THE SPIRITUAL ROLE OF PESANTREN IN SHAPING INDONESIAN CIVILIZED MUSLIMS

As an Islamic educational Institution, Indonesian pesantren play roles in spiritually shaping Indonesian civilized Muslims. Since the beginning of pesantren spiritual teachings were installed pesantren founding fathers. Through such teachings, the students of pesantren can be the agents of Indonesian civilized Muslims who behave tolerantly, peacefully and friendly towards otherness and diversity in Indonesia. However, Pesantren have to develop in terms of their education system and management to deal with the phase of contemporary development of education. Yet, the core of spirituality in nuancing the pesantren education system and management has to be pertained and maintained. This article is to reveal such issues in relation to history and recent problems.

important. With the issuance of Law on National Education System No. 20 of 2003 andGovernment Regulation No. 55 of 2007 concerning Religious and Religious Education, pesantren such as getting a new "ammunition" which positions it formally on a par with other educational models (formal education) in the presence of Government Laws and Policies. This condition is certainly very positive as well as a challenge for the nowadays and future of pesantren.
So far, based on data from the Diniyah Education Directorate and Islamic Boarding School of the Indonesian Ministry of Religion, in terms of quantity the number of pesantren in Indonesia has now reached more than 14,067 with the number of students as many as 3,149,374. Of the 300, more than 8,000 pesantren are salafiyahstyle pesantren. The Salafiyah pesantren focuses on religious learning through the study of the yellow book. While, the rest are non-salafiyah pesantren in which their activities are carried out in formal schools or madrasas in addition to studying in pesantren.
Even so, with the dynamics and development of the times and situations, there are not a few challenges and demands that require pesantren to immediately make efforts to reform and have better future development steps. In addition to being related to the basic elements in pesantren, the problem of restoring the image of pesantren which in recent years was "tarnished" due to the brutal actions of a handful of terrorists linked to certain pesantren, is something that must also be considered and anticipated seriously. This is very important to realize the potential of pesantren as the center of Islamic civilization in Indonesia, at the same time to display the face of Indonesian Islam in the eyes of a peaceful and tolerant international world in accordance with the spirit of the pesantren.
Based on the above facts, the writing of this paper focuses on the pesantren spiritual role as the center of the tradition of Islamic civilization in the archipelago. In order to make the center of Islamic civilization, this paper argues for four things that have been done by pesantren to further educating people the reconstruction of pesantren education, reforming the pesantren system and management, strengthening pesantren culture, and government policy support. Before explaining pesantren as the center of spiritual education for shaping Indonesian civilized Muslims, it will initially tells about the development of pesantren in terms of understanding and history, pesantren traditions, and the development and function of pesantren.

B. Development of the Pesantren in the Archipelago
The word system comes from Latin (systēma) and Greek (sustēma) is "A unit consisting of components or elements that are linked together to facilitate the flow of information, material or energy to achieve a goal". Thus in a system, every components The Spiritual Role of Pesantren Teosofia: Indonesian Journal of Islamic Mysticism, Vol. 7, No. 2, 2018 97 http://journal.walisongo.ac.id/index.php/teosofia or elements composed in it are seen from the function as a unit. In the pesantren education system there are elements of the pesantren education system. Mastuhu revealed elements in the pesantren education system including: (a) objectives; (b) philosophy and values; (c) pesantren organizational structure; institutional status, organizational status, leadership style, and leadership succession: (d) the pesantren's living environment; (e) kiai and religious teacher; (f) santri; (g) management; (h) behavioral interactions; (i) curriculum and learning resources; (j) teaching and learning process and evaluation; (k) management and funds; (l) educational facilities and tools. 2 Next there are several opinions about the origin of the understanding of the word "pesantren". Prof. John argues, that the word pesantren comes from the term "santri" which is derived from the Tamil language which means "teacher recites". While C.C. Berg argues, according to him, that the word santri comes from the Indian language "shastri" which means "one who has knowledge of the scriptures". Unlike the two, Robson argues that the word santri comes from the Tamil language "sattiri" which means "people who live in a shack house or religious building in general". 3 Another opinion says that students come from Sanskrit. "Cantrik" which means "one who always follows the teacher". There is also an opinion which states that santri were originally a combination of the words "saint" (good human) and "tra" (like helping), so that the word pesantren is interpreted as a place of good human education. 4 Meanwhile, according to Abudin Nata, the word "pesantren" comes from the word "pesantrian" which means dormitory and a place where students learn to recite. 5 Meanwhile, Zamahkhsyari Dhofier defines pesantren as a place to study santri, while pondok means simple house or residence made of bamboo. 6 Apart from differences of opinion regarding the origin of the word pesantren, what is important to underline is that pesantren is the oldest Islamic educational institution that has remained consistent to this day in maintaining values, culture or traditions, and strong religious beliefs. In fact, pesantren is an educational institution recognized from the very beginning to be very independent.
In this case, Malik Fadjar in Amin Haedari once boasted of the independence of this pesantren by saying that in terms of independence, pesantren are clearly superior to tertiary institutions which, although seemingly "wow", are actually educational Historically, although pesantrens in the sense of educational institutions where textual teaching only emerged around the 18th century, historical records state that the establishment of pesantren actually existed since the early days of the spread of Islam in Indonesia, especially in Java. The figure who first founded the pesantren was Maulana Malik Ibrahim (died 1419 AD). Maulana Malik Ibrahim uses mosques and pesantren for the teaching of Islamic sciences, which in turn gave birth to Walisongo figures who also established pesantren in their respective areas, such as Sunan Ampel in Surabaya, Sunan Giri in Gresik, Sunan Bonang in Tuban, Sunan Drajat in Lamongan, and Raden Fatah in Demak. In fact, it was noted later, Giri's pesantren students were instrumental in spreading Islam in Java and Madura, including islands in eastern Indonesia, such as Lombok, Sumbawa, Bima, Makasar, Ternate, Kangean to Maluku. 8 In subsequent periods as was the case with Walisongo, the process of establishing Islamic boarding schools was never separated from the presence of a cleric who aspired to spread Islam in his area. These scholars have usually lived for several years to study and explore Islamic religious knowledge, both in Islamic boarding schools in Indonesia as well as in Mecca and Medina. After returning to his place of origin, he then established a "surau" for use in congregational prayers and other activities. Most pesantren are privately founded by a kyai. This is a factor that strengthens the existence of pesantren, although this factor also, which if not reinforced by other supporting factors will make certain pesantren become weak or die. In fact, because of the charisma and influence possessed, not a few clerics or scholars who are considered by the community as the forerunner to the establishment of an area. As an Islamic educational institution, each pesantren has at least 5 (five) basic elements, namely: mosque or musholla, clerics or caretakers of pesantren, santri, boarding or boarding students, and teaching the books (classical book).
According to Martin Van Brunessen's notes, there were no institutions like pesantren in Kalimantan, Sulawesi and Lombok before the 20th century. The transmission of Islamic sciences there is still very informal. Children and villagers learn to read and memorize the Qur'an only from the people of their own village who are first to master. If there is a pilgrimage or Arab traders who happen to stop in the village, the villagers will ask him to stop for a few days to teach the books and teachings of Islam. Local clerics in several areas also provide general studies to the community at the mosque. Students who are very interested will come to study and even stay at home. Students who want to study further will usually go to Java, or if possible go to Mecca. That is the situation in Java and Sumatra in the first centuries of the spread of Islam. 9 Thus the pesantren has become a center for the spread of Islam which is very effective in Indonesia since its inception. This success is supported by the important position of the kyai, ajengan, tengku, mister guru, or other religious leaders in the community. They are not only seen as advisors in the spiritual field, but are considered charismatic figures for students (santri) and their communities.

