The Use of Asynchronous Google Classroom with Video Teaching Tutorial on Improving Student Writing Achievement for Recount Text at Public Senior High School Kendari

This study aims to investigate how effective asynchronous Google classroom with VTT on improving students' writing achievement for recount text at SMAN 6 Kendari used quantitative design with pre-experimental one group pre-test and posttest. The research population was 346 entire school who registered in academic year 2020/2021. Meanwhile, XI MIPA 3 were 28 students as a valid sample of this study. Sampling selected using simple cluster random. Data collection used a written test that analyst by paired sample t-test that shows descriptive and inferential statistics based on students pre-and posttest. The research finding shows that there was significant different in gain score for pre-test (M=62,50; SD= 5.853) and Posttest (M=80.1071; SD=5.09422), t (27) = 13.095; p < 0.05, ttable= 2.052. It shows t-count > t-table with sig α < 0.05, H0 is rejected and H1 is accepted, so it can be concluded that using asynchronous google classroom with video teaching tutorial show a positive effect on student writing achievement for recount text at SMAN 6 Kendari.

Introduction *
The improvement of digital technology developments is a thing that cannot be disputed by increasing users of gadgets around the world. Indonesia as one of the countries where digital technology users are dominated by the young generation for over 140 million people. The development of this technology has recently shown evidence of significant which makes the young generation of Indonesia most updates. The 21 st century is the era of digital technology to regulate almost sectors such as the Internet that used to access information, communicate globally or even as a means of channeling hobby. Developing countries such as Indonesia are affected by the rapid development of this technology that makes many sectors strive to be digitalized. It called as 4.0 Industrial Revolution.
Build Indonesia 4.0 responded by the Government of Indonesia to welcome this era. Several road maps have been created involving Five manufacturing sectors (food and beverage, textile, Automotive, Electronic, chemical) where people with human resources in the field of technology are instrumental at this time. Therefore, the construction of digital infrastructure is not a refutable form of the Industrial Revolution 4.0. As with the infrastructure to be built, language mastery is also crucial in this era. School as a leading guard to develop the 21 st century generation who mastered technology and competitiveness so that no younger Indonesian generation that not mastered the technology. Indonesian College of Research and Technology Minister Mr. Muhammad Nasir said that digital education played a big role to confront the era of Industrial Revolution 4. O. Digital economy, big data, artificially intelligence, robotic, or Destructive innovation will continue to evolve in the future. Schools will become museums when all aspects of education are digitalized. This forces teachers and lecturers to be able to implement integrated online learning (MOOC; Massive Open Online Course, the teaching industry, e-Library) and convention class to implement teaching and learning activities at school and university level.
In the 21 st century, people communicate between one and the others through virtual technology such as video calls, text messaging, audio messaging which is makes people always see almost every time what happens on their phone door (Simonson, Smaldino, Albright, & Zvacek, 2012). The rapid development of the way interaction between others encourages technology companies to create various software such as Google, Yahoo, WhatsApp, Apple and so on to face the era. Through the rapid development of such technology, it is welcomed by many people without exception English teachers to welcome technology in teaching and learning activities which called e-learning. There are two types of e-learning models namely synchronous e-learning and asynchronous e-learning. Synchronous e-learning would involve students' and teachers online at the same time because the course would deliver through video conference. Moreover, asynchronous e-learning students' and teacher don't have to online at the same time because teacher just post material through platform that he/she want to use such as google classroom and students' can access or see it on the others day. If they have a question/suggestion related to the course, students would use the comment section below the target course (Er & Arifoglu, 2009).
Regarding the use of google classroom in teaching and learning especially in asynchronous google classroom (Shaharanee & Rodzi, 2016), Director of management products from Google, "Jonathan Rochelle" said that teachers should master better about the virtual classes she/he would apply in their class. This will make them, in this case, teachers to become qualified instructors who can offer pedagogical, social and help with technology (Keeler & Miller, 2015) . English teachers can use google classroom to teach Writing especially text recount since the way students interact with each other in-app would increase their passive writing. The course of text recount can deliver through video teaching tutorial which posted on the site previously (e-Learners.com, 2012). The video course contains all material related to text recount. Writing is one of the skills that should be mastered because it is one of the main objectives of learning English. Jacob (Jacobs & Faye, 1981) stated that Authors need the knowledge to deal with content, organization, vocabulary, language use, and Mechanic. In this case, writing is a productive skill where the grammatical competence authors are needed (grammar, vocabulary, and mechanic) and discourse competence (cohesion and cohesive) in the realm of smooth writing (Skylar, 2009).
The use of Google to enhance students writing such as a study from (Ebener, (2017)) researched google tools. This research is focusing on enhancing students writing through google tools Edu namely google docs, google classroom, google calendar, google drive, and soon. The result was tremendous because many students got an effect on how Google tools improve their writing. But the research from Ebener used an online database to collect the data. It is no problem for sure about this, but researcher on this term would try to research asynchronous one single tools google such as google classroom and delivered all courses through video teaching tutorial that might show better result because it combines with offline meeting at the classroom to more unravel things happened on the site previously. Based on this study found that asynchronous Google classroom with video teaching tutorial to teach writing of recount text combined with offline class instruction has a positive response from students because students would know technology, able to use wisely, and they would have conditioning learning as cited in (Siagian, 1995) argues the learning of students to settle on any situation, environment and condition.

Asynchronous e-learning
In an asynchronous learning environment, students can directly participate according to their respective learning methods, providing the opportunity to interact with peers, discussions among others, and can help to achieve the expected learning objectives (Harris & Koehler, 2009). In several learning environments, there square measure learning activities and expectations that need students to form, synthesize, explain, and apply the content or skills being taught (Harris & Koehler, 2009) This type of technology supports learning and provides more time for students to reflect, collaborate and interact among fellow students (Bonk & Zhang, 2006).
According to (Meloni, 2010) .Asynchronous learning and communication is by far the most highly liked type because most of the tools used to learn are free, requiring low hardware specifications, and easy to use by the students. Several advantages can be found through the use of asynchronous technology in the scope of online learning to include the following: (1) Enrich the portfolio of students (2) Collaborate on students and teachers (3) Students are easy to be directed individually based on their individual needs (Hrastinski, 2008).

Google classroom
Google Classroom is an online digital platform that allows teachers to streamline all digital processes with students. Teachers can create virtual classes in Google Classroom by providing a secret code to each student or inviting them through Gmail.

Features of Google classroom
a. Assignments: Each task is stored and assessed through Google's productivity app which allows for collaboration between teachers and students or students with other peers. b. Grading: Google Classroom supports many different scoring schemes. Teachers have the option to attach files to tasks that student can view, edit, or get an individual copy. c. Communication: Announcements can be posted by the teacher through the features provided by Google Classroom and can be commented on by the students so that there is two-way communication between teachers and students. d. Archive course: An instructor or teacher can archive each subject at the end of a semester or year. e. mobile application: The Google Classroom mobile app, introduced in January 2015, is available for iOS and Android devices. f. Privacy: Unlike other Google consumer services, Google Classroom, as part of G-Suite for Education, does not show any ads in the interface view for students, lecturers, and teachers, and user data is not scanned or used for purposes any advertising (Keeler & Miller, 2015).

Research Design
Pre-Experimental research was a method used in this research where One group Pretest-Posttest design. The study conducted for 4 weeks. The pretests conducted to see the early students' ability before getting treatment and posttest as a way to see the student's work after receiving treatment. The asynchronous treatment of Google Classroom with VTT and offline meeting will be provided to students after pretests and followed by Posttest. The results of both tests will be compared.

Subject of Research
The research population was 346 entire school of SMAN 6 Kendari who registered in the academic year 2020/2021. Meanwhile, XI MIPA 3 were 28 students as a valid sample of this study.

Research Instruments
There were two tests given to student's pretest and posttest of which result became the main indicator whether or not there is a significant effect of using Asynchronous google classroom with VTT in teaching writing especially on recount text which combined with regular meeting instruction. In other words, it used to measure the change made by the students before and after the model of teaching writing developed. The test required students to write recount text. The length of text which the students required to produce was 75-150 words or one page of paper. The time allocated for this test was 80 minutes because the longer time allowances were related to proficiency assessment and asked writers to select a topic from several alternatives (Jacobs & Faye, 1981)

Data Analysis
To assess the students' writing ability, the researcher adopted the profile approach (ESL Composition Profile) proposed by (Jacobs & Faye, 1981). The approach is very helpful in directing an assessor in assessing a composition. There are five aspects of assessing the students' writing ability which are Content, organization, vocabulary, language use, and mechanic. However, in this research, the researcher focused the assessment in three of those five aspects only, there are content, language use and mechanic aspects that can be seen in the table 1. Excellent to very good writing quality Good to average writing quality Fair to poor writing quality Very poor writing quality (Jacobs et al., 1981) To test the hypotheses, the researcher used Paired Sample T-Test with a two-tail test to conclude whether or not it is accepted.

