The impact of learning strategies on the academic achievement of university students in Saudi Arabia

Purpose – This study aimed to investigate the learning strategies adopted by Saudi university students and explore the differences in the use of learning strategies due to gender and academic achievement. Design/methodology/approach – The study utilized a cross-sectional descriptive analytic approach and adoptedthe brief “ ACRA-C ” learningstrategiesscale.Thestudysampleconsistedof365 studentsenrolledata Saudi university selected using the random clustering technique. Findings – The study revealed that microstrategies and study habits are the most preferred strategies by Saudi university students. Statistically significant differences in the use of learning strategies were found betweenmaleandfemalestudentsinfavorofthefemalestudents.Thestudyalsofoundthatlearningstrategiesareasignificantpredictorofstudents ’ academic achievement. Research limitations/implications – The study was limited to one college in one Saudi university. Future studies should use larger samples from different colleges and universities in Saudi Arabia and incorporate a variety of measures of academic achievement, such as students ’ grades in specific courses rather than the overall grade average. Originality/value – While there are a number of studies that investigated the use of learning strategies by students, there is a lack of such research in the higher education context of Saudi Arabia. Hence, the current study contributes to closing this gap in the literature by looking at the use of learning strategies by university students in Saudi Arabia and the relationship between strategy use, gender and academic achievement.

Introduction
Traditional rote-learning memorization has been the dominant learning strategy by students in educational institutions in the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia (KSA). This emphasis on rote memorization is responsible to a great degree for Saudi students being passive recipients of information in the classroom (Al-Seghayer, 2021;Pordanjani & Guntur, 2019;Kim & Alghamdi, 2019).
Recently, in KSA, there has been substantial interest in raising students' awareness of learning strategies in an effort to increase the quality of learning in educational institutions and satisfy preestablished global performance standards, such as the KSA national accreditation requirements established by the National Commission of Academic Accreditation and Assessment (NCAAA). The accreditation certificate is a significant LTHE 18,1 4 indicator of educational quality, and it assesses four aspects of the educational system: curriculum, instructors, teaching strategies and students. In terms of the student indicators, performance is the first measurement of learning quality (Vermunt & Vermunt, 2017), while learning is measured through attainment or accumulative achievements, such as exam results. Ali, Medhekar and Rattanawiboonsom (2017) argued that student achievement in a higher education institution can be improved through several critical factors namely, the quality of the staff, the inclusion of information technology and appropriate learning strategies. Thus, a number of local studies have investigated the role and impact of instructors in promoting student achievement and learning. For example, Bashir, Lockheed, Ninan and Tan (2018) asserted that pedagogical practice and instructor knowledge play a critical role in increasing student learning. Similarly, Buchori, Setyosari, Dasna, Degeng and Sa'dijah (2017) established that instructors' strategies and techniques determine students' roles, activities and achievement in the learning process and likewise foster students' responsibility for their learning. Other studies investigated learning strategies which can help students acquire information and take an active role in the learning process (e.g. McMullen, 2009;Shehzad, Razzaq, Dahri, & Shah, 2019).
Research on learning strategies has shown that students may adopt more than one learning strategy since the different academic tasks and their nature require different processing strategies, which range from simple to more complex strategies. Some studies established that the learning strategies could be a good predictor of academic achievement (e.g. Pennequin, Sorel, Nanty, & Fontaine, 2010;Muelas & Navarro, 2015;Pinto, Bigozzi, Vettori, & Vezzani, 2018;Tan, 2019), while others found that the relationship between learning strategies and academic achievement was negative such as in Vettori, Vezzani, Bigozzi and Pinto (2020). Furthermore, a few studies did not find any association between learning strategies and student performance (see Tariq et al., 2016). In their study, Chiu, Chow and Mcbride-Chang (2007) found that different contextual factors such as the economic and cultural background of the students may substantially affect the association between learning strategies and academic achievement.
Despite the extended research conducted investigating the relationship between the use of learning strategies and student academic performance, there is lack of evidence on the use of learning strategies by Saudi students. Therefore, this study explores the learning strategies adopted by Saudi university students in the education process in light of the country's efforts to raise the quality of teaching and learning in its educational institutions.

Literature review
Learning strategies are defined as a set of approaches that learners use to acquire information and knowledge, such as taking notes, organizing information, summarizing and coding (Muelas & Navarro, 2015). There is a difference between learning style and learning strategies. Learning style is used to describe the information processing routines associated with students' personalities, whereas learning strategies refer to students' learning approaches in specific learning activities and learning situations (Curry, 1990;Li, Medwell, Wray, Wang, & Xiaojing, 2016).
Effective learning strategies refer to techniques and approaches learners use to achieve the acquisition, storage, retention, recall and adoption of knowledge. Cognitive learning theories consider learners as primary participants in the education process in which their role goes beyond passively acquiring information to being active participants. Consequently, students not only receive information and knowledge but also perform mental activities to process and adopt information effectively (Shi, 2017). Accordingly, learners have a wide range of sources and are free to select their learning strategies, direct their learning process Learning strategies and academic performance and control their tendencies and emotions to serve their learning objectives (D ıaz, Zapata, Diaz, Arroyo, & Fuentes, 2019).
Academics claim that students are not well prepared to meet higher education requirements, and they face huge challenges in being self-regulated students (Ros ario et al., 2015). The study by Tomar and Jindal (2014) described seven effective learning strategies as follows: (1) Determine the information that is most significant by extracting keywords, ideas and models.
(2) Make notes that are more frequently used within classroom time, which help students to recall the information mentioned by the lecturer.
(3) Retrieve relevant information associated with the constructivist learning approach, which relies on making associations among prior information and newly acquired information.
(4) Organize the content and material using the specific plan and obvious objectives previously formulated by learners.
(5) Elaborate on the content of the material and course sources, extract conclusions and extrapolate the information.
(6) Summarize the information into general ideas and concepts and determine the more important relationships and conceptual definitions.
(7) Monitor their memorization and comprehension periodically to ensure their understanding and their knowledge.
Similarly, the study of Montero and Arizmendiarrieta (2017) explicated 10 learning strategies consisting of elaboration, time and effort, perseverance, organization, classmates' support, metacognition, self-questioning, the study environment, repetition and instructors' help. Furthermore, Juste and L opez (2010) identified seven learning strategies that include the planning and reinforcement of self-esteem, classification, problem-solving, repetition, cooperation, deduction and inference, and prediction and assessment. Apart from identifying specific strategies, Muelas and Navarro (2015) classified strategies into four main categories (i.e. information acquisition strategies, information coding strategies, information retrieval strategies and processing support strategies), while Vega-Hern andez, Patino-Alonso, Cabello, Galindo-Villard on and Fern andez-Berrocal (2017) identified three main categories of learning strategies: cognitive and learning control strategies, learning support strategies and study habits. Further studies have attempted the classification of learning strategies into micro and macrostrategies (Jim enez, Garc ıa, L opez-Cepero, & Saavedr, 2017). Planning and self-regulation are the main pillars of macrostrategies while summarizing and highlighting information are related to tasks and situations that are present in microstrategies. According to Nikou and Economides (2019), homework is one of the main examples of a microlearning strategy, and this explains why microstrategies are often used among students. Microlearning delivers learning through small and short units within short, focused activities. In microlearning, students summarize and highlight content to obtain smaller units, such as definitions, formulas and brief paragraphs. Conversely, the concept of macrostrategies is seen as a set of approaches encompassing monitoring, revising, checking and self-assessment. Macrostrategies are more general and developmental, and they cannot be directly defined.
Another classification associated with the use of learning strategies was proposed by Ros ario et al. (2015) who stated that students have to be self-regulated to control their learning and effectively implement learning strategies. Therefore, students must acquire three types LTHE 18,1 of knowledge: declarative, procedural and conditional knowledge. Declarative knowledge includes information about various learning strategies. Procedural knowledge includes knowing the appropriate way to apply the different learning strategies. Finally, conditional knowledge identifies the proper context to implement a specific learning strategy.
In addition to identifying and classifying the different learning strategies that students employ, a number of studies were carried out to examine the different preferences among students when adopting learning strategies. Vega-Hern andez et al. (2017) explored the differences in learning strategy utilization among students according to gender and age and found that male students preferred learning support strategies and study habits, while female students used cognitive and learning control strategies more frequently. D ıaz et al. (2019) also revealed that studying in a group, learning through graphic expression and focusing on information synthesis are most commonly used by university students. In a recent study, Tan (2019) found that students rarely used surface or strategic learning strategies, while they frequently used deep learning strategies, but at a moderate level, thus exhibiting less interest in reading and solving word and numeric problems in math.
The subject area has also been found to have an effect on the use of learning strategies. For example, Muelas and Navarro (2015) investigated student strategy use in three main subject areas: language, math and social sciences. In the language subject, the information coding and information recovery strategies were found to be the most significantly related to higher achievement. The coding strategy was the only strategy that had a significant correlation with higher achievement in math and social science subjects. Muelas and Navarro (2015) argued that teaching learning strategies can be a remedial solution for low student achievement, and they illustrated how to exploit brain competencies through learning strategies to improve academic achievement.
Apart from academic achievement, studies have also looked at other psychological aspects in the context of effective use of learning strategies. For example, Tan (2019) concluded that the use of learning strategies has a moderating effect on the relationship between self-concept and problem-solving skills in students studying mathematics. Similarly, Montero and Arizmendiarrieta (2017) found that remedial interventions in enhancing the use of learning strategies improved student motivation and learning beliefs. Vega-Hern andez et al. (2017) also found the use of learning strategies had a positive relationship with perceived emotional intelligence (repair, attention and clarity).
While there are a number of studies that investigated different aspects of the use of learning strategies by university students, there is a lack of such research in the higher education context of Saudi Arabia. Hence, the current study contributes to closing this gap in the literature by looking at the use of learning strategies by Saudi university students and the relationship between strategy use and academic achievement. The research question that guided the present study was: "What is the impact of learning strategies on the academic achievement of Saudi university students?" The study further explored whether gender makes any difference in the selection and use of learning strategies.