Pesantren Traditions
The word tradition comes from English. In Indonesian, tradition means everything (such as customs, beliefs, habits, teachings, etc.). 10 Pesantren is a typical form of Islamic education model in the archipelago. Although pesantren are traditional Islamic educational institutions, in some aspects pesantren are unique compared to other traditional Islamic educational institutions in the world. At the same time, pesantren actually has an international orientation, with Mecca as the center of its orientation, not Indonesia. For example, the tradition of "the yellow book", obviously not from Indonesia. All the yellow books studied in Indonesia use Arabic, and most were written before the teachings of Islam spread in Indonesia. In fact, the main attention shifts in the tradition of the yellow book too in line with similar shifts that have taken place in much of the Islamic world. A number of yellow books studied at pesantren, although relatively new, were not written in Indonesia, but in Mecca and Medina.
The existence of pesantren which cannot be separated from the tradition of the study of the yellow book as its main literature, makes the existence of pesantren as a traditional Islamic educational institution in Indonesia maintained. In the pesantren it can be said that there is no uniformity of the curriculum related to the book being studied. In fact, some pesantren specialize themselves in certain fields of science in accordance with scientific disciplines undertaken by the kyai (pesantren takhassus), although of course by staying without ignoring other fields of science. What is highly considered by Islamic boarding schools is the selectivity of the books taught to the students (your books' tabarah). Almost all the books studied in pesantren are schools of madzhab and are very concerned about the status of the books until they reach the author. The pesantren tradition that always studies and discusses all issues of social life based on the yellow book has made the pesantren have its own form. In dealing with various problems, both religious and social problems, pesantren always use the yellow book as a reference, written by the salafus shalih scholars.
Besides the yellow book tradition, there are still many other traditions and noble values developed in pesantren, such as the attitudes and behavior of tasamuh, tawassuth, and tawazun. Tasamuh means tolerant in differences of religious opinion, and in social and cultural matters. Tawassuth means middle attitude that intends justice in the midst of shared life, and becomes a role model, acts straight, is constructive and not extreme. Tawazun means balance in serving Allah SWT, serving fellow humans and the environment, and harmony between the past, present and future. 11

Pesantren and Spirituality
Early pesantren were built in the era of the Walisongo (nine saints) besides teaching Sharia science in the form of reading Qur'an, Fiqh and procedures of worship too always with an emphasis on importance riyadhoh / tirakat 12 in order to purify the mind and wisdoms related to spiritualism. Early period of the saints were also familiar with karomah stories 13 arising from inner cleanliness and penance so miracles His supernatural powers helped in preaching activities. 14 Based on the history, Spiritual education aims to create opportunities to listen to this inner voice, to get greater clarity as to why we were created and what unique mission might be. According to the Kabbalah, these are three different sounds of the soul. "They are expressed through the body (Nefesh), the heart (Ruach), end the mind (Neshama)". They are expressed through the body (Thing), heart (Ruach), and mind (Neshama). Mind, heart, and body ideally, these three elements interact harmoniously with each other no part of the individual is either ignored or rejected. According to Al-Ghazali man was created by God as a creature consisting of soul and body. The soul 11 Zamzami M, dkk., Islam Ahlussunnah, 183-187 12 The word tirakat is an explanation of the Arabic word, Tariqah, which means "the path". Language Indonesia then absorbs this word into penance and tirakatan. Tirakat means undergoing spiritual practice for achieve what you want. Also called by among the pesantren with riyadhah, which is undergoing behavior control and curb lust. See: http: //www.nu.or.id/post/read/40738/tirakat 13 Karomah is a divine gift by Allah SWT to his chosen and nature servants like miracles bestowed on prophets and apostles, between the two have in common that miracles and karomah can occur solely because of permission from Allah SWT and is not his own wish. Karomah trustees have the ability to do extraordinary and beyond human reason given to his loved ones known as waliyullah, where the saints of Allah are able to show an extraordinary event as one help Allah, to his pious servants, one of them when is doing religious and religious propaganda. 14 Agus Sunyoto, ATLAS WALI SONGO (Buku Pertama yang Mengungkap Wali Songo Sebagai Fakta Sejarah), 413 The The soul is in the spiritual realm while the body is in the material realm. The soul originates from the divine has nature (ash al-fitrah), that is its tendency to goodness and aversion to abomination. The nature of this soul tends to get nur (light) which is called al-ghazali as ma'rifat into his heart, he can accept the truth of knowledge that comes from Allah SWT. So that with ma'rifat in the hearts of the salik (spiritual practitioners) closer to God. The term spiritual education of the Islamic world is known as Sufism. Sufism is a science that understands and lives the experiences of the Prophet Muhammad through his life. Al-Ghazali and Junaid al-Baghdadi provide an understanding of spiritual education (Sufism) by teaching to be a people who have individual piety and social piety (congregation), always dynamic and can compare between offers of pleasure meeting with God and at the same time can solve the problems faced by the people. From the description of spiritual education above, it can be taken the understanding that spiritual education is a personal education, by honing the mind, heart, and body in treading experiences as an effort to draw closer to God.
According to Dr. Abdul Munir Mulkhan, spiritual education is known as personality education which is based on emotional and spiritual intelligence (ruhmania) which relies on self problems. 16 Balance using emotional and spiritual intelligence will create our human beings, while at the same time being able to become people who have individual piety and social piety. There are fundamental differences between educating and teaching, some people may be caught between the definition of educating with teaching. In fact, there are fundamental differences between the two. Teaching is a daily technical activity of a teacher. All teacher preparation for teaching is technical. The results can also be measured by verbalistic instrument of behavior change. Not all education is learning, on the contrary not all learning is education.
The difference between educating and teaching is very thin, it can simply be said that good teaching is educating. In other words educating can use the teaching process as a means to achieve maximum results in achieving educational goals Educating more is a medium-term or long-term activities. Educational results cannot be seen anytime soon or instantly.
Education is an integrative activity of thought, taste, and if that synergizes with the development of the level of reasoning of students. Teaching that is followed by teaching and learning activities in synergy so that the material delivered can increase scientific insight, growth of skills and produce changes in mental attitude / personality, in accordance with absolute values and relative values that apply in the community and nation environment for children students are educational activities. Educating the weight is the formation of mental attitude / personality for students, while teaching the weight is the mastery of certain knowledge, skills and expertise that takes place for all humans at all ages. For example, a mathematics teacher teaches smart children to count, but the child is not full of calculations in all his actions, then the teacher's activities are limited to teaching not educating.
One of the characteristics is the desire and the need to develop a culture and even pass it on to the next generation. This is what actually becomes the arable field of education starting from its simple form to an education that has an advanced, complete, and perfect system. The more advanced a peradap will be more advanced and perfect the educational system that is formed whose purpose is as an effort to pass down, develop, maintain culture and civilization itself. Each culture forms a unique pattern and pattern of education. It can be understood that a liberalist will form a pattern of liberal propagation and will lead others to become liberalists. An atheist will form an atheist pattern to become someone else making atheists as well as someone who adheres to a religious belief will form a pattern of education in accordance with his beliefs. 17 Spiritual education in the context of pesantren in this paper is defined as a concept, an education system that emphasizes the development of spiritual or spiritual abilities with spiritual standards that can be felt by students to achieve the perfection of life according to Islamic standards. The development of spiritual abilities is not limited to students, but includes all educational advancements. This departs from the assumption that educating and following education is worship. 18 Worship functionally aims at spiritual enlightenment. Spiritual education is based on the belief that educational activities are worship of God Almighty. Humans were created as servants of the holy God and were given the mandate to maintain the sanctity. In general, spiritual education focuses on spirituality as the main potential in mobilizing every act of education and teaching, in this case understood as a source of inspiring normative in educational and teaching activities, and at the same time spirituality as an educational goal. 19 The main concept of spiritual-based education is the value of Qur'an and the hadith of the Prophet Muhammad, that is the Qur'an contains complete values and provisions in human life.  ) has no doubt about it; guidance for those who are devout, (ie) those who believe in the unseen, who establish prayers and spend part of the fortune that we bestow on them, and those who believe in the book (the Koran) which has been revealed to you and the Books that have been revealed before you and they are convinced of the existence (of life) of the hereafter. Those are the ones who keep getting guidance from their Lord, and they are the lucky ones. 21 In the verse above, it explains that the essence of human existence in this world is to worship and carry out what He has commanded His people. As a guide, he sent down the Qur'an. And to restore the spiritual awareness that was already there and carry out the mandate. In other verses we can find the nature of life as a test. His truth is essentially only God's and He shows who he wants and misleads who is in his will. Educational activities and activities are an important part of all creation tasks mandated by God to people. With human education formed to become caliph, to prosper the earth and become a true servant of God. For the servant of God, his life is a manifestation of the servitude of worship for the blessings of God. Scientifically the study of modern psychology has experienced significant progress, especially regarding the disclosure of the dimensions of human spirituality. Emptiness of the meaning of life will cause people to not have a strong self-esteem and make him unable to stand the suffering, lack of property, and suffering because of life experiences that are not in line with expectations. The emptiness of the human soul caused by the excitement of the treasure is a feeling of despair, a feeling of fear that is gripping so that the soul is easily disturbed and it is difficult to decide on his way of life. 22 This is where the role of the priest is accompanied by thinking in an effort to discover the nature of a whole truth that when we look at the Qur'an's cues about God's command to think which basically aims to make it easier for us to believe and submit to him. That the concept of spiritual education of the Qur'an and the traditions of the Prophet Muhammad is the source of his normative footing and spiritual intuition and empirical rationality are his instruments.
The scope of spiritual education includes harmony, harmony, and balance between human relations with Allah SWT, human relations with fellow human beings and human relations with himself, and human relationships with other creatures and the environment. The scope of spiritual education is also identical with aspects of Islamic religious education because what is in it is a complementary blend of one another. The general scope of spiritual education is:

