Esports Associations and the Pursuit of Legitimacy: Evidence From Germany

The dominant position of esports game publishers is a fundamental difference between the systemic governance of esports and traditional sports. There are no such equivalent organizations in traditional sports. As for-profit corporations, the publishers develop and market the electronic games as their commercial products and thus, possess exclusive property rights. Publishers control the virtual sporting environment and the rules of the game. In conventional sports, by contrast, non-profit associations administer their sports with the core task of developing the sport by regulations, playing rules, and licensing. There are, however, esports associations which resemble traditional leagues and national governing bodies. Given this, we explore how esports associations pursue legitimacy. This study is empirically motivated by the recent emergence of two esports associations in the insightful case of Germany and examines the pursuit of legitimacy by the World Esports Association (WESA) and the eSport-Bund Deutschland e.V. (ESBD). The study is based on a content analysis of 55 documents and nine interviews with relevant stakeholders. The findings show that the esports associations rely on conformance and manipulation strategies by transferring existing structures from traditional sports to esports. The most effective practices are lobbying for social and public acceptance of esports and creating supportive networks for esports development. While publishers possess an undisputed and taken-for-granted legitimacy based on their product property rights, esports associations struggle for recognition and acceptance. They may still have a long way to go, given that established associations in conventional sports have a history for decades. Yet, esports associations need to accept publisher dominance. Thus, they can only claim partial legitimacy within the esports ecosystem by targeting segments of stakeholders. Management, policy and theoretical implications of this key insight are finally presented.

INTRODUCTION
Since the end of the 19th century, sports have been governed by an independent and nonprofit network of international and continental federations, national sports organizations, as well as local, regional/provincial sports organizations, and both amateur and professional clubs and their associated leagues. The international federations, as apex organizations, are responsible for establishing rules and the format of international competitions (Chappelet, 2010) and are (almost always) undisputed as the legitimate governing bodies for their respective sports (Croci and Forster, 2004). However, this pyramidal structure cannot be reconciled with electronic sports (esports) because of the dominant position of corporate game publishers and developers. 1 The key component of esports-the video game-depends on digital operating systems developed by these economic enterprises (Funk et al., 2018). Peng et al. (2020) consider game publishers the essential key stakeholder in the esports ecosystem. In most cases, they are developers, publishers, and, notably, the exclusive owners of the decisive property rights (Karhulahti, 2017;Abanazir, 2018;Peng et al., 2020). As commercial enterprises, game developers primarily pursue profit-oriented intentions (Abanazir, 2018;Funk et al., 2018). This is somewhat ironic given that many of today's most successful esports games have their origin in non-commercial modifications of existing games designed and coded by enthusiastic gamers. Thus, the concept of community has a concise self-understanding in esports (Ashton, 2019;Xue et al., 2019). In contrast to traditional sports, the gaming community could not initially rely on an already developed system of clubs and associations. Instead, publishers created structures for this target group (eSport-Bund Deutschland e.V., 2018b; Scholz, 2019). Therefore, esports lack organizational and regulatory non-profit mechanisms omnipresent in traditional sports. A regulative and recognized governing body has yet to overcome game publishers' legitimacy and market-dominating position. Nevertheless, international (e.g., International Esports Federation, World ESports Association), continental (European Esports Federation), and national associations (e.g., Korean e-Sports Association, eSport-Bund Deutschland e.V., Japan Esports Union) have emerged in recent years.
Still, esports' prevailing regulatory principles remain unidentifiable (Peng et al., 2020). Scholz (2019) argued that these principles are unwritten but recognizable-even if not at first glance. Loose structures, publisher dominance, the self-image of the individual communities, and a large number of players create a metaphorical Wild West scenario. While in traditional sports, rules, regulations and systemic hierarchies constrained organizational activities, "the eSports industry, until now, has kept its start-up mentality" (Scholz, 2019, p. 111). This freedom initially shaped esports and provides countless opportunities to develop new and innovative ideas and structures. Abanazir (2018) claims that it is almost impossible to establish an umbrella organization for esports which regulates existing games, tournaments, and publishers. A standardized approach with a rigid governance model and the transfer of narratives from traditional sports is not well suited for esports (Peng et al., 2020). This is because "eSports is a collection of competitive gaming, and therefore not governable, as sports in their entirety are not manageable." (Scholz, 2019, p. 111f.). A focus on a stakeholder-driven approach is necessary as governance is more fruitful in this context, which focuses on specific aspects of esports, such as individual teams or games (Kelly et al., 2022). However, esports is subject to the regulations of the respective publisher. This specific setting challenges traditional understandings of sport governance, particularly the role of associations in a profit-driven industry.
Given these intriguing developments and observations on the systemic governance of esports, in-depth research on the institutionalization of esports is highly relevant. Summerley (2020) provides initial approaches by examining similarities and differences in the institutionalization of traditional sports and esports. Most existing publications are preoccupied with debating whether or not esports are sports (van Hilvoorde and Pot, 2016;Funk et al., 2018;Hallmann and Giel, 2018). In this study, we consider esports as a real economic and, above all, social phenomenon and do not engage in its status as a sport. Thus, our study is an initial attempt to better understand the organizations behind the socioeconomic phenomenon of esports. Funk et al. (2018) and Heere (2018) claim that beyond rather descriptive observations on stakeholder interests and relationships, a theoretically sound analysis of institutionalization processes in esports is missing. Scholz (2019) systematically categorized the different stakeholders in the esports ecosystem. He differentiates between primary (i.e., game developer, tournament organizer, professional teams and players, providers, and communities) and secondary stakeholders (i.e., governing bodies, sports organizations, sponsors, general public, investors, entrepreneurs, media, and shareholders). The multidimensional character of esports is also, and above all, reflected in the variety of genres into which the various game titles can be classified. Popular esports genres are first-person shooter games (e.g., Counter-Strike: Global Offensive), multiplayer online battle arenas (e.g., League of Legends and Defense of the Ancients II), real-time strategy games (e.g., StarCraft II), and sport simulations (e.g. FIFA) (Funk et al., 2018). See Besombes (2019) for a more nuanced overview of different genres and games. According to Hamari and Sjöblom (2017), esports operate in organized formats within various leagues and tournaments at the non-elite and or elite level. Esports events are watched by live, online, and broadcast audiences and can acquire millions of viewers (Funk et al., 2018). The esports ecosystem is subject to a constant change. These include new games, new genres, new tournaments and leagues, the emergence of new shareholders, as well as mergers and acquisitions. Nevertheless, esports multidimensional and dynamic character with different players and the multitude of existing games and genres is often neglected in previous research (Scholz, 2019).
To improve our understanding of esports' novel and complex governance, we focus on recent events in the German esports industry. The German esports industry is well developed and is one of the largest revenue-generating regions in the world (Deloitte Development LLC, 2020). In terms of esports penetration, Germany (33% in total; 7% occasional consumers, 11% regular consumers, 5% hardcore consumers) lags behind its direct neighbor Poland with a total of 52% (23% occasional consumers, 20% regular consumers, 9% hardcore consumers).
Thus, Germany is only average when compared to other European countries, lagging behind esports strongholds such as Spain and Italy (Deloitte Development LLC, 2021a). Despite this, Germany is home to many elite esports players and unique toptier competitions. The most important esports organization in Germany is the Electronic Sports League (ESL), headquartered in Cologne and host of major esports events such as the IEM Cologne. Unique tournament formats such as the Virtual Bundesliga and the regular season matches of the European League of Legends Championships (LEC) are based in Germany and attract large German companies as investors and sponsors (Deloitte Development LLC, 2021b). In addition to these organizations primarily focused on business and competition, Germany is also home to recently founded esports associations.
The first esports associations emerged in the first decade of the 2000s (Seo, 2013). Since 2016, different esports associations have been founded in Germany to represent stakeholders' interests. To develop professional esports, ESL founded the World ESports Association (WESA) in 2016 (World ESports Association, 2022). Whilst nominally an association, WESA is essentially the governing body of an esports league. As a reaction to the growing esports audience, the eSport-Bund Deutschland e.V. 2 (ESBD) was initiated in 2017 as a non-profit association to govern esports in Germany. In 2022, ESBD has 67 members, mainly teams and clubs, as well as consultants, event organizers and content producers. ESBD is mainly focused on amateur athletes and teams (eSport-Bund Deutschland e.V., 2018c). ESBD has similarities with a traditional national sports-governing body (also known as a national sports organization or federation). The emergence of WESA and ESBD reflects the substantial growth and professionalization of esports in Germany. From a methodological perspective, the two newly founded associations provide a fruitful context for qualitative fieldwork on the institutionalization of associations within the esports ecosystem.
Against this backdrop, this study shifts the academic conversation on esports governance toward governing bodies. These organizations are all-powerful in traditional sports but live in the shadow of game developers in esports. We pursue the following research question: How do German-based esports associations pursue legitimacy? More specifically, we examine critically the legitimacy-seeking activities of WESA and ESBD.

THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK: THE CONCEPT OF LEGITIMACY
In line with neo-institutional theory, legitimacy provides the theoretical framework for our analysis. Early institutionalists (Meyer and Rowan, 1977;Zucker, 1977;DiMaggio and Powell, 1983;Meyer and Scott, 1983) observe substantial similarity among organizations operating in the same environment. This similarity results from structural and behavioral alignment to meet external pressure and accompany social expectations. Known as institutional isomorphism, this construct is crucial for organizations to secure legitimacy. Three mechanisms of institutional isomorphism can be distinguished: (1) coercive, (2) mimetic, and (3) normative (DiMaggio and Powell, 1983), even though the different types cannot always be empirically delineated. Instead, organizations do not adopt them one-to-one without situational adaptions. Organizations focus on individual case-specific solutions resulting from integrating new ideas and models into existing structures (Sahlin and Wedlin, 2013).
Legitimacy is closely linked to the cultural support that an organization can provide for its environment and audiences (Suchman, 1995). Ruef and Scott (1998) state that the degree of legitimacy depends on the evaluation of all involved stakeholders concerning different organizational aspects. These considerations are closely linked to where legitimacy comes from Deephouse and Suchman (2013) and for what it is used (Suchman, 1995). Both internal and external interest groups must be considered by organizations when pursuing legitimacy. This is most notably the result of the varying interests and views that stakeholders have concerning the legitimacy of an organization (Ruef and Scott, 1998). Stakeholders will only collaborate with legitimized organizations (Deephouse et al., 2017). Meyer and Rowan (1977) note that organizations with a lack of "acceptable legitimated accounts of their activities [. . . ] are more vulnerable to claims that they are negligent, irrational or unnecessary." (p. 349 f.). According to Weber (1968), the importance of legitimacy lies in its ability to align organizational action with fundamental social values. An organization's formal structure (e.g., offices, departments, positions, and programs), is explicitly linked to its objectives, procedures, and policies (Meyer and Rowan, 1977). The evaluation of activities and the course of action (i.e., an organization's purposeful and goal-oriented work to meet individual and social values, norms, beliefs, and definitions) is socially constructed (Díez-Martín et al., 2021) and subjectively created due to different views of stakeholders. Suchman (1995, p. 574) wrote, "Legitimacy is a perception or assumption in that it represents a reaction of observers to the organization as they see it; thus, legitimacy is possessed objectively, yet created subjectively." Therefore, the activities of an organization, aligned with the overall goals and the perception and evaluation by the respective stakeholders, are essential to ensure legitimacy.
Organizational legitimacy is "the perceived appropriateness of an organization to a social system in terms of rules, values, norms, and definitions" (Deephouse et al., 2017, p. 32). Suchman (1995) argued that an organization can proactively seek to gain, maintain, and recover legitimacy. Gaining legitimacy is essential for new entrepreneurial organizations (Aldrich and Fiol, 1994). Consequently, the organization has the task of identifying suitable actions that enhance its legitimacy in eyes of stakeholders (Ruef and Scott, 1998). A considerable body of research highlights how new organizations acquire legitimacy by conforming to existing norms and values (Meyer and Rowan, 1977;DiMaggio and Powell, 1983).
There is uncertainty about how new organizations can best acquire this legitimacy (Zimmerman and Zeitz, 2002;Bitektine, 2011). Suchman (1995) offers three different strategies for gaining legitimacy: (1) conform to existing environments and adapt preexisting environmental standards, (2) select among environments to ensure audience support, and (3) manipulate

Strategy
Characteristics Source Conformance -Positioning in an existing institutional regime -Considering demands and expectations of existing structures or influential stakeholders -Align with already existing norms and rules Meyer and Rowan, 1977;DiMaggio and Powell, 1983;Suchman, 1995;Mitchell et al., 1997;Zimmerman and Zeitz, 2002;Scherer et al., 2013 Selection -Choice of a suitable and favorable geographical environment providing similar scripts, rules, norms, and values Suchman, 1995;Zimmerman and Zeitz, 2002 Manipulation -Counter existing cultural beliefs -Influencing social expectations using strategic instruments of public relations, e.g., lobbying or teaming up with already well-established organizations -Proactive promulgation of new destructive needs beneficial to the organization Oliver, 1991;Suchman, 1995;Zimmerman and Zeitz, 2002;Scherer et al., 2013 Creation -Developing new rules and regulations -Contradict social structures -Providing new scripts, rules, norms, values, and models for unprecedented new approaches Aldrich and Fiol, 1994;Zimmerman and Zeitz, 2002 environments to promulgate new cultural beliefs. Zimmerman and Zeitz (2002) propose a further strategy: (4) creation of the environment. Table 1 summarizes the characteristics of the four strategies. Legitimacy can be pursued using these strategies individually or in some combination. Legitimacy is confronted with measurement problems because "legitimacy is not directly observable" (Zimmerman and Zeitz, 2002, p. 418). Proposed measurement instruments "are not generalizable to other contexts, do not integrate the different approaches to assessing legitimacy, nor do they explain their suitability for specific contexts." (Díez-Martín et al., 2021, p. 100). The multiplicity of measurement instruments increases scientists' uncertainty about which instrument is appropriate for each context. However, the lack of measurement is rooted in the subjectivity of the construct, which is exclusively limited to the attitudes and conscious and unconscious decisions of social actors. Measuring legitimacy is closely linked to evaluating organizational actions. Accordingly, some evaluations focus on specific groups of evaluators and measure legitimacy through media, customers, or regulators. Furthermore, different scales are applied to measure the construct. Other approaches measure legitimacy through linked typologies (Díez-Martín et al., 2021). Legitimacy researchers use quantitative content analysis (Deephouse, 1996;Ruef and Scott, 1998;Deephouse and Carter, 2005) or qualitative case studies combined with qualitative interviews (Rutherford and Buller, 2007;Low and Johnston, 2008;Goodstein and Velamuri, 2009).

MATERIALS AND METHODS
We examine the legitimacy-seeking strategies of two German-based esports associations: (1) the World ESports Association (WESA) and (2) the eSport-Bund Deutschland e.V. (ESBD). In line with the previous studies on legitimacy, we choose a qualitative case study. A case study approach is suitable given the reliance on qualitative data (Zimmerman and Zeitz, 2002). Yin (2018) suggests six potential sources of evidence for case studies. We rely on two sources of qualitative data: documents and semi-structured interviews.

Documents
The documents analyzed in the study were website information, official press releases, and news retrieved from the associations' websites from 2016-2021 (WESA) and 2017-2021 (ESBD). 2016 and 2017 represent the founding years for the associations. The initial search generated 82 documents. As a first step, all available documents published by the associations since their foundation were read completely and screened to determine their relevance to the research question. In a second step, the documents were examined for indications of associations' efforts to acquire legitimacy. We removed reports on market data, news on market developments, and association personnel matters. Documents that provided information on new partnerships, strategies, goals, and activities were retained for further analysis.
As the data are self-reported by the associations, the selected documents were discussed in detail by two authors in a final step. The final data set consisted of 55 documents. Table 2 shows the selected documents, separated by initial sample and final selected sources. The documents ranged in length from 200 to 3,000 words.

Semi-structured Interviews
Semi-structured, guideline-based interviews were also conducted via online video, audio-recorded, and then transcribed. The interviews provided a complementary data source to the documents. Interviewees had backgrounds in association work, across the amateur and professional esports spectrum. The initial intention was to include each stakeholder group by conducting one interview. As the most important stakeholder group, publishers were of particular interest in examining their view toward the emerging associational work in esports. However, our invitations were either unanswered or declined. Although publishers could not be included in our analysis, the ecosystem consists of many different stakeholder groups with a legitimate interest in esports associations. Notwithstanding this limitation, our sample of respondents still allows us to assess the legitimacy seeking strategies of both esports associations. An interview guide was developed and structured according to four main topics: (1) development of the current model, (2) esports ecosystem and the publisher's dominant position, (3) perceptions of associations' legitimacy from a stakeholder's perspective, and (4) likely future developments. Subtle adjustments were made for each participant to reflect their organization's position in the esports ecosystem. Nine interviews were conducted between July and September 2019, each lasting between 26 and 53 min. Table 3 summarizes all interview information.

