by investigating the use of social media in EFL learning and teaching and it offers insights into the frequency and the preference of the usage of social media in EFL learning and teaching in higher education.

Purpose of study
This study explores the use of social media in EFL learning and teaching in Afghanistan which addresses the below research questions.
(1) Which of the social media is more preferred in EFL learning and teaching in Afghanistan?
(2) What is the usage of social media in EFL learning and teaching in Afghanistan?
(3) What is the frequency of the use of social media in EFL learning and teaching in Afghanistan?

Design
The researcher conducted the study quantitatively and used a survey questionnaire in gathering the data. Creswell (2012) states that the quantitative research design is suitable when the researchers collect numerical data and report their statistical findings. In this study, the researchers have used SPSS in analyzing the data and reported their statistical findings.

Participants
The targeted population was 250 undergraduate students in the English Department of Takhar University. The researchers can select samples from the targeted population in their studies (Noori, 2021b). Based on the sampling structure introduced by Krejcie and Morgan (1970) for accurate selection of sample from the desired population, the researchers chose the sample of the study. They used Ms. Excel and the random formula to select 170 respondents as the research sample. The majority (72%) of the respondents were male, while (28%) of them were female students. Around 24% of them aged between 18-22, and 76% of them aged 23 and above. About 21% of them were the first year, and 27% of them were second-year students. Meanwhile, 37% of them were juniors and only 14% of them were seniors. The researchers purposefully selected the students from the English Department of Takhar University to explore their experiences of the use of social media in EFL learning and teaching. They have chosen a bigger sample to reduce error of sampling.

Instrument
The researchers thoroughly reviewed the literature and conducted focus group interviews to develop the questionnaire. They asked 2 groups of six students to generate items of the research instrument. The groups listed and discussed the use of social media and the frequency of their usage in teaching and learning. The authors developed 10 questionnaire items from the output of the discussion. They also adapted 16 items from the literature (Allam & Elyas, 2016;Chawinga, 2017;Hussain, 2012). A survey questionnaire is a good approach for providing efficient, quick, and effective data collection (Zikmund & Babin, 2010). The questionnaire had three key parts. The first part asked about the personal background of the participants and their preference for using different types of social media. The second section contained 16 items aimed to seek students' experiences about the use of social media in EFL learning and teaching. The final part contained 10 items that aimed to inquire about the frequency of the usage of social media in EFL learning and teaching. The respondents needed to select items which contained a five-point Likert Scale (1 = Strongly-Disagree; 2 = Disagree; 3 = Undecided; 4 = Agree; 5 = Strongly Agree), 1 = always; 2 = often; 3 = sometimes; 4 = seldom; 5 = never).

Validity
Three of my colleagues in Takhar University checked and proofread the questionnaire and the suggested changes were made based on their comments. The researchers translated the questionnaire into the Dari language because English is learnt as a foreign language in Afghanistan , and the first-year students were not fluent in English. After the translation of the questionnaire, it was given to 2 experts in the Department of Dari Language and Literature and was modified based on their feedback.

Reliability
Azevedo and Shane (2019) believed that the pilot study is one of the most essential stages in the research process that helps researchers to improve the basis of their research projects. According to Doody and Doody (2015), a pilot study assists the researchers to improve data collection plans and enhance the content validity of their questionnaire. To ensure reliability, a pilot study was carried out and 30 students were requested to complete the survey questions. To determine the reliability of the study, a reliability test was carried out. The researchers analyzed the data of the pilot study with the aid of the Statistical Package for Social Sciences. Findings revealed that each category of the questionnaire had an acceptable value (Alpha > 0.80. Table 1 shows that all the categories had a Cronbach's Alpha value (0.918) which indicates good reliability of the instrument.

Procedure
The researchers designed and prepared the questionnaire in Ms. Word file. Then they asked the dean of the faculty of language and literature to cooperate with the data collection of the research. After his agreement was taken, the researchers organized 4 sessions to meet with the students and collect the data. Copies of the consent form and questionnaire were distributed to the participants and they were asked to return the papers back to the department. It took 2 months to collect the data (October-November 2020). The researchers collected the physical copies of the questionnaire from the English department and entered the data in Ms. Excel.