Methodology
The study adopted a cross-sectional descriptive analytic approach and applied a quantitative method using a scale as a data collection tool. The study intended to examine the adopted learning strategies among students regardless of whether they had a good basic knowledge of learning strategies (i.e. used the learning strategies intentionally or not).

Participants
The study population comprised all students enrolled in the College of Education at a university in Saudi Arabia. First, the participants of the study were selected using the Learning strategies and academic performance clustering technique. Four degree programs were identified: Diploma, Bachelor, Master and Doctorate. Then, the participants from each degree program were selected using the stratified random technique to include a variety of the population in the sample. The study selected students enrolled in the College of Education to avoid differences in the use of learning strategies due to the subject area. Thus, the target population consisted of 2,870 female students and 999 male students according to the admission and registration department of the university. The study sample consisted of 365 students, which means that the results can be generalized to all students enrolling in the College of Education at the target university (see Krejcie & Morgan, 1970). Table 1 shows that the gender distribution of the sample was balanced (49% female and 51% male). The majority of the participants were enrolled in a bachelor's degree program (81.9%). Participants' grade point average (GPA) varied: 44.9% had very good grades, 34.5% had good grades, 18.9% had excellent grades and 1.6% had passing grades. Participants were mainly in their final year (54.8%) and third year (25%).

Data collection instrument
The study adopted the higher education version of the brief "ACRA-C" learning strategies scale by Jim enez et al. (2017) (see Appendix 1). The scale assesses the strategies used by students during the learning process in the university. The original ACRA-C scale was adapted to the study context and the scale used in the study comprised 22 items (17 items for learning strategies and 5 items for learning habits). Participants were asked to evaluate each item using a four-point Likert scale according to the knowledge process (from 1 5 Never use to 4 5 Always use). The knowledge process is anchored mainly on the following strategies: cognitive and learning control strategies, learning support strategies and study habits. The 22 items were further organized into four main categories: microstrategies (Items 1-5), keys of memory and metacognition (Items 6-10), emotional-social support (Items 11-17) and study habits . Microstrategies are strategies that control leaning (e.g. "I make summaries after underlining"). Keys of memory and metacognition referred to the ability to self-regulate the learning process (e.g. "It helps me if I recall events or anecdotes to remember"). Emotional-social support referred to the personal motivational aspects and learning support from surroundings (e.g. "I study hard to feel proud of myself" The instrument was translated into Arabic prior to distribution to the sample. In order to ensure that the respondents understood the questions, the instrument was presented to a panel of academics in the field to ensure the translated scale was linguistically and culturally valid. Also, the scale was presented to five students who were from the study population but were not included in the study sample to ensure that they comprehended the items fully. Furthermore, the reliability and validity of the scale were measured. The reliability was measured using a split half (Guttman coefficient 5 0.657) and Cronbach's alpha for each dimension and the total scale ranged from 0.658 to 0.777, representing an acceptable level of internal consistency (see Table 2). Furthermore, the total score of the instrument was 0.726, indicating good consistency.
To test the validity of the instrument, exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was conducted. According to the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) test, the sample was adequate to run the EFA test (KMO 5 0.707; Bartlett's sphericity p 5 0.000). The results found that the variance (eigenvalues) of the instrument's items ranged from 1 to 3.39, and the commonalities of all items were higher than 0.4. The results showed that four factors can be retained by eliminating items that are not saturated by any factor (<0.4), as shown in Table 3. The instrument is divided into four main dimensions: microstrategies, keys of memory and metacognition, emotional support and study habits. The EFA results are similar to the results obtained by Jim enez et al. (2017). Therefore, the factors were named the same as those in Jim enez et al. (2017): microstrategies, keys of memory and metacognitive strategies, socialemotional supports and study habits.

Data analysis
The variance of the learning strategies among participants due to gender and GPA was investigated using covariance tests such as the t-test. Then, the combination of bivariate correlation and regression tests was used to investigate the impact of learning strategies on the students' performance.

Results
The central tendency and dispersion of participants' responses were measured for each dimension, as shown in Table 4. Participants reported frequent use of all learning strategies in their learning and a preference for microstrategies and study habits compared to the rest of the learning strategies. The kurtosis values for all dimensions excluding "study habits" were positive, which show peaked distributions, while "study habits" showed a flatter distribution.
Furthermore, the study investigated the differences in the use of learning strategies using academic achievement and gender as the predictors. The results are shown in Table 6. There was no difference in the learning strategies among students who achieved "passing" grades. However, in students with "good," "very good" or "excellent" grades, there were significant differences found in the use of learning strategies in favor of the female students. According to Table 6, female students who achieved "very good" grades showed higher overall use of learning strategies than males with the exception of "emotional-social support." However, females who achieved "excellent" grades surpassed the males even in "emotionalsocial support" along with "study habits" and the overall use of learning strategies, while there was no difference between the genders in "microstrategies" and "keys of memory and metacognition" in this GPA group. Table 7 shows the results of the linear regression test seeking to discover the impact of learning strategies on student achievement. According to the results, there is a positive relationship between the use of learning strategies and student achievement, where learning strategies can explain 8% of the variance in student achievement. In addition, the learning strategies were statistically significant in predicting student achievement (F (1, 363) 5 34.816, p < 0.05).
Moreover, a multiple regression test was conducted to investigate the source of the impact of various learning strategies on students' achievement. To conduct a multiple linear regression, multicollinearity has to be checked first. In this study, all variance inflation factors (VIFs) were less than 3, which means that there was no multicollinearity between the learning strategy dimensions, while linearity between the learning strategy dimensions and students' achievement was diagnosed. Another assumption that had to be examined before conducting a multiple linear regression was the normality of the residuals using the Q-Q plot, as shown in Figure 1 in which all data points are so close to the diagonal line; thus, they are normally distributed.
As can be seen in Table 8, the overall model (microstrategies, keys of memory and metacognition, emotional-social support and study habits) was a significant predictor of student achievement (F(4, 360) 5 10.167, p < 0.01), where the model explained 10% of the variance in academic achievement and had an appositive mild correlation (R 5 0.31). The significant contributors of the model were microstrategies (β 5 0.138, p 5 0.013 < 0.05) and keys of memory and metacognition (β 5 0.196, p 5 0.001 < 0.01). These two categories were the main sources of the effects on student achievement.