Development of the Pesantren Education System
Since the mid-20th century, in Indonesia there have been 2 (two) types of educational system trends, namely the colonial education system (also called the modern-secular education system) and the indigenous education system which is based on the pesantren (traditional) model of education. The colonial education system was more inclined towards aspects of general science and pragmatic skills that were intellectualistic, individualistic, and tended to westernization and Christianization. 24 The colonial education system was later known as the school education model. At that time, very few native citizens had the opportunity to benefit from colonial educational institutions, because the educational institutions organized by the colonials were only for certain groups of indigenous descendants, such as aristocrats, government officials, and the like. Strictly speaking, the colonial education system was severely restricted to native Indonesians, and was actually very open to citizens of foreign descent such as China and Arabia. Apart from that, some of the indigenous people, who were predominantly adhering to the teachings of Islam at the time, considered that following the education of the colonials was something that was "forbidden", based on the secular nature and spirit of westernization and the mission of Christianization contained therein. As the oldest educational institution in Indonesia, the pesantren existed long before the arrival of the colonials in the country. Basically, the pesantren education system is organized in order to educate the public (santri) to have noble personality and morality as well as deep religious understanding and practice.
The pesantren at that time already had many different types and scientific specialties. The Termas Pesantren in Pacitan, East Java, for example, is known as a pesantren specializing in "tools (structure and grammar as well as Arabic literature, and logic). While Jampes Islamic Boarding School in Kediri, is widely known as Sufism Islamic Boarding School. 25 In addition, the popularity of pesantren in general is very dependent on the reputation and depth of religious knowledge possessed by caregivers (kyai).
In the colonial period, the existence of pesantren was always confronted dichotomically with the colonial education system in two opposing poles: traditional education (pesantren; native) on the one hand, and modern-secular education (schools; government) on the other. In fact, the pesantren were often regarded as a threat and resistance. Because pesantren, aside from being an educational institution, is also an "agent of social change". Take, for example, what Hasyim Asy'ari did with the pesantren which he founded in Tebuireng in 1899.
For Hasyim Asy'ari, pesantren not only function as educational institutions or religious moral institutions, but more than that, pesantren are an important means of making fundamental changes in society at large. He also believes that the pesantren tradition is a reflection of Islamic culture with its continuity and change originating from the intellectual and cultural heritage of early Javanese Muslims, especially Walisongo. This Walisongo model has been believed by all Javanese santri circles, because Walisongo is a good model for them.
Until the beginning of the decade of the 20th century, there were symptoms of development and new directions in the world of pesantren which was driven by the Pesantren Tebuireng. This is as stated by M. Yunus, historian who had visited various pesantren in the 1950s, that the birth of the Pesantren Tebuireng marked a new era of development of pesantren in Indonesia. 26

Master plan of The Tebuireng Islamic boarding school designed by Hasyim
Asy'ari was not in vain. He created a tradition of pesantren in himself as a diligent santri, as well as a strict but kind kiai in his family and pesantren. This last statement can be explained by observing the latest growth and development of the institution.
From its inception until 1916, the Pesantren Tebuireng used the sorogan and bandongan teaching system. The form of teaching at that time was not distinguished in the classroom level. The increase in class is realized by the replacement of the book that has finished reading (khatam). The material also only revolves around Islamic Knowledge and Arabic Language. The language of instruction is Javanese with pegon letters (Arabic writing in Javanese).
Over time, the system and teaching methods in pesantren were added, including by adding "deliberation classes" as the highest class level. The number of santri entering the deliberation class is very small, because the selection is very strict. In 1916, Kyai Ma'sum Ali, the first son-in-law of Hasyim Asy'ari from his daughter named Khairiyah, introduced the classical teaching system (madrasa). This classical system (madrasa) is a teaching system adopted from Mecca.
In that year Madrasah Tebuireng also opened 7 (seven) grade levels which were divided into 2 (two) levels. The first and second years are called initial sifir and sifir tsani, which is the preparation period for students to be able to enter the madrasa in the next 5 (five) years. Early sifir and tsani sifir participants were specifically educated to understand Arabic as an important foundation for 5-year madrasa education. Starting in 1919, the Madrasah Tebuireng was officially named the Salafiyah Syafi'iyah Madrasah. The curriculum is added with Indonesian (Malay), Mathematics, and Geography material. Then after the arrival of Kyai Ilyas in 1926, lessons were added to Dutch and History lessons. In 1928, the position of Kyai Ma'sum as Head of Madrasa was replaced by Kyai Ilyas, while Kyai Ma'sum himself was appointed by Hasyim Asy'ari to establish the Seblak Islamic Boarding School (about 200 meters west of Tebuireng). 27 Such is the portrait of the development of the pesantren world in the country. As an educational institution, pesantren has experienced various changes and modifications, both in terms of management and the education and teaching system. This is inseparable from the pesantren's efforts in responding to the progress and development of the times, as well as the increasingly complex demands and needs of society. This also proves that the pesantren institution since its inception has never been separated from its efforts to respond to problems that occur and are needed by the community, of course, by remaining based on traditions and noble values that exist in the midst of society. However at this time the pesantren, as quoted by A. Saerozi, can be broadly grouped into 3 (three) types of types as follows: a. Type A pesantren, namely pesantren where students learn and reside together with kyai in one complex, the learning curriculum is up to the kyai, with individual 27 "Sejarah Pesantren Tebuireng", it can be accessed from http:// www.tebuireng.net/index.php. lessons are given by the kyai through the general stadium system (bandongan) with the material / book and the specified time, in addition students get teaching in madrasas and public schools that in the pesantren complex. In this type of pesantren, the most basic teaching lies within the madrasa c. Type C boarding schools, which are boarding schools where students live in boarding (boarding), take lessons in madrassas and public schools in the pesantren complex. In this type of pesantren, the kyai only acts as supervisors and mentors of the spiritual and spiritual students. 28

C. Pesantren as the Center of Islamic Civilization in the Archipelago
The existence and future of pesantren in the future is not without challenges. This is in line with the swift dynamics and changing times and the current of globalization which is increasingly unstoppable. All of that inevitably demands pesantren institutions to always make efforts for modification and adjustment, besides of course by continuing to endeavor to preserve the unique traditions of his pesantren as an important asset and a nation's priceless culture throughout the history of Islamic civilization in Indonesia.
Therefore, the idea of making Islamic boarding schools as the center of Islamic civilization in Indonesia is something that is very reasonable. And to realize this idea, at least in outline, efforts are needed such as: the reconstruction of pesantren education, reforming the pesantren system and management, strengthening pesantren culture, and Government policy support.

D. Reconstruction of the Pesantren Education System
In order to prepare pesantren institutions to face increasingly complex dynamics and contemporary world developments, the pesantren education system needs to undergo various changes and adjustments, in the sense of the need for reconstruction and reorientation so that the pesantren education system continues to exist in the future. As a traditional Islamic educational institution, pesantren education contains contents which can be broadly divided into 2 (two) categories.
The first category is the basic teaching which is a reference for the foundation of life and its solution in overcoming all life problems in the midst of socio-cultural dynamics, which have an absolute truth value and do not collapse in all the changing times. This basic teaching has a charge of universal values, which has the power of relevance in all levels of space and time. In fact, this teaching has sacred legality and has been completely codified by the Salafus Salih scholars, namely in the form of the Qur'an and the Sunnah of the Prophet.
The second category is the teachings which are the result of interpretation and derivation of the basic teachings above. This teaching elaborates the content of basic teaching with a tendency to practical-applicative aspects. In pesantren education, generally the material that is given in an intense and simultaneous manner is more on teaching that is elaborative. Even more specifically, it can be said that a highly developed discourse and considered important in the world of pesantren is only in the field of jurisprudence.
Meanwhile, the study of basic teachings needed in an effort to understand the teachings of Islam as a whole did not receive serious attention. This can be seen from the discourse circulating in pesantren which is represented by the Yellow Book tradition. Fiqh discourse feels very dominant compared to other discourse. If such conditions are allowed to continue and escape from academic control, it is feared that the discourse of the Qur'an and the Hadith of the Prophet which in fact is a basic teaching will be increasingly forgotten altogether from pesantren education. In other words, the Qur'an and the Hadith of the Prophet will only be "lipsticks" simply because their contents are never understood directly.
In fact, the discourse of jurisprudence should not shift the position of the Qur'an or the Hadith of the Prophet. Because, fiqh is not an absolute source of guidance in all practices of life. The above concerns actually can be overcome or at least minimized, one way is to change or modify the educational methods that have been developed in the pesantren world. The educational methods applied in pesantren so far tend to be inductive. Islamic boarding schools generally develop particular studies in advance such as fiqh and various other traditions which are considered as ilm al-hâl. After mastering the particular study is considered adequate, then it will spread to other areas of study which become a tool in understanding basic teachings.
The results of pesantren education will certainly be different if the inductive method that has been going on is reversed by using the deduction method, which is to develop studies that are tools to understand basic teachings first, then then implement them in particular studies such as fiqh and other studies surrounding the development of modern dynamics. This method seems to be more able to develop the process of reasoning, creativity, and dynamics in understanding Islam more contextually than just the first method (induction) which emphasizes doctrinal understanding. Another aspect that needs to be seen in building a pesantren education system in the future is the curriculum problem.
The pesantren curriculum, represented by the Yellow Book, only emphasizes the areas of jurisprudence, theology, Sufism, and language. Such a state of pesantren education curriculum has a consequence on pesantren exclusivism from other discourses and thoughts, except for thoughts developed by Syafi'i, Ash'ari, and Al-Ghazali schools. In fact, almost all Islamic teachings are only understood as far as the teachings concerning fiqh, theology, and Sufism developed by the three figures. The implication is the loss of critical, analytical and reflective culture in the pesantren education tradition. Academic freedom is hardly recognized anymore and the munazharah system is also missing from the pesantren tradition.
In this context, the effort that needs to be done in pesantren education is to build "truths" that have taken root in the pesantren world to become more open for new ijtihad efforts in the face of contemporary world developments. That way the pesantren curriculum must be more open to the development of contemporary science that continues to develop.