Analysis
The data were imported to SPSS for analysis. Descriptive and inferential statistical tests were carried out to analyze the data. Descriptive statistics were utilized to find the mean, standard deviation, frequency, and percentage. Inferential statistical tests (i.e., t-test and analysis of variance) were carried out to find the variances in the frequency of use of social media by students' demographic variables: gender, age, and class.

The preference of using of social media in EFL learning and teaching
The researchers studied the preference of using different types of social media in EFL learning and teaching. Figure 1 shows that several types of social media were used in EFL learning and teaching in Afghanistan. As Figure 1 designates that Facebook and WhatsApp were the highly preferred and Twitter was the least preferred social networking sites used in EFL learning and teaching. The results indicate that there was a difference in the preference of using different types of social media in EFL learning and teaching.

Students' experiences of the use of social media in EFL learning and teaching
Students' perception about the usage of social media in teaching and learning was divided into two sub-categories.

The usage of social media in EFL learning
The first 11 items aimed to seek students' opinion about the use of social media in EFL learning. Table 2 shows that almost all the students agreed with each statement which showed that the students usually used social media in their learning. The mean comparison of Tables 3 and 2 shows that social media were often used in learning rather than teaching.

Usage of social media in EFL teaching
The next 5 items aimed to seek students' opinions about the usage of social media in EFL teaching. The results (Table 3.) indicate that almost all the students had a positive response to each statement which showed the high usage of social media in EFL teaching.

The frequency of usage of social media
The last 10 items aimed to seek students' experiences about the frequency of usage of social media in EFL learning and teaching. The results (Table 4) show that almost all the respondents marked the statements as always, often and sometimes which show their positive perception about the usage of social media in EFL learning and teaching. Therefore, it is indicated that social media was frequently used in EFL learning and teaching in Afghanistan.

Analysis by the students' demographic background
The researchers carried out inferential statistical analysis to determine the variances in the frequency of usage of social media in EFL learning and teaching by students' demographic information: gender, age, and class. The findings (Table 5) showed that the significance value of all variables is 0.01 and is less than 0.05. Therefore, significant differences were found in the Preference of using social media Figure 1. The preference of using social media in EFL learning and teaching.
frequency of the usage of social media in ELF learning and teaching by the students' demographic variables: gender, age, and class.

Discussion
This study investigated the use of social media in EFL learning and teaching in Higher Education in Afghanistan. It also examined the preference and frequency of the usage of social media in EFL learning and teaching. The results showed that Facebook, WhatsApp, and YouTube were among the highly preferred social networking sites in EFL learning and teaching. This result is consistent with the finding of earlier research conducted by Mwalimu et al. (2018) and Alabdulkareem (2015) who found that WhatsApp, Facebook, and YouTube were massively used in teaching and learning. However, it contradicts the study of Tantarangsee et al. (2017) who reported that Facebook was one of the least frequently used social networking sites in EFL learning and teaching. Moreover, the findings showed that Twitter, Viber, and Imo were among the least used social media in EFL learning and teaching. This is contrary to the research of Van et al. (2020) and Xodabande () who found that Twitter was among the highly used social networking sites in EFL learning and teaching in Iran.
Social media has played an important role in transforming learning and teaching and were widely used for different purposes. The findings displayed that social media was massively used by lecturers in EFL teaching. They also exposed that social media was used by students and lecturers to communicate with each other, and the lecturers had the skills to use social media in their teaching. The majority of the respondents believed that social media was effective for university teaching and they saved time. This finding is aligned with the study of Salih and Elsaid (2018) who reported that social media was effective in EFL teaching and learning. However, around 75% of the participants believed that the overuse of social media caused eye problems for both lecturers and students. This finding supports the study by Haand and Shuwang (2020) who found that the overuse of social media caused health problems for both lecturers and students.
The study found that social media has been widely used for learning among Afghan university EFL students. Most of the students stated that social media helped them to learn the update information of their courses and easily get materials and academic resources. They also believed that the use of social media has improved their writing, reading, thinking skills and they were useful for their learning. In addition, the results exposed that social media helped the students to learn the avenue and time changes of their classes and facilitate learning for them at any time and place. It is in line with the study of Li (2017) who found that the students used social media to share information and get the learning materials. Furthermore, the participants of the study used social media to get information about the changes in their programs and courses.
The study also revealed that social media was frequently used in EFL teaching and learning activities. The majority of the respondents believed that their lecturers used social media in their teaching and students used them to access academic resources, view and download class notes and communicate with their classmates and lecturers. In addition, most of them stated that they used social media to improve their skills and knowledge. It confirms the research by Salih and Elsaid (2018) and Rodriguez (2011) who found that social media was helpful to find resources and improve students' skills.
Additionally, the study found that there were statistically significant differences in the frequency of the use of social media by the participants' demographic variables: gender, age and class. The results indicated that female students were more frequently using social media than their male peers. Moreover, older students were more frequently using social media than their younger classmates. In addition, juniors and seniors were more repetitively using social media than the first and second year students.