Students' Writing Achievement for recount text in Pretest
Based on the figure 1, students' writing achievement for recount text shows that average students on level "fair to poor" which were 54 % (15 students') for content, 50% (14 students') for language use, and 61% (17 students') for Mechanic. Besides that, students on level "Good to average" which were 7% (2 students) for content and 50% (14 students) for language use, there are no students to get for mechanic. For level "very poor" which were 39% (11 students') for content and 39% (11 students'') for mechanic. There are no students' that got level on "Excellent to very good".

Students' Writing Achievement for recount text in Posttest toward asynchronous e-learning with video teaching tutorial and combined with offline meeting at classroom
Based on the figure 2, students' writing achievement for recount text shows that average students' on level "good to average" which were 71 % (20 students') for content, 46% (13 students') for language use, and 82% (22 students') for Mechanic. Besides that, students on level "Excellent to very good" which were 4% (1 students) for content and 54% (15 students) for language use, and Mechanic 4% (1 students). For level "fair to poor" which were 25% (7 students') for content and 14% (5 students'') for mechanic. There are no students' that got language use competence. And then for level on "very poor," there is no students' that got this level.

Discussion
Google classroom is one of the tools on online learning that can create a new environment for students' because it easy to operate on any devices. Well-Liked Web 2.0 kits like Google Classroom promise a lot of lavatories and noteworthy applications. Like many other 2.0 Web tools, it has the potential to teaching and learning because of the uniqueness of the functions offered such as pedagogical, social, and other aids regarding technology. Related to English teaching, teacher who used google to teach English involved them-self in the e-learning model. There are two types of e-learning models today namely synchronous e-learning and asynchronous e-learning. Synchronous e-learning would involve students and teachers online at the same time because the course would be delivered through video conference. Moreover, asynchronous e-learning students' and teacher don't have to online at the same time because teacher just post material through platform that he/she want to use such as google classroom and students can access or see it on the other day. If they have a question/suggestion related to the course, students would use the comment section below the target course.
All material of the subject course delivered through VTT which made by the teacher himself. Members of class would discuss any question related to the video teaching that have been posted previously below videos. The asynchronous e-learning google classroom with VTT combine with regular meeting instruction in the classroom is the best-blended teaching because it has never done it before.
Beside got treatment through the site with VTT, students also got directly treatment at the classroom which makes the teaching model is blended learning. In the classroom, the teacher will save more time because students' already watched video course on the site. The offline class happened as reinforcement and writing exercised related to each video course that have been posted. There was a previous study related to google app, especially in teaching writing. To begin with, Sarah Ebener (2017) conducted research using google tools. This research is focusing on enhancing students writing through google tools Edu namely google docs, google classroom, google calendar, google drive, and soon. The result was tremendous because many students got an effect on how Google tools improve their writing. But the research from Ebener used an online database to collect the data. It is no problem for sure about this, but researcher on this term would try to research asynchronous one single tool googles such as google classroom and delivered all courses through video teaching tutorial that might show better result because it combines with offline meeting at the classroom to more unravel things happened on the site previously. Related to the writing composition especially text recount, which were content, language use, and mechanic, it may describe that: Firstly, according to the finding in subsection 4.1.2 and 4.1.3, Content is the most crucial of assessing writing (Jacobs et al, 1981). It involves the development of a thesis statement which describes further the main idea by using several specific methods of development such as comparison/contrast, illustration, definition, example, description, fact or personal experience. For example, the students' mostly on level "fair to Poor" to write text recount for pretest, it because the students' writing limited knowledge of subject, little substance, and inadequate development of topic. After treated through asynchronous google classroom with video teaching tutorial which combined with regular meeting instruction, it shows that students highly on level "Good to average" since they have some knowledge of subject, adequate range, limited development of thesis, mostly relevant to topic, but lacks detail.
Secondly, Language Use refers to the students' ability in applying English grammar correctly on their writing which covers effective complex construction, agreement, tense, number, and word order/function, article, pronoun, preposition, as suggested by Jacobs and Heaton (Jacobs & Faye, 1981). This study evaluates whether or not students writing were constructed appropriately; includes the basic use agreement between sentence elements, use article, pronoun, and preposition. This study evaluated the language use through extended profile criteria proposed by (Jacobs & Faye, 1981). For instance, the students' mostly on level "fair to Poor" to write text recount for pretest, it because the students' writing major problems in simple/complex constructions, frequent errors of negation, agreement, tense, number, word order/ function, articles, pronouns, prepositions and/or fragments, run-ons, deletions and meaning confused or obscured. After treated through asynchronous google classroom with video teaching tutorial which combined with regular meeting instruction, it shows that students highly on level "Good to average" since they have some effective but simple constructions, minor problems in complex constructions, several errors of agreement, tense, number, word order/function, articles, pronouns, prepositions but meaning seldom obscured.
Finally, Mechanics entails the comprehension of using spelling, punctuation, capitalization, and word order properly. This study uses extended profile criteria proposed by (Jacobs & Faye, 1981) to assess the students writing in the mechanic aspect. For example, the students' mostly on level "fair to Poor" to write text recount for pretest, it because the students' writing frequent errors of spelling, punctuation, capitalization, paragraphing, poor handwriting, and meaning confused or obscured. After treated through asynchronous google classroom with video teaching tutorial which combined with regular meeting instruction, it shows that students highly on level "Good to average" since they have occasional errors of spelling, punctuation, capitalization, paragraphing but meaning not obscured.

Conclusion
Derived from the result of data analysis, the researcher comes up with the conclusion that there is a significant effect of asynchronous google classroom with video teaching tutorial on students' writing achievement for recount text at SMAN 6 Kendari who registered academic year of 2019/2020. It is proved from the higher score on the post-test than the pre-test. Based on the result of the first hypothesis testing, it shows that there was a significant difference in the gain score for pre-test (M=62.50; SD=5.853) and posttest (M=80.1071; SD=5.09422); t(27)=13.095; p <0.05, t-table =2.052. The result of the paired-sample t-tests shows t-count > t-table with sig <0.05, the H0 hypothesis is rejected and H1is accepted. Thus, it can be concluded that asynchronous google classroom with video teaching tutorial can improve students writing achievement for recount text at SMAN 6 Kendari.

Recommendation
The researcher offers several recommendations for further study such as it may better that different research design conduct next, besides that researcher still used regular meeting instruction because lack of internet connection in the city where the study conducted and at last it may better for future research to use another English competence likes reading, listening, speaking (toward synchronous e-learning model) and grammar.


A TEACHING MODEL TO RAISE AWARENESS OF SUSTAINABILITY USING GEOINFORMATION UN MODELO DOCENTE PARA SENSIBILIZAR SOBRE LA SOSTENIBILIDAD EMPLEANDO LA GEOINFORMACIÓN

The increase in geoinformation and its integrated use in cloud-based geographic information systems, or Web GIS, facilitates visualization of data and helps to improve our understanding of socio-economic factors as well as the natural landscape. Effective application of these tools in the classroom requires a change in teachers’ pedagogies. Thus, a review of existing pedagogies and a brief questionnaire given to teachers with lots of experience of using Web GIS, was carried out in order to identify how they were integrating online interactive maps into their teaching to make learning more effective. The results led to the development of a series of learning scenarios, or vignettes. These all use the visualization provided by online maps, to encourage more critical and reasoned learning. They also contribute to educating for sustainability, as they highlight trends and interrelationships that are intended to promote transformative action, beyond the theoretical knowledge and application of the Sustainable Development Goals. Direct observation in teacher training classrooms and detailed discussion over each result obtained has validated a teaching model. To support the use of these materials and the application of the model, a training course has been designed for teachers who are new to the profession or those who are interested in integrating these tools into their teaching. To date, trainee teachers who have been introduced to the model have expressed their satisfaction with this new way of working in secondary classrooms.

application of the Sustainable Development Goals. Direct observation in teacher training classrooms and detailed discussion over each result obtained has validated a teaching model. To support the use of these materials and the application of the model, a training course has been designed for teachers who are new to the profession or those who are interested in integrating these tools into their teaching. To date, trainee teachers who have been introduced to the model have expressed their satisfaction with this new way of working in secondary classrooms.

Keywords
Geography; Geographic Information Systems; Sustainable Development Goals; Vignette; Geoinformation.

Resumen
El incremento de la geoinformación y su integración en los sistemas de información geográfica en la nube o SIG Web, facilitan la visualización de los datos y una mejora de la comprensión de la realidad socioeconómica y territorial del paisaje. La efectividad de estas herramientas en las aulas hace necesario un cambio en las pedagogías de los docentes. Así, se ha realizado un seguimiento de las pedagogías existentes y un pequeño cuestionario a profesores experimentados en el empleo de SIG Web con la finalidad de formular cómo integrar los mapas interactivos en línea en la docencia para un aprendizaje más eficiente y elaborar con estos resultados una serie de situaciones de aprendizaje o vignettes. En todas ellas se emplean mapas en línea cuya visualización fomenta el aprendizaje crítico y razonado. Con ellos también se colabora en educar para la sostenibilidad, ya que evidencian tendencias e interrelaciones que se pretende promuevan una acción transformadora, más allá del conocimiento y aplicación teórica de los Objetivos de Desarrollo Sostenible. La observación directa en las aulas de formación del profesorado y una detallada discusión sobre cada resultado que se va obteniendo han validado el modelo docente creado. Para apoyar el empleo de estos materiales y la aplicación del modelo se ha diseñado un curso de formación para el profesorado que se inicia en la profesión o aquél otro con interés en integrar estas herramientas en su docencia. Hasta el momento los profesores en formación que han conocido este modelo han mostrado su satisfacción, su satisfacción por esta nueva forma de trabajar en las aulas de secundaria.