Coding and Category Development
Data coding and category development for interviews and documents was conducted using MAXQDA12 software. A systematic and theory-guided approach to text analysis is mandatory to summarize the linguistic material and enable coding. Therefore, we followed the qualitative content analysis guidelines of Kuckartz (2014). Codes were developed according to the legitimacy strategies proposed by Zimmerman and Zeitz (2002). The underlying characteristics are presented in Table 1. Hence, the four strategies of (1) conformance, (2) selection, (3) manipulation, and (4) creation become the main categories for our analysis. Afterward, the research team reflected and discussed the relations between (sub-)categories and associations' legitimacy. The coding of the initial material was done in German. Citations used in this paper were translated into English. To avoid textual distortion due to the translation process, two authors fluent in both English and German (re-)translated the statements.
There is a potential risk for biases in data analysis due to the experience with the observed phenomenon by involved researchers (Berger, 2015). To limit this, a diverse research team was established. One research team member is an esports insider and, thus, close to the object of investigation. The other three researchers make no claims to insider status. The research team was also comprised of authors from different national and institutional backgrounds and academic career stages (two junior researchers and two senior researchers). The research team members also possessed expertise in a variety of scientific disciplines (i.e., organizational theory, management, economics, governance, and sociology). All of these ensured a multiperspective view on the phenomenon, enabled constructive bilateral and critical conversations among the research team, this ensuring reflexivity.

RESULTS
WESA and ESBD pursue different legitimacy seeking strategies. And not every strategy is equally relevant. Selection and creation are not as relevant as conformance and manipulation. Although the two organizations are located in German cities (i.e., the ESL as the founder of WESA in Cologne and ESBD in Berlin), a choice of geographical location as a strategy was not identified. Furthermore, creation is not applicable according to the initial definition (refer Table 1), although conformance and creation are difficult to separate. However, our results show more of a transfer or alignment with existing norms than creating new structures.
Each association will be analyzed individually to ensure a transparent and structured reporting of our results. The following similarities could be identified.

Common Legitimacy Strategies
A legitimacy-seeking strategy shared by both WESA and ESBD is to transfer structures from traditional sports to esports. Results show a common orientation toward established associations in traditional sports as part of conformance as a strategy: "A traditional sports association has a great deal of knowhow in many areas, which is also reflected in esports." (Int_7; Esports Event Organizer). According to our analysis, this concerns different fields: the adaption of primary organizational forms, the proclamation of representing members' interests, and establishing tournaments and leagues. In addition, both organizations choose the organizational form of a registered non-profit association. WESA, as a more professional and international organization, is registered in Switzerland, as many international sports associations. ESBD is registered in Germany, similar to national sports associations. All the associations examined are formally constituted by a general statute, a purpose, and an executive board. Above all, the purpose is formulated with a clear non-profit orientation in both associations' statutes. While the statutes of ESBD are accessible on the association's website, WESA statutes are not accessible to the general public. We obtained WESA statutes from the commercial register in Switzerland.
The associations formulated goals to promote esports in general and create overarching standards. WESA focuses on regulating tournaments and leagues on a professional level. ESBD tries to cover talent development and setting standards mainly for amateur esports. Both consider themselves as responsible for dealing with their respective members and interests. This internal structure corresponds to that of most traditional sports associations. "ESBD sees itself as an association of esports clubs and active players. [. . . ] I try to help strengthen esports' social position, make proven structures from traditional sports fruitful in esports, and bridge the gap between the classic world of sports and esports. There is a lot to learn from each other [. . . ]." (Int_9; Esports Association) Again, both associations imitate strategies from traditional sports organizations, described by conformance as a strategy. One interviewee refers to WESA as the "champions league of esports" which "is also organized according to the classic methods of sports marketing and sports organization." (Int_9; Esports Association) Second, besides adapting established associational structures, we identified manipulation as another strategy pursued by both associations. More precisely, both associations created partnerships with well-established organizations. More details are presented separately for WESA and ESBD in the results section. The selection of partners is based on the objectives pursued. Partnerships are predominantly only established if they are advantageous for the targeted organizational environment of the association. WESA mainly focuses on commercial stakeholders. ESBD tries to improve connections to national and local governments and politicians as powerful actors in the German sports governance (Kurscheidt and Deitersen-Wieber, 2011). Conversely, other stakeholders do not consider associations as beneficial partners: "I do not think an association [. . . ] would help us at the moment if we would work with them." (Int_6; Professional Esports Team).
The following two subsections will reflect each association by focusing on activities and strategies in the pursuit of legitimacy.

World ESports Association (WESA)
WESA was founded in 2016 as "the result of joint efforts between industry-leading professional esports teams and ESL." ESL is a German esports organizer and production company that produces video game competitions worldwide and is the self-proclaimed "world's largest esports company" (World ESports Association, 2022). The eight founding esports teams were Fnatic, Natus Vincere, EnVyUs, Virtus.pro, G2 Esports, FaZe, Mousesports, and Ninjas in Pyjamas. At its peak, there were 13 teams. The opening statement on the WESA website proclaims WESA as an "open and inclusive organization that will further professionalize esports by introducing elements of player representation, standardized regulations, and revenue sharing for teams." (World ESports Association, 2022).
WESA's primary purpose is to serve the economic driven goals of the parent organization, ESL. Hence, the power of WESA teams is limited. Analyzing further cooperation with other profitoriented and beneficial companies emphasizes this perception. WESA affiliated teams financially benefit from their membership and have representation on WESA's decision-making groups. According to one interview partner: "WESA was then the first attempt to say, 'Hey, we are forming a community with teams, and from now on, we will work together with the teams, who will then also have a veto in [. . . ] the supervisory board or in the committee.' (Int_8; Esports Event Organizer) Nevertheless, three out of six WESA board members are ESL representatives, ensuring ESL interests are protected and maximized. WESA is focused only on elite/professional esports. Non elite and or amateur esports is not a consideration. Professional teams are the only organizations affiliated to WESA. Publishers are best described as partner organizations, but not members or affiliated organizations of the league/association. The underlying concept is an economically oriented business model to achieve financial goals: "WESA is a commercial institution that aims to bring together the world's best esports teams, bind them, and organize competitions on this platform [. . . ]. Thus, it is a commercial marketing platform, a commercial league structure/platform that is focused on making money [. . . ]." (Int_9; Esports Association) Also important to WESA ecosystem are the streaming providers relevant because they broadcast and pay for the matches organized by ESL. The nature of esports also makes it necessary for WESA to partner with game publishers. The Pro League for Counter-Strike: Global Offensive (published by Valve Corporation) was established in 2016, and in 2017 for Paladins: Champions of the Realm (published by Hi-Rez Studios). However, neither publisher is a WESA member. In this context, one interviewee described WESA as a "Swiss army knife of league organization, hopefully attracting as many publishers and media partners as possible in the future. That is potentially a nine-digit million-dollar business." (Int_9; Esports Association).
Establishing networks to relevant stakeholders of the ecosystem belongs to the theoretical concept of manipulation.
WESA's ability to acquire legitimacy was impacted by decisions of certain esports teams to not affiliate. For example, leading non-German Counter-Strike teams such as Astralis, Vitality, or Team Liquid are not members. Domestically, also absent was Berlin International Gaming (BIG).
According to our data, WESA does not try to connect to other stakeholders outside the esports ecosystem. We found no evidence of lobbying local, national, or supranational governments or traditional sports organizations. WESA does not pursue manipulation strategies toward fans and viewers, although it explicitly addresses all participants in the esports ecosystem. These stakeholders are served indirectly as the focus of WESA is on "what interests the consumers" (Int_9; Esports Association).
In 2020, the ESL established the Louvre Agreement, which, amongst other things, excluded WESA as the league's governing body. Since the Louvre Agreement was announced, neither the news section of the website or its twitter feed have been updated. Even though WESA seems inactive, those in charge want to continue organizing other game titles under the association's umbrella (ESL Gaming GmbH, 2020;The Esports Observer, 2020).
Furthermore, at the beginning of 2021, Hi-Rez Studios-the developer and publisher of Paladins-withdrew its involvement in esports (including the Paladins Pro Circuit) to focus on improving Paladins as a game as distinct from esports. WESA did not publish any statement on this decision. Moreover, it is unknown to what extent WESA was involved in this decision. WESA's legitimacy was always limited given it was linked to only two game titles. However, the loss of Paladins exacerbated the situation.
Our analysis shows that WESA was a reliable and essential regulatory body for the target group. This created a platform for different stakeholders (Buser et al., 2022), including professional esports teams. The autonomy of WESA can indeed be doubted given it was founded by ESL. With the integration of commercial companies, WESA represents a closed system and, thus, ensures the economic success of ESL. The withdrawal of WESA as a regulatory body for the two ESL Pro leagues proves the organization's dependence on the ESL.
In summary, the legitimacy of WESA derives from both its members (professional esports teams) and the competitive league structures (in cooperation with the ESL and broadcasters like Facebook). Due to the Louvre Agreement, the organization lost the latter within a year. Teaming up with traditional sports is not considered. Furthermore, there is no political lobbying to meet the association's goals. Results suggest that the organization mainly uses manipulation as a legitimacy seeking strategy. Integrating professional esports teams into a closed, for-profit system is the main focus of WESA to build legitimacy.
However, a focus on specific stakeholder groups results in a lack of acceptance for the organization from the outside. Allegations of corruption due to their dependency on ESL will not enhance external stakeholders' perceptions of WESA's legitimacy. The lack of persuasion in publisher support for their activities indicates a further lack of recognition beyond their organization and members. The decision by Hi-Rez Studios to withdraw Paladins from the ESL Pro League reinforces this statement. As mentioned above, the statutes are not open to public inspection, which further contributes to a low level of transparency.