Conclusion
Social media has been widely used among lecturers and students in Afghanistan universities and no study was carried out to explore the usage of social media in EFL learning and teaching so far. Therefore, this research fills the gap by investigating the use of media in EFL teaching and learning, it also explored the frequency and preference of the usage of social media in EF learning and teaching. The study found that social media was frequently used in EFL leaning and teaching activities. Among several types of social networking sites, Facebook and WhatsApp were the highly preferred applications and Twitter and Viber were the least preferred applications used in EFL teaching and learning in Afghanistan higher education. The study also found that the vast majority of the students and lecturers used different kinds of social media in the university teaching and learning activities and social media was used for different purposes such as, communication, reading and downloading study materials, improving knowledge and skills and updating the changes about students' class avenues and time.
This study has some practical and theoretical implications. Since the resources and technological facilities are limited in Afghanistan, higher education leaders should make a policy and provide more facilities to the universities and encourage the use of social media in learning and teaching to boost students' achievement and learning outcomes. The study has two limitations at hand. Time was limited and the finding of the research cannot be generalized to all EFL programs in higher education institutions in the country. Future researchers may go with a larger sample and mixed method studies to target both public and private university students and lecturers. The next studies may focus on the importance and challenges of using social media in EFL learning and teaching.


Age-Related Differences in the Anthropometric and Physical Fitness Characteristics of Young Soccer Players: A Cross-Sectional Study

Considering that most professional academies seek to optimize the early detection and physical development of their younger players, the purpose of this study was to examine the anthropometric and physical fitness characteristics in a large cross-sectional sample of youth soccer players in Eastern Europe, starting from a very young age during their in-season period. Three hundred and thirteen soccer players (n = 313), grouped into eight age categories, participated in the study. On the basis of chronological age, the group categories were: 7 (n = 26), 8 (n = 41), 9 (n = 46), 10 (n = 48), 11 (n = 42), 12 (n = 47), 13 (n = 43), and 14 years old (n = 20). The players underwent an anthropometric evaluation, flexibility, handgrip strength, vertical jump performance, speed, and agility assessments. A one-way multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) indicated significant differences in the anthropometric and physical fitness variables based on chronological age (F = 13.40, p < 0.05, Wilk’s Λ = 0.08, partial η2 = 0.30). Concurrently, there were significant growth and physical fitness differences even in players born in the same chronological year. It is believed that the results have important practical implications, especially for those involved in youth soccer. Based on our results, coaches should contemplate speed and agility development in training sessions starting from a much younger age, as sprinting while changing directions has been considered an essential prerequisite in soccer.