INTRODUCTION
The revolution in geographic information and cloud-based computing has enabled new classroom learning methodologies. Geospatial skills can be improved by using online web mapping. There are two essential pillars for this: development or use of the mapping itself, and critical reflection. In this way, geodata displayed on web maps allows us to obtain new insights and learning.
The increasing amount of freely-available geoinformation (GI) and requirements of official curricula highlight the need to integrate geotechnologies into secondary school teaching. Thus, it is essential to train 'experienced' teachers and early career teachers, such as trainees, master's degree students in secondary education, teacher educators, and all those who are interested in teaching and learning to use GIS technologies in an innovative pedagogical way to support Powerful Geographical Thinking (PGT) and meet the needs of the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs). The increase in GI and the growing ease of its use in cloud-based geographic information systems, or Web GIS, to visualize data and improve understanding of socio-economic and territorial reality requires a change in teachers' pedagogies.
An innovative pedagogy has been specifically applied to national curricula by our GI-Pedagogy project team to identify how to take advantage of the exciting and innovative world of open data and open science. The GI-Pedagogy team also identified relevant data sources in order to help connect schools with the real world and raise pupils' citizenship awareness. The use of data and the essential nature of GIS in all aspects of our daily lives are also demonstrated. Thus, we aim to draw on and transform existing available knowledge, materials, concepts, and ideas to train new and early career teachers, and further the professional development of more 'experienced' teachers. Mayer and Anderson (1991) found that when verbal information was presented alongside relevant images, it became much more memorable. These images can be retained and amended to aid pupils in subsequent tasks. GIS uses words and 'pictures', including mapping and symbology together, and as such represents an ideal example of dual coding at work in the classroom. GIS tools display data in various forms, which can be collected by the students themselves and presented as layers on top of a base map. Symbols can be used to identify patterns in the data, and spatial tools offer other options for collecting and displaying the data. Thus, teachers should aim to use the opportunities that GIS provides to analyse real world data from a wide number of sources.
GIS is a powerful tool that can be used to investigate and explore the world, but it needs further work to demonstrate its usefulness, in the same way as other Information and Communication Technology (ICT) tools (Stringer et al., 2019). ESRI has made their ArcGIS Online family of apps, such as Survey123, Field Maps or StoryMaps, available free to all schools in EU countries (and further afield) so it is possible to access them easily. GIS should not just be 'something else to teachʼ, as it enables clearer instruction about subject content, and has the potential to make teaching more effective. GIS needs to be embedded across the curriculum, and across subject teaching, and must be introduced to students in a stepped process, to avoid cognitive overload (Sweller et al., 2019). Without regular opportunities to use GIS, students will be introduced to it in occasional lessons, but are likely to forget about it within a short time. Periodic review, and the steady acquisition of blocks of learning (schema) are important. All these questions link with pedagogy. GIS is not just for professionals in business, but for all young people to have experience with. It improves critical spatial thinking (Bearman et al., 2016;Kim & Bednarz, 2013) and makes it possible to advance the TPACK model adding other dimensions, such as sustainability or affectivity and emotions (Puertas et al., 2021). This allows for changes in attitudes to territory, and for 'extension work' to deal with sustainability issues and values (Álvarez, 2020). Doering et al. (2009) enhance the teaching, use and implementation of geospatial technologies beyond the TPACK model, by emphasising that teachers should develop geographical technological pedagogical content knowledge (G-TPACK). The focus changes from what teachers should know to effectively integrating technology in their classrooms to study how their geographical knowledge should be used to support their teaching in the most effective way. The lack of development of pedagogical models for teaching geospatial technologies appears to have been one main reason why they have not been incorporated into lessons. Doering et al.'s (2009) model, known as GeoThentic, trains teachers in a very interactive and collaborative way using an online problem-based course: to develop their technological knowledge using geospatial technologies; their pedagogical knowledge by investigating optimal pedagogy for geographic problem-solving with geospatial technologies; and their content knowledge by developing the specific geographical content area needed to effectively teach the problem-solving modules.
It is important to emphasize that educating for sustainability is not simply an 'add-on' to existing structures and curricula, but implies a change based on the ability to respond to the current crisis and take advantage of opportunities (Sterling, 2004). This is not the first time that the socio-emotional dimension has been added to an already defined model (e.g. consider what happened to Gardner's (1983) 'multiple intelligences', after the linguistic-verbal, musical, logical-mathematical, bodily-kinesthetic, interpersonal, intrapersonal, and naturalistic intelligences were defined). Specifically, emotional intelligence (Goleman, 1995) and spiritual intelligence (Gardner, 2006) were added. Affective aspects in teaching practice are important, because much of what the teacher knows and does is connected to their own emotional state and motivation, and this in turn directly influences students' learning. Thus, awareness of the importance of the affective domain in emotions in relation to the content that is taught changes attitudes and improves teaching effectiveness (Puertas et al., 2021). We aim to improve teachers' connections with GIS, by adapting the TPACK model ( Figure 1).
The principal differences between GI-Pedagogy and other GIS-related projects are the particular focus on pedagogy (the methods and practice of teaching) and the use of evidence-based approaches.
Thus, the main objective of this project is to design a teaching model that ensures efficient learning using geoinformation and ArcGIS Online that is informed by pedagogic research. By researching innovative methods for teaching with GIS, the aim of this study is to provide teachers with the skills and resources they need to embed the use of digital mapping into their everyday geography teaching. This is done by drawing on Rosenshine's Principles of Instruction and the findings from cognitive science to design a framework for teachers to support their use of GIS in their lessons. By using a series of steps, it provides teachers with the pedagogical basis for teaching with GIS in a well sequenced and integrated way. This approach seeks to support new trainees and early career teachers by drawing on best practice ideas and by focusing on the 'P' in the well-known TPACK model: the pedagogy. This involves identifying opportunities to teach with GIS as an integrated part of an existing curriculum by drawing on examples of next practice as part of the lessons, rather than using GIS as an additional tool. In this way these provide busy teachers with ways to use GIS to make learning better than it would have been without using GIS. This framework, therefore provides suitable help to plan lessons which use GIS effectively to teach with. This has then been used to develop examples for its use demonstrated with a number of suggested case-studies, for teachers to use in the classroom. These have been designed as a starting point for practitioners to further develop themselves to support their own teaching with GIS. In this way they can start to use these steps as a practical tool to help them to embed GIS in their lessons routinely. By creating a rubric for this, GI-Pedagogy allows allows teachers to assess the case-studies developed, and then go on to create their own vignettes using this pedagogic framework. In order to develop these case-studies or vignettes, GI-Pedagogy involves using the pedagogic framework developed by the project, to select relevant content supported by web references and key questions which are interwoven to allow learners to deepen their understanding of a topic or issue, through hypothesistesting and problem-solving. Vignettes are thematically oriented, and may include simulations and predictions supported by knowledge. They integrate the teacher and learner's perspective (Chaloupka et al., 1998) and are a way of assessing motivation, evidence of problem-solving and critical thinking (Jeffries et al., 2005). Key questions include asking if vignettes could be a tool for assessing teachers' pedagogical understanding? Are they able to help raise teachers' awareness of the need for students to understand and learn what is being explained in class?
The results address these questions and help develop a teacher-training course that fully incorporates web-based mapping software into the geography curriculum. First, however, the methodology will be outlined.

METHOD
This project began by reviewing and distilling the conclusions from over 120 relevant research papers, including those on cognitive science and GIS.
In the process, the development of schema was explored as well as modelling linked to Rosenshine's Principles (Sherrington, 2019) derived from cognitive science research-based evidence on how the brain acquires and uses information. This drew on the findings from Rosenshine's work which came from three separate sources of research: cognitive science and how the brain works, observations of teachers whose students saw the highest improvement in assessment marks, and an analysis of instructional methods (Donert et al., 2000). From this, Rosenshine developed his Principles of Instruction, which advocate the breaking down of material into steps of information and learning that is built up over a period of time, through sequencing and modelling, making use of questions, and giving sufficient time to fully integrate them into the learning. Rosenshine (2012) recommends that experiential activities should always be employed, and that students are taken through a series of steps that allow them to learn how to use GIS at their own pace. At each stage, we will explore how GIS can improve overall understanding of both itself and the real world. We shall also identify effective strategies for engaging learners on a journey that always offers something new to learn, as it has no definitive end.
Next, a small-scale qualitative survey was carried out to support the research findings of a group of 22 teachers who were identified or self-identified as being 'expert users of web GIS or interactive online maps', to find out about their use of GIS. Questions covered four key areas. Respondents were asked to identify the context for their use of GIS, what it was used to teach, how and why they used it and how effective they thought the learning was. These responses were then used to help to develop our model, and led to the creation of a series of casestudies using a template to explore the use of our model in the classroom, and make any suitable adjustments. In this way, the rubric created, helps to support the effectiveness of the learning.
Finally, a training course was run to help teachers who were interested in GIS technologies to support Powerful Geographical Thinking, and also meet the needs of the Sustainable Development Goals. This model has also been used in teacher training courses the authors are involved in.