ESport-Bund Deutschland e.V. (ESBD)
ESBD considers itself as the association responsible for organized esports in Germany. The aim is bring order to the fragmented German esports landscape. Our results show that ESBD is strongly oriented toward the structures of member associations from traditional sports: "ESBD is a traditional association. Just like sports associations." (Int_9; Esports Association). Accordingly, conformance as a strategy to gain legitimacy can be observed, as they imitate structures from legitimate sports associations. The alignment with internal structures of traditional sports associations has already been mentioned above.
ESBD is focused on implementing the pyramidal-hierarchical structure evident within the traditional sports system. (Self-)organized amateur esports form the basis of this system, but ESBD has also sought links with professional teams: "Yes, they have already been here. We talked to them once, but they are more traditional in terms of grassroots sports." (Int_6; Professional Esports Team). According to our interview partner, no further cooperation was established, because ESBD could not offer anything to the professional team.
Since 2019, ESBD established an amateur league for association-registered grassroots teams. In establishing the league, ESBD sought a broad and unique competition structure for amateur and non-elite players. ESBD wanted to make selforganized competitions redundant, by providing a transparent and credible league system. Amateur teams compete in four disciplines: Counter-Strike: Global Offensive, StarCraft II, Rocket League, and League of Legends. As an ESBD member, the ESL acts as the league's organizer. In traditional German sports, the associations organize competitions and set their rules with international federations (Chappelet, 2010). ESBD leagues are not connected to professional leagues and neither do they attract all amateur teams. Therefore, setting up an own league for amateur clubs is a kind of mimicry related to the strategy of conformance and not creation, as they are not successfully created structures or rules.
ESBD seeks to have a cooperative relationship with the traditional sports system: "Overall, we are striving for a collaborative relationship with traditional sports and its structures in the short and mediumterm: the mutual exchange of expertise and experience is independent of any possible organizational integration into the organized sport and can be expanded through concrete cooperation and joint projects." (eSport-Bund Deutschland e.V., 2018b).
The activities in this area are many and varied. For example, ESBD supports traditional sports clubs that have integrated esports as a separate division. The main goal of this cooperation is to transfer traditional sports organizational knowledge to esports, for example, standards of training organization or the integration of voluntary work.
"The goal of these cooperations is to actively shape the integration of esports into sports society, to transfer sports organizational knowledge from the traditional area e.g., training design, integrity assurance, volunteer organization, and to make this knowledge available for the continuous further development of esportsboth in terms of sports and society." (eSport-Bund Deutschland e.V., 2018b).
Besides conformance, ESBD uses manipulation in the pursuit of legitimacy by focusing on partnerships across esports. Partnering with successful and well-established organizations generate a higher impact and growth (Zimmerman and Zeitz, 2002). Alliances with professional teams (e.g., Berlin International Gaming, Unicorns of Love), event organizers (e.g., ESL, Freaks 4U Gaming), and amateur esports clubs (e.g., Leipzig eSports e.V., Magdeburg eSports e.V.) are part of their network to generate potential synergies. Membership is granted upon application. Applicants must either be an organizer of an esports gaming operation or actively participate in such.
In another legitimacy seeking action, ESBD sought and became affiliated with the newly founded European Esports Federation, as well as the International Esports Federation. As one interviewee noted, ESBD "took the leadership" toward this development (Int_9; Esports Association). This is a strategy of conformance, as it copies the hierarchical structures of traditional sports.
In terms of lobbying and public relations work, ESBD tries to strengthen its position. According to our results, politics plays an essential role in this context. ESBD initially focused on regional and national political institutions as well as essential decisionmakers to generate an understanding of esports and its essential functions and structures among the general public: "The social acceptance for esports exists, and it is strong. We now want to achieve a sustainable and deep integration of esports. To this end, we will initially accompany politics in particular on this core topic." (eSport-Bund Deutschland e.V., 2018a).
In particular, press releases and news items suggest that the most critical issue in cooperation with political decision-makers is the recognition of esports as a sports activity. ESBD's involvement in political events and debates are content of these published items. This goal has been pursued vigorously since the associations' foundation until today without only modest success. ESBD proclaimed a small victory, when in 2019, German immigration law was revised to provide esports athletes with the same visa and travel requirements as elite athletes. WESA also participated in this lobbying campaign, motivated by more streamlined processes to bring non-German esports athletes to Germany to play in events. This concession raises esports, at least in this respect, to the same level as other sports-one of ESBDs main approaches for legitimacy. The press statement concerning this topic expressed ESBD's pursuit for legitimacy. ESBD emphasize the importance of their success, even if the effect is limited, especially for an amateur organization. However, they proclaim: "The visa issue has blocked the development of the German esports landscape for years." (eSport-Bund Deutschland e.V., 2019).
In summary, our results show that emerging esports associations in Germany use conformance and manipulation as major legitimacy strategies. This is manifested by aligning their associational structures to those evident in traditional sports organizations and the implementation of beneficial networks to enhance stakeholder perceptions of legitimacy. Both interviews and documents provided equal evidence of the two associations' approaches. Table 4 provides an overview of the complementary use of the two sources and an excerpt of additional exemplary statements that highlight conformance and manipulation strategies used by the associations.

DISCUSSION
This study sought to identifying the legitimacy strategies pursued by German-based esports associations. The remainder of this discussion is divided into three subsections. In the first two sections, conformance, and manipulation are discussed as legitimacy-creating strategies. The third section discusses the stakeholder-oriented approach of associations, which offers them a unique proposition in the fragmented esports landscape. Constructs from the scientific literature support our reasoning.

Does Institutional Isomorphism Always Legitimize?
In traditional sports, there are independent, self-regulating, and non-profit-oriented (global) organizations that are well accepted as the legitimate governing body for each sports (Croci and Forster, 2004;Chappelet, 2010). It is therefore unsurprising that new esports associations start to exhibit the same characteristics of these organizations. Both WESA and ESBD use conformance to establish a transparent and basic structure for their organization. The associations examined are characterized by their constitution with statutes, articles, and standard binding and longer-term goals, varying to represent members' interests. The establishment and support of leagues are inherent to associations from traditional sports. The associations' approach reflects mimetic isomorphism (DiMaggio and Powell, 1983). Uncertainty about the future and the uncertain survival of an organization encourages it to align with dominant organizations and their structure and actions: "When goals are ambiguous, or when the environment creates symbolic uncertainty, organizations may model themselves on other organizations." (DiMaggio and Powell, 1983, p. 151). This isomorphism usually achieves a taken-for-grantedness that finally secures legitimacy.
Our results suggest that the transfer of structures from traditional sports does not necessarily ensure legitimacy. This

Strategy and characteristics Source
Interviews Documents Conformance -Positioning in an existing institutional regime -Considering demands and expectations of existing structures or influential stakeholders -Align with already existing norms and rules […] As I said, the way they build up the whole casting around esports is one hundred percent copied from traditional sports or partly improved from those areas, and therefore it all looks very professional at the moment. (Int_8; Eports Marketer) Establish a structure that ensures that everyone deals with each other in a cultured and decent manner. That is what a traditional sports association wants to do-it also wants to ensure we are healthier and good taxpayers. That is what an esports association also strives for […]. (Int_9; Esports Association) We co-founded ESBD, have a permanent seat on its board, and are trying to work together with the teams, both amateur and professional, to professionalize esports in Germany, to further strengthen it, and to establish guidelines. In other words, to create standards so that esports in Germany can continue to grow. (Int_7; Esports Event Organizer) As is familiar from traditional sports, there is also a pyramid-like organization in esports: the basis, the foundation, is formed by the players, who deal with the esports titles individually, on gaming platforms and networks, often online, and enter into the active gameplay (eSport-Bund Deutschland e.V., 2018b) Based on similar traditional sports associations, WESA is an open and inclusive organization that will further professionalize esports by introducing elements of player representation, standardized regulations, and revenue shares for teams (World ESports Association, 2022) The eSport-Bund Deutschland (ESBD) has continuously promoted easier entry conditions for esport athletes and already succeeded in implementing short-term visas last year (eSport-Bund Deutschland e.V., 2020)