Revamping the Pesantren Education System and Management
The next effort that needs to be done in order to make pesantren as the center of Islamic civilization in Indonesia is to reform the pesantren system and management. This is important to remember the success of the pesantren education system is very much influenced by its managerial arrangement.
So far, pesantren management patterns generally tend to be done incidentally and do not pay attention to the goals that are systematized first. The pesantren education system is usually done naturally with a constant managerial pattern every year. Fundamental changes in the management of pesantren are apparently not yet seen. The problem of accepting new students, for example, is still done openly for all individuals who clearly have diverse backgrounds and abilities without first conducting a pre-test effort. In other words, the qualitative categorization and classification of santri has never been undertaken.
Therefore, pesantren management must be pursued more openly. Therefore, developments that occur outside must be known and anticipated, especially the possibilities for collision. This necessity necessitates the need for a pattern of symbiotic-mutualistic cooperation between pesantren and other institutions that are considered capable of contributing and creating transformational nuances. This pattern of cooperation can also be carried out in efforts to develop pesantren resources in order to empower itself in facing increasingly complex contemporary challenges. This pattern of collaboration will automatically minimize the negative assumptions that have been embedded in pesantren institutions, such as isolated, alienated, exclusive, conservative, and the tendency to maintain the status quo.
If so, then the direction of the development of the pesantren world in the future can be expected to take various forms. There are pesantren whose form remains the same as before, namely as a non-formal educational institution that specializes in studying the religious sciences, which emphasizes the importance of religious practice in daily life, where the teachings are sourced from the results of ijtihad of jurisprudents and Sufists with books classic book. There are also pesantrens which are non-formal in the religious field. Yet, they equipped students with various types of skills. The field of religious studies continues to be developed in accordance with the development of thought in Islam, so it is not only limited to the sources of old teachings that are fiqhsufistic, but also equipped with the teaching of philosophy and new thoughts in Islam in accordance with the development era.
Among the most important things for the pesantren system in the future is the provision of formal education, both madrassas and public schools to universities that live in a pesantren environment. This form will certainly make boarding schools survive in the future, because they will complement each other as boarding schools as non-formal education working on the tafaqquh fiddin values and religious practice, with formal education working on other sciences.
In addition, renewal of the concept of boarding in the future is also needed so that pesantren are able to declare their presence as a stable national education subsystem in the future. Pesantrens in the future should not only be places to live together for 24 hours from year to year as the condition of the pesantren today, but also as hostels that function as a joint study forum that can creatively and innovatively develop science, technology, and religion, in accordance with the challenges of his day and develop the potential of the individuality or identity of each of its members in balance with the development of the collective personality.
Through these efforts, in turn the face of pesantren education will no longer be considered static or stagnant. The dynamics of the pesantren education life must continue, because indeed the pesantren has been proven by its active involvement and participation in providing services to the community in many aspects of life that always accompany it. Because boarding schools are educational institutions that have strong cultural roots in the community. 29

Strengthening Pesantren Culture
Although on the one hand pesantren are required to be more open in adopting and adapting themselves to the development of the contemporary world, pesantren must also maintain and strengthen the cultures that have become their trademarks. The principle of independence that has existed in pesantren, for example, is an educational pattern that needs to be continually developed in shaping the personality of an independent national generation. Because, since the beginning the students in the pesantren have been trained independently. He regulates and is responsible for his own 29 Sa'id Aqiel Siraj, Pesantren Masa Depan, (Bandung: Pustaka Hidayah, 1999), 181 The Spiritual Role of Pesantren Teosofia: Indonesian Journal of Islamic Mysticism, Vol. 7, No. 2, 2018 111 http://journal.walisongo.ac.id/index.php/teosofia needs, such as arranging spending money, cooking, washing clothes, planning studies, and so on. Such a principle is certainly a distinct advantage possessed by pesantren in shaping the personality of students, and is not possessed by formal schools in general.
In addition, attitudes such as tawazun, tasamuh, tawassuth, which have become the characteristics of pesantren, are cultures that also need to be strengthened. For this reason, it also includes efforts that need to be made to make boarding schools as the center of Islamic civilization in Indonesia is to make the principles of education and culture in boarding schools as principles that also apply in other educational institutions. That is, the principles and culture of pesantren education need to be used as an alternative that can be adopted by the school education system or other formal education institutions.

Government Policy Support
To make pesantren as the center of Islamic civilization in Indonesia, the existence of Islamic boarding schools in the national education system is not enough to be seen merely as a sub-system, but must be seen as a "partner" in efforts to educate the nation's life. The position of pesantren which integrates in the national education system has so far been reflected in various aspects. First, national education makes religious education one of the mandatory contents in all lines and levels of education. Second, in the national education system the pesantren is positioned parallel with formal education, so that the position becomes the same, there is no sub-ordination of pesantren education. 30 Benchmarks that must be held in the implementation and implementation of national education include: (a) national education adheres to the principle of lifelong education; (b) national education is a shared responsibility between family, community and government; and (c) national education is directed to shape Indonesian people as a whole.
In this framework, the existence of pesantren becomes important in the scheme of achieving national education goals. Because, the final estuary of the goal of national education is to form a dignified human being. This is in line with the function of national education as stipulated in UUSPN Number 20 of 2003, that national education functions to develop capabilities and shape the dignified character and civilization of the nation in the context of educating the life of the nation, and aims at developing the potential of students to become human beings who believe and be devoted to God Almighty, noble, healthy, knowledgeable, capable, creative, independent and become a democratic and responsible citizen.
From the formulated function of national education above, it is clear that a nation with dignity is a nation that has the following characteristics: (1) having faith; (2) be cautious; (3) noble character; (4) physically and mentally healthy; (5) knowledge; (6) capable and creative; (7) independent; (8) democratic; and (9) take responsibility. The achievement of a dignified nation as the ultimate goal of the implementation of national education with the characteristics as mentioned above, actually has been built by pesantren education since its inception until now. 31 Therefore, this is where the importance of placing pesantren is seen not as part (sub-system) of national education, but rather as a "partner". Therefore, the achievement of national education goals has actually been run by pesantren as is known from the basic principles of pesantren education as said by Mastuhu, 32 namely: (1) theocentric; (2) voluntary and dedicated; (3) wisdom; (4) simplicity; (5)collectivity; (6) arranging joint activities; (7) guided freedom; (8) independent; (9) a place to seek knowledge and serve; (10) practice religious teachings; (11) without a diploma; and (12) blessing of the clerics.
Pesantren education can clearly shape the dignity of believing and pious nations, because pesantren education adheres to theocentric principle, which is the view that all events originate, proceed, and return to God's truth. All educational activities in pesantren are seen as worship to God. All educational activities are an integral part of the totality of life, so learning in pesantren is not seen as a "tool" but is seen as a "goal". Therefore, teaching and learning activities in the pesantren do not take into account the matter of time, so that life in its daily life is always based on worship only to Allah, and the orientation of his life is clear that his worship and life and death are solely due to God.
The principle of pesantren education of course would be easier to shape the dignity of students / students into people of faith and pious, especially at the same time also directly practiced in everyday life. This is of course different from the education carried out in schools in general. Therefore, it is appropriate if the formation of people of faith and piety as the goal of national education, can actually be done by an education system that adheres to the principles of education that prioritizes theocentric philosophy as in pesantren. Such a principle will in turn shape the noble character or noble character of the nation. 113 http://journal.walisongo.ac.id/index.php/teosofia advancing the nation cannot be underestimated. Education in pesantren itself is known to be holistic and comprehensive, by placing aspects of morality, divinity, and human dignity as a whole that is substantial, as well as the nature and core purpose of education. Islamic boarding schools have at least a tradition including the tradition of reading the yellow book and others. With this tradition, pesantren is not only able to carry out its main mission of giving birth to scholars, promoting Islamic teachings, and planting Islamic traditions, it also causes pesantren to continue to exist and survive to the present.
Second, the idea of the idea of making Islamic boarding schools as the center of Islamic civilization in Indonesia is something that is very reasonable. That reason can at least be explained from the perspective of the pesantren's historical review. Historically, the pesantren is the oldest Islamic education institution in Indonesia with many unique and diverse potentials which necessitates that the institution be the center of Islamic civilization in Indonesia.
Third, the efforts that need to be made in order to make pesantren as the center of Islamic civilization in Indonesia must at least work on 4 (four) key elements, namely: reconstruction of pesantren education, reforming pesantren system and management, strengthening pesantren culture, and Government policy support.