RESULTS
The results created, piloted and evaluated are presented here as a set of steps, followed by the learning model for teachers, the vignette template case study, and finally, the training course to disseminate. However, we begin by reviewing the relevant literature and our survey.

SMALL SURVEY RESULTS
As shown from the results of the small-scale survey of teachers, led by Wilson (2020), the respondents were all regular users of GIS (41% weekly and 27 % at least twice each term) with the majority having more than 10 years' experience, and only 4 recorded as having less than 6 years. The respondents came from a variety of countries including: Austria (4%), Belgium (36%), Romania (5%), Spain (23%), Switzerland (5%) and the United Kingdom (27%). It was interesting to see that the majority used ArcGIS Online, with only some using Google Earth, and Digimap for Schools (a subscription service for UK schools) and just one teacher using QGIS. From the survey results, there were a variety of different uses of GIS demonstrated, which appeared to be more focused on the curriculum knowledge for UK respondents, compared with other European Teachers whose use on average was found to focus more on developing students' skills of using GIS to think critically and support problem solving. Despite this difference, overall it was clear that respondents felt that it was important for GIS to be taught using clear instructions, either using a worksheet or video, so that tasks could be modelled, and then further supported with both formal and informal guidance afterwards; by sharing ideas and discussions, and from the teacher's perspective, by offering technical support to students, as needed. Respondents felt it was useful to provide clear instructions in both physical and virtual settings. Teachers also mentioned the absence of fieldwork that focuses on physical geography, which may well have been because of the pandemic and an increasing use of GIS among students more generally. In this context, and in order to integrate GIS into the teaching curriculum, those interviewed made a series of suggestions. First, that the promotion of GIS use in the classroom might also be seen as a way to aid teachers' learning. Secondly, in terms of enquiry-based student education, they proposed the use of GIS tools to support research-based learning resources (such as WebQuest), including structured tasks and story maps. Thirdly, teachers suggested that manuals to support spatial literacy skills and independent discovery to explore and create story maps might also be very useful. Finally, they recommended using written instructions with a 'technical focus' to act as a tool to support learning critical and spatial thinking skills.
So how effective is the learning using GIS? If these suggestions from the survey are to be taken on board, GIS needs to become part of every educator's personal teaching toolkit. Students need to learn with and about GIS because it is now essential for business. Learning is only good if it is effective, so we would recommend that pupil-centred learning and opportunities for students to explore GIS without direct teacher instruction should come later in the process, as pupils are unlikely to have the technical knowledge to proceed very far without guidance. The use of GIS for direct instruction is a useful way of modelling the use of this technology to students, as a way of exploring problem-solving techniques, and is explored further below.

THE IMPORTANCE THE SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS
Geography is an important subject for developing a better understanding of our current world. Its study is therefore crucial for helping to work towards meeting the Sustainable Development Goals. In order to do this, it requires students to develop skills such as critical analysis, to enable a systematic reflection on the interrelationships between territory, landscape and society, in both the real and virtual worlds. In this way it helps students to become more informed and responsible citizens capable of adopting a more sustainable lifestyle which advocates the ability to make reflective, knowledgeable and collaborative decisions (Murga-Menoyo, 2015). In this way, education for the SDGs must ensure that all students acquire the theoretical and practical knowledge necessary to promote sustainable development and adopt sustainable lifestyles. Education therefore needs to focus on the development of the whole person, as an integrated respectful member of the earth's global environment, as part of an eco-dependent community willing to take the moral responsibility for life on our planet (Murga-Menoyo, 2020).
In this sense, public policies to integrate Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) into all formal, non-formal and informal learning contexts are a key factor. The curriculum can therefore be seen as an effective vehicle for change in all educational settings, and so an important part of teacher training. It is therefore essential to ensure that the SDGs are integrated into curriculum and national quality standards, so that they are supported with suitable indicators which are able to measure outcomes that reflect this, in addition to the need for universities to also work towards this. Integrating Education for Sustainable Development (ESD) into competencies, teacher standards, certification and accreditation of teachers and teacher education institutions would encourage their implementation in the classroom. Appropriate pedagogical approaches must be learner-centred, actionoriented and transformative. It is therefore vital not only to include SDG-related content in curricula, but also to use transformative, action-oriented pedagogies (Murga-Menoyo, 2021). This process of educating for sustainable development is known as curricular sustainability. Barak Rosenshine's (2012) 10 principles were not GIS specific, but he pioneered an innovative approach that considered pedagogical intent and made it possible to check students' understanding. In our project we sought to identify how these principles could be applied to GIS teaching, as GIS needs to be embedded in everyday activities if teachers and students are to gain the automaticity that emerges from learning, repetition and practice. The aim is not for teachers to become GIS experts; rather our experience tells us that it is better to ask lots of questions and interact with students at each stage in order to check their understanding. The stepped approach to learning is not confined to the students: teachers should also follow this approach when developing their own competence, according to the TPACK model, and this should be part of their curriculum development. Teachers need to make decisions about how best to achieve the work within the given time constraints, to meet the particular needs of their students.

REVIEWING EXISTING PEDAGOGIES AND THE SMALL-SCALE RESEARCH SURVEY
Tom Sherrington (2019) explored the idea of combining the principles of Rosenshine into four main strands to provide a possible workflow for teachers, which was later used by Sophie Wilson (Figure 2). This does not involve merging the principles but recognizing that they complement each other. This is not a checklist, but a framework for introducing new knowledge. When Rosenshine talks about reviewing material (and student progress), we consider this in terms of GIS skills and knowledge as well as linked subject content. The term 'daily review' will for many subjects refer more to short-term and periodic reviews rather than literally reviews taking place each day. Scaffolding is needed for all new learners, including teachers, to facilitate their learning.
In this context, any GIS task needs to be modelled first, using a series of steps through which students and teachers work to develop their understanding. Videos can be used to introduce students to the various stages, which are similar to some of the blended learning approaches being adopted as a result of the COVID-19 pandemic such as flipped teaching, the use of MOOCs. It is easy to get lost in the technical and practical aspects of using a GIS tool, and it can take a lot of time to unpick a task. Therefore, these steps need to be carefully considered when planning a lesson sequence, and teachers need to be confident enough to complete them in front of a class. Sweller et al. (2019) uses the phrase "scaffolded freedom" to reflect the careful use of support that may be useful at different stages for groups or individuals, as required, and as competency increases. Our model addresses all the aforementioned issues.
Teachers also need to develop agency in their use of technology by building their own confidence. Thus, GIS needs to become part of the 'furniture' in classrooms and lecture halls. Maps are often used, but -rather than using paper maps, it would be better if Google Earth or digital atlases were used -so that GIS provide students with interactive digital maps. Specific examples of GI(S) apps / websites / tools highlighted in our research included ArcGIS Online (AGOL), which is a free platform available to most schools in the EU. More advanced GIS analysis can be undertaken with ArcGIS Pro. Another option is the Google Earth suite and the new 'Projects' option, which can be used to create tours (e.g., those of Andy Funnell: https://earthcasestudies.wordpress.com/); Google Earth Studio, which creates stories similar in style to StoryMaps, with aerial views and video facilities, and; Google Earth Pro, which improves Google Earth functionality. Tools for fieldwork data acquisition -such as ESRI Survey123 and Field Maps, ONA, ODK collect or QField collector linking to QGIS family-are recommended for more advanced classes.
GIS is the perfect vehicle for teaching and achieving 'powerful knowledge' (Young et al. 2013) and applying cognitive science in projects such as GeoCapabilities project (Solem et al, 2013;Biddulph et al., 2020) which has explored the development of such knowledge within geography or GI-Learner (Donert et al., 2016;Zwartjes et al., 2017;Zwartjes and De Lázaro, 2019).
If students use GIS frequently, they will learn more rapidly, as knowledge needs to be employed regularly for it to become part of the long-term memory. When teaching with GIS, teachers need to do so explicitly, to make students aware of it, and constantly monitor students use of GIS and suggest further ideas. This is what we might call "powerful pedagogy": pedagogy that leads to critical thinking (Bearman, 2016;Biddulph et al., 2020;Kim and Bednarz, 2013) and better decisionmaking, by focusing on the acquisition of powerful GIS skills and knowledge.
In order to benefit from these tools, students need to be given time, to understand the purpose of GIS before they start to produce their own maps, to ensure they are of a high quality and use the tool's full potential. This might include considering the way that data is best visualized can be done without undertaking deep analysis. This is technically still "creating a map", but ideally students will move on to a point where they can make use of GIS to create their own maps using appropriate symbology and analytical tools.
Having acquired the required skills and knowledge to use GIS, agency needs to be passed to the learner. Known as geo-literacy, the aim is to guide teachers and students towards becoming increasingly fluent in their use of mapping and geographical information.
Questioning and addressing misconceptions are vital to the success of this way of learning. It can therefore be concluded that cloud-based computing and GIS use is becoming an essential tool for 21st century classrooms.