Manipulation
-Counter existing cultural beliefs -Influencing social expectations using strategic instruments of public relations, e.g., lobbying or teaming up with already well-established organizations -Proactive promulgation of new destructive needs beneficial to the organization

[…] politics must develop an understanding […]
of what esports is, the needs of those who practice it, the barriers, and the needs that politics must also address. (Int_9; Esports Association) Yes, and then they would have to start [...] to become active. Sitting in the VIP area is, I think, quite lovely, but it does not help the community because you cannot get to know them, you cannot have controversial discussions. (Int_3; Esports Athlete) Moreover, WESA was then the first attempt to say: Hey, we are forming a community along with the teams and working together with the teams from now on, who will also have a veto in the [...] supervisory board or the committee. (Int_7; Esports Event Organizer) The state government is asked to support and accompany the dialog between esports and traditional sports, including the recognition of esports as an eligible sport within the meaning of § 2 No. 1 of the statutes of the Landessportbund-while respecting the autonomy of the sport (Landtag von Sachsen-Anhalt, 2018) WESA will aim to incorporate more Teams and leagues, and will always work very closely with game publishers to include more games in the future (World ESports Association, 2022) YouTube will be the new streaming partner for Pro League Seasons 5 and 6 and will exclusively stream the English-language broadcast (World ESports Association, 2017) refers mainly to associational work in an esports ecosystem dominated by game publishers. Legitimacy-a resource nearly always evident in the associations responsible for traditional sports-cannot be acquired by esports associations through simple imitation. Even if the associations orientate toward structures from traditional sports, this does not simultaneously mean an increase in legitimacy as a simple transfer is not practicable (Kelly et al., 2022). Thus, a rigid institutional isomorphism is not likely to be successful. Case-specific and the nuanced use of imitation, which reflect the particularities of esports, will likely generate superior outcomes (Sahlin and Wedlin, 2013).

Manipulation-A Fragile Bubble
Besides conformance, we identified manipulation as a strategy used by esports associations in the pursuit of legitimacy. Manipulation goes beyond pure conformity and environmental selection as organizations promulgate their distinctive needs and new approaches to operating cultural environments (Ashforth and Gibbs, 1990;Aldrich and Fiol, 1994). Our results show that the success of a manipulation strategy depends on the fundamental orientation of associations. In particular, ESBD uses the strategy to achieve its goals. While both associations build a network of profitable partnerships, only ESBD engages in political lobbying. The news items published underline this approach and, thus, highlight the associations' policy-oriented PR strategy to justify their requirements. Therefore, the proof of legitimacy is provided by constant demands on politicians since the associations must initiate consensual actions due to the various interest groups involved. Decision-makers, partners, and members are carefully selected and addressed. WESA is exceptional in this context as its monopolistic network was formed around specific game titles without the need for government support.
Partnerships and lobbying are inevitably accompanied increased dependence. According to our observations, most objectives can only be reached and implemented by or through governmental involvement. Even though politics is not integrated into WESA's approach, the association was critically dependent on the support of a single stakeholder, ESL.
The effectiveness of the manipulation approach to gain legitimacy is speculative. If the associations are not restricted in their objectives, nothing can be said against linking their work with their partners in politics and business. The dependencies raise concerns about the long-term sustainability of the cooperation. Because of a missed target achievement, even involved stakeholders might doubt the legitimacy of the respective associations. Conversely, this also means a loss of legitimacy for the association as "such proactive cultural manipulation is less controllable, less common, and, consequently, far less understood than either conformity or environment selection." (Suchman, 1995, p. 591). We would even argue that the activities pursued to implement the manipulation strategy are fragile bubbles that threaten to burst at the slightest setback.

Differentiation by Creating Stakeholder-Related Legitimacy
Organizations without legitimized activities are often viewed as unnecessary by their respective stakeholders (Meyer and Rowan, 1977). Therefore, the organization's legitimacy is closely linked to how stakeholders evaluate these activities and the added value they generate. Due to the diversity of esports with different games and genres, it is almost impossible to bundle all stakeholders in one overarching umbrella organization (Abanazir, 2018). "So, you definitely need some kind of USP. On the one hand, we have WESA, which concentrates on a single game title. That is one way. On the other side, we have ESBD focused on a certain regional USP. You must limit yourself because esports, in general, is so complex and big with all the publishers, games, and agents [. . . ]. It is hardly feasible to provide an all-encompassing association." (Int_7; Esports Event Organizer).
According to our findings, associations have recognized the need for such differentiation and focus on unique goals and activities. In addition, their actions are targeted to specific stakeholders to develop their own unique (sales) propositions. We are convinced that this differentiated approach can be successful in practice. Given the fragmented esports landscape, associations in esports need to focus on selected sub-areas, genres, or disciplines. This focus creates an orderly environment for stakeholders in a disorderly novel phenomenon and generates stakeholderrelated legitimacy, which is a fruitful approach, according to Kelly et al. (2022). These bodies "must implement their own governance strategies and seek to legitimize those strategies in the eyes of relevant stakeholders." (Kelly et al., 2022, p. 154). Despite serving different stakeholders, associations are also increasingly corporate to achieve common overarching goals, as demonstrated by the call for uniform visa standards, the development of beneficial partnerships, or the linkages of ESBD to other associations at the international level. Therefore, our results also confirm the assumption of Peng et al. (2020, p. 11) as "although struggling with legitimacy issues, new esports governance alliances are following a trend of moving away from fragmentation to a network administration organization (NAO) model." Such a model offers the possibility to bundle common interests and enables a strategic approach in line with the overall network goals. The mentioned legitimacy problems have been highlighted in more detail in this study and the strategies used by associations to counter them. Although we cannot evaluate the intensity of cooperation, a tendency toward cooperation with as many other partners as possible to build up profitable networks is evident.
Due to their short existence, no statements can be made about the extent to which associations can establish themselves in the future as legitimate and recognized organizations while focusing on unique approaches. The degradation of WESA and its inactivity since 2020 indicates typical issues an association has to deal with in the emerging and dynamic field of esports: the dependency on (political) partners and stakeholders and, overall, a lack of publisher support for their activities. In addition, the question of the general need for associations in esports remains, accompanied by a lack of support from external stakeholders and the general public. Therefore, the associational work in esports is stuck in the middle, somewhere between publisher dominance on the one hand and the striving for independent structures on the other hand. Whether the assumed legitimation strategies of conformance and manipulation will be sufficient to solve these issues in the future can only be speculated at this point.
The pioneering work of associations has already initiated essential steps toward the future of esports. We can determine that the associations promote growth and raise awareness of their work. These actions try to create a certain level of order in a previously fragmented esports landscape with loose clans, confusing competitive structures, and a lack of responsibilities for target groups.

CONCLUSION AND IMPLICATIONS
Our study contributes to a better understanding of how (for-profit) leagues and self-proclaimed (non-profit) national governing bodies pursue legitimacy. In the context of limited academic discussion of governance in esports, our results generate preliminary but important managerial, policy, and theoretical implications.

Management Implications
Our findings have implications for management to help associations further consider and rethink their strategic direction. A simple transfer of governance structures from traditional sports to esports is unsuitable (Kelly et al., 2022). Associations need to be more selective and find unique and targeted approaches rather than strive for an esports' all-encompassing governance solution (Sahlin and Wedlin, 2013). Thus, the associations have the chance to fill niches that remain unoccupied by publishers due to their profit-oriented focus. These blind spots (Peng et al., 2020) can be addressed with innovative approaches and individual target group-oriented solutions like new competitive structures (e.g., WESA) or a focus on amateur esports (e.g., ESBD). By filling the niches, associations reach individual stakeholders, creating stakeholder-driven legitimacy. The associations' work and orientation thus serve not only as a service for stakeholders but also for publishers, enabling them to focus on their core business, the distribution and marketing of their games. Associations need to accept publisher dominance. Their dominance is not challengeable. Instead, collaborative dialogue and exchange with publishers may establish a mutual understanding and enhance each other's legitimacy. The associations are operating in a highly competitive environment. Various stakeholders are striving for a position in this financially lucrative ecosystem. Esports associations must think more economically and entrepreneurially than associations in traditional sports. Focusing on specific stakeholders creates a space where publishers and other acting stakeholders can cooperate, benefit from each other, and coexist in a fragmented environment.