Discussion
The present study utilized a scale to examine Saudi students' use of learning strategies and the extent to which strategy use is related to academic achievement and gender. The results presented a high preference for microstrategies by students. This can be explained by the fact LTHE 18,1 that in Saudi universities, students are encouraged to use microstrategies like summarizing and highlighting information rather than macrostrategies such as self-regulated learning and planning for learning (see Alhaisoni, 2012;Al-Otaibi, 2004). In the majority of the lectures delivered in Saudi universities, students are only passive recipients of information, summarizing and highlighting what the instructor disclosed during the lecture, using a specific textbook for reference (Al-Seghayer, 2021;Pordanjani & Guntur, 2019;Kim & Alghamdi, 2019). This contradicts the results for university students in Lima in D ıaz et al.
(2019) where students preferred metacognitive strategies and information processing strategies. Study habits which ranked second in this study explained the high level of selfregulation that Saudi students have to control their learning, and this is aligned with the higher education norms in Saudi Arabia, which use mostly a student-centered curriculum. Therefore, students have to assume responsibility for their learning. Accordingly, students always seek summaries and short focus activities to help them acquire information. Nevertheless, the descriptive data also referred to a lack of emotional-social support to students. This could be attributed to the poor educational content, which does not meet students' interests or their educational needs (Alenezi, 2020;Khan, 2019).
The results of the study further revealed differences in the frequency of using the various learning strategies, and the overall academic achievement, with female Saudi students   showing a higher use of learning strategies. Previous studies in other parts of the world have also shown that female students have a higher level of competence and willingness to perform better in their academic programs (DiPrete & Buchmann, 2013;Tariq et al., 2016;Quadlin, 2018). This result is also in agreement with the results obtained by Vega-Hern andez et al. (2017). Furthermore, female students with "good," "very good" or "excellent" grades showed significant differences in their use of learning strategies compared to male students. However, this was not the case when comparing male and female students with low grade achievement. This makes sense since these students are not successful learners and they therefore do not use learning strategies that much regardless of their gender. In the case of the highest GPA students, there was no difference in all learning strategies except in the emotional-social support category with female students outperforming the male students. These students are highly motivated and competitive with females being extra determined to prove themselves in a patriarchal and male dominated society making the emotional-social support strategies all the more important. These results taken together show that learning strategies have a significant effect on students' academic achievement and they have clear implications for faculty in Saudi universities who have to use numerous and various teaching strategies to induce students' use of appropriate learning strategies especially among the weaker students. Ali et al. (2017) reported that both the quality of the staff and appropriate teaching and learning methods are factors that affect student learning at university. The findings of the current study contribute valuable insight into how faculty in Saudi universities may help develop students' use of appropriate learning strategies.
Finding differences in the use of learning strategies between male and female students of varying GPA levels encourages further investigation of the association between learning strategies use and students' academic performance. In this study, learning strategies explained 8% of the variance in student achievement. The microstrategies and keys of memory and metacognition were the main sources of the effects on student achievement, which means that only these two main strategies statistically significantly predicted the achievement. In addition, the overall model used in this study (microstrategies, keys of memory and metacognition, emotional-social support and study habits) was a significant predictor of student achievement, in which the model explained 10% of the variance in academic achievement. This is in agreement with other empirical studies that support the positive relationship between the use of learning strategies and academic achievement (Pennequin et al., 2010;Pinto et al., 2018). Furthermore, the evidence presented in this study contradicts studies that refuted any association between learning strategies and student achievement or performance (such as Tariq et al., 2016).
Succinctly, the results revealed that there is a positive relationship between learning strategies and student achievement with the frequency of use of learning strategies significantly predicting the academic achievement of students. Furthermore, Saudi female students were found more eager to use learning strategies than male students, especially in higher GPA levels.

Conclusion
The study assessed the impact of Saudi university students' use of learning strategies on their academic achievement. The study adopted the higher education version of the brief "ACRA-C" learning strategies developed by Jim enez et al. (2017) and divided learning strategies into four main categories: microstrategies, keys of memory and metacognition, emotional-social support and study habits. A total of 365 female and male university students at a College of Education participated in the study. Results showed statistically significant differences in the use of learning strategies due to gender in favor of the female students, which implies that male students have to improve their use of learning strategies and study habits. The study also found that the use of learning strategies significantly predicted student achievement, particularly the microstrategies and keys of memory and metacognition. This implies that students have to pay more attention to the use of these learning strategies if they are to enhance their academic performance.
Based on the study results, it is recommended that training programs on learning strategies be introduced to enrich Saudi students' knowledge and utilization of learning strategies. Also, the training program has to consider the students' gender and their academic level. Furthermore, students have to grasp the significance of the learning strategies as a facilitating tool to increase their academic achievement.
While the study made a valuable contribution, it was limited to one college in one Saudi university. Future studies should use larger samples from different colleges and universities in Saudi Arabia and incorporate a variety of measures of academic achievement, such as students' grades in specific courses rather than the overall grade average. Despite its limitations, the current study contributed to the field of learning strategy use and filled a gap in the literature by shedding light on the Saudi Arabian context. By examining the relationship between strategy use, academic achievement and gender, it makes an important contribution to Saudi higher education and provides a map to help improve the quality of higher education and student achievement in university.


s2fieldsofstudy: Education Psychology

text:
Partnership between Chinese Dance Sport Couples: A Consensual Qualitative Research Analysis

The aim of our study was to explore the conceptions related to partnership between dance sport couples. We conducted in-depth interviews with 20 registered athletes of the Chinese Dance Sports Federation (CDSF) about partnership between dance couples, using the Consensual Qualitative Research (CQR) method. Results revealed that partnership tended to stem from seven domains: (1) mutual understanding, (2) instant intimacy, (3) long-term affection, (4) obligational ties, (5) instrumental ties, (6) tacit factors, and (7) mutual self-disclosure. Each domain included several categories of core ideas, most of which were general and typical across the respondents. The general and most typical core ideas were related to mutual understanding in all aspects (17T), pleasure (18T), sense of substitution (15T), intimacy (20G), harmony (20G), mutual help (20G), mutual tolerance (20G), mutual attraction (15T), responsibility (20G), training plan (12T), consistent goals (20G), skills improvement (20G), image matching (16T), mutual self-disclosure (18T), which suggested a general belief in the equity perspective regarding partnership between Chinese dance sport couples. Future studies need to examine diverse samples of athlete–athlete dyads to advance interpersonal theory in sports and add to emerging theories of performance behavior and expertise in sport.

Introduction
Starting out as one of the social graces expected of the European upper classes, "dance sport" (also called ballroom dance/competitive dancing), deriving from the Latin balare (to dance), is now an umbrella term for a style of lead and follow based snobbish and elite partner dancing [1]. As an extremely complex sports discipline [2], dance sport contains ten kinds of dances, namely Cha Cha, Samba, Rumba, Paso Doble, Jive, Waltz, Tango, Viennese Waltz, Foxtrot, and Quickstep. In addition, dance sport is danced both competitively and socially [3], from where there is a phenomenon of "feeling your partner" [4].
Dance sport requires the partners to follow the rhythm of the music and compete with multiple pairs of contestants to show the beauty of sports [5], so the overwhelmingly dominant aesthetic of partner dancing (and especially ballroom) is the pairing cooperation of male and female [3,6]. For the dancers, besides the great amount of practice (diligence and endurance) and a high level of technical expertise (for which a good trainer is important), the partner is vital. Good cooperation with that partner is of decisive importance for effective competition [7], which is supported by scholars from many countries [6,7]. Chinese scholars even argue that partnership is an essential characteristic of sports dance that distinguishes it from other sports [2,3]. Therefore, the amount of hours of ballroom coaching go into trying to depict the performing "male/female relationship" between partners [3], which is supported by the dyadic partnership between them. However, at present, few studies have explored the conceptions of partnership based on the characteristics of dance sport and cultural characteristics, which is happening in the context that athlete-athlete partnerships in dyadic sports, has been overlooked [8].
The current research explores conceptions of partnership between Chinese dance sport couples. Athlete-athlete partnership is a form of athletic dyad in which both members equally share power and responsibility [8,9]. The expressive ties and obligation ties between dance couples differentiate them from partnership in other dyadic sports. As a discipline based on romantic fantasy, dance sport expresses emotions openly [10], shows the body interaction between dance partners, and highlights the intimate relationship between men and women [11].