Introduction
In contemporary soccer, players are required to possess a high level of physical fitness and technical skills to sustain the intensity of the games and ultimately support high performance, even in the case of youth players [1,2]. A soccer game imposes great physical and physiological demands where youth soccer players cover between 8 and 9 km per game, out of which 20-25% is performed as high-and very high-intensity running and sprinting [3]. Top-class soccer players perform more high-intensity running during a soccer game than semi-professional players [4]. Concurrently, soccer demands high levels of forceful and explosive movements such as jumps, sprints, and changes in direction [5]. These high-intensity events rely predominantly on the anaerobic energy system and require high strength generation. Although high-intensity demands are critical during a soccer game, the aerobic energy system's predominance is evident during low-to moderateintensity running demands. Thus, aerobic endurance increases the distance covered during a game, the number of sprints, and interactions with the ball [6]. In conclusion, these characteristics and performance indicators should be trained independently, especially in younger soccer players [7].
It is well established that understanding soccer games' specific requirements can provide essential information for creating the most successful training programs to prepare young players for participating at an elite level and positively impact the talent identification process [5,8]. A plethora of studies have examined the anthropometric characteristics, aerobic repeated-sprint ability (RSA), and sprint performance of young soccer players and goalkeepers [7,[9][10][11][12][13] as critical performance and talent indicators. In addition to the aforementioned indicators, researchers have examined critical technical aspects of kicking performance and ball velocity in soccer players, highlighting the need to improve the knee extension angular velocity for both the dominant and non-dominant legs [14,15], especially during the early stages of adolescence when bilateral imbalances become more evident [16]. Furthermore, investigators have examined the relationship between selected physical fitness parameters according to the playing positions in youth soccer players [17,18]. These results indicate that physical fitness and performance abilities between positions in young soccer players are different [17,18]. Additionally, anthropometry can discriminate physical capacities and soccer skills, providing a scientific rationale for player selection [17,18].
A battery of tests [19][20][21][22] including vertical and horizontal jumps, sprinting tests, agility, repeated sprint ability, handgrip strength, and aerobic capacity tests, is commonly used to distinguish between different age groups. Notably, these parameters become increasingly important, especially in young players where differences in growth and maturity result in performance disparities [11], opportunities, and, consequently, unequal competition presence according to their age and birth month [20,23,24]. In this regard, the importance of evaluating different skills, scaling children by age groups, and adding information to their anthropometric and performance profiles is highlighted.
Despite the large body of scientific evidence on anthropometric and physical fitness characteristics in young soccer players, knowledge regarding very young players is scarce, as most studies examine the aforementioned attributes from ages 10 and up. Therefore, considering that most professional academies seek to optimize the early detection and physical development of their young players, the purpose of this study was to examine the anthropometric and physical fitness variables in a large cross-sectional sample of youth soccer players from Eastern Europe, starting from a very young age during their in-season period.

Participants
Three hundred and thirteen young soccer players (n = 313), grouped into eight age categories, participated in the study. On the basis of chronological age, the group categories were: 7 (n = 26), 8 (n = 41), 9 (n = 46), 10 (n = 48), 11 (n = 42), 12 (n = 47), 13 (n = 43), and 14 years old (n = 20). All players engaged in formal training sessions (3-4 sessions/week, 90 min/session) and participated in a nine-month competitive season, usually with one game played during the weekend over the entire training period. All of the procedures were conducted during the in-season period. All head coaches were UEFA-licensed coaches for the specific age groups. Parents or legal guardians provided written informed consent after receiving verbal and written information about the study's procedures, associated risks, and benefits. The study was performed in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and was approved by the Ethics Committee of the University (reference number STEMH 541) and the National Committee on Bioethics [25]. The exclusion criteria included injuries or sickness resulting in losing two or more soccer games and/or training sessions two months prior to study initiation. Lastly, all the children had medical clearance to participate in soccer training and testing.

Measurements and Data Collection Procedures
The participants were advised to abstain from any activity the day before testing, and measurements were obtained between 14:00 and 17:00 during the players' training hours. Specific familiarization sessions were performed before the evaluations as some tests were not part of the players' training routines. Before the performance tests, the players performed a general 15-min warm-up, which consisted of submaximal running (low-to-medium intensity) and dynamic stretching. The warm-up also included coordination exercises such as running with lifted knees, heeling, and sidestepping. Furthermore, anthropometric measurements were recorded to determine the players' height and body mass prior to the performance assessments. Stature and body mass were measured according to standard procedures [26] using a wall stadiometer (Leicester; Tanita, Tokyo, Japan) and a standard electronic scale, and recorded to the nearest 0.1 kg and 0.1 cm, respectively.

Sit and Reach Test
A custom sit and reach box (32.4 cm high and 53.3 cm long) with a 26 cm heel line mark was used to assess the flexibility of the lower back and hamstring muscles according to methods described by previous investigators [27]. The players placed the soles of their feet (no shoes) against the box with knees in full extension. They were instructed to lean forward with one hand on top of one another and palms facing downward. Fast and jerky movements were not allowed while they were leaning forward. The players performed three attempts, and the best trial recorded to the nearest centimeter was entered for statistical analysis.