3.4.THE LEARNING MODEL FOR TEACHERS
The GI-Pedagogy model aims to bridge the gap between early adopters who are confident with the technology, and those who have never used GIS before and are looking to start. Although Rosenshine's principles are not a model, they can be used, together with cognitive science, as a basis to create a series of structured steps. These steps -which might be whole lessons, or activities within lessons help develop a student's 'schema' by making links between their learning. In this way, generative learning integrates the use of GIS by connecting new knowledge with existing schema.
This approach provides a scaffold for teachers and students, avoids cognitive overload, by enabling new material to move into the long-term memory using schema, and ensures the whole process is effective. Before specifying the steps in terms of GIS it is worth recalling Tom Sherrington's (2019) 'key elements' that occur when a student (or teacher) learns something: ˆConceptual information enters working memory from the classroom environment: via a resource or a teacher. ˆWorking memory is finite and quite small; therefore, we can only take in a limited amount of information at any one time. ˆThe long-term memory is an essential part of our prior and future learning, as we process information it links to our schema which is stored in our long-term memory. ˆWe retrieve relevant information from our long-term memory and employ it in our working memory when it is needed. ˆWe organize all this information into schema by building up links with our long-term memory. New information typically only becomes stored if we can connect it to knowledge we already have; therefore, our prior knowledge significantly influences our capacity to learn.
ˆThe more well connected our schema are, the easier it is for us to make sense of and organize new information, as it relates to our existing schema, and we start to retrieve it more readily. ˆWe will forget information that we don't store successfully in a meaningful schema when we are first introduced to it, or if we don't retrieve it frequently enough. ˆIf a schema contains incorrect information, we can't simply 'overwrite' it, but need to unpick and fully re-learn it to correct the schema. The teacher is still required here.
These elements will now be incorporated into our specific GIS steps ( Figure 3). As teachers begin to imagine learners ascending these steps, they may also become more critical of existing resources, which will help them in selecting and developing materials for use in their own classrooms. An important part of GIS is that it helps develop a narrative, which is employed by the teacher when introducing a particular topic. Stories are powerful, and our model is based on narrative construction. How can GIS be successfully integrated into lessons? Of course, the motivation to take the first step is the desire to learn how to teach with GIS, in a way that makes learning better and more effective.
The aim is to move between the steps both up and down, but not necessarily starting from the first one, depending on the complexity of the use of GIS. With each step there is an increase in complexity in the use of GIS, and it is possible to 'step down' and revisit previous ones. In this way teachers are able to explore alternative approaches and build up the use of GIS in their teaching, so this becomes increasingly fluent and integrated into lessons which make learning better as a consequence. The entire step model can be represented in a diagram. 'Step 0', before we even start climbing, might involve a check on prior learning, but this is not depicted in the diagram. The five steps leading to the potential for a sixth one -which could take the form of either a student presentation or some sort of assessment -these are best represented in the lesson plan using questions. Step 1: Direct instruction / teacher-facilitated stage. This is where 'schemabuilding' begins. New material is presented.
Step 2: Modelling / Scaffolding, with review and questioning -what data are needed?
Step 3: Individual exploration Step 4: Class review and discussion Step 5: Problem-solving Step 6: Presentation/Assessment (peer assessment is also possible) and sharing of outcomes. This is the stage where students may feel secure enough to start their own exploration.
The little symbol of the small ramp between each step represents the opportunity to check for understanding by moving between the steps in both directions.
Steps can be skipped by groups who may have already acquired schema or may be visited several times during a lesson sequence. The steps are not intended to end at number 6.
In order to help sequence the learning, a cube has been used to present a suitable framework for teachers to use to identify the prior and future learning to put the new learning into context. In this way it is possible to deconstruct the learning into suitable chunks by noting key learning points, to ensure that new content is introduced in a way that is mindful of its context. In this way, the cube helps to support the development of the learners' schema, in a way that avoids overloading the working memory ( Figure 4).  At the end of the case-study or vignette, the main concepts should be correctly defined by using several sources to define in a maximum of 5-6 lines. A definition serves to clearly delimit the thematic, temporal and territorial scope of a concept. The concept can be enriched, if appropriate, with the why and the how, and relate it to other elements, behavioural patterns... One or two examples and a significant image, graph or map should be added; but always without using the defined word as part of the definition.
To assist in thinking around the model, a 'toolkit' and a 'blank template' have been developed by experienced teachers to provide some working examples in the form of study-cases or vignettes. These are available on the website: https://www.gilearner. ugent.be/gi-pedagogy/.

VIGNETTES AND THE RUBRIC TO ASSESS
The list of vignettes created to date are shown in Table 1. Following this teaching experience and in order to facilitate the evaluation on lesson plans (or those created in the future), a rubric has been established in order to establish the quality of the vignettes (Table 2).

TEACHER TRAINING COURSE
On the basis of the above research outcomes, a five-part teacher-training course has been developed and is due to be launched soon. The first part introduces the topic, and responds to the questions: what is GIS and how is it used?; why is GIS a valuable tool for teaching? and what is needed to use GIS in the teaching process? The second part explains the innovative pedagogy, and how it is based on research results and practice. The third section seeks to integrate the model using vignettes in the framework of the secondary school curriculum, based on physical and human geography. The fourth deconstructs the model to explain two case studies; while the last part, called 'I, we, you', demonstrates why it is necessary to give teachers knowledge to create their own vignettes. The teacher training course will be accessible


Socio-demographics, neighborhood characteristics, time use, and leisure-time physical activity engagement patterns over the life course

Physical inactivity remains a major public health challenge today. Understanding the determinants of changes in habitual leisure-time physical activity patterns by type across the life course is important for developing targeted interventions. This study presents a multiple discrete-continuous extreme value model to examine the determinants of habitual participation in and time allocation to multiple leisure-time physical activities over the life course. A comprehensive set of socio-demographics, life transitions, neighborhood characteristics, and time-related factors are considered as determinants of each activity type, including sports, recreational walking, cycling, outdoor playing, and dog walking. Results estimated on retrospective survey data collected in the Netherlands show significant differences in the determinants of the different types of leisure-time physical activity. Social-demographic factors have a strong influence on sports participation, followed by recreational walking, cycling, outdoor playing, and then dog walking. Life transitions have different effects. A change in marital status appears to be the most important life event for sports participation while changing jobs is the most important event for the other two activities. Neighborhood characteristics primarily affect participation in recreational walking, cycling, outdoor playing, and dog walking. As for time-related factors, they mainly impact sports engagement. The findings of this study could help develop effective interventions to promote leisure-time physical activity participation during life transitions and encourage healthy living.