The Concept of Dance Sport Partnership
The partnership between a dance sport couple is hard to define, for the reason that it is a very close relationship, both on the physical level, as mentioned earlier, and on a personal level, having the harmonious characteristics typical of a work environment. The areas of professional interaction and personal life between dance partners are highly integrated-dance partners define each other as best friends, many of them are even life partners. Even so, some scholars try hard to explore the concept of partnership between dancesport couples.
Search terms included "competitive dancing" or "sports dance/dancing" or "sport dance/dancing" or "dance sport/dancing" or "latin dance" or "American latin dance/dancing" or "standard dance/dangcing" or "ballroom dance/dancing" or "athletics performance" or "partner relationship" or "dance sport partnership" or "dance sport and couple" or "dance sport and dyad" or "coach-athete relationship" or "intimate relationship" or "cпopтивнoбaльныx тaнцax (ballroom dancing)" or "El Baile Deportivo (dance sport)" or "partnership" et al. As the theme word, we searched for literature in Google scholar, EBSCO, Web of science, Proquest, Riss and other databases, finding researchers in just 16 countries (Spain, India, South Korea, Hungary, the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom, Romania, France, Germany, Slovenia, Switzerland, Lithuania, Poland, Israel, and China) have conducted researches on dance sport partnership. Among them, only Korean scholars extracted the dimension of partnership and developed corresponding evaluation tools [12,13].
Based on grounded theory and a survey of 389 Korean sport dancers, Myung, Je-Min. Kwak, Sung-Hee, and Seong Chang-Hoon first noted that partnership between dance sport couples is "a bilateral relationship based on mutual trust, shared benefits and risks between athletes, and equal responsibility for performance", and distilled its five dimensions, namely partner care, partner harmony, reciprocal endeavor, perfect rhythm, and economic environment. Partner care means being patient and considerate with your partner and trying not to feel uncomfortable when you are together. Partner harmony means understanding your partner's personality, communicating well, and connecting to your partner's heart. A reciprocal endeavor requires a cooperative attitude from the partner, cooperating with frequent participation in training. Perfect rhythm means having a strong sense of music and technical tension. The economic environment refers to having the financial means to pay for training, classes, and competitions. In general, the achievement of sports dance is based on inviting teachers for long hours of classes and expensive clothes [12]. Based on this groundwork, Kim, Eun-Sug et al. proposed that partnership between dance sport couples is a collaborative relationship that can produce beautiful movements and sincere expression of their emotions. Characterized by mutual understanding and cooperative spirit, partnership includes four dimensions: trust, referee-audience feedback, physical harmony, and economic conditions. Trust is the basic requirement of partnership. Refereeaudience feedback is a must for dance partner performance. Physical harmony requires the dance partner duo to match each other in appearance, physique, body proportions, body shape, and lines. The meaning of economic conditions is consistent with that mentioned by Myung, Je-Min et al., 2010 [13]. Based on the four dimensions mentioned above, Kim, Eun-Sug et al. developed a partnership scale for Korean competitors with a total of 18 items using 323 sport dancers registered with the Korean Sports Dance Association [13], and this scale has been utilized by other studies [5,14].
However, the dimensions mentioned above still have three limitations.
(1) Some of the existing dimensions do not belong to the category of interpersonal relationships, since they can hardly reflect the psychological relationship between partners, they are difficult to be regarded as a component of partnership. For example, the economic environment and perfect rhythm (which are influencing factors for the formation and maintenance of the partnership) and referee-audience feedback (which is a factor that is affected by the competitive performance of the pair dancers).
(2) Neglecting the characteristics of dance sport and studying the dimensions of partner relationship, such as instant intimacy. As Patrick Gaudreau et al. [15] mentioned, many dynamics of the dual partnership are unique to the sports culture they are engaged in; dance sport is a subject based on romantic fantasy. It openly expresses emotions [10], shows the body interaction of dance partners, and highlights the intimate relationship between men and women [11]. Compared with other paired sports such as table tennis mixed doubles, tennis mixed doubles, and figure diving, the cooperation between dance sport couples is very different [5,12].
(3) Few studies have paid attention to the cultural characteristics of dance sport partnership from the perspective of cultural psychology, which indicates that interpersonal relationships have cultural characteristics, as does partnership between dance sport couples. For example, based on the Rasch model in item response theory, Yang, Eun-Sim found that the statements like "my partner and I will be full of vitality when dancing in front of the crowd" and "my partner and I have left a deep impression on the audience" [13] were considered to be prejudiced against the male group for South Korean men rather than the object of appreciation [16]. As for the Chinese context, the obligations ruled by "reqing" which focuses on the partnership itself, without always considering instrumental intentions, has not been recognized.

The Present Study
Although the study of athlete-athlete partnership frameworks is a very important research field [9,17], athlete-athlete partnership research is still in its infancy, especially between Chinese dance sport couples. The most important work of researchers remains in the creation of a comprehensive and ambitious theoretical system, where attention is often focused on the conceptual construction of the partnership [8]; therefore, it is urgent to explore its dimensions and components. In addition, belittling or ignoring the partnership between sport couples might also have a negative impact on performance (e.g., persistence, motivation, success) and mental health (e.g., happiness, satisfaction, anxiety) [18]. So, the purpose of our study is to conduct in-depth interviews with 20 outstanding Chinese sports dancers through consensus qualitative research (CQR) to explore the connotation and conception of the partnership between Chinese dance sport couples.

Materials and Methods
This study adopted the Consensus Quality Research (CQR) method [19,20], which absorbed the elements of phenomenology [21], grounded theory [22], and comprehensive process analysis [23]; this method helped us to achieve the goal of concept construction by finding the experience commonality among participants. However, CQR is different from other qualitative studies: (1) it requires an analysis team to participate in the discussion and reach a consensus on the data analysis results. On the one hand, various viewpoints and experiences among team members might help to solve the complexity and ambiguity of data. On the other hand, the use of consensus technology could improve the quality of decision-making [24,25]. (2) Try to keep the qualitative analysis method "loyal to the text", to mine information from the original data, and to avoid the cognitive bias of the analyst's "subjective assumption" [19]. (3) There is a relatively clear operation process, and on the basis of carefully defining the subjects, the unified program is used to collect data at one time. (4) Combined with frequency statistics on the basis of classification, the density or importance of each classification can be presented intuitively. (5) Pay more attention to the classification of subjective experience and behavioral responses, and pay less attention to the relationship between classifications [26].
Considering the fact that the first author of this paper has been involved in dance sports training and academic research for 7 and 5 years, respectively, our study was prone to interference from her personal experience, which made the study violate the norms of qualitative research and caused the reliability and validity of the results to be greatly reduced. Therefore, we chose the consensus analysis method to conduct the study, and the specific CQR implementation process is described below.

Participants
The sample for our study consisted of 20 registered athletes of the Chinese Dance Sports Federation (CDSF) (see Table 1 for demographic characteristics). Participants provided signed informed consent forms, and all agreed to be involved in the study. The sampling principles were as follows: (1) all participants had very intensive and rich information on dance sport partnership. As Hill et al. [19,20] suggested when selecting samples, researchers should randomly select a sample of 8 to 15 participants with rich knowledge of the research issues, so, we adopted the specific sampling strategy under the "purposive sampling" principle in qualitative research for this study. Finally, we chose the participants who had participated in training for more than 7 years, had spent at least 3 years with their partners, and had obtained the top 6 results in professional, professional-sequence, A-sequence, or other excellent groups. In our interviews, these participants showed a deep understanding of the dance sport partnership. (2) Sampling while analyzing the interview contents and stopping sampling when no new concepts were generated subsequently. In addition, we took other participants for the interview and verified that the interview data did not distill new concepts [22]. Based on the sampling principle, firstly, we stopped sampling after the 14th participant was interviewed. Secondly, 6 participants were selected for interview, and the content of their text materials was analyzed. It was found that the new concept could not be extracted, so we ended the interview. In addition, we invited Tian Tian, a postgraduate student from the Institute of Psychology of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS) with 20 years training and experience in dance sport, and also the champion of Latin dance in the Chinese professional group for three consecutive years from 2013 to 2016, to evaluate whether the theories analyzed in this study had reached saturation; her answer was yes.
The total interview time for these 20 athletes was 796 min, covering 45 days from 29 May 2019 to 12 July 2019. The reason for the long span was that most of the athletes participated in many competitions, so it was difficult to make an appointment. In particular, when athletes competed in foreign countries, jetlag would be considered, which set another obstacle for the interviews. Note: M = modern dance; L = Latin dance; PRO = professional; PRO-S = professional sequence; A(S)group = A-sequence.

Researchers
The consensual qualitative research team was composed of five people: one female postgraduate student from the Institute of Psychology of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (CAS), who was the champion of Latin dance in the Chinese professional group for three consecutive years from 2013 to 2016. She even broke the record of Chinese athletes in international competitions and danced for 20 years; one male graduate student and two postgraduate students (one male, one female) in psychology from the Beijing Normal University, and one male doctor of education. Among them, the female postgraduate student from the Institute of Psychology of the Chinese Academy of Sciences developed the investigation protocol, oversaw data collection, and reviewed results at all stages of coding and final audit. The male graduate student led the data analysis, which involved the coding of the domains and core ideas and the cross-analysis. The two postgraduate students coded the domains and core ideas independently. The male doctor conducted both the initial audit of the codes and the final audit of the cross-analysis.
However, given that the champion of Latin dance had familiarity with the relevant research literature and may have potentially overly-subjective ideas about partnership in dance sport, she was not directly involved in the very early phases of the CQR, where the initial codes were derived from the cases. In this regard, the consensual qualitative research team discussed their anticipated outcomes prior to the first round of data analysis, but they suspended their preconceptions during all the phases of the analysis. The postgraduate students who had no knowledge of the research literature or dance sport training experience derived the themes and categories based on what they read from the data, but were also encouraged to modify and improve the categories during the coding and consensus process. Proposed changes were discussed, and the team members agreed on all codes, categories, and changes to these before they were finalized.