Free Arm Countermovement Jump (CMJ)
Explosive strength power was assessed with the CMJ test. The vertical jump performance was evaluated using Optojump TM photoelectric cells (Microgate, Bolzano, Italy), and the procedure was followed according to methods described by previous investigators [28]. Each player performed three countermovement jumps (CMJs) with the same break between jumps. The participants' hands were placed on their waist, and swinging of the arms was not allowed. The highest of three valid jumps was included in the data analysis.

Handgrip Strength Test
A handgrip dynamometer (Takei Scientific Instruments Co., Ltd., Tokyo, Japan) was used to assess the maximum isometric strength of the forearm and hand muscles. The procedure was conducted according to the methods described by previous investigators [29].

Straight Sprint Tests
Sprint performance was evaluated using a maximal 30 m sprint (sprint times were recorded at 10, 20, and 30 m) according to the methods described by previous investigators [30]. The participants were instructed to perform a 30 m sprint with maximal effort, and speed was measured as the time elapsed in 10, 20, and 30 m. The elapsed time for each test was automatically recorded with precision using photocell gates (accuracy of 0.01 s; Brower Timing Systems, Salt Lake City, UT, USA) placed 0.4 m above the ground. The timing gate at 30 m recorded the total time taken to sprint 30 m. All players began with a standing start, with the front foot positioned 0.5 m from the first timing gate. The players performed two trials with a 2 min rest in between [30], and the best 30 m sprinting time was selected for the statistical analysis.

Agility t-Test
The t-Test is a simple agility test that involves forward, lateral, and backward running. For the t-Test, four cones were arranged into a T-shape according to the methods described by previous investigators [31]. The second cone was placed 9.14 m from the starting cone (photocell gates 2 m apart), and cones three and four were placed 4.57 m on either side of the second cone. The players had to sprint forward 9.14 m from the start line, right shuffle 4.57 m to the third cone, then shuffle 9.14 m left to the fourth cone, and 4.57 m back to the middle cone before they finally performed backward running to the start line. The trials were not considered if participants failed to touch a designated cone or failed to face forward at all times. Only one timing gate placed on the start-finish line was used for timing the t-test. Each test was repeated two times, and the best time was included in the data analysis.

Statistical Analysis
Statistical analysis was performed using SPSS (version. 16.0; SPSS Inc., Chicago, IL, USA). The results are presented as the means and standard deviations (SDs). The differences among the age groups in anthropometric and physical fitness characteristics were assessed using a one-way multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) followed by an LS means post-hoc analysis to identify which groups differed. The effect size was estimated with partial eta-squared (η 2 ). The effect sizes were interpreted as follows: large (partial η 2 ≥ 0.14), medium (partial η 2 ≥ 0.06), and small (partial η 2 ≥ 0.01 or more) [32]. Linear regressions of the dependent variables (anthropometric and performance data) vs. explanatory (chronological age) were visually inspected. The R 2 values represented the proportion of variance for the anthropometric and physical fitness data explained by the chronological age. Statistical significance was set at a p-value of <0.05.

Results
The anthropometric characteristics are presented in Table 1. The handgrip, flexibility, and vertical jump results are presented in Table 2, and the sprint and agility results are presented in Table 3. In addition, pairwise comparisons for height and body mass are presented in Tables 4 and 5, respectively. The one-way analysis of variance MANOVA indicated statistically significant differences in the anthropometric and physical fitness variables based on chronological age (F = 13.40, p < 0.05, Wilk's Λ = 0.08, partial η 2 = 0.30). Further analysis indicated that age had a statistically significant effect on both height (F(7,305) = 90.53, p < 0.05, partial η 2 = 0.68) and body mass (F(7,305) = 41.56, p < 0.05, partial η 2 = 0.49). Furthermore, age had a statistically significant effect on handgrip strength (left hand, F(7,305) = 91.58, p < 0.05, partial η 2 = 0.68; right hand, F(7,305) = 76.47, partial η 2 = 0.64), flexibility (F(7,305) = 7.01, p < 0.05, partial η 2 = 0.14), and vertical jump performance (F(7,305) = 34.03, p < 0.05, partial η 2 = 0.44). Lastly, age had a statistically significant effect on 10 m (F(7,305) = 29.41, p < 0.05, partial η 2 = 0.4), 20 m (F(7,305) = 21.93, p < 0.05, partial η 2 = 0.34), and 30 m sprints (F(7,305) = 24.56, p < 0.05, partial η 2 = 0.36), as well as agility t-Test performance (F(7,305) = 74.46, p < 0.05, partial η 2 = 0.63). Based on the results, there was an increased rate of physical fitness in all variables based on age, except for the 12-year-old players who performed better than the 13-year-old players in handgrip strength, jump performance, flexibility, and the agility test (Tables 2 and 3). The coefficient of determination for the relationship between height and age indicated that 62.7% of the variance in height was due to age. Furthermore, 44% of the variance in body mass was due to age (r 2 = 0.439). The coefficients of determination for the right and left handgrip strength were 0.609 and 0.575, respectively. In addition, the coefficients of determination for flexibility and vertical jump indicated that only 9.6% of the variance in flexibility and 36% of the variance in countermovement vertical jump performance was due to age. Regarding the sprint test, 38.0%, 25.6%, and 28.4% of the proportions of variance in 10, 20, and 30 m sprint times (Figure 1), respectively, were explained by age. Lastly, 57.2% of the variance in the agility t-test was due to chronological age ( Figure 2).