Introduction
Leisure-time physical activity (LTPA) covers different forms of discretionary or recreational bodily movement when one is not working, transporting to a different location, and not doing household chores (2018 Physical Activity Guidelines Advisory Committee, 2018). Sports, recreational walking, cycling, outdoor playing, and dog walking are examples of LTPA categories (2018 Physical Activity Guidelines Advisory Committee, 2018; Merom et al., 2009;Ginis et al., 2012). Its benefits are widely accepted, including reduced risk of chronic diseases (Lahti et al., 2014;Raza et al., 2020), improved social functioning (Shvedko et al., 2018), higher leisure enjoyment (Miller et al., 2016), and greater life satisfaction (Wiese et al., 2018). Therefore, regular participation in LTPA is a crucial component in leading a healthy, active, and enjoyable life.
However, insufficient LTPA remains a major public health challenge. Evidence from 28 European countries revealed that more than one-third of adults were physically inactive (Nikitara et al., 2021), and approximately 1 million deaths in the WHO European Region are attributable to physical inactivity (World Health Organization, 2015). To respond to this challenge, understanding when and how people can be promoted and supported to participate in regular LTPA is thus an important objective.
Previous longitudinal studies have observed that LTPA is complex, multidimensional and fluctuates over the life course (Gropper et al., 2020). Changes in LTPA are predominantly characterized by non-linear decline with age (Jose et al., 2011;Larouche et al., 2012). There seem to be particular periods or transitions during the life course where the decline in LTPA is accelerated or slowed (Gropper et al., 2020;Larouche et al., 2012). Reviews by Engberg et al. (2012) and Allender et al. (2008) concluded that significant changes in LTPA are associated with certain life events, including having children, entering university, returning to study, beginning to work, relocation, and changing marital status, employment status, work conditions, and physical status. Life transitions Abbreviations: Leisure-time physical activity, LTPA; Recreational walking, cycling, and outdoor play, Recreational-WCP. are often accompanied by shifts between multiple roles, which may disrupt one's daily routine and affect habitual LTPA patterns (Engberg et al., 2012;Gropper et al., 2020). An improved understanding of the dynamic association between life transitions and habitual LTPA patterns over the life course is significant as it may provide a potentially good opportunity for developing sound interventions for those at high-risk.
So far, such studies are still limited and mainly focus on specific time periods or subpopulations, such as early adulthood, women, and older adults. Their results indicated that major life transitions always adversely affect LTPA behavior (Engberg et al., 2012;Wilcox & King, 2004). Specifically, scholars seem to be particularly interested in the period from adolescence to early adulthood, which is associated with a sharp decline in LTPA (Molina-García et al., 2015;Simons et al., 2015). During this life stage, most individuals begin to live independently and face transitions like moving out of home, continuing or discontinuing full-time education, working full-time, developing partner relationships, and becoming a parent (Allender et al., 2008;Winpenny et al., 2020). However, the reported findings appear inconsistent. For example, Simons et al. (2015) suggested that working full-time had no significant associations with LTPA, while Brown and Trost (2003) indicated that it was related to decreased LTPA levels in young women. Besides, a few studies also noticed the influence of a change of social support in this period. Molina-García et al. (2015) found that decreased social support was associated with reductions in LTPA for males.
Research on women has also received much attention, particularly for pregnancy-related and marital status-related changes in LTPA. Consistent evidence was found that LTPA declined and shifted to safer and less vigorous activities throughout pregnancy (Pereira et al., 2007;Poudevigne & O'Connor, 2006). As for marital status transitions of women (i.e., marriage, divorce, widowhood, and remarriage), results show that decreased LTPA was associated with marriage or remarriage, but divorce and widowhood increased LTPA levels (Brown et al., 2009;Lee et al., 2005).
The focus on older adults may stem from the fact that they typically establish new routines with changes in employment, marital status, and physical conditions, which may alter LTPA levels. Most studies agreed that worsening health and widowhood negatively impacted LTPA participation (Droomers et al., 2001;Sawatzky et al., 2007). However, views on the transition to unemployment varied from each other. Slingerland et al. (2007) reported this transition didn't affect LTPA, Lahti et al. (2011) considered it increased moderate-intensity LTPA, while Lee et al. (2020) argued that it specifically decreased male LTPA participation.
Besides, neighborhood attributes were found to promote or discourage the chance of being active (Giles-Corti & Donovan, 2002;Koohsari et al., 2013;Wang et al., 2016). Accessible activity destinations, convenient walking and cycling infrastructure, and safe environments can encourage LTPA participation (Mota et al., 2007;Pereira et al., 2018;Wang et al., 2016). These factors also deserve more attention when exploring LTPA patterns from a life-course perspective. While life transitions may affect LTPA, simultaneous changes in these factors may also alter one's behavior. Therefore, they may be effective in developing interventions to promote LTPA adoption or prevent LTPA decline during life transitions.
Despite these achievements, there is still room for improvement. First, most previous longitudinal studies only examined one or two life transitions or only investigated possible associations within a short lifetime period. A more comprehensive understanding of LTPA participation affected by multiple life transitions based on long-term longitudinal data is needed. Second, previous studies mainly considered total LTPA as the dependent variable and analyzed LTPA at different intensities such as light, moderate, and vigorous. Little research has differentiated the influences of life transition and other determinants within LTPA types. Finally, time spent on physical activity during nonleisure time (e.g., at work or school) may influence LTPA patterns. For instance, Makinen et al. (2009) suggested that individuals in manual occupations were likely to be inactive during leisure time. Studies that explored the impact of time allocated to other physical activity domains on LTPA participation are lacking.
Motivated by the above discussion, this study aimed to explore the effect of socio-demographics, life transitions, neighborhood characteristics, and time-related factors on habitual LTPA patterns by type over the life course. Specifically, this study focused on three central questions:1) Are there differences in the choice of LTPA types among groups with different characteristics? 2) Do determinants, including sociodemographics, life transitions, neighborhood characteristics, and timerelated factors, affect changes in time allocation decisions for habitual LTPA patterns? 3) How does each determinant work differently for multiple types of leisure-time physical activity participation? Based on retrospective longitudinal data collected online in the Netherlands, this study adopted a multiple discrete-continuous extreme value (MDCEV) model to examine the determinants of the choice of and allocation of time to LTPA types including sports, recreational walking, cycling, and outdoor play (Recreational-WCP), and dog walking. The MDCEV model was developed by Bhat (Bhat, 2005(Bhat, , 2008) and can jointly model people's activity choices (the discrete choice alternatives, the LTPA types) as well as the time invested in each of the chosen activities (the continuous-time allocation decision). The results may expand our understanding of the determinants of LTPA pattern changes from a life-course perspective and help develop effective interventions to promote LTPA participation.

MDCEV model
MDCEV model originates from a utility-theoretic and satiation view of time-use and is increasingly applied to activity-based behavior research (e.g., Paleti et al., 2011;Pinjari et al., 2009;Sener & Bhat, 2012). The model is ideally applicable to this study because it can address the issue of participating in LTPA types, jointly with modelling the weekly participation time of each activity. In this study, LTPA was categorized into three types: (1) Sports, (2) Recreational-WCP, and (3) Dog walking. Without loss of generality, this study also defines another "activities outside LTPA" category with a time allocation computed as the difference between the total hours in a week and the time allocated to LTPA, which constitutes the "outside good" in the MDCEV model system. The "outside good" means a good that is always consumed by all consumers. Here, it refers to activities that people must invest time in, such as working, studying, and sleeping. This section outlines the MDCEV model structure, more details can be found in Bhat's research (Bhat, 2005(Bhat, , 2008. Let k represent the index for the four alternatives. Let t k (k = 1) be the non-zero amount of time invested in the activities outside LTPA and let t k (k = 2,3, or 4) be the time invested in LTPA alternative k. The overall random utility function takes the following form: where, z k is a vector of exogenous determinants (including a constant) specific to alternative k. The determinants of this study were extracted from the literature and initially screened by correlation tests: highly correlated determinants were removed. ε k captures the unobserved characteristics that impact the baseline utility for alternative k. As the baseline preference, the term exp(β′z k +ε k ) represents the random marginal utility for alternative k at the point of zero-time investment for the alternative. It controls the discrete choice participation decision in alternative k. β ′ is a vector of parameters to be estimated, which works as preference weights. α k (α k ≤ 1) is a satiation parameter which reduces the marginal utility with increasing time investment of alternative k. γ k is a translation parameter that allows corner solutions (i.e., no time investment in activity k). It also serves as satiation parameters, but is inversely associated with satiation for alternative k. There is no γ 1 term because all individuals invest some time in activities outside LTPA. Note that the analyst will generally be unable to estimate both α k and γ k for the alternative k (k ≥ 2). Under the restrictions, this study has estimated the following five utility forms suggested by Bhat and selected the one that fits the data best as the final model through Akaike's information criteria (AIC) and Bayesian information criteria (BIC). Eq. (4) is estimable because α is a constant and obtains a "pinning effect" from the satiation parameter for the activities outside LTPA alternative. (2) The individual's maximized random utility U(t) is constrained by the activity time budget that ∑ K k=1 t k = T, where T is the total time available for the individual to participate in the four activities. T for this study equals 168 h, the total number of hours in a week. The optimal time investments t * k (k = 1, 2, …, K) can be found by forming the Lagrangian function and applying the Kuhn-Tucker (KT) conditions. Assuming the error terms ε k (k = 1, 2, …, K) are independent and identically distributed across alternatives with a type-1 extreme value distribution, the probability expression for the time investment in the first M of the K alternatives is: Where The expressions for V in Eq. (7) are as follows for the estimated five utility forms: The parameters can be estimated through a maximum likelihood approach. This study used R software to estimate the model.

Survey design
A web-based retrospective survey developed by the authors was used to collect data for this study. Retrospective surveys are backwarddirectional design and gather information from records or memories. Despite a risk of memory bias, they are reliable for life-course research because evidence has shown that people can always accurately recall the occurrence and timing of important events they experienced (Moschis, 2019). With the advantages of being comparatively inexpensive, less time-consuming, and covering longer time spans, retrospective surveys have become a useful tool for collecting life-course and behavior data (Moschis, 2019). As this study tends to understand habitual LTPA patterns under the influence of major life transitions over the long-term lifespan, the retrospective survey is appropriate.
The survey mainly consists of two sections: life course and physical activity. Questions for each life event in the life-course section first asked respondents to indicate whether they have experienced the event (or their current status) and then, if they have, give a detailed chronological description from birth to today. The investigated life events included changes in marital status, household composition, home location, education, employment, diagnosis of chronic diseases, living arrangements with physically active people, and car ownership. Note that information about neighborhood characteristics was co-recorded with each home location. Respondents were asked to assess neighborhood characteristics on a Likert five-point scale with options including few, below average, the average amount for a typical neighborhood, above average, and a lot. Also, weekly hours spent on active commuting, physical education, and physical activity at work were co-recorded with each educational and working experience. Table 1 includes detailed information on each life-course question.
To measure physical activity, respondents were first asked to indicate whether they have regularly participated (participated in at least once a week and lasted more than half a year) in one or more of the following activities: sports, shopping for daily necessities, shopping for non-daily products, recreational-WCP, dog walking, housework, and gardening. According to the responses, respondents were asked for more details on each activity they regularly participated in, including start time, end time, frequency, and weekly activity hours. Table 1 presents the details of each physical activity question. Since this study focused on LTPA patterns, the further analysis only extracted information on sports, recreational-WCP, and dog walking.
The survey was created and run using Limesurvey, a professional online survey tool. It allows users to design questions and check procedures through programming freely. To minimize the possible bias from memory, the created online survey system contained many errorchecking functions to guarantee consistency in responses. Firstly, the system checked the consistency of the provided current and historical information. Respondents were triggered to check when the events they reported didn't logically lead to their current situation. Secondly, the system checked the temporal logic of life events and behaviors. For example, the system reminded respondents to check when the end time was before the start time. Finally, the system checked the logic of transitions. For instance, if at some stage the respondent reported being single, the next stage should not be single, divorced, or widowed.