Policy Implications
The institutional development of esports is barely comparable to those of long-established traditional sports. The fragmented environment with different games, genres, and stakeholders and the regulating power of the publishers characterizes esports unique structure (Scholz, 2019). Esports associations operate in a highly profit-oriented environment in which they must constantly prove their raison d'être, especially their economic value to commercial organizations. In contrast to traditional sports, esports associations cannot rely on a taken-for-granted legitimacy (Croci and Forster, 2004). The legitimacy of esports associations must be earned. In this context, we consider esports to be a blueprint for many subsequent sports that are confronted with comparably fragmented and developing governance structures. Our insights and the observed narratives have therefore policy implications for emerging sports, such as boardsports (Strittmatter et al., 2019). Esports is a growing ecosystem with rapid developments during the last decades. Governing organizations did not develop to the same extent. Like other emerging sports, institutionalized rules and organizations must be established over time.

Theoretical Implications
Our research finally contributes to the organizational theory literature on associations in a profit-driven environment by identifying possible strategies these organizations use to pursue legitimacy. Suchman (1995) and Zimmerman and Zeitz (2002) propose four strategies: conformance, manipulation, selection, and creation. According to our findings and related to our case, conformance and manipulation are relevant strategies for esports associations to gain legitimacy. However, in the esports context, this legitimacy is often stakeholder-related and arises from focusing on individual stakeholder groups in a fragmented ecosystem where all-encompassing governance is not appropriate (Abanazir, 2018;Peng et al., 2020). More generally, the ongoing legitimacy discussion on esports governance is actually caused by the representatives of the esports ecosystem themself due to a conceptual and cultural annexation of the sport concept. The term "esports" per se implies a connection to traditional sports and the associated structures although the basic meaning just refers to the competitive, sports-like mode how video games are played. The accompanying expectations regarding a need for regulation and the associated commitment to institutionalization are the inevitable result. In the esports industry, however, partial legitimacy prevails, unevenly distributed among the relevant actors and their associated interests and rights in the ecosystem. Following our policy implications, which apply to comparable governance challenges in many new and emerging sports (e.g., Strittmatter et al., 2019), we recommend considering this novel construct of a partial legitimacy in the field of organization sociology and specifically in institutional theory. We recognize this as a gap in the literature and a need to extend theories on legitimacy creation.

Limitations and Future Research
The present study provides valuable insights into legitimacy strategies esports associations pursue to ensure their survival and discusses associational work in a profit-driven business. However, several shortcomings must be pointed out, providing a basis for future research.
Despite nine interviews with esports stakeholders, it would be particularly desirable to include publishers in future research. It would be insightful to learn how publishers perceive associations. Hence, future research should examine the relationship between associations and publishers in more detail to uncover possible linkages. This supports the approach proposed in the management implications. A further limitation relates to the selected documents, representing a favorable perspective on the associations' work as we focused on primary documents published by the associations themselves. Accordingly, not all internal and external debates are depicted. The official statements only hint at the debates but limit us to a further interpretation. At the same time, this approach limits the number of fruitful documents to those published and approved by the associations. Nevertheless, the selected documents as primary sources provide valuable and meaningful insights into the two associations' actions which was the major purpose of this study.
This article focuses primarily on how associations use strategies to gain legitimacy in a first step. However, this is not sufficient for an organization to ensure its survival. In addition to gaining it, maintaining the achieved legitimacy and the ability to repair it in an unforeseen crisis are further challenges for organizations. For this purpose, different strategies are suggested in the literature (e.g., Suchman, 1995), which should be investigated. We moreover acknowledge that the legitimacy strategies are not always clearly distinguishable. In particular, conformance and creation are difficult to separate. Observed activities such as establishing uniform visa standards for esports athletes, and the foundation of leagues are possible creation approaches. In our interpretation, neither activity creates unique and new structures. Instead, they adapt structures from traditional sports, although similar league formats have not previously existed in esports.
In addition, the intercultural and international transferability of findings obtained in our study may be restricted. An association's legitimacy is likely to be country-dependent. Also crucial in this context is the general acceptance of esports in this respective environment. A recognition facilitates the associations' work and enables them to benefit from various resources from traditional sports (e.g., tax benefits or subsidies). Thus, the transferability of the results can only be guaranteed by extending the study to other countries.
As previously mentioned, the community has a historically shaped self-image in esports, as many statements confirm in our interviews. Donnelly (2013) argues that the democratization of sport by involving fans and players offers a variety of potential outcomes for the further development of a sport. Hence, the community's perception and attitude toward different governance models (with, e.g., a national, global, gameand/or team-based focus) require further examination, for instance, by larger-scale interview and survey methods or novel approaches for digitalized social environments, such as netnography.
Finally, we stress the complexity of esports. Our review of the literature has shown that complexity of the esports ecosystem has not been addressed adequately. Perhaps esports needs to be generalized and developed as a distinct research field to provide a holistic picture of the esports landscape. This includes associational structures, various game titles and genres, the different communities, the game publishers, and many other aspects and actors. We expect that academic interest in esports will continue to grow.

DATA AVAILABILITY STATEMENT
The raw data supporting the conclusions of this article will be made available by the authors, without undue reservation.

AUTHOR CONTRIBUTIONS
HH and MK were responsible for the conceptualization and design of the study. HH and CB were involved in the collection and analysis of the data. All authors listed contributed to the study, manuscript development, and approved the submitted version.


Exploring Cognitive Processes of Knowledge Acquisition to Upgrade Academic Practices

The development of cognitive functions follows certain pathways through brain maturation. Concepts taught at school can be reinforced by understanding the related cognitive functions that enhance learning. The cultural and social diversities faced by the education system worldwide can be solved by understanding the unifying cognitive processes of learning. This knowledge can be effectively used to devise better curriculum and training for students. Cognition, conation, and emotional regulation are the main components that determine an individual’s efficiency to deal with various situations. How the brain receives input, perceives, and organizes these information lays the foundation for learning. The objectives of the study were (i) to explore age-group specific inputs for knowledge acquisition, (ii) to relate knowledge organization to the cognitive processes, and (iii) to identify factors that strengthen the knowledge ensemble through subject-domain allied training. The review focused on studies related to elementary school age (below 7 years), middle school age (7–12 years), and high school age (12 years and above). Published journal articles related to the objectives were randomly reviewed to establish a possible relationship. The findings of this review can help to advance student learning practices and instructional strategies. The findings are listed below. (i) Acquisition of knowledge during early childhood is based on sensory-motor integration on which attentional, perceptual, memory, language, and socialization systems develop. As brain development progresses toward adolescence, meta-awareness and social-emotional cognition influence the student learning process. (ii) Knowledge representations can be strengthened by domain-specific training inputs. (iii) Associational integration of the developmental, cognitive, and conative processes are indicators of curriculum strength. (iv) The strengthening of cognitive processes by rerouting through complementary neural circuitry, such as music, arts, real-life-based experiments, and physical exercises, is an effective way to improve child-friendly instructions.

SECTION 1: THE BACKGROUND: DEVELOPMENTAL PROCESSES RELATED TO KNOWLEDGE ORGANIZATION
Our education system is based on the processes of learning that emphasize the reciprocal interaction between biological and environmental influences. The period of preschool to adolescence is marked by intensive psychological changes associated with central nervous system maturation. Learning concepts is one of the main developmental tasks that coincide with this period. It includes cognitive, behavioral, and conative factors. Cognitive functions are the framework on which a knowledge system develops, whereas conative factors like motivation and emotional state modulate the learning behavior. Understanding these functions can support the processes of learning, teaching, and making policy changes in education (Varma et al., 2008).
The learning process brings changes related to the ability, creativity, flexibility, and self-regulation of an individual. Schematic knowledge representations acquired by experiences make every human brain unique. Fischer and Bullock (1984) suggested that macro developmental changes, such as growth and maturation, are universal, while micro developmental changes, such as individual differences, are individualistic. Efforts made by Epstein (2001) helped to stratify the development of milestones based on vertical and horizontal decalages for formulating training strategies. Advances in imaging techniques have provided more insights about the development of brain circuits at the cellular, molecular, and structural levels. Normal development of brain circuits is influenced by genetic predisposition, environmental situations, and neuroplastic response to experiential demands (Tau and Peterson, 2010). Cognitive abilities and related behavioral regulations are developed within these circuits, so also are knowledge systems. This article reviews the developmental aspects of brain maturation that enable us to understand knowledge acquisition in school students. The age-wise cognitive requirements are described to frame the curriculum for providing effective training.
The objectives of the study were to explore knowledge organization by review of research related to influences of environment on the acquisition, mapping of knowledge organization, and methods to advance academic practices. Knowledge acquisition for the purpose of this study consists of experiences and the conceptual framework required for incorporating new information. School curriculum can be enhanced by making the knowledge acquisition process more favorable to students. To understand these processes, the information has been compiled under the following subheadings in this section: (a) Influences of environment on brain development, (b) knowledge organization, and (c) upgrading academic practices based on knowledge organization. Scientific articles published in peer-reviewed journals and textbooks were randomly referred for this purpose.