Discussion
This study examined the anthropometric and physical fitness variables in a large cross-sectional sample of youth soccer players in Eastern Europe. We found that age had a statistically significant effect on height, body mass, handgrip strength, flexibility, vertical jump performance, sprint times, and agility t-Test performance. We also observed an increased rate of physical fitness in all variables based on age except for the 12-year-old players, who performed better than the 13-year-old players in handgrip strength, jump performance, flexibility, and the agility test (Tables 2 and 3, Figure 3).

Discussion
This study examined the anthropometric and physical fitness variables in a large cross-sectional sample of youth soccer players in Eastern Europe. We found that age had a statistically significant effect on height, body mass, handgrip strength, flexibility, vertical jump performance, sprint times, and agility T-test performance. We also observed an increased rate of physical fitness in all variables based on age except for the 12-year-old players, who performed better than the 13-year-old players in handgrip strength, jump performance, flexibility, and the agility test (Tables 2 and 3, Figure 3). The results from this study generally support previous research, which suggested that age-related performance and anthropometry increase significantly with age [33]. However, to the best of our knowledge, this was the first study to examine a large sample of players (n = 313) starting from a very young age (over 50% of the children were younger than 10 years old). Considering that players are organized into specific teams within professional youth soccer based on their chronological age, the goal of this study was to assess the players based on chronological age and not biological maturation. The present results highlight the asynchronicity of this process, which aligns with previous investigations that demonstrated a highly individualized onset of the adolescent growth spurt and an The results from this study generally support previous research, which suggested that age-related performance and anthropometry increase significantly with age [33]. However, to the best of our knowledge, this was the first study to examine a large sample of players (n = 313) starting from a very young age (over 50% of the children were younger than 10 years old). Considering that players are organized into specific teams within professional youth soccer based on their chronological age, the goal of this study was to assess the players based on chronological age and not biological maturation. The present results highlight the asynchronicity of this process, which aligns with previous investigations that demonstrated a highly individualized onset of the adolescent growth spurt and an asynchronous relationship with differing athletic performance indices in young soccer players [34].
Regarding the anthropometric measurements, the rate of development of body mass and height increased markedly at 11 and 12 years of age. Body mass increases were more evident at the age of 11, while height increases were more evident at 12, highlighting asynchronous development. Notably, within our sample, the onset of a growth spurt was apparent around the age of 12, with an average growth of around 7 cm/year. This finding aligns with previous studies that indicated an onset of the stature growth spurt at around 12 years old [35], whereas some researchers have demonstrated an even earlier onset in growth spurt at around 10.7 years old [33]. Although the 14-year-old players in our study were taller on average than other European players in Belgium [36], they had a similar stature to French professional soccer players between the ages of 14 and 16 years [37]. Lastly, our results indicated that 62.7% of the variance in height and 44% of the variance in body mass were due to age. The linear regressions indicated that there were significant growth differences even in players born in the same chronological year. Research has indicated that these differences may be attributed to the relative age effect [38] or differences in the biological maturity of the players [38]. Relevant to this is that players of the same chronological age may be ahead, on time, or behind their chronological age [39].
Of particular interest in the present study was that lower limb power, as identified by CMJ, did not follow the same trend as the anthropometric gains. The most significant increase in CMJ was identified at the age of 12, whereas 13-and 14-year-old players demonstrated lower CMJ results. These findings somewhat contrast with youth soccer studies demonstrating that overall jump ability improves with age [33]. Nevertheless, there may be several reasons for these discrepancies. First, we examined players from the age of 7-14 years, whereas other studies examined players from the age of 11-18 years. Therefore, from 14 to 18 years old, players undergo significant changes in growth and maturation, which play an essential role in neural and muscular adaptations and may explain the possible differences in CMJ performance across the age groups [23]. In a study by Williams et al., (2011) [33] where u11-u16 players were examined, CMJ improved with age, but there was no significant difference between the players in the U12 and U13 teams. Therefore, the age-related jump height differences mainly referred to older players (U14, U15, U16). Furthermore, lower limb power does not require any technical skills or multi-joint coordination, which may explain why 12-year-olds performed better on CMJs than 13-and 14-year-old players. Lastly, the observation that the 12-year-old players in this study were more physically developed than the 13-year-olds may partly account for our finding. Fourteen-year-old players demonstrated significantly greater values in handgrip strength, whereas no differences were identified among the 12-and 13-year-olds. The handgrip strength data revealed that the development of upper body strength also follows an asynchronous process. Therefore, even though handgrip strength was generally observed to increase based on chronological age, those increases were highly individualized and not linear based on age. For example, the 10-year-old players demonstrated significantly greater mean handgrip strength than the 11-year-old players.
The importance of sprinting or the ability to perform high-speed running is highlighted considering high-intensity running, which is evident during soccer games [40,41]. Additionally, a longitudinal study on Danish soccer players indicated that the best talent indicator for predicting selection for professional academies was the 30 m sprint speed [42]. Our results revealed that sprint times improved with age for the 10 m run, whereas 11-yearold players performed best in the 20 m run. However, the 14-year-old players produced faster sprint times during the 30 m sprint test and agility t-Test. Regarding the agility t-test, older players performed significantly better than the rest of the age groups, which may be explained by their more efficient movement pattern; therefore, they had a greater ability to change direction than the younger players. Overall, the players in our study produced slower sprint times in the 10 and 20 m tests compared with Scottish players [43], whereas the results of the 13-and 14-year-old players aligned with the results of Portuguese soccer players [22].