Preparing Instructional Supervisors for Educational Change: Empirical Evidence From the Sultanate of Oman

This article reports on findings from a larger research project examining instructional supervision in the Sultanate of Oman. It sought to explore how teacher supervisors perceived their preparation for the current education reforms. To realize this objective, the study adopted a qualitative research design. Data were collected using semistructured interviews with a sample of teacher supervisors in the Muscat Educational Supervision Directorate. The findings indicate that the supervisors considered their preparation to be inappropriate, reasoning that most of the training programs provided were short theoretical conferences or lectures with no or a few opportunities for practice. The supervisors expressed their need for more adequate and sufficient training to enable them to undertake their new supervisory roles.

Introduction
In a context of increased awareness of the necessity for quality education, the Sultanate of Oman has been pursuing a process of education reform since the 1990s. As part of this reform program, a number of radical changes have been introduced to upgrade the education system in the country and bring it in line with international standards (International Bureau of Education [IBE], 2011;Ministry of Education, 2004). A World Bank (2013) report presents Oman as one of the countries that has made "impressive" developments in its education system over the past few decades. This is consistent with the significant educational developments currently taking place in the Arabian Gulf region at large (Wiseman et al., 2014;Zahlan, 2017).
Most notable among educational developments in Oman has been the introduction of the basic education system in 1998. The new system has adopted a comprehensive approach to education with the aim to develop all aspects of the individual's personality and to provide the students with independent learning skills that would promote their lifelong learning (Al-Hammami, 2001). This was accompanied by the introduction of curricular and pedagogical changes, including a greater emphasis on the student as the center of the educational process and on the teacher as a learning facilitator rather than a knowledge transmitter (Ministry of Education, 2004;Rassekh, 2004). These developments have necessitated a parallel shift in the roles and practices of teacher supervisors, with the aim to enable both supervisors and classroom teachers to work together to increase the effectiveness of teaching to enhance students' learning (Ministry of Education, 2006). The same objectives have been recently reemphasized in the National Strategy for Education 2040 as part of the efforts toward quality in education in Oman. The strategy document identifies "improving educational supervision in schools to facilitate better teaching and learning" as one of the requirements for building educational quality (The Education Council, 2018, p. 33).
As part of the country's move toward more decentralized educational management (IBE, 2011), regional-level supervisors (who link local school teachers with the central office) have been granted a greater say in the implementation of the new reforms at the school level (Ministry of Education, 2015). This is in line with international literature, which suggests that change does not occur unless it is instigated by the people who are supposed to implement it (Fullan & Hargreaves, 2014). In recognition of their vital role in promoting teachers' professional development and enhancing teaching and learning, the Ministry of Education has given 935905S GOXXX10.1177/2158244020935905SAGE OpenAl-Kiyumi and Hammad research-article20202020 1 Sultan Qaboos University, Muscat, Oman 2 Damietta University, Egypt special attention to the preparation of teacher supervisors. This can be seen in the variety of training programs and workshops provided locally by the educational supervision departments in the different directorates throughout the country (Ministry of Education, 2004), or centrally through the newly established Specialized Center for the Professional Training of Teachers (Ministry of Education, 2018).
Nevertheless, it is not clear to what extent these programs have been effective in terms of preparing Omani teacher supervisors for their new supervisory roles. A joint study by the World Bank and the Ministry of Education reported that the current supervisory practices have only had a minimal impact on teaching and learning in Omani schools (World Bank, 2013). Atari and colleagues (2005) found that most Omani supervisors encountered problems associated with their changing roles and practices due to the lack of adequate preparation for the proposed changes. Moreover, Al-Kiyumi and  noted that the supervisors were aware of the new reforms and their implications in terms of the need for more collaborative and democratic supervisory practices. However, their actual practice of supervision reflected a more traditional approach that was mainly based on classroom observation. The authors recommended further research to explore the supervisors' preparation for their new roles. It is, therefore, the aim of the current study to undertake this investigation. It sets out to answer the following question: Research Question 1: How do instructional supervisors perceive their preparation for educational change in Oman?
The significance of this study stems from its relevance to the current developments taking place in the Omani education system. We argue that exploring supervisors' perceptions of their preparation is important as it helps identify possible gaps in their current development and suggest ways to bridge them. The study also responds to calls for conducting more research to better understand the nature of educational leadership in Arab societies (Hallinger & Hammad, 2019;Hammad & Hallinger, 2017;Karami-Akkary & Hammad, 2019). More important, there is a need to build a culturally sensitive knowledge base in educational leadership that can inform future leadership development programs in the region (Karami-Akkary & Hammad, 2019).

Theoretical Framework
The current study is informed by the literature on instructional supervision/leadership in the context of educational change. Instructional supervision research has emphasized the role of teacher supervisors in supporting teachers in times of educational change through fostering their professional growth and development (Bredeson & Kose, 2007;Kalule & Bouchamma, 2013;Oliva & Pawals, 2004;Palandra, 2010;Sergiovanni & Starratt, 2007;Tyagi, 2010;Zepeda, 2016). Resistance to change has been identified as a potential barrier to education reform, which suggests the teachers' need for support during change implementation (Fullan, 2001). This places a huge responsibility on instructional supervisors who play a crucial role in preparing teachers to accept and implement change (Heble, 2006;Oliva & Pawals, 2004;Sergiovanni & Starratt, 2007). If change requires teachers to do things differently, then "dealing with change . . . is part of the supervisory process" (Beach & Reinhartz, 2000, cited in Kamindo, 2008. Change usually comes with uncertainty and negative emotions such as fear and anxiety (Fullan, 2001). The supervisor's task then becomes one of communicating change in a way that teachers can understand (Kamindo, 2008). Sergiovanni and Starratt (2007) define instructional supervision as a process aimed at "helping increase the opportunity and capacity of teachers and schools to contribute more effectively towards students" academic success (p. 6). Instructional supervisors help "teachers examine their instructional practices-what is working, what is not working, and how modifications can be made given the characteristics of students" (Zepeda, 2014, p. 11). In this sense, instructional supervisors can be seen as instructional leaders. Instructional leadership places teaching and learning "at the heart of leadership behaviours" (Brazer & Bauer, 2013, p. 647).
Conceptualized as instructional leadership, instructional supervision can be exercised at different levels by a variety of persons such as school principals, senior teachers, and regional-level (district) personnel (Reiman & Thies-Sprinthall, 1998). This contradicts the widespread view of instructional supervision as a process usually performed by a school administrator (see Glickman et al., 2007;Moswela, 2010;Sergiovanni & Starratt, 2007;Sullivan & Glanz, 2005;Wanzare, 2012;Zepeda, 2003). The literature on instructional leadership has documented a shift in its practice from being principal centered to a shared form of leadership involving stakeholders at various levels (Hallinger, 2010;Lashway, 2002;Lee et al., 2012). This links with the reconceptualization of school leadership as a distributed process (Gronn, 2003;Spillane, 2006). What makes the role of regional supervisors more crucial is that today's complex schools make it quite hard for principals to focus on instructional matters. The problem is further compounded when we consider the scarcity of school leadership development programs focusing on instructional leadership (Brazer & Bauer, 2013).