Previous Work
Firstly, we obtained the consent of the interviewees and explained the purpose. To be more specific, as the first author of this research was engaged in the teaching and training of dance sport for many years, it was easy to get in touch with the sport dancers. They were telephoned and explained the purpose and content of the study and the confidentiality of their information. After obtaining their consent, we arranged the interview time and place with the interviewees.
Secondly, we distributed the interview outline to the interviewees 3-5 days in advance. The participants were asked to answer 6 open-ended questions: (1) What do you think of the ideal partner? (2) Why did you become partners? (3) Were there any special events that affected your relationship? (4) How did you communicate or interact during training and competition? (5) What information will you share with each other? (6) Was there other important information about the partner/partner relationship? Thirdly, we prepared interview tools, including a tape recorder, a paper version of interview outline, and a pen.

Data Collecting
We collected data as the steps below: (1) we confirmed that the recorder was running normally, and the interview outline and pen were brought; (2) we ensured that the interview content was presented anonymously and only for academic use; (3) we showed respect for the opinions of the participates during the interview. If they felt uncomfortable about the questions, they could pause or refuse to answer questions at any time. (4) After permission, the talks were recorded; (5) we aimed to be sincere, open, and strived to create a more comfortable chat atmosphere; (6) we asked questions according to the interview outline and aimed to be be good at questioning to make sure that the participants could give effective information and answer questions pertinently. If there were difficulties in the answer process, for example, the participants could not understand the meaning of the question, they could be guided and assisted by reasonable questioning; (7) we interviewed with an objective and neutral attitude when guiding and assisting the participants to answer questions, they should be allowed to express their personal opinions and not comment on the spot, so as to respect the real psychological state of them; (8) we tried to use paper and pen to write down the key words and sentences of the conversation without permission to record. Finally, the interview materials were transcribed and sorted out. All the interview text materials of 20 interviewees totaled about 115,869 words, as shown in Table 1.

Data Analysis
According to the consensus quality research (CQR) method, the data analysis proceeded as follows: coding of domains, coding of core ideas, initial audit, cross-analysis, final audit, and stability check. In all these phases of data analysis, it was vital that the coding team arrive at a consensus regarding the classification and meaning of the data.
Domains were topics used to group, cluster, or segment the data [20]. They represented the general themes commonly mentioned by participants in all items of the questionnaire. We started with an initial list of domains using 17 cases. The participants' responses were classified under these initial domains. Each domain was represented by a letter (for example, "A" represented an initial domain called "factors that lead to tacit between the dance partners"). As more cases were analyzed, relevant research team members continued to examine and modify these areas to fit the data. Some domains were combined, separated into multiple domains, or created depending on the new information that was added with each case or participant.
Subsequently, we built core ideas for each domain. Core ideas are summaries of the data that capture the essence of the responses [20]. The purpose of this step is to extract each case or participant's answers to its core components so that their responses were more comparable to other cases. Each core idea was represented by a number (e.g., 1 represented the core idea "Tacit understanding of actions"). In our case, one short answer from a single item sometimes contained more than one core idea. Each of the participants' responses was then coded to classify them to a particular domain and core idea (for example, the respondent's answer to item 2 was coded A1, which means that it was a factor that led to a tacit understanding between partners and specifically discusses the core idea of tacit understanding of movement).
Once these initial codes were set up and derived from the initial 17 cases, the two coders used these codes in the remaining cases. Each coder independently coded a specified number of cases, and then the two met to discuss and form a consensus on their codes. The interim audit was performed by a study team member who was not involved in the initial coding. This process ensured that the domains were adequate and that the core ideas represented the responses. When the auditor disagreed with the domain labeling and coding, discussions were held with other study team members until a consensus was reached. The next step was cross-analysis. In this stage, the core ideas coded under the particular domains described above were analyzed into higher-level categories, which were extracted from the core ideas of all cases by determining which core ideas were similar or represented similar meanings. The cross-analysis was conducted independently by two research team members, who then met and discussed until they reached a consensus on all category labels.
We counted the frequency of respondents who mentioned specific categories when the category labels were agreed upon. Through this step, the team was able to determine which categories were more frequently mentioned by respondents. Hill et al. [20] suggest using the frequency labels "general", "typical", "variant", or "rare" to characterize the data. "General" was applied to ideas mentioned by 19-20 of the 20 participants. "Typical" was applied to ideas mentioned by 11-18. "Variant" was applied to ideas mentioned by 4-10. "Rare" was applied to ideas mentioned by 2-3, and if it was applied to ideas mentioned by 1, the category was placed in the notes and was not reported in the results.
Next to the final audit, the auditor provided feedback on the initial round of crossanalysis. Codes, category labels, frequency counts, and consensus judgments were examined. In cases of disagreement, the research team returned back to the initial responses and discussed whether the categories represented core ideas. The approach to data coding and category creation was iterative.
The final step was to make stability checks. Seven responses were retained during the initial coding and cross-analysis of the domains. Responses from these cases were coded to determine if these categories covered all the data in our sample. No significant changes in categories were noted, therefore, we agreed that the results were stable.

Mutual Understanding
Mutual understanding refers to a kind of behavior and state that dyadic dancers consciously understand each other. It will help to build a good connection between partners. Without mutual understanding, it will be hard to promote a favorable partnership. This domain was divided into five categories: mutual understanding in all aspects (17T), in dance philosophy (15T), in habits and disposition (7V), in dance flaws (5V), and in disposition (2R) (see Table 2).

Domains/Category
Core Ideas Frequency

Mutual Understanding
All aspects We need to understand each other in all aspects so as to facilitate communication.

17T Dance philosophy
Our dance ideas and ideas should be consistent.

15T Habits and disposition
He knew I didn't like parties, so he just turned me down. 7V Dance flaws After the competition, we will immediately summarize the problems and find ways to make up for each other, instead of each other's problems. 5V Note: categorized into T (typical) means that 11-18 participants mentioned this core idea; V (variant) means that 4-10 participants mentioned it.
Mutual understanding in all aspects was the most commonly mentioned item in this domain (n = 17). One participant stressed that no matter whether in life or in dance, more communication was needed to avoid conflicts caused by misunderstanding; it was easier to communicate by knowing your partner in all aspects. This may be due to the high combination of the professional sphere of interaction and personal life between dance sport partners. Partners defined each other as best friends, and often they were also life partners. Therefore, knowing each other in an all-round way, the partners can better predict the other party's psychological behavior tendency and adjust their own behavior accordingly. Mutual understanding in dance philosophy was stressed by three-quarters of the participants. Only when the partners achieve the same style and state in the dance can a sense of discord be avoided. One participant emphasized that no matter what life was like, he must understand how his partner feels about the dance. Mutual understanding of habits and disposition was mentioned by nearly half of the participants. For example, they said, "they had known each other for many years, and they were familiar with each other's habits in their life, so their partnership was maintained well", or "it is very important to know what kind of person the partners are". This may also be due to the demand for partnership generated by multiple role concentration. In addition, mutual understanding of dance flaws was stressed by 1/4 of the participants; some participants mentioned that they envied those dance partners who communicated with each other about their dance problems after the competition because, in this way, partners could know in time what was wrong with their cooperation and then they can adjust themselves over time, so as to contribute to the improvement of competitive performance; otherwise, sport dancers would make slower progress. Actually, "practice by competition" was encouraged. According to the competition requirements, the sport dancers must participate in several sub-races to obtain the total score and the qualification for the final competition. It was a necessary training method to improve technical movements and competitive performance through the competition. If the dance problems can not be found out in the competition and solved, then the value of the competition will be greatly reduced.

Instant Intimacy
Instant intimacy refers to a short-time passionate state of desire formed between dance partners in the competition context, which is characterized as pleasant pleasure under a state of desire for their partners. This domain was divided into three categories: pleasure (18T), sense of substitution (15T), and feeling of freshness (7V) (see Table 3). Table 3. Domains and categories.