a. Environment and Its Influence on Brain Development
The uniqueness of every individual depends on the approach of perceiving information present in the environment and its synchronized processing at the cognitive level. The environment and experience exert a major influence on the brain functions related to knowledge development. The cumulated impact of biological preparedness (experience-expectant plasticity) and conducive environment (experience-dependent), which includes biological maturation and educational experiences, respectively, affects learning (Goswami, 2008). Studies indicate that the development of neural circuits depends on environmental stimulation during sensitive periods (Tau and Peterson, 2010). The interaction of multiple brain systems related to concept learning mechanisms adapts category structures and motivational states that are modulated by experiences (Zeithmavo et al., 2019).
These sensitive periods are critical to prove the dependence of experience on plasticity. New synapses are formed based on varied experiences that strengthen the brain circuits. Cortical thinning, myelination, and experience-dependent remodeling of neural circuits are known factors that predict cognitive functions. Maturational trajectories for affective development and its regulation can be extended through enriching experiences, unlike the other sensory motor systems (Hartley and Lee, 2015). The human brain creates knowledge by integrating cues with social context (Bolisani and Bratianu, 2018). The physical, cognitive, psychosexual, and moral maturation determine a child's future adaptability in the environment (Volkmar and Martin, 2009). Exposure to chronic stress accelerates cellular aging and faster maturation due to repeated use of stress detection and stress regulation circuitry (Tooley et al., 2021).
Psycho-social theories also support the role of the environment on cognitive development. Vygotsky emphasized on the "cognitive cultural heritage" that the child receives from the adults (Tomic and Kingma, 1996). Social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1970) explained how events are perceived, interpreted, and learned by an individual. Learners are hence predisposed to learn incidentally, explicitly, or implicitly through the influence of learning conditions (Robinson, 2011).
The role of environmental stimulation on the sensory integration process, language stimulation, behavior modeling, brain maturation, and above all, the cognitive cultural heritage is well established. The emergence of functional networks corresponding to environmental demands is an interesting idea that can be researched in the future.

b. Knowledge Organization
Inputs related to knowledge organization require an understanding of the neural activation through multi-sensory experiences, development of motor and language, and socialemotional adaptability. The curriculum consists of concept knowledge and related tacit knowledge. Conceptual knowledge is the relational representations of core principles about general and abstract knowledge (Schneider et al., 2011), whereas tacit knowledge is implicit and includes attitudes, feelings, and experiences that define how one learns to behave in various situations. Object knowledge is stored as sensory-derived knowledge or language and cognition-derived knowledge as testified in congenitally blind individuals. Abstract concepts are stored in associated sensory, emotional, and complex event experiences (Wang et al., 2020). Most theories support the view that networks for space, time, and number are intertwined at birth. The relation between space and number that is observed in a new-born child is found to have a high correlation with motor behavior and visual system (McCrink and Opfer, 2014). The interaction of visual pathways and limbic system aids in visual recognition memory (Kotrla and Weinberger, 2000). Primary sensory inputs in the form of auditory and visual stimuli play an important role in the development of attentional and perceptual processes (Ackerman, 1993), which is the foundation for creating phonological awareness in children. Stimulation during critical periods of development influences cortical organization and plasticity. Synaptogenesis happens only later in the anterior regions of the brain, including the prefrontal cortex (Huttenlocher, 1984). Tau and Peterson (2010) functionally analyzed the development of neural circuits during late childhood and adolescence and reported its influence on self-regulation and cognitive control.
Every activity forms a corresponding network of patterns that creates sensory inputs, thoughts, emotions, and motor responses (Bouchard, 2005). Knowledge networks are thus mapped based on the representations formed during the early developmental phases. Neural circuits subserving primary sensory-motor areas mature earlier, followed by attentional processes, and socio-emotional functioning occur at a later stage. Bottini and Doeller (2020) identified that conceptual knowledge is organized in hippocampus-based knowledge frames that provide inputs related to world-centered representations (cognitive maps). Self centered spatial schemas based in parietal cortex are body centered, sensory-motor grounded, and attention mediated high level cognition. These two representations play a crucial role in goal-oriented cognition, analogical thinking, generalization, and structuring of abstract conceptual domains. Time, number, valence, and socioemotional ties are low-dimensional ego-centric schemas derived from sensory-motor experiences (Bottini and Doeller, 2020). Schemas are relational knowledge that connects the realworld higher cognition in a logical sequence by providing an integrative framework for inference, categorization, quantification, planning, language, working memory, and knowledge acquisition (Halford et al., 2010). Researches indicate the strength of functional connectivity of frontal, parietal, occipital, and limbic lobes to the integration of information (Semrud-Clikeman, 2010).
The knowledge schemas are representations stored in ways as perceived along the developmental course. Academic concept networks are formed on the relational association that includes biological predisposition, stimulation from the external world, and formation of concept-linking functions. Hence, structuring knowledge acquisition and organization through the curriculum will define its utilization.

c. Upgrading Academic Practices Based on Knowledge Organization
Cognitive processes related to academic concept formation are acquisition, assimilation, generalization, and association of information. The role of sensory-motor integration, spatial encoding, and associating to existing networks are the main adaptive features related to academic learning. Thomas et al. (2019) summarized eight interacting learning systems in the brain, namely memorizing episodic and autobiographical memory, perceptuo-motor areas for spatial and temporal patterns, classical conditioning associations, integration of planning and emotions, the reward-based systems, procedural learning systems, learning by modeling, and language construction systems.
Enhancing aptitude in academics can be gained by nurturing specific cognitive skills in students. Curriculum that aids in sharing the core cognitive elements between tasks can facilitate the transfer of learning. Information related to training students, discussed below based on research conclusions, bring more insights. Activities linked to core identifying factors like gross and fine motor representations and music training, body kinesthesis, creative writing, and arts can improve concepts in math and science. Relating the concept of musical rhythm with spatial cues of time, prosody, aesthetics, symmetry, and emotions is found to improve numerical cognition in developmental dyslexia (Ribeiro and Santos, 2020). Children who have undergone early music training before 10 years of age are found to have a high degree of sensory-motor integration that can enhance plasticity during the sensitive period (Penhune, 2011). Involving students in these activities will improve their academic skills in math, science, spatial ability, problem-solving, and logical understanding. Exposure to sound rhyming patterns in early years improved phonological development and reading fluency during school years (Goswami, 2008). The role of experience in human development is to integrate the similarities in the streams of information through exposure, linguistic prompts, and motor plans. Focus on domain-general cognitive processes, which includes logical reasoning, heuristics, and problemsolving strategies, develops creative thinking in school children (Newcombe et al., 2009).
Math training based on conceptual understanding-based strategies enables more effective changes in students over fluent training of facts and procedures (Rosenberg-Lee, 2018). Despite the curriculum for teaching math and science skills in higher classes following the activity-based approach, the associative learning that occurs mostly gets hindered due to the process of habituation and sensitization caused by a reduction of the novelty factor (Çevik, 2014). Rote and repeated task practice resulted in accelerated maturation of specific brain circuits. Children exposed to variable experiences are found to benefit by the delayed brain maturation process (Tooley et al., 2021). The transfer of learning takes place only when the activities are designed according to the novelty that corresponds to the age and maturation level of the student. The phenomenon of blocking interferes when students are overexposed to conditioned activities that reduce the reinforcement value (Papini and Bitterman, 1990). Repetition of the same threshold evoking activities followed in curriculum causes reduction in stimulation of sensory neurons. Activities that include distal cues by relating to life situations and adaptive skills can increase curiosity. Also, stimulation that corresponds to the expansion of more synapses makes learning stronger. At the neuronal level, repeated coactivation of two neurons leads to long-lasting synapses, which provides the substrate for long-term memory (Owens and Tanner, 2017).
The main components that enhanced adaptability while training on executive functions were updated working memory representations, increased cognitive flexibility, and inhibiting competing responses (Diamond, 2013). Most recent research opinions on direct working memory training do not promise transfer effects to the academic domain during childhood and adolescence. Neuroimaging findings of children and adolescents suggest shared neural substrates between motor and working memory tasks and recommends the promotion of motor skills and functions as a pathway to improve working memory (Ludgyga et al., 2022). Executive functions are related to reallife goal-directed behaviors (Pluck et al., 2020). Curriculumintegrated training of related cognitive processing through activities indirectly strengthen the subject-domain network. Cognitive skills are strengthened by involving students in supplementary activities, such as music, arts, and sports. Hence, training plays a major role in providing varied experiences. The findings mentioned above provide insights on the benefits of understanding the acquisition and generalization of information.