Preparing Instructional Supervisors for Their Changing Roles
Although relevant literature stresses the crucial role instructional supervisors play in realizing educational change (e.g., Heble, 2006;Kamindo, 2008;Oliva & Pawals, 2004;Palandra, 2010;Sergiovanni & Starratt, 2007), evidence suggests that supervisors may not be well prepared for their changing roles. For example, Daresh and Playko (2001) asserted that teacher supervisors seldom receive training to perform their roles. They pointed out that "the major concept of current supervisory behaviour is its undue emphasis on reactive performance . . . rather than through careful, logical planning and preparation" (p. 25). Bailey (2006) stated that very few language teacher supervisors have formal training, so they may work "at an instinctive level . . . or at the level of folk models about what supervisors do" (p. 73).
Hence, the need for continuous training for teacher supervisors is well established, especially when change is involved. Bouchamma and Michaud (2014) highlight the challenges associated with the implementation of change in schools, and suggest the need to equip instructional supervisors with the skills required for addressing those challenges. Oliva and Pawals (2004) explain that "Once appointed, the supervisor must not assume that the training period is over. As with the teachers he or she supervises, the supervisor must keep up with developments in the field of supervision" (p. 519). Lack of adequate training leads to supervisors losing direction as to how to perform instructional supervision, thus increasing "uncertainty that often accompanies role ambiguity" (Zepeda & Kruskamp, 2007, p. 52). For example, Heble (2006) reports that school supervisors faced difficulties in assuming their changing roles in special education as they did not have the background knowledge about disabilities and their impact on learning. Lack of guidance may also lead to teacher supervisors reverting to their own traditional experiences from when they were teachers. This forms the basis for what they encourage in their teachers (McQuarrie & Wood, 1991). One result is that they sometimes operate to reinforce traditional patterns of teacher-centered pedagogy, thus suppressing instructional strategies that could enhance student learning (B. Nicholson et al., 2005). Glickman et al. (2007) identify three stages for effective instructional supervisors' preparation: orientation, integration, and refinement. At the orientation stage, supervisors are exposed to learning that prepares them for the initial "realworld" application. Failure to take supervisors beyond this stage is one reason why many staff development programs are ineffective. The integration stage assists supervisors as they incorporate their previous learning into their supervisory activities. One aspect of this phase is the ability to adapt general learning to specific situations. In the third phase of learning, refinement helps supervisors' transition from basic competence to expertise through continuous experimentation and reflection.
Empirical research has provided guidance on how to conduct effective professional development for instructional supervisors. Burns and Badiali (2015) recommend that supervisors' professional development programs combine theoretical and practical knowledge. Joyce and Showers (1995) argue that effective professional development for supervisors involves a sequence of relevant activities, including presentation of theory, demonstration, practice, feedback, and application. They further contend that short-term conferences or workshops are seldom adequate because the importance of the application phase of training lies in the power of experiential learning. Similarly, Wiedmer (2007) stresses the need of aspiring instructional supervisors for experiential, field-based work as part of their preparation. She explains: "[t]heoretical and research-based practices are essential components to effective leadership in all professions; however, there must also be practicalities that are grounded in reality and application" (Weidmer, 2007, p. 17). In Barnes and colleagues' (2010) study, the leaders valued a professional learning environment characterized by "activity-based processes" and interaction among trainees. Furthermore, Bouchamma and Michaud (2014) propose professional learning communities as an effective way to enhance supervisors' in-service professional development. In terms of training content, Bredeson and Kose (2007) propose instruction, curriculum, and evaluation of students' learning outcomes as areas of paramount importance. Ovando (2005) highlights instructional leaders' need to learn how to provide constructive feedback to their teachers. Communication skills are particularly needed when change is involved because instructional supervisors will need to communicate the required policy changes to their teachers and assist them during implementation (Kamindo, 2008).
Relevant literature stresses the importance of evaluating professional development interventions offered to all educators, including instructional supervisors (Coldwell & Simkins, 2011;Guskey, 2002). As Coldwell and Simkins (2011) suggest, evaluation should not be limited to examining how the participants react to the overall training experience, but also measuring the effects of the provision on their learning and behavior. Moreover, besides formal professional development interventions such as workshops and seminars, evaluation should include other informal forms such as study groups, structured observations, peer coaching/ mentoring, and action research (Guskey, 2002).

Research Design
Given its exploratory nature, the study reported in this article employed a qualitative research design as it was deemed more suitable for eliciting participants' perspectives. Qualitative research methods are particularly useful in studying lived experiences because they are centered on the research participants' points of view (see Creswell & Poth, 2017;Denzin & Lincoln, 2005). In line with this design, individual, semistructured interviewing was chosen as a data collection method. A semistructured format was adopted because it enables the qualitative researcher to ask a set of predetermined open-ended questions related to the topic under investigation, and at the same time provides opportunities for other subtopics to develop during the conversation (O'Leary, 2005).

Research Participants
The interviews were conducted with a sample of 25 regional supervisors (13 females and 12 males) from the Muscat Educational Supervision Directorate. Purposive sampling was employed (Patton, 2002), which means that the participants were chosen based on their suitability to provide the data relevant to answering the research questions. The sample included 19 teacher supervisors (those who centrally supervise teachers' work), four senior supervisors (those who supervise the work of teacher supervisors), and two acting senior supervisors (those who do the work of senior supervisors but are not formally appointed). Two senior executives from the directorate were also interviewed to add a different perspective to the investigation. All but three participants were Omanis. Years of experience ranged between 1 and 24 years. Areas of specialization included Islamic studies, Arabic, English, mathematics, social studies, and science. Most participants attended between one and three training courses provided by educational supervision specialists at the central training center in the Muscat Educational Supervision Directorate. These trainings took the form of short workshops, mostly related to pedagogy such as classroom management and teaching materials, supervisory competencies and roles, and more general areas such as communication and planning skills. Four participants received training related to the new basic education system. Only one participant attended the 1-year diploma degree in educational supervision offered by Sultan Qaboos University (SQU).

Data Collection
After obtaining necessary approvals from the concerned authorities in the Ministry of Education (MOE), 25 individual interviews were conducted by the first author in the directorate following arrangement with the research participants according to their circumstances. Interview time ranged between 60 and 90 min. Using a semistructured interview format proved useful as it made it possible to start with a set of predetermined questions and, at the same time, ask follow-up questions to address emerging issues (O'Leary, 2005). During the interviews, the participants were encouraged to reflect on their training and preparation for their new supervisory roles and practices following the introduction of the new reforms. All interviews were conducted in Arabic as it was more convenient for the participants. Following consent from the research participants, the interviews were voice recorded and later transcribed in preparation for data analysis.

Data Analysis
The data analysis was carried out by the first author and checked by the second author for accuracy and consistency. Analyzing qualitative data involves the process of organizing and providing explanations to make sense of the information and of what the researchers have learned (Boyatzis, 1998). The analysis involved reading carefully through the transcripts, organizing, and coding the generated data. Coding was conducted inductively using the thematic method (Braun & Clarke, 2006) to identify emerging themes and patterns. This was achieved by generating categories (codes) and indexing chunks of data accordingly. Examples of the categories generated included "importance of training," "shortcomings of training," "preparation for the reforms," "positive perspectives," and "training novice supervisors." The process also included refining the list of categories to eliminate repetitions and redundancies and combining codes into relevant themes. Three main themes emerged from the data, namely, the need for supervision preparation, supervisors' perceptions of the preparation provided, and the perceived impact of supervision preparation on the supervisors' performance.

Findings
The data analysis provided interesting insights into instructional supervision preparation as perceived by Omani regional supervisors. In this section, we present these findings under three subtitles according to the three themes mentioned above.