Domains/Category
Core Ideas Frequency

Instant Intimacy
Pleasure I was very attentive and happy when I practiced dancing with her. The technical cooperation was good. 18T Sense of substitution If the relationship between the dance partners is particularly good, I will be very excited and eager to practice, so the effect of dance expression will be very good. 15T Sense of freshness She/he gives me a feeling that she/he can not feel dancing with me anymore. 7V Note: categorized into T (typical) means that 11-18 participants mentioned this core idea; V (variant) means that 4-10 participants mentioned it.
Pleasure was mentioned by 18 participants in this domain. The pleasure refers to a psychological state of physical and mental relaxation when partners get along. Participants stressed, "We are the best friends, the best friend of the opposite sex. Because he is not irritable, we get along very easily, and dance with him will be very comfortable", or "we cooperated well in technical when I was in a good mood and happy". However, the decreasing sense of pleasure would always lead to a negative effect on the partnership and the results of the competition. For example, the participants mentioned, "if the partners did not adjust their moods, it would have a great negative impact on their performance". Or "when she danced in a bad mood, I would be very tired and could not enter the training state". A sense of substitution was stressed by 15 participants in this domain. The sense of substitution required the dancers to substitute the emotional needs given by the role into the cooperation between dance partners, which helped to improve the artistic expression. This was consistent with Yang, Eun-Sim's view that passion and immersion were needed between dance sport partners [14]. For example, the participants believed that in order to perform well, the dance state and emotion must be put into the role, and only when two dancers's hearts were together could they show better works to the audience. But, if they just danced their own double skill, they could not reach a higher artistic level. From the perspective of the mirror neurophysiological mechanism, the sense of substitution was the response of body language in sports dance. The reason was that the inferior parietal lobule of the human cerebral cortex, the broca region before ventral motor, and the posterior part of the inferior frontal gyrus has a "mapping" function of mirror neurons [27,28]. This mapping function transformed the closely connected crotch, closely attracted eyes and breath, as well as passionate feelings into an emotional booster between the partners. In the elegant passion, Yale University teacher, Sally Peters almost exaggerated the behavior of sport dancers, "driven by passion, their life revolves around dancing; and with enthusiasm and dedication, they practice complex patterns again and again. Whether on the dance floor or off the dance floor, they are consumed by their own imagination of dancing, such as practicing courtship rituals, being in love in tango, so that people can see attractive and attractive relationships at a glance. Outside the ballroom, are they still partners?" [29]. The feeling of freshness was mentioned by seven participants in this domain. It was a feeling that the dancers had for their partners, which would stimulate their desires to explore and activate the vitality. One male participant even mentioned, "She is different from others, I always feel something that others cannot give me, which drives me to collide with her in the dance", and some participants stressed that just like the husband and wife described by others, they were lacking in some freshness when dancing together.

Long-Term Affection
Long-term affection refers to emotional ties generated in long-time interactions in life and professional contexts between dance partners, which is different from instant intimacy for its weaker emotional concentration and slower emotional outburst. This domain was divided into seven categories: intimacy (20G), harmony (20G), mutual help (20G), mutual tolerance (20G), mutual attraction (15T), mimetic relatives (10V), and close family ties (2R) (see Table 4). Intimacy was mentioned by 20 participants in this domain. It refers to a sense of close relationship formed by the accumulated training and life interaction between dance partners. Participants mentioned that "Many people may dance together because they have affections", or "we were childhood sweethearts and danced together since childhood", or "the experience of going out for training and competition would deepen the partnership, especially in foreign countries. Because humans were emotional animals, when one witnessed something and experienced something with their partner together, their partnership became closer and better".
Harmony refers to the coordination and accommodation between dance partners in terms of character and living habits, which was stressed in this domain. Participants stressed that harmony directly affected the quality of dance performance, and unharmonious living habits made it hard for them to go far, let alone achieve their common goals, and their character was important as well. Mutual help represents highly viscous ties characterized by dedication between partners. One participant stressed that they spent the first five or six years of dancing together in Shanghai. During these days, they helped each other a lot. Some other participants mentioned that they came and went together all the time-whenever they left home for school or came back home from school-they were the closest partners besides their family members, and they will take care of each other for life. Mutual tolerance aims to eliminate personality differences and ensure smooth communication. Participants stressed that mutual tolerance and concession were linking them tightly like a tie. Both dancers must understand their partners and be tolerant of each other, only in this way can they dance well. Otherwise, the cooperation will not last long. Mutual attraction refers to a strong psychological connection with appreciation between partners. Participants stressed that they hoped they got a more mature person. Some female participants stressed that they wanted to have a male partner who was more courageous and good at making decisions than themselves, daring to challenge them so that they would cultivate a sense of worship towards their male partners. In fact, this kind of worship plays an essential role in their training and performance. It would be hard to persist without mutual appreciation. In addition, mimetic relative and close family ties both reflected the closeness between dance partners from different aspects. Some participants mentioned, "I have a close family relationship with my dancing partner. Our parents usually communicate and watch our competitions, and care about us very much. So we've always had a good relationship", or "he takes good care of me. Anyway, he is like a father in my heart", or "partners are not only friends but also partners like family members, they can care about each other". Even some female/male participants called their male/female partners as "good brothers".

Obligational Ties
Obligational ties mean that dancers consciously abide by the etiquette with their partners. This domain was divided into four categories: responsibility (20G), training plan (12T), appreciation (10V), and respect (7V) (see Table 5). Responsibility was mentioned by all participants in this domain. The sense of responsibility was the inherent requirement of social norms and role norms which is under the Chinese interpersonal relationship interpretation framework of "everyone is for me, I am for everyone", such as matching with partners in terms of investment, ability, etc., and living up to the help of the dance partner. To coordinate with the social norms, some participants responded, "I'm a boy. I should take more care of her", Or "the agreement between partners on dance must not be broken. Otherwise, it will greatly affect the partnership", or "no matter who the partner is, if he appeared in the classroom to practice dancing and I don't, I was guilty", or "If I agreed to practice dancing, I would definitely go", or "Dancing was something we must do in our life. Now when we retired from the position of national champion, we would also train ourselves and manage ourselves. Whether we were happy or tired, the base number of daily training is necessary". The training plan requires the dancers to cooperate to formulate and follow the training plan, which was stressed by 12 participants in this domain. Cheng Dan, the champion of the Chinese professional group, stated, "Since 2014, we have really realized the importance of planning for a pair of dancers. We will make detailed plans, such as every overseas plan, domestic plan, training plan, and then follow them". Appreciation was stated by 10 participants in this domain. Appreciation shows gratitude beyond the love expressed by partners' companions, which is similar to the friendship between comrades in arms. For example, Cheng Dan pointed out, "I appreciated her very much from the bottom of my heart. She was such a girl in my life who can accompany me from my youth to the present, standing at the top of this area, I feel very lucky. Because of this, I always also tell myself to work harder". Because the competition is full of uncertainty, dancers had to bear the risk of failure, the frustration of not reaching the top, and the regret of not making progress. In the whole process, dance partners were interdependent on each other, most of the dancers are filled with gratitude for their partner. Respect was stated by seven participants in this domain and it requires dancers to respect each other's ideas in both life and training, and do not interfere with each other without permission. For example, the participants mentioned that they do not interfere in their partner's personal affairs too much except for training, leaving some privacy. In addition, in sports dance training, the first author of this study found that dancers would fight in the training hall due to quarrels, leading to the termination of the dance partner relationship. Therefore, mutual respect is something that dancers should pay attention to.

Instrumental Ties
Instrumental ties mean that the dancers used the partnership as a means or tool to obtain achievements. This domain was divided into three categories: consistent goals (20G), skills improvement (20G), and image matching (16T) (see Table 6). Table 6. Domains and categories.

Domains/Category
Core Ideas Frequency

Consistent goals
We spent a lot of money on foreign teaching for the competition, but less than half a month later, she told me that she was pregnant and had no way to continue the competition. At that time, my blood pressure was up. Later, we stopped dancing and broke up.

20G
Skills improvement She has been to "Blackpool in England" and has seen a big scene. She can teach me technically. 20G Image matching I hope that the conditions of dance partners are as good as mine, which is conducive to the dance competition. 16T Note: categorized into G (general) means that 19-20 participants mentioned this core idea; T (typical) means that 11-18 participants mentioned it. Consistent goals were mentioned by all participants in this domain. The most important goal for sports dancers was that the dancers could cooperate with partners to improve their competitive ability and obtain excellent competitive performance. In addition, in order to achieve their goals, dancers are also required to match themselves in terms of external image. Some participants stressed, "Dancing partners were like partners in business", or "we are mutually beneficial and win-win, when our goals are inconsistent, we will split up". What is more, Tian Tian, the Latin dance champion of the Chinese professional group, pointed out that mature and excellent sports dancers do not have too high requirements for the high closeness of partnerships, but they paid more attention to whether there is a breakthrough in technology and achievements. Another participant said without hesitation, "I think the partner should go with me to get the results, otherwise don't delay me for a second". Therefore, inconsistent goals will also result in the breakdown of mutually beneficial and win-win relations. Only by developing each other's talents can dancers gather them together and create synergy. Skills improvement was most commonly mentioned in this domain. One participant stressed, "The national standard dance is a kind of dyadic sport dancers would use their partners to improve their skills. To be frank, the partnership was just a kind of utilization relationship. You need her to continue dancing". Image matching was most commonly mentioned in this domain. The dancers required that the external image of the partner should match with their own, and even most of the dancers could only accept better than their own. Participants stressed that since dancesport is artistic, a good-looking appearance is also conducive to their future development. When males chose females, they first required the partner to have good external conditions, and be almost acceptable technically.

