The Importance of the Phoenix Bird Technique (Resilience) in Teacher Training: CD-RISC Scale Validation

: Resilience is a personal characteristic or trait that is revealed in situations in which the individual shows high adaptation mechanisms. It is not a state of stress immunity but the ability to adapt to di ﬀ erent circumstances. This characteristic is highly important for future teachers and their teaching activities. To analyze resilience levels of future teachers of nursery, primary and secondary education. First, this study is ainstrumental research carried out to revalidate the CD-RISC (Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale) for teachers in training, and second, based on the foregoing results, it is a non-experimental empirical study. The participants were 373 students of degrees in Early Childhood Education, Primary Education, and a Master’s Degree in Secondary Education from two Spanish Universities and a Chilean university. Exploratory and a conﬁrmatory factorial analysis were sequentially used to identify the number and composition of factors, and central tendency and dispersion tests, analysis of variance, and e ﬀ ect size were calculated. The programs and statistical tests used were SPSS.22, FACTOR.10.8.01, M-Plus.7.3, and G*Power 3.1.9.2. The instrumental research revealed a bifactorial distribution, resistant personality, resources and control. Females, older individuals, and those who attend primary education showed higher resilience levels than males, younger people, and children in early childhood education.

Introduction
The phoenix is a beast from Greek mythology, which, from time to time, burnt and reemerged from its own ashes. Its origin is the Garden of Eden, at the bottom of the Tree of Good and Evil, where it burnt for the first time, later blossoming from the flames. Originally mentioned by Hesiod in the eighth century BC, and subsequently in further explanations by the historian Herodotus, the myth of the phoenix spread among the Greeks, who gave it the name of Phoenicoperus (red wings). It has been depicted in most well-known cultures, including the Chinese, Japanese, Russians (the firebird, musically immortalized by Stravinsky), Egyptians (the Bennu who, according to Ovid, died and was reborn every 500 years), Hindus, and Indigenous American like the Aztecs, the Mayans, and the Toltecs (Quetzal).
More recently, Viktor Frankl , neuropsychiatrist and founder of Logotherapy, compared the myth of the phoenix to a traumatic experience, which, although always negative, will lead to an outcome that will depend on each individual (resilience). The philosopher Carl G. Jung (1875Jung ( -1961 explained the similarities between the human being and the phoenix, stating that the iconic creature improvement of anxiety [21]. In this sense, a positive anxiety modality could exist, which would not interfere negatively with performance, as demonstrated in sports events [22].
Given the abovementioned facts, among the different factors that interact with resilience, gender must be underscored, as male gender seems to have higher levels of resilience. According to Allan, McKenna, J., and Dominey, boys support problems related to mental health better, as they are more reluctant to share them with others, showing an image of invulnerability, self-sufficiency, and sometimes bluster [23]. Conversely, girls appear more sociable in this sense and more likely to express their feelings and thoughts to their acquaintances, although they are also prone to internalize failure. Ramírez and Castro agree with these authors when they assert that boys show higher levels in all dimensions of resilience [24].
Erdogan, Ozdogan, a d Erdogan claim that, in relation to gender and resilience, male university students show higher levels of resilience than females [25]. The study of Zurita, Chacón, Castro, Gutiérrez-Vela, and González-Valero also confirms that males have higher levels of resilience in personal capacity and the tenacity dimension, more self-confidence and tolerance of adversity, and positive acceptance of changing situations, whereas females show higher scores in the rest of the factors [26]. Spirituality is relevant to understand how resilience enables people to seek higher and better goals. Resilience helps people to achieve a better quality of life and to seek those purposes [27]. In this sense, the results of Ponce's study in a sample of Spanish and Chilean university students show strong similarities, with the greatest difference in the spiritual aspect, which was the only specific stable factor in both samples [2].
Guerra examined the issue of resilience of teachers, stating that PE teachers have lower levels of resilience whereas ChE teachers have the highest levels [28]. This approach contradicts the abovementioned authors' statements that males have a higher capacity of resilience, as, according to data from Andalusian universities, most of ChE students are female, reaching percentages of 97%.
Self-concept is related to resilience capacity and is important in teacher training. Cachón, Cuervo, Zagalaz, and González carried out a study on the relation between sports practice and the dimensions of self-concept, taking into account gender and the specialty of the students' teaching degrees [29]. The results show that the physical dimension of self-concept is positively correlated to the number of hours spent doing sports practice, with males and students of PE Degree obtaining higher scores. Likewise, it is significantly correlated with academic, social and family dimensions.
Chen, Maoa, Kong, Li, Xin, Lou, and Li studied 125 schizophrenic patients' family-caregivers in a Chinese hospital, applying the Kessler Psychological Relief Scale (K10), the Perceived Devaluation Discrimination Scale (PDD) of Link [30], and the Resilience Scale of Connor-Davidson (CD-RISC-10) to measure caregivers' psychological distress, stigma, and resilience, respectively [31]. These authors demonstrated for the first time that resilience moderates the association between caregivers' stigma and psychological distress and that promoting resilience could be helpful to relieve their psychological distress, especially in those caregivers who had higher levels of stigma.
In recent years, the CD-RISC has been adapted and revalidated in different contexts, ages, and countries, but no clear consensus has been reached on the number of items and factors. It is remarkable that this is one of the most widely used tools to evaluate this construct although its joint validity for diverse situations, nationalities, or cultures has not been proven.
Thus, this study aims to evaluate the psychometric characteristics and factor structure of the Spanish version of the CD-RISC in a sample of training teachers. It also aims to examine the possible impact of gender, age, and the future teachers' specialty and university of origin in order to determine its possible usefulness with guarantees of success in the professional teaching context.