Data collection
Data for this study were collected in the Netherlands through a retrospective online survey between September and October 2020. The data collection process was done in collaboration with Panelclix, a national survey company which maintains a representative panel of the Dutch population. Their panelists can be approached specifically (representative and stratified) based on the characteristics they have provided to the survey company. The survey company sends invitations to all the qualifying panelists and closes the survey when the target number is reached. The qualifying panelists of this survey were representative for the Dutch population over the age of 18 years old. A total of 627 panelists completed the survey.

Generate activity episodes for analysis
As this study sought to simultaneously evaluate changes in LTPA patterns (participation in activity types and weekly activity duration) and associated life transitions, which are dynamic and may occur multiple times over the life course, LTPA data were integrated with the lifecourse data. Numerous activity episodes were generated for each respondent for analysis. For each life event, the weekly time investment of each activity when the life event occurred were recorded. Cooccurrence is assumed to indicate that the life transition directly or indirectly triggered the LTPA pattern. Note that the impact of a life transition on LTPA patterns may be delayed, so LTPA data of the new pattern was recorded if LTPA patterns changed within a certain period after the life transition. For baby birth, the period was assumed to be one year, while for others, it was assumed to be six months. Besides, data reflecting changes in LTPA patterns but without the occurrence of a life event were also recorded. In addition to life transitions, data on other determinants were also appended when life events or LTPA patterns changed to compile a comprehensive dataset for modeling. Finally, 8398 activity episodes were generated for analysis.

Exogenous determinants
The exogenous variables considered in the model specification included four types: (1) socio-demographics (age, gender, have a partner, education level, car ownership, have chronic diseases, and live with physically active people), (2) life transitions (marital status change, baby birth, relocation, change schools, stop full-time education, start working, change jobs, and own the first car), (3) neighborhood characteristics (greenspace for walking, cycling facilities, supportive facilities for physical activities, and safety for physical activities), and (4) time-related factors (study-related physical activity time, and workrelated physical activity time). Table 2 presents the distribution of all the explanatory variables considered in the model specification. Effect coding was used to represent all the categorical variables. This coding method represents group membership with dummy variables that take on the values 1, 0, and − 1. Specifically, membership in a particular group is coded 1, non-membership in the group is coded 0, whereas the reference group is coded − 1.
Some annotations on these variables are necessary here. Firstly, Age categories were defined according to the results of the decision tree (Fig. 1). Secondly, judgments of having a partner were derived from respondents' responses to marital status at each life stage, categorizing single, divorced, and widowed as having no partner, and living together, registered partnership, and married as having a partner. This classification was based on the different living arrangement forms in the Netherlands. Thirdly, this study believed that chronic diseases of respondents themselves or having family members with chronic diseases might have different effects on LTPA patterns, so they were included in the analysis separately. Fourthly, neighborhood characteristics were assessed in the survey on a Likert five-point scale but reclassified into three levels based on similarity in response distributions (see Table 2). Cycling facilities referred to the designated spaces and facilities for cyclists like cycle paths and bicycle parking. Supportive facilities for physical activities referred to the designated spaces and facilities like courts, fitness equipment, and playgrounds. Safety for physical activities involves personal perceptions of neighborhood traffic safety, crime risks, and sports injuries. Finally, study and work-related physical activity time, measured in hours per week, was the sum of physical activity time at school (physical education) or at work and active commute time (walking and cycling).

Descriptive statistics of respondents
Demographics of respondents showed that 85% of them regularly participated in at least one LTPA. The percentages of respondents aged 18-29, 30-39, 40-54, and over 55 were 25.8%, 26.3%, 26.5%, and 21.4%, respectively. Males (52.3%) and females (47.7%) were more or less equally represented. About 18.3% of the respondents had a primary or lower education level, 39.2% had a secondary education level, and 42.42% had a higher education level. Based on the Dutch education system, secondary education comprised pre-vocational secondary education (VMBO), senior general secondary education (HAVO), preuniversity education (VWO), secondary vocational education (MBO), and other equivalent education. Higher education comprised higher professional education (HBO-bachelor/master), university education (WO-bachelor/master/doctor), and other equivalent or higher education. Table 3 provides a summary of LTPA participation by type. About 50.7% participated in at least one LTPA type. The highest participation rate was observed in recreational-WCP, and the lowest was in dog walking. The mean duration for sports was the longest, about 3.74h/w.

Descriptive statistics of activity episodes
As shown in Table 2, the age distribution indicated that the under-23 age group had the highest sports participation rate, while the over-23 age group had the highest recreational-WCP participation rate. Males had slightly higher participation rates than females across all LTPA types. Similarly, those who had a partner, owned cars, lived with physically active people, lived in a neighborhood with above-average green spaces, and those whose family members were unhealthy showed higher levels of engagement across all LTPA types. Conversely, people with experienced school changes or cessation of full-time education had lower participation rates across all LTPA types than those without these changes. For the categories of other variables, their performance in terms of participation rates varied by activity type, implying that differences may exist in their effects on different activity types.

Results of the MDCEV model
Results of the model comparison are listed in Table 4. With the lowest AIC and BIC values, the last utility form Eq. (6) provides the best fit and is therefore selected as the final model. Table 5 shows the MDCEV model results, and the following sections offer a detailed discussion of the findings. The outside good, activities outside LTPA, serves as the base alternative in the model estimation. The estimates presented in the table refer to the β vector in Eq. (6).

Socio-demographics
Age, education level and having chronic diseases (self) have significant effects on all LTPAs, but the effect varies by type. Specifically, results show an increased likelihood of dog walking with age and reveal that people at 7-23 years are more likely to engage in sports, while those over 23 years are more likely to engage in recreational-WCP. It is consistent with the Sport and Exercise Behavior Report (Duijvestijn et al., 2021), indicating most Dutch people discontinued weekly sports at 17-18 years old.
Additionally, people with higher education are most likely to do sports, followed by recreational-WCP, but are less likely to walk dogs. Those with a secondary education are more likely to participate in recreational-WCP and dog walking but are less likely to play sports. And lower educated people are most likely to walk dogs but less likely to engage in the other LTPA types. This result may be related to occupation. Previous studies have proven that occupational categories are directly associated with LTPA, with white-collar showing the higher LTPA levels compared to blue-collar workers (Kirk & Rhodes, 2011).
The estimated parameters of having chronic diseases (self) display that people with the illness are more likely to be active in recreational-WCP, and dog walking but less likely to play sports. Regular participation in LTPA could help people with chronic illnesses recover (Lahti et al., 2014;Raza et al., 2020). Due to physical constraints, high-intensity sports may not be good options for the patients, and moderate-or light-intensity LTPAs like recreational walking, cycling, and outdoor play are more appropriate.
Regarding other social-demographic variables, gender and having a partner only significantly affect sports participation, i.e., males and those without a partner are more likely to play sports. Owning a car is positively associated with participating in sports and dog walking, which may be related to good economic conditions. As expected, people who live with physically active people or whose family members have chronic diseases are more likely to engage in sports and recreational-WCP. It reflects that social support from peers and family, increased health concerns, and improved awareness of LTPA benefits may play an important role in LTPA participation.