The Need for Supervision Preparation
The Ministry of Education has put regional teacher supervisors in the front line in assuring actual implementation of the principles of the basic education system in the schools throughout the country (Ministry of Education, 2006). The interview data revealed participants' consensus over the importance and urge for the changes introduced in the educational system in general and in teacher supervision in particular. The senior directors specifically highlighted the efforts deployed by the Ministry of Education to facilitate the implementation of the reforms, including the promotion of highquality supervisory practices. They also spoke of the key role regional supervisors play in the change process and their subsequent need for adequate preparation. One of them specifically referred to the diploma degree in supervision offered by SQU as a prerequisite for appointment in supervisory posts in schools.
The new policy that has been recently implemented regarding the training of our supervisors is that any teacher supervisor must get the Diploma degree in educational supervision from Sultan Qaboos University prior to appointment. This clearly shows the consideration and emphasis that the ministry has placed on preparing and training novice supervisors in the principles, roles, and practices related to the profession.
All interviewees highly supported the idea that the training of teacher supervisors was crucial for successful change implementation. One senior supervisor stated, Regional teacher supervisors play a dynamic role in the reform process, and therefore, they need to be trained . . . in these reforms before any other group of stakeholders . . . This importance stems from the fact that those supervisors are the ones who will initiate the implementation of the reform principles and policies in schools with teachers. They are the ones who determine whether or not the reform process is going to succeed. (Senior Supervisor I) Another supervisor commented, We need training all the time. You can see that our education system and policies are always changing. This with no doubt affects our supervisory work which is also moving from one theory or practice to another. We are the trainers of teachers, but if we are not prepared for this role, how can we perform it properly? (Supervisor O) Supervisors' perception of the importance of supervisory training stemmed from their awareness of the crucial role they play in the professional development of their teachers and in preparing them for implementing the reforms.
If there is no training for teachers for the new policies and system, they are not going to implement the reforms in their real daily practices. Supervisors are the agents who carry the responsibility of preparing and training teachers. This is why our position in the process of educational reform is highly regarded and recognized by the Ministry of Education. (Supervisor O) There was also evidence that the need for supervisory training was mainly justified by the introduction of the basic education system, which, according to one participant, necessitated the training of teacher supervisors to enable them to convey the new policies to teachers and schools. Another supervisor added, The implementation of the basic education system has influenced the process of educational supervision. Previously, supervisors were not prepared for their new roles and practices in educational supervision. Now, supervisors need good training and preparation for the new proposed requirements and skills. If we don't get this training, we, for sure, cannot do what we are supposed to do with teachers. (Supervisor L) In summary, the importance of supervision preparation was recognized by both senior directors and regional teacher supervisors. All felt the need for supervisory training as part of their preparation to implement the new changes associated with the introduction of the basic education system. The next section addresses how the preparation provided was perceived by the supervisors.

Supervisors' Perceptions of the Preparation Provided
Research participants expressed different views concerning the preparation provided for regional teacher supervisors. The two senior directors from the MOE spoke at length of what they claimed to be "adequate" preparation provided for regional supervisors all over the country. One of them highlighted the variety of training programs covering the proposed supervisory roles and practices: There are so many training workshops and programs that are provided for our supervisors to prepare and equip them for the new supervisory roles and practices . . . I, myself, participated in presenting a paper about the clinical supervision approach in one of those workshops last year. (Deputy director) The other director added, If any new educational policy or teaching innovation is proposed by the Ministry, regional teacher supervisors are prepared and trained in it before it is implemented in schools. Supervisors in turn, are required to train classroom teachers to enable them to adopt the new policy in their teaching practices. (Senior director) Regarding the training of novice supervisors, she stated that they must attend a 1-week workshop on supervisory methods and practices at the beginning of their career as supervisors. When asked whether this was sufficient, she replied that it was "alright," but it did not provide participants with the real subject's supervisory practices as those are usually provided on the job. She maintained, Those practices are met when those novice supervisors start their real supervision in schools. When they start their first visits to schools, they are usually accompanied by their senior supervisors or by other veteran teacher supervisors in the same department. (Senior director) The two directors were generally positive about the training opportunities provided to the supervisors. They also seemed confident about the supervisors' readiness to embrace the new reforms, yet indicated that a few supervisors were still reluctant to cope with the changes. The training approach that they referred to was short workshops presented by academic staff from SQU, in addition to the diploma program offered to aspiring supervisors.
However, despite the optimistic picture drawn by the senior directors regarding supervision preparation, the responses of teacher supervisors told a different story. As far as exposition to supervisory training is concerned, some participants reported that they received training that was specifically linked to the introduction of the basic education system, whereas many others stated that they have never been exposed to such training. Lack of training was highlighted by many participants as one of the challenges they encountered as they practiced supervision. This was particularly an issue for novice supervisors.
At the beginning of our supervision profession, I and other colleagues were thrown in at the deep end! We were not prepared for the new profession's roles and practices. No one even accompanied me in my first visit to school . . . I had no knowledge in supervision, but I learned [by myself] from the field! (Supervisor N) The participants who received supervisory training expressed mixed views about their experience. Some commented on it positively, considering it as a good learning opportunity: "As I was in the first batch of the basic education system, I was lucky to get to attend many workshops in the new policies and methods, and be trained in many aspects of supervision," commented Senior Supervisor B. It was noticed that English teacher supervisors were generally more positive about their preparation than those of other subjects. Supervisor J mentioned, "All English language training programs are good and practical because they are usually given by English experts from the Ministry of Education. You cannot get this in other subject areas." Many other supervisors, however, held negative views about their training experience. Some perceived it as insufficient compared with the scale of the changes introduced.
To me, the training workshops are not sufficient especially in a stage of radical change in our education system. Also, the duration of those workshops is usually very short and limited. There are many new policies and systems that are applied in the schools I supervise, but I have not been trained in them. (Supervisor N) Within two years, I was provided with only one training workshop. We need more training and preparation especially as our curriculum is always in a continuous change. We sometimes do not know about a new policy until we visit one of our supervised schools and recognize that it is applying it. (Supervisor V) Some participants were particularly concerned about the quality of training, especially in terms of its content and methods: "Those programs are very old-fashioned. They have nothing new and interesting. They all are the same; same topics, same way of lecturing, and same people," stated Supervisor V. Another supervisor was cynical about the replication of the same content over several years, commenting, Many of those programs have not been changed for more than five years, although the field of education is in a continuous change. I remember once when we had a workshop and we were given papers related to the workshop, and then I discovered that my colleagues who attended a similar workshop five years ago received exactly the same papers! (Supervisor W) Another significant weakness that was stressed by several participants was that most of the training programs and workshops were merely theoretical and lacked practical application: "Most of the training programs and workshops that are provided for supervisors are theoretical with no practice. I wished that they did not waste our time in attending those programs while we could have just read them on paper!" commented one supervisor. The same point was underscored by Supervisor W: I attended a two-week workshop at the beginning of my profession as a supervisor. I think such workshops are generally idealistic with little connection to the reality in the educational field. They are mainly theoretical with only a small section of practice.
Another participant (Supervisor R) expressed her disappointment in the instructors themselves, describing them as "incapable and unable to teach properly." Inconvenient timing of supervisory training was raised as another weakness by some participants. Supervisor M noted, The time of the training is usually in September, that is the beginning of the academic year, when we are too busy preparing our schedules and organizing our annual and semestral plans. If we do not attend during September, we will miss out.
One final drawback centered on the absence of follow-up and assessment activities aimed at evaluating the effectiveness of the training conducted. According Supervisor M, There is no follow-up practices and assessment for those programs. We attend, listen all the time to the instructor . . . and when the workshop finishes, everyone goes back to their work. No one even asks us to reflect upon what we have gained from such programs.
When asked whether she was asked to fill in an evaluation form at the end of the workshop, she replied, "No. we don't do this. Very few instructors would request our feedback . . . Certainly they don't want to hear bad things from us!" To sum up, the supervisors felt that the training they received for their new roles was inadequate for reasons to do with its frequency, scope, content, and methods of delivery. They expected more intensive training that is more practice oriented and whose content is relevant to their interests. Some also wanted to have the opportunity to share knowledge and skills with other colleagues in Oman and beyond through participation in conferences and symposia related to supervision.
The next section addresses how the perceived inadequate preparation has affected the supervisors' performance.

Impact of Inadequate Preparation on Supervisors' Performance
The research participants shared their views of the impact of what they perceived as inadequate preparation on their practice of supervision. For example, some supervisors indicated that the theoretical nature of their training has affected the type of professional support they provided to their own teachers.
The training provided by the Ministry is mainly theoretical. And when we train teachers, we also focus on theories instead of practice . . . We have come to know later that those types of programs are not productive because our teachers cannot apply what they have learned. (Supervisor G) One novice supervisor (Supervisor S) recalled her experience with supervision and explained how difficult it was for her to support her teachers without adequate preparation, noting, When I started my supervision profession, I was required to train classroom teachers in some teaching aspects, but I had no preparation in training teachers. I did not know how to train teachers. I remember the very difficult times I went through.
Evidence also indicated that inadequate preparation has affected the supervisors' understanding of their expected roles under the new reforms. One supervisor stated, Many of us keep doing the same traditional practices that we used to do before the reforms. Many of us do not know that the roles of supervisors are not limited to evaluating teachers' performance, but instead they involve students' performance and achievement, the curriculum . . . (Supervisor V) Another participant had a particular concern about the supervisor's role in catering for students' learning needs. He indicated that although the current reforms stress the student as the heart of the supervision process, the actual practices of supervisors do not reflect such emphasis. According to him, this has been the result of what he considered inadequate preparation.
Another interesting point raised by some supervisors centered on their perception that their own level of professional growth and performance was low compared with that of their teachers. They attributed this to inadequate preparation. The two following statements highlight this point: Sometimes, we supervise schools where new educational policies are implemented, but we have no idea or knowledge about those policies. How can we supervise teachers in doing something they know about much better than we do? It's funny, isn't it? (Supervisor S) We lack a lot of training, especially in the new policies and projects that are being implemented . . . It happened to me twice when I came to know that my teachers were implementing a new project in physics and I had no prior knowledge or information about it. (Supervisor D) However, a different perspective provided by a few other supervisors suggested that the lack of formal training should not necessarily have a significant negative impact on the supervisors' professional growth as there are other ways in which they may attain professional development. For example, one supervisor noted that although he did not receive any training from the MOE, it did not hinder him from learning through interaction with his senior supervisor.
I did not attend a particular training for preparing me as a supervisor. However, at the beginning of my supervision profession, I was accompanied by my senior supervisor for three days to learn from him how to conduct supervisory visits and observations in schools. Senior and teacher supervisors are always helping each other. We exchange our experiences and information in our meetings. (Supervisor Y) Another example was given by a female supervisor: I am so happy and thankful to my senior supervisor because she has given me and my colleagues many opportunities for learning and development. She always encourages us to read and search for new knowledge and practices in supervision and teaching. (Supervisor W) The two above statements illustrate the role that learning on the job can play in fostering professional growth in the absence of organized training (Bouchamma & Michaud, 2014;S. Nicholson & Reifel, 2011). The comments also stress the value of collaboration among staff members in supporting each other's learning (Levine & Marcus, 2010).