Tacit Understanding
Tacit understanding refers to a high degree of harmony in the coordination of dance movements, emotions, and even overall performance. This domain was divided into three categories: dance movements (8V), emotional congruence (6V), and dance performance (5V) (see Table 7). When the partner is in a bad mood, we will consciously be quiet, and stop training to get rid of their bad mood, and continue to practice until the mood is getting good.

6V
Dance performance He can catch my more creative "body thinking" and help me present my own ideas. 5V

Mutual Self-Disclosure
She had a hard time talking to her friends and family, so she just nagged me./A good performance requires a stable relationship with the dance partner, being sincere with the partner was the most important thing.
18T Note: Categorized into T (typical) means that 11-18 participants mentioned this core idea; V (variant) means that 4-10 participants mentioned it.
Dance movements were most commonly stressed in this domain. Tacit understanding of dance movement can be generated in the accumulated cooperation training. Some participants stated that they had been working together for many years, and they know their partners' next move from one look and one action. There are also young participants who were not satisfied with the degree of tacit understanding of their dance movements. They mentioned that sometimes when they cooperated with each other, they found that they were the same as their new partners, which made them very dissatisfied. According to the dynamic shaping theory of Pavlov, only when the movement cooperation between the partners reaches a certain degree of tacit understanding, then they will pay more attention to the overall artistic presentation in order to obtain better competition results. This requires the dancers to constantly cooperate with the practice in dance movements, until the motor-conditioned reflex system is consolidated and reaches the stage of establishing, consolidating the dynamic stereotype, and finally can achieve the unconscious production of accurate and beautiful movements. Emotional congruence was also mentioned in this domain; tacit understanding in emotional congruence was an accurate and effective perception of each other's emotions formed in daily life and training, emotional congruence is the foreshadowing for the instant intimacy or long-term affection derived from the dance partnership. Participants stressed, "when she was in the back court of the game, I could tell if she was nervous at a glance. When she is nervous, I will be happy to amuse her", or "she knew what I was doing without telling her". Dance performance was mentioned by a quarter of the participants in this domain; tacit understanding in dance performance means that the contestants have realized the highest value attribute of dance-artistic value, which drove the dancers unconsciously looking for an impulse to release their most primitive feelings. One participant stressed, "When my partner dances with my emotions, we are like two train tracks suddenly connected. At this time, our emotions and actions will be released freely".
In summary, we believed that under the tacit understanding, the partners would output and receive information efficiently in the same training and competition, which is not only conducive to the maintenance and development of high-quality partnerships, but also to promote training efficiency and reach the optimal competitive performance.

Mutual Self-Disclosure
Mutual self-disclosure requires dancers to be sincere and show personal thoughts and feelings to their partners. This domain was also a category which means that partners can freely share their own thoughts, confusion, and occasional bad emotions and troubles with each other (see Table 7). For example, participants mentioned, "partner was a friend in life. When I was sick and sad, he would give spiritual and material care and support. As for us, we often participate in competitions far away from home or school, if he is not sincere to me, i will feel helpless", or "basically we know about each other so well that we don't need to put our thoughts in words. She knows everything about me. I know everything about her", or "we will share various information with each other", or "most of the time, dance athletes will continue to study abroad for three months and then continue to compete in China for three months". For a long time, they can only company with each other, and almost can only share all their emotions with each other.

Discussion
The purpose of our study was to explore relationship components that contribute to the elite dance sport athlete-athlete partnerships. This exploratory study was one of few existing studies addressing the interpersonal components of athlete-athlete partnerships and one of two available studies examining partnerships between dance sport couples. Based on the analysis of the interview data of 20 excellent Chinese dance sport athletes by consensual qualitative research (CQR) method, it was found that partnership between dance sport couples in China includes seven constructs: mutual understanding, instant intimacy, long-term affection, obligational ties, instrumental ties, tacit factors, and mutual self-disclosure.
At present, the existing research has refined the components of partnership between dance sport couples, namely: partner care, partner harmony, reciprocal endeavor, perfect rhythm, economic environment, trust, referee-audience feedback, and physical harmony [12,13]. Among these components, instant intimacy was hardly mentioned. However, as a sport to express the intimate and passionate physical interaction and romantic relationship between men and women [10,11], instant intimacy is a very important component of partnership that encourages dancers to overcome difficulties and burnout, so as to continuously improve their competitive ability [30], and it was also related to whether dancers could have a better artistic performance in dance. In addition, instant intimacy was the requirement for partners under the mirror nerve mechanism, as mentioned in the results section of this study, "inferior parietal lobule of the human cerebral cortex, the broca region before the ventral motor, and the posterior part of the inferior frontal gyrus had the 'mapping' function of mirror neurons [27,28]. This 'mapping' function transformed the closely connected crotch, closely attracted eyes and breath, as well as passionate feelings into an emotional booster between the partners". Therefore, sometimes dancers will be confused by the desire between the two sexes on the dance floor. Was it just a partner off the court? [29]. As a kind of athlete-athlete partnership that had different characteristics in different sports [8], instant intimacy was the essential feature that distinguished the partnership between dance sport couples from other sports. So it was never proposed in current studies.
As for obligational ties (responsibility, appreciation, training plan, respect) in partnership, its connotation included a reciprocal endeavor [12]. However, obligational ties also contained more meanings, such as responsibility and respect, which was different from the western one in the operating mechanism of psychology. To be more specific, obligational ties was ruled by Chinese "renqing" which relied on the moral power of society in the Chinese context after the partnership was established, dancers would respect each other, show responsibility, and abide by the training plan under the pressure of public opinion and social norms. If the voluntary contact was perceived, the partners would also express gratitude and train harder to obtain excellent competition results. Therefore, if one broke the rules, they felt ashamed. In this study, some participants even mentioned that "Once the partner arrives at the dance hall, he will feel guilty when he is not together"; however, obligations arise under the regulation of contracts in some western countries. Elite dancers in western countries would sign cooperation agreements with their partners.
The long-term affection (intimate, harmony, mutual help, mutual tolerance, mutual attraction, mimetic relatives, and close family ties) was in line with the partner care dimension of partnership between dance sport couples [12] and the closeness dimension in the 5C theory of athlete-athlete partnership [8], also in line with 3C theory of coach-athlete relationship [31] in terms of long-term intimacy. The reason was that as a "social person", expressive ties were a gift given by society to everyone. For dancers, they often left their homes to go to other places for training. Without the support of any organizations, they had to help each other and tolerate each other, forming a harmonious relationship mode in the struggle process of sharing weal and woe, as well as forming close emotional ties, such as romantic relationships during this journey. When people are understood and appreciated, their intimacy will increase [32].
The instrumental ties (consistent goals, skills improvement, image matching) proposed in our study were determined by the characteristics of competitive sports, where competitive achievements were the key to power and status. On the contrary, athletes were forced to withdraw from the competition. In order not to be eliminated, they needed to be supported by their athletic achievements. Cheng Dan, the champion of China's ballroom dance professional group, recalled: "At that time, our external image was not the most brilliant. We were not the most brilliant players, and no one knew our names. But we did not want to be eliminated, and instead of the best players, we were more active in this field of competition". So it could be seen that dance sport partners were a community sharing common goals and tasks [33]. In this field of gold medal supremacy, partnership was often seen as a tool. This was consistent with the views of a Taiwan scholar [34], she stressed that partnership between dance sport couples was a kind of capital to complete training and competition. Through mutual cooperation, dancers achieved their utilitarian needs and proposed the type of instrumental partner. Highly interdependent partners emphasized the results of the exchange relationship of "gaining" and "giving" to each other, and the goals of both parties were utilitarian. So we believed that the utilitarian requirements of consistent goals, skills improvement, and image matching were vital elements for establishing, maintaining, and developing partnerships.
Mutual understanding was proposed by our study, which was seldom presented by other research on partnership, we took it as an innovation point. We considered that individual communication was full of deviations and misreadings. In order to avoid frictions caused by cognitive deviation, dancers needed to accurately predict the internal psychology and behaviors on the basis of a full understanding of their partners, and make correct decisions for possible differences and conflicts. So Majoross believed that identifying and managing conflicts was critical and proposed the method, which included increasing communication and understanding between dance partners, giving tolerance, encouragement, and confidence to dance partners [7]. As for trust between dancers [13], we believed that it could be the concentrated embodiment of mutual self-disclosure. The latter could highly represent the meaning of the former. On the journey of mutual understanding, the dancers expressed their thoughts to each other. Under the effect of disclosure reciprocity, individual self-expression would trigger others to reveal their feelings [35]. Both mutual understanding and self-disclosure were designed to enhance the quality of partnership between dance sport couples. In addition, according to self-determination theory, the sense of relationship was an indispensable element that was born of people [36]. We also mentioned the other component of partnership between dance sport couples, i.e., tacit understanding, which was also seldom mentioned by relevant research. In addition, perfect rhythm, economic environment, and referee-audience feedback do not belong to the component of partnership; we do no discuss it too much.
The results of this study were suitable for Chinese excellent sport dancers who have more than 7 years of training experience, and have or have had 3 years of partner experience with their partners, and have obtained the top six results in professional, professionalsequence, A-sequence, and other excellent groups. However, we recommended further investigation on other sport dancers (those who have less than 7 years of training and no more than 3 years of experience with dance partners and have not obtained the top 6 results in professional, professional-sequence, A-sequence, and other excellent groups). Since the dancers in the sample reflected their experiences as young professional dancers or early international dancers, it was necessary to understand the internal components of dance partnerships in order to explore the interpersonal factors that have changed over time to promote advanced performance.
There were, of course, limitations to the approach taken to meet the research aims in this paper. First, the consensual qualitative research (CQR) method adopted within this study had often been criticized as a "subjective assumption" [19], which made our research less reproducible. To mitigate this limitation, we try to keep the qualitative analysis method "loyal to the text", mining information from the original data, and try to avoid the cognitive bias of the analysts, and strictly following the consensus requirements of the consensus quality research (CQR).
Furthermore, a clear limitation of our study was that these concepts' results cannot perfectly interpret the Chinese dance sport partnership. Although, we tried to tap the connotation of the partnership between Chinese sports dance couples and got some valuable findings. In an idealized form, the complex conceptual structure grasped by us with precise concepts existed in the changing minds of different individuals. Its components and meanings had extremely complex hierarchical differences among these individuals and contained countless differences and chaos full of sharp various conceptual relationships. Therefore, the highly abstract generalization of partnership between Chinese dance sport couples was just an idealized attempt, and the exploration of its' contexts needed further exploration. Just like the 3C theory of the coach-athlete relationship [31], the 5C theory of the dyadic beach volleyball athlete-athlete partnership [8] and the 4-dimensional theory [13] and the 5-dimensional theory [12] of the existing partnership between dance sport couples, they were constantly enriched under the exploration of scholars. In addition, we suggested that practitioners and researchers interacting with this paper critically would consider our findings in their context and transfer them to other performance areas; In addition, they should consider whether similar findings will be confirmed if these methods are repeated in the athlete/worker population.
In addition, according to the opinion of sports psychologists, there were differences in the partnership between athletes and athletes in pairs events, which meant that when conducting research on partnerships in different events, we should carefully consider the risk of theoretical and practical incompatibility caused by transplanting the analytical framework of the partnership between couples in other events. It can be seen that we should strengthen the exploration of the internal dimension or analytical framework of the athlete-athlete partnership in different events. So, future studies need to continually examine diverse examples of athlete-athlete partnerships, so as to expand interpersonal relationship and performance theory in sport.