Life transitions
All life transition variables show significant results for all LTPA types, albeit the estimated parameters are negative. It suggests that people are less likely to participate in LTPAs when an event occurs. It is consistent with previous studies discussed in the Introduction. Nevertheless, the estimates still illustrate the differential impact of various life transitions on LTPA patterns. The impact of school changes is special. Its estimates for LTPA types, in descending order, are 1) sports, 2) recreational-WCP, and 3) dog walking. But for other life transition variables, the estimates, in descending order, are 1) recreational-WCP, 2) sports, and 3) dog walking. That is, people are more likely to play   Table 5 The results of MDCEV model estimation. − 7.836e+00 0.000*** − 7.524e+00 0.000*** − 1.060e+01 0.000*** --Translation parameters-γ k 2.324e+00 0.000*** 1.161e+00 0.000*** 1.298e+00 0.000*** --Significance codes: p < 0.001***; p < 0.01**; p < 0.05. sports when transferring schools but are more likely to be active in recreational-WCP when other life events occur. It fits the estimates of age. School transfers mostly occur in the 7-23 age group and are more likely to participate in sports than other LTPA types. While other life transitions primarily occur in the over-23 age group, who are more likely to engage in recreational-WCP. Moreover, attention should be paid to the association between life transitions and each LTPA type. Estimates provide that changing marital status, beginning to work, and changing schools rank in the top three for the likelihood of sports engagement, with the last being a baby birth. As for recreational-WCP, changing jobs, changing marital status, and having a baby are the top three most likely to be involved, and changing schools is the last. Regarding dog walking, the top three life events are changing jobs, changing marital status, and stopping full-time education, and the last one is owning the first car.
According to the results, changes in marital status are important for participation in all three types of LTPA. This may imply the importance of social support from family members. Changes in marital status are always accompanied by changes in family structure, and previous research has documented that people are more likely to actively engage in LTPA under the influence of physically active significant others (Marquez & McAuley, 2006;Orsega-Smith et al., 2007). Additional significant life transitions are work-related, with people more likely to play sports when they start working and to participate in the other two LTPAs when they change jobs. The differences found may be related to age. Most people start working before the age of 23, in this age category people are more likely to play sports. While job changes typically occur after age 23 when people are more likely to engage in the other two LTPA types. Work-related events may contribute to LTPA engagement for several reasons, such as improved economic conditions, increased recreational time, more physically active workplaces and surroundings, etc.

Neighborhood characteristics
With positive estimated values, greenspace for walking is significant for participation in LTPA types except for sports. That is, neighborhoods with plenty of walkable greenspaces are more supportive of people walking, cycling, and playing for recreation and walking their dogs than neighborhoods with insufficient walkable greenspaces. It's not surprising as greenspace is where these activities in general take place. Abundant greenspace means high accessibility, providing more opportunities for people to participate in these activities.
Cycling facilities are the only neighborhood characteristic significant to all the LTPA types. People living in neighborhoods with average or above-average cycling facilities have a higher probability of sporting and walking, cycling, and playing outside for pleasure but a lower probability of walking their dogs than in neighborhoods with belowaverage facilities. Besides, residents in neighborhoods with extensive cycling facilities are most likely to participate in recreational-WCP. In the Netherlands, cycling is not only a mode for daily travel but also a popular for sport and entertainment. If the neighborhood bicycle facilities are adequate, people may increase their use of bicycles. On the one hand, it naturally raises their opportunities of choosing cycling as a sport or recreational activity. On the other hand, it allows easy access to sports venues, thereby increasing the possibilities of sporting.
Supportive facilities for physical activities are significant to dog walking and recreational-WCP. Neighborhoods with lots of physical activity facilities are most likely to promote dog walking. While recreational-WCP are estimated to be most likely to occur among residents of neighborhoods with average or above-average physical activity facilities, followed by below-average neighborhoods, but are least likely to occur in neighborhoods with lots of physical activity facilities. One possible explanation is that numerous facilities for physical activities can enrich residents' activity forms, and recreational-WCP may not be their first choice.
Regarding safety for physical activity, people in above-average neighborhoods are more likely to engage in recreational-WCP but less likely to walk their dogs than those in average or below-average scoring neighborhoods. It may be explained by people's instinctive response to risk aversion, i.e., safety concerns may reduce people's interest in going out for leisure. As for dog walking, it may be related to the demographics of different neighborhoods. As discussed earlier, lower educated people are more likely to walk their dogs, and such population group is more likely to live in average or below-average safe neighborhoods. Of course, it could also be due to relatively small sample size for dog walking (see Table 3).

Time-related factors
The study-related physical activity time variable showed that students are more likely to play sports when they spend more than 2.5h/w on physical education and active commuting and more likely to walk their dogs when they spend less than 2.5h/w. One explanation is that students with longer durations of study-related physical activity are usually in primary or secondary schools. At that time, there is not much pressure to study, and students can devote more time to leisure activities like sports. Another explanation is that students with longer durations of study-related physical activity are inherently more enthusiastic about sports and are willing to invest more time in them.
Estimated results of work-related physical activity time highlight its role in sports participation. People are more likely to do sports when they spend less than 2.5h/w of physical activity during work and active commuting but less likely to do sports when they spend more than 5h/w. It may be occupation related. Kirk and Rhodes (2011) pointed out that blue-collar workers, who require more physical effort at work, tend to be less active in LTPAs. Also, it may be associated with remaining leisure time. People with lots of commuting time may have little leisure time.

Translation parameters
The final row of Table 5 provides the estimated values of the translation parameters γ k and the corresponding p-values. Serving as satiation parameters, γ k (k = 2, 3, or 4) influences the time investment in each LTPA. According to Bhat (2005Bhat ( , 2008, a value of γ k closer to zero for alternative k implies higher satiation (or lower time investment), while a high value implies lower satiation (or higher time investment). As shown, the γ k results of this study are significantly different from 0, thereby reflecting different levels of satiation effects based on LTPA types. A high satiation effect (low duration) is observed in recreational-WCP, whereas a low satiation effect (high duration) is observed in sports. The satiation effect for dog walking is somewhere in between, closer to recreational-WCP.

Conclusions and discussion
This study applied an MDCEV model to jointly analyze the determinants of habitual participation in and time allocation to multiple LTPA types over the life course. This modelling system considered a comprehensive set of sociodemographic variables, life transitions, neighborhood characteristics, and time-related factors as potential determinants of habitual LTPA behavior. LTPA behavior is explored by activity type: sports, recreational-WCP, and dog walking, with durations measured in hours per week. Data was collected among a panel of 627 adult panelists in the Netherlands through an online retrospective survey. The model estimation findings expand our understanding of the determinants of each LTPA type from a life-trajectory perspective and can help to develop effective interventions to promote LTPA participation during life transitions.
This study provides several insights. Firstly, the influence of sociodemographic characteristics varies between LTPA types. All eight sociodemographic characteristics are relevant to sports participation. Sportive individuals are more likely to have one or more of the following characteristics: 7-23 years old, male, unpartnered, highly educated, owning a car, in good health, having family members with a chronic disease, living with physically active people. Five sociodemographic characteristics are associated with a greater likelihood of participation in recreational-WCP. These characteristics include being over 23 years old, having secondary or tertiary education, being chronically ill, having a family member with chronic diseases, and living with physically active people. Additionally, four characteristics affect dog walking. Individuals who are more than age 7, lowly educated, car owners, or chronically ill are more likely to walk their dogs.
Secondly, life transitions negatively affect all LTPA types, suggesting that people are less likely to keep on being engaged in LTPA when life transitions occur. Hence, interventions should be tailored to prevent declines in LTPA participation. According to the outcome comparisons for life transition variables, individuals are more likely to engage in recreational-WCP when life transitions occur. However, school transfers are an exception. When transfers occur, people are more likely to participate in sports. For different LTPA types, the impact of life transitions manifests differently. Changing marital status and work-related transitions appear important events for all LTPA types, as people are more likely to be involved when these events occur than when other transitions occur. Besides, changing schools is another major event that affects sports participation. Having children is also an especially significant event for recreational-WCP. While stopping full-time education is another particular event for dog walking.
Thirdly, neighborhood characteristics have a greater impact on recreational-WCP, and dog walking but less on sports. Specifically, physical activity-friendly neighborhoods are characterized by plenty of green spaces, lots of cycling facilities, average or above-average physical activity facilities, and high safety, and positively impact participation in recreational-WCP. Sports participation seems only affected by cycling facilities. People living in neighborhoods with average or above-average cycling facilities are more likely to play sports. Regarding dog walking, green spaces for walking and physical activity facilities appear to have positive effects, while cycling facilities and safety appear to have negative effects.
Finally, results of study-related physical activity time suggest that students are more likely to do sports when spending more than 2.5 h/w on physical education and active commuting. When spending less than 2.5h/w, they are more likely to walk their dogs. Additionally, workrelated physical activity time only has a significant effect on sports participation. People are more likely to sport when spending less than 2.5h/w on physical activity during work and active commuting.
Note that this study has some limitations. One limitation is related to dog walking. Some results in this study of dog walking were a bit unexpected. These results may be correct or biased due to the small sample size. Further studies are needed to provide more evidence. Another limitation is about data collection. This study collected self-reported lifecourse data through a retrospective questionnaire. Such data may be somewhat limited due to recall errors or individual desirability. Although these possible biases have been minimized, risks are unavoidable. Despite these limitations, this study has displayed a more comprehensive and specific understanding of the determinants of different LTPA types from a life-course perspective. It can help architects, urban planners, sociologists, and public health practitioners to create a more supportive social and physical environment to promote healthy living.

Ethics approval
This research was approved by the Ethical Review Board of the TU/e (Reference ERB2019BE2).

Declaration of competing interest
None.

Data availability
The data that has been used is confidential.