SECTION 2: OBJECTIVES OF THE REVIEW
The objectives of the review are as follows: (i) to explore environmental inputs for knowledge acquisition, (ii) to relate knowledge organization to the cognitive processes, and (iii) to identify factors to upgrade academic practices.
The review focused on studies related to elementary school age (below 7 years), middle school age (7-12 years), and high school age (12 years and above). Scientific articles published in peer-reviewed journals and textbooks were randomly referred for this purpose.

SECTION 3: TRAINING RECOMMENDATIONS BASED ON COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT
Developmental neuroscience research generates valuable insight into specific age-related neural characteristics and processes. The development reflects the interaction of a child's neurological system with the environment in a predictable sequence, and studies indicate that maturational changes due to development are independent of training (Klingberg, 2014). Thus, the survival circuits are formed initially, followed by knowledge acquisition, and then self-awareness and meta-cognition. This article suggests age-wise developmental stimulation from elementary age to adolescence.

Elementary School Age (Below 7 Years)
Visual, auditory and somesthesis development occurs parallelly during this phase. Association of these sensory stimuli represent the first level mental constructs (Epstein, 2001). This period is critical for the socialization and its related skills, including the development of language (both lexical and syntax), face recognition, and motor development (Tierney and Nelson, 2009). The integration cues adopted by children to learn language during the first 4 years of life help to control and construct a representation of events (Ramscar and Gitcho, 2007).
The focus of strategies for training preschool children should be on the causal-logical structure of the content deciphered, by discussing the goals, consequences, and themes (Kendeou et al., 2007). Deliberate learning practices are to be adopted to foster attention skills. Attention skills during this phase are inhibitory, which allow the child to focus on targets, often resulting in difficulty to disengage the attention toward other activities (Ackerman, 1993). Inputs from sensory information systems, confidence in the use of motor movements, understanding body kinesthesis, perceptions, and newfound ability to relate thoughts are the functions that can be nurtured from early childhood. Involvement in fine and gross motor activities, observation, and enriching emotional experiences provide a better platform for development. Emotion is a primary function of the central nervous system to adapt behavior according to environmental conditions. Emotion heightens the salience of environmental features during sensitive periods to enhance the sensory experience, and that orients the organism towards the developmental challenges (Nelson et al., 2014).  recognized that various facets of learning, including attention, motivation, memory, and social interaction, are connected to emotions.
Reciprocal teaching helps students acquire specific knowledge and strategies for reading, writing, and arithmetic skills by explicating, elaborating, and monitoring for independent learning (Doolittle et al., 2006). Rivière (2014) conducted experiments in infants and toddlers to conclude that decisionmaking processes in tasks involving motor responses can be attributed to the embodied-cognition approach.

Middle School Years (7-12 Years)
During the middle school years, the focus shifts to widening of academic concept development. Refining the learning techniques that focus on the self-regulatory capabilities of students of higher elementary classes are found beneficial over the content (Dunlosky et al., 2013). Frontal lobe connections get strengthened with more stimulation, especially in the prefrontal regions (Semrud-Clikeman, 2010). With the widening of association areas, academic skills become stronger through assimilation and adaptation of learned information. Connections of the frontal area to the emotional areas and related memory pathways strengthen the deeper understanding of concepts.
Associational learning using logical reasoning to generalize past experiences is a prominent methodology adopted by this age group. van Kesteren and Meeter (2020) listed effective memory methods like elaboration, linking of existing schemas through associative iterations, and proving distinctiveness of stored information with episodic details to increase school performance. Innovative practices in subject combination, for example, linking numerical series with musical prosody and poetry syllable appreciation, help in knowledge-related aptitude formation. An integrated cognitive approach, as mentioned, can be effectively applied to generate novel opportunities to interconnect various cognitive tasks. Multi-sensory integration facilitates transient synchronization of brain operations as it combines various signals to form a new multimodal representational percept (Fingelkurts et al., 2005). Long-term music training enhanced number production, number comprehension, number line, and calculation in children with dyscalculia (Ribeiro and Santos, 2020). Executive function skills training provided during childhood indicated far transfer effect in maths and its related changes in cognitive functions (Zelazo and Carlson, 2020).

High School Years (12 Years and Above)
Development of academic functions during adolescence becomes more analytical, organized, and relational. Increased autonomy to choose experiences differentiates this stage of development from the structured environmental demands of childhood. Self-determination theory (Ryan and Deci, 2000) highlights the inherent resources for behavioral self-regulation. Ryan and Deci identified three psychological needs -competence, autonomy, and relatedness that foster self-motivation and personality integration. Teachers and parents who support autonomy could catalyze the student's intrinsic motivation. Cognitive functions, including metacognition, intelligence, working memory, problem-solving, and social cognition, are the major functional changes observed during adolescence (Fuhrmann et al., 2015). The method by which information is received and perceived determines how it will be processed. Li and Jeong (2020) reported that learning a second language in adults is effective when the focus of learning is shifted to the social interactive brain. The emerging methods of learning language consisted of social interaction with people and objects, wholebody embodiment in the learning context, self-exploratory learning, and sensory-motor integration. So, students with learning difficulties can utilize social and affective trajectories to enhance their learning experience.
Adolescents are more motivated by rewards than adults, less averse to risks, and easily influenced by peers (Steinberg, 2005;Tau and Peterson, 2010). Self-regulatory and reward systems participate together in the resolution of conflicts between the intrinsic hedonic value of incentives and societal consequences. Guyer et al. (2018) reported heightened brain activity elicited in adolescents explicitly related to reward cues, salient emotions, and peer influence as characteristic to this age group. The curriculum should emphasize social skills for inculcating interpersonal and intrapersonal relationships, along with contextual training, to achieve the selective goal.
Findings are conclusive that the focus of student cognitive skill training during early childhood should be on sensory-motor integration, socialization, and cognitive control that facilitates knowledge acquisition and assimilation of primary constructs. Middle school period latency promotes functional integration through generalization and association. High school years initiate impetus for autonomy by gaining insights on meta-cognitive and social-emotional control.

CONCLUSION
Recently established research practices of utilizing technologically aided non-invasive strategies to understand brain maturation and related mapping of cognitive abilities can advance student learning practices and instructional strategies. Factor analytic identification of domain-specific cognitive processes helps to strengthen knowledge-related clusters that can determine student aptitude in various academic fields. For example, critical thinking and analytical approach in science can be enhanced through strengthening the associated cognitive processes by involving students in supplementary arts, music, and body kinesthesis, which creates the same synchronization at the neural level.
Academic skills require synchronized functioning of complex cognitive skills. Since school years coincide with the widening of neuronal connections to various areas, designing of curriculum and pedagogy needs to incorporate inputs from the fields of developmental cognitive psychology. Acquisition of knowledge during early childhood is based on sensory-motor integration on which attentional, perceptual, memory, language, and socialization systems develop. As the development progresses toward adolescence, the emergence of higher cognitive and social-emotional cognition influences the learning process. Academic skills are generalized associations of afferent and efferent systems that organize the schema representations.
Knowledge representations can be strengthened by providing domain-specific training. The phenomenon of transfer of learning relates domain-specific skills to make a positive or negative effect on various personal abilities (Ramscar and Gitcho, 2007). Factors that aid in the transfer of learning are context, problem representations, shared cognitive elements between the tasks, and metacognition (National Research Council, 2000). These are functions of the cortico-striatal loop that combines sensory-motor, associative, and limbic zones, which show improvement with cognitive training (Klingberg, 2014).
Research proves that classroom instructions that are not appropriate for a child's level of maturation lead to behavior problems like avoidance, challenging authority, and aggression (Semrud-Clikeman, 2010). Strengthening compensatory or strategic processes by rerouting through complementary neural circuitry, such as music and arts, are effective instructional remedies for cognitive training. Music and physical exercises thus act as compensatory remedies. The students facing difficulty in math or language due to lack of environmental stimulation may benefit through these compensatory trainings. Relational integration of all these concepts is a strong indicator of school performance that gets integrated through fluid reasoning ability (Bryck and Fisher, 2012).
Improving equity in the educational environment can be achieved by upgrading interventions linked to domain specific skill training and by providing enriching environmental exposure during the sensitive periods (Sokolowski and Ansari, 2018). Further experiments in this research field can be designed to cluster-specific brain functions related to various academic domains, thus identifying the emerging brain circuits and cognitive functions to provide multi-dimensional training for school children.
Hence, cognitive enrichment based on age-specific developmental abilities and providing supplementary skill training to enhance individual cognitive skills can strengthen knowledge acquisition and organization. Potentially important factors for enriching the learning process are to provide a favorable environment that enhances experience-dependent plasticity, which includes positive classroom interactions, home environment, and socio-emotional relationships.