Participants
Participants were 373 individuals studying a degree in ChE and PE (second year of teacher training) or a Master's degree in Secondary Education (SE) (first year of teacher training). Of them, 196 were PE students, 85 were ChE students, and 92 were SE students. Regarding distribution by gender, 94 are males and 279 are females. The ages range between 19 and 51 years, M = 23.12, SD = 5.330. They were divided into three groups for this work. One group was composed of 105 people under 21 years old, another group was made up of 163 people between 21 and 24 years old, and the last group included the remaining 105 students, over 24 years old. Concerning their origin, 257 participants were students from a university in southern Spain (USS), 100 were from a university of northern Spain (UNS), and 15 were from a university of Chile (UCH). It should be noted that the sample used was for convenience, and participation in the investigation was voluntary.

Instrument
The instrument used was the Connor-Davidson Resilience Scale (CD-RISC), which is currently the most widely used scale to measure this construct [8]. This instrument was originally divided into five factors, the first one refers to personal competence, high standards and tenacity; the second factor reflects confidence in one's intuition, tolerance of negative effects, and strength in the face of stress; the third factor is linked to positive acceptance of change and secure relationships; the fourth factor is related to control; and the fifth factor refers to spirituality. The CD-RISC consists of 25 items, although a reduced version of just 10 items (CD-RISC-10) and another version with two items (CD-RISC-2) are also available. The 10-item version refers to resilience as a one-dimensional concept, conversely to the initial 25-item version. It should be noted that in the present study the 25-item scale has been used, with a Likert scale of 1-5, where 1 strongly disagree and 5 strongly agree.
The items and item numbers (compared to the CD-RISC) of the CD-RISC-10 are as follows: 1. Ability to adapt to change, 4. Ability to face the issues and challenges, 6. See the funny side of things, 7. Come out stronger from adversity, 8. Recover when facing diseases or difficult situations, 11. Confidence in achieving proposed goals, 14. Thinking clearly under pressure, 16. Not being discouraged by failure, 17. Self-image of a strong person, and 19. Ability to handle unpleasant emotions [32].
The items of the CD-RISC-2 are as follows: 1. Able to adapt to change and 8. Tendency to recover after an illness or a difficulty. These elements were selected by the scale's creators, as they etymologically captured the essence of resilience, in other words, the ability to rebound and adapt to change successfully [33].
Allan, McKenna, and Dominey consider that the original version of 25 items is suitable to be used with older adolescents or university students in the educational context, as reflected in the research carried out in schools from the Basque Country with 1250 adolescents aged between 12 and 15 years old [23]. Positive correlations of resilience (CD-RISC-25) with self-concept and perceived social support were found [34].
There is an increasing body of literature on the CD-RISC, which has been translated to many languages and studied in a wide range of populations, including a large number of community samples, different trauma survivors, Alzheimer's caregivers, adolescents, older people, patients receiving treatment for post-traumatic stress disorder, members of different ethnical and cultural groups, and selected professional, artistic, or sporting groups. In addition, the CD-RISC is included in studies of functional neuroimaging, genotype studies, and studies evaluating treatment outcome. The psychometric properties of the CD-RISC are maintained in many studies, although its factorial structure and average score vary depending on the context, as can be seen in the following research results.
The CD-RISC has been validated in different populations, for instance, in the work of Serrano-Parra, Garrido-Abejar, Notario-Pacheco, Bartolomé-Gutiérrez, Solera-Martínez, and Martínez-Vizcaino, who validated the survey for a group of older people between 60 and 75 years old, specifying five factors [35]. Crespo, Fernández-Lansac, and Soberón adapted the scale to the Spanish population among 111 family caregivers of older dependent people and found four factors [36]. Manzano and Ayala examined the psychometric properties of the CD-RISC in a sample of 900 Spanish entrepreneurs, conducted by telephone survey, and found three factors [37]. They concluded that it is a reliable and valid tool to measure the resilience of this sector of population. Likewise, Fernández-Martínez, Andina-Díaz, Fernández-Peña, García-López, Fulgueiras-Carril, and Liébana-Presa [38] and Riveros, Bernal, Bohórquez, Vinaccia, and Margarita [39] used this instrument in their study to measure resilience in university students, reducing it to a single factor.
In the present study, we intend to revalidate this scale by studying teachers in training to be able to use the instrument with a guarantee of success.