Conclusions
To the best of our knowledge, this is the first study in Eastern Europe to include soccer players at the age of seven. Our research revealed that age had a statistically significant effect on height, body mass, handgrip strength, flexibility, vertical jump performance, sprint times, and agility t-test performance. Concurrently, there were significant growth and performance differences, even in players born in the same chronological year. Our results suggest that academies should conduct longitudinal monitoring to update the players' anthropometric and physical fitness status. At the same time, soccer academies should implement age-appropriate and progressive training methods to optimize performance. Although success in soccer does not rely solely on physical fitness, these results can be combined with technical and tactical abilities to ensure high levels of success. Furthermore, we suggest that coaches contemplate speed and agility development in the period of training sessions starting from a much younger age as young players performed significantly worse on those. Although the decision for the players' exercise programs is multifactorial, it is evident that players with the same chronological age have significant differences in anthropometric and physical fitness variables; thus, programs should be designed along a continuum, beginning with the safest and gradually progressing to more challenging exercise routines. Finally, coaches should emphasize agility tasks when developing exercise routines for youth soccer players, even at the age of seven, as the ability to change the body's position and direction has been considered an essential prerequisite in soccer.

Limitations
A major limitation of the study is that it did not consider the relative age effect, which is the difference in age between children born in the same year.
Therefore, future studies should be encouraged to split the year into quartiles before examining young players' chronological and physical fitness parameters.

Institutional Review Board Statement:
The study was performed in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and was approved by the Ethics Committee of the University (reference number STEMH 541) and the National Committee on Bioethics (CNCB, 7 July 2021).

Informed Consent Statement:
Any research article describing a study involving humans should contain this statement. Please add Informed consent was obtained from all the parents or legal guardians of the subjects involved in the study.
Data Availability Statement: Data can be obtained by contacting the lead author K.P.

Conflicts of Interest:
The authors declare no conflict of interest.