Discussion and Conclusion
The current study explored the perceptions of teacher supervisors about their preparation for educational change, drawing on qualitative data collected from a sample of regional supervisors located in the Muscat Educational Supervision Directorate in Oman. The study's findings support previous research conducted in other contexts. Specifically, evidence from this study supports the international literature regarding the importance of training for instructional supervisors, especially in times of educational change (e.g., Bouchamma & Michaud, 2014;McQuarrie & Wood, 1991;Oliva & Pawals, 2004;Zepeda & Kruskamp, 2007); the need to consider the relevance of the content and delivery methods when designing supervisory training (Darling-Hammond et al., 2017;Hunzicker, 2011;Lutrick & Szabo, 2012); as well as the importance of training evaluation and follow-up (Coldwell & Simkins, 2011;Guskey, 2002). The findings also align with previous research highlighting the ineffective nature of instructional supervision in Oman (see Al-Kiyumi & Hammad, 2019;Atari et al., 2005;World Bank, 2013). They may help explain the gap between the supervisors' awareness and endorsement of the current educational changes and their actual supervisory practices (see Al-Kiyumi & Hammad, 2019).
The findings demonstrated that despite the emphasis placed on the importance of supervisory training as suggested by the MOE senior directors, the supervisors' responses indicated that the level of preparation they had received did not meet their expectations. In terms of frequency, there were concerns about the amount of training provided as it was perceived by many participants (especially novice supervisors) as insufficient in comparison with their training needs under the reforms. These concerns are understandable because in a context characterized by processes of restructuring and reculturing school organizations, sufficient and constant training and development programs are necessary to enable the concerned stakeholders to actualize these changes in their real professional practices (Fullan, 2005). In countries where policy changes were introduced, instructional supervisors played a crucial role in facilitating change implementation (Bredeson & Kose, 2007;Palandra, 2010), which renders their preparation for change particularly important. This is especially true for regional supervisors in Oman who are regarded by the MOE as the guardians of the implementation of the new policies at the school and classroom levels (Ministry of Education, 2006;Rassekh, 2004). Leaving them untrained felt like throwing them "in the deep end" as expressed by one participant. This sink-or-swim approach to staff development has been criticized by Waite (1995) because it leaves teacher supervisors without guidance on how to practice supervision (cited in Bouchamma & Michaud, 2014).
On a qualitative level, the participants identified factors that seemed to have affected the quality of the provision. These included irrelevant content and methods, in addition to lack of follow-up and evaluation. The literature on leadership preparation (e.g., Bush, 2012;McCarthy, 2015) and teachers' professional development (e.g., Darling-Hammond et al., 2017;Hunzicker, 2011;Lutrick & Szabo, 2012) is clear about the importance of taking into consideration the suitability of the content and delivery methods of preparation programs to increase their effectiveness. The supervisors seemed more interested in practical training that provided "hands-on" guidance on how to perform teacher supervision under the new reforms. The training programs provided were short theoretical conferences, lectures, or workshops with little practical orientation. As such, the current provision ignores the characteristics of effective professional development outlined in the relevant literature such as combining theoretical and practical aspects (Burns & Badiali, 2015), being collaborative and ongoing (Hunzicker, 2011;Lutrick & Szabo, 2012), supporting active learning and offering reflection (Darling-Hammond et al., 2017), and providing jobembedded learning opportunities (Zepeda, 2011). It also clearly fails to meet the three stages of supervisors' learning (orientation, integration, and refinement) proposed by Glickman et al. (2007) for effective supervisory training.
Supervisors' challenges were compounded by the lack of feedback and evaluation of the training offered. The literature on professional development stresses the importance of evaluating the effectiveness of professional development programs (Coldwell & Simkins, 2011;Guskey, 2002). It is worth noting that the observation about lack of evaluation was made by only one participant as part of her comment on her training experience, and not in response to a direct question about evaluation. However, the observation is supported by evidence from recent reviews suggesting the scarcity of research focused on evaluating leadership preparation programs, not only in Oman but also in the Arab region at large (see Hammad & Hallinger, 2017;Karami-Akkary & Hammad, 2019).
The findings also showed that the lack of adequate preparation has affected the supervisors' practice of supervision. This lends support to previous research carried out in other international contexts (e.g., Bailey, 2006;Daresh & Playko, 2001;Heble, 2006;Zepeda & Kruskamp, 2007). For example, Zepeda and Kruskamp (2007) presented a case where department chairs struggled while supervising their teachers as they lacked formal preparation for their supervisory roles. In our study, the lack of training led to some supervisors lacking confidence as they felt less qualified than their teachers. Oliva and Pawals (2004) comment on this issue: "Nothing can be more incongruous in a school system than to see a faculty experiencing professional growth while the supervisory staff remains stagnant" (p. 519).
Nevertheless, it was positive to find some participants trying to compensate for their lack of organized training by learning on the job through interaction with their senior supervisors. In situations where staff are thrown into the field without appropriate training, learning on the job can play a crucial role in staff professional development (Bouchamma & Michaud, 2014;S. Nicholson & Reifel, 2011). S. Nicholson and Reifel (2011) argued that professional development cannot be limited to organized training, but includes interactions with peers in the workplace. Their study found that a group of teachers without adequate preparation were able to overcome the challenges by learning from one another. Moreover, Bouchamma and Michaud (2014) described how a group of supervisors attained on-the-job training by working directly with their own teachers. The study also demonstrated how a community of practice setting enabled those supervisors to maximize their learning experience and enhance their supervisory practices. Some of our participants were aware of the importance of direct interactions with their seniors and valued them as learning opportunities. This is a healthy practice that should be encouraged in Omani schools.

Recommendations
We wish to conclude this article by providing some recommendations designed to improve supervisory training in Oman. Given that our participants' complaints about the lack of supervisory training specifically focused on the new reforms, our main recommendation concerns the need to adjust current provision to the challenges inherent in change implementation. We believe that in the current context of educational change, it is imperative that supervisors' training programs in the country have a clear focus on the understanding of change and its implications for school leaders, teachers, and students. Zepeda (2014) asserts the challenging nature of change and argues that "for instructional leaders to assist teachers with the many challenges associated with meeting the needs of students and the school, an understanding of change is necessary" (p. 10). Some of our participants felt unconfident about their ability to implement the proposed changes due to lack of adequate training. We are optimistic that the designers of supervisors' professional development programs will take this into account when designing future interventions.
In response to participants' concerns about the mismatch between the training offered and their actual interests, our second recommendation centers on the importance of aligning these preparation programs with the individual needs of supervisors, which requires seeking their feedback on their professional development requirements. An effective professional development provision is one that follows an "interest-driven design" to ensure fulfillment of the participants' needs (Lutrick & Szabo, 2012). We also recommend that supervisory training providers in Oman benefit from international experiences in the field, while also considering their fit for the local context (see Karami-Akkary & Hammad, 2019). We argue that exposure to examples of good practice would benefit existing preparation programs and enhance their effectiveness.
Our final recommendation focuses on the need for supervisory training to be grounded in a solid, culturally appropriate knowledge base on leadership preparation. Currently, this knowledge base is nonexistent, or at best immature (Karami-Akkary & Hammad, 2019). This leaves educational leadership scholars in Oman with the challenge to develop this knowledge base and make it available for those responsible for preparing instructional leaders to inform their future preparation programs.

Declaration of Conflicting Interests
The author(s) declared no potential conflicts of interest with respect to the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.

Funding
The author(s) received no financial support for the research, authorship, and/or publication of this article.