Applied Implications
Taylor, J., Ashford, M., Collins, D once stated that the importance of effective talent development in sport was well established as a key aspect of achieving high-level performance [37]. The connotation of partnership between Chinese dance sport couples in our study was obtained through retrospective interviews with competitive sports dancers. Its logical starting point was what kind of dance partnership promotes competitive performance. For example, the interview question-"what do you think of the ideal partner?" in our study is to collect information about the connotation of the dance partner relationship contributing to excellent competitive performance. Our study gives a new experience to changes and correction of the training process in dance sport. The use of research results can improve harmony and coordination between dance athletes. Some elements of this result can be implemented in the process on preparedness of the Chinese excellent sport dancers who have more than 7 years of training experience, and have or have had 3 years of partner experience with dance partners, and have obtained the top 6 results in professional, professional-sequence, A-sequence, and other excellent groups.
In general, competitive dancers and dance sport coaches should realize the importance of the partnership between dance couples on competitive performance. Competitive dancers should take the initiative to promote competitive performance through the management of dance partner relationship. Coaches should pay attention to the change of dance partnership at any time while conducting technical teaching, and maximize the competitive performance of dancers by maintaining and improving the quality of dance partnership. To be more specific: (1) Create a romantic training atmosphere or a psychological connection between dance couples before the competition, if possible, thus enhancing the instant intimacy (pleasure, sense of substitution, feeling of freshness) between the partners. Even encourage the dancers to fall in love with their partners. The literature found that partners must exhibit passion and emotion during dancing; very often, high-class dancing couples are also pairs in life [7,38]. In addition, research on the social psychological attributes of dyadic participants found the performance of dyads was better if members liked each other [39]. (2) Encourage mutual self-disclosure between the dance partners to promote mutual understanding and, thus, enhance their ability to perceive their partners' psychological and behavioral tendencies so as to improve the quality of the training, even competitive performance. The reason was as follows: based on the analytical framework of the self-concept of "independent self" and "interdependent self" proposed by Marcus and Kitayama according to the characteristics of cultural differences, it is emphasized that easterners preferred to discover themselves by relying on others [40], which is an inclusive individualistic interpersonal relationship. Sampson emphasizes that the ego boundaries of such relationships are fluid, and that the establishment of expressive ties accelerates the blurring of such boundaries [41]. Chinese intimacy is the result of interaction between individuals after the dissolution of boundaries and the process of mutual aggression between them, followed by a state of "no distinction between you and me" [42]. So, the psychological connection between the Chinese dance sport partners is a combination of instrumental ties and expressive ties influenced by different laws of operation, where the instrumental ties occur in the training competition arena, the expressive ties occur in daily life, and the dancers are likely to turn the cooperation issue into a love issue, making the intimate partnership between the dyads in practice break the conventional mode of operation of professional cooperation. In the absence of contractual constraints, the maintenance and development of partnerships will be challenged [43]. (3) For dancers who regard their partners as only a kind of training capital, remind them not to release this mentality too much to their partners, but to pay attention to the "renqing" and "mianzi" between them, showing the obligational ties (responsibility, appreciation, training plan, respect) with their partners, instead. The reason is that the obligational ties between couple cushions dancers from the lose and hollowness of being used as a tool. This is why Chinese utilitarian relationships are often attached by obligatory ties. (4) Cultivate the mutual tacit understanding in dance movements, emotional congruence, and dance performance. We suggested developing and offering relevant courses to improve the empathy and emotional intelligence of sports dancers in the future. As Scholars, based on Howard Gardner, a developmental psychologist at Harvard University, proposed that dancers' interpersonal skills are the engine of artistic communication between dance partners [44].
In addition, it is also recommended to cultivate long-term affection between dance partners, such as intimacy, harmony, mutual help, mutual tolerance, mutual attraction.

Conclusions
Partnership between dance sport couples in China is a complex concept whose components are as the follows: mutual understanding (in all aspects, in dance philosophy, in habits and disposition, in dance flaws, in disposition), instant intimacy (pleasure, sense of substitution, feeling of freshness), long-term affection (intimacy, harmony, mutual help, mutual tolerance, mutual attraction, mimetic relatives, close family ties), obligational ties (responsibility, appreciation, training plan, respect), instrumental ties (consistent goals, skills improvement, image matching), tacit factors (dance movements, emotional congruence, dance performance), and mutual self-disclosure. Our findings extended research on athletic dyads, such as dance sport, in three ways: first, according to the project characteristics of sports dance expressing intimate physical and emotional interaction between male and female, we proposed the concept of instant intimacy, which was rarely mentioned in the previous athlete-athlete partnership. In addition, our research also emphasized the cultural characteristics of dance partnership, we explained that the obligation tie which was ruled by "renqing" was different from the obligation ties corresponding to the contract in the West. Second, the consensual qualitative research (CQR) method was first used in the research of athlete-athlete partnership, which provided a new research idea for later related research. Third, we should encourage athletes to explore ways to achieve outstanding performance by revealing the interpersonal elements in their interdependent development.
Funding: This research was funded by "the Projects of the National Social Science Foundation of China, grant number 20BTY122".

Institutional Review Board Statement:
This study was conducted in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and was also approved by the Ethics Committee of the School of Physical Education and Sport Science, Fujian Normal University. Informed Consent Statement: Written informed consent was obtained from all subjects involved in the current study, and also, they were all completely voluntary and almost all were anonymous in the period of participating in this study.

Data Availability Statement:
The data of the present study can be available from the corresponding author via reasonable request.