Procedure
First, the permission of the Ethical Committees of the Universities involved in the study was obtained. Then, an e-mail was sent to different Spanish and Chilean faculties that provided teacher training in the three levels under study, explaining the objectives of the study, and requesting their collaboration. After obtaining affirmative replies, the link of the questionnaire was sent by e-mail to several teachers of the aforementioned centers, requesting them to pass on the questionnaires to the trainees. An explanatory letter requesting their participation was attached to the questionnaire, presenting the objectives and the aim of the study, indicating that the data would be processed only with scientific purposes, and ensuring their anonymity. Regarding informed consent, it should be noted that the letter of introduction to the respondents contained a text requesting collaboration and that if they completed the survey it was because they agreed to do so, since it was voluntary and all were of legal age and did not need permission from their parents.
The questionnaire was open to the trainees for a period of one month, after which data collection was concluded and the data were analyzed.

Data Analysis
An instrumental research was carried out in this study to revalidate the CD-RISC scale with teachers in training, and subsequently, a non-experimental empirical research was completed using the results. The reason for the instrumental research was the fact that this scale has been widely used and revalidated in different contexts and with different ages, finding different factors depending on each case. In this paper, we study the resilience of future teachers who will be in charge of the formation of youngsters between ages 3 and 18. The resilience level of these future teachers could be one of the most important components to becoming good educators. Hence, the importance of guaranteeing the reliability and validity of the obtained data and avoiding errors in the presentation of the results or when making a diagnosis without having previously verified the reliability of the measurement scale.
Following the suggestions of Lloret, Ferreres, Hernández, and Tomás, exploratory factorial analysis (EFA) and confirmatory factorial analysis (CFA) were used sequentially [40]. First, EFA was conducted to identify the number and composition of the factors, as well as the common variance of all of the variables used. Subsequently, CFA was is used to confirm the adaptation and revalidation of the CD-RISC for application to teachers in training.
The following programs and the statistical test were used. The SPSS.22 program was used to calculate the univariate statistics for each item of the scale, means, standard deviation, asymmetry, kurtosis, and corrected homogeneity index in order to obtain the recommended number of factors. And was used to calculate the reliability, Cronbach's alpha coefficient for ordinal data.
The FACTOR.10.8.01 program was used to obtain the number of factors designated: • The method of Parallel Analysis. The implementation suggested by Timerman and Lorenzo-Seva was elaborated with 10.000 re-samplings [41]. • EFA, using the polychoric correlations between variables. • Factoring, the non-weighted least squares method, with Promin rotation, was used [41][42][43].
The M-Plus 7.3 program was used to calculate the CFA, means replication of the estimated parameters and re-specification the model if necessary.
The G* Power 3.1.9.2 Program was used to calculate the effect size (Cohen's d).
After conducting the EFA and the CFA, the empirical study was performed. The statistical tests and programs, performed with the SPSS.22 program, are presented below. • Check the equality of variations (Levene´s test). • Inferential analysis, Student's t and Analysis of Variance (ANOVA).

Instrumental Research
A descriptive analysis of the items that make up the scale was performed, finding that the distribution of Items 5 and 25 present skewness and kurtosis values that exceed ±2, the value recommended by Bandalos and Finney [44], Muthén and Kaplan [45], and Muthén and Kaplan [46]. The rest of the items presented an acceptable distribution. The corrected homogeneity indexes were adequate, all of them over 0.200 (see Table 1).
In view of these results, we proceeded to perform EFA with the rest of the items, regardless of items 5 and 25.
The rotation revealed that item 6 did not load on any factor, as it did not reach the value of 0.300, so it was eliminated from the scale, as were items 7 and 20, which appeared in the two factors with a smaller difference of 0.100.
These results yielded a scale made up of 20 variables distributed in two factors, F1 Personalidad Resistente (Tough Personality) (PerRes), and F2 Recursos y Control (Resources and Control) (RecCon). A further rotation was carried out and the EFA results explained 48% of the total variance of the two factors. The Goodness of Fit Index (GFI) obtained a value of 0.98, and the root mean square residual (RMSR) obtained a value of 0.058, showing a good fit to the bidimensional structure of the scale [47]. Both Bartlett's statistic (= 3589.1, df = 190, p = 0.000010) and the Kaiser-Meyer-Olkin (KMO) test (= 0.91) indicated a good fit to the data, and a variance percentage of 0.49 (see Table 2).
The MPlus.7 program was used to verify and corroborate the EFA results. The estimator has been MLM. The values of the comparative fit index (CFI) and the Tucker-Lewis index (TLI) were both lower than 0.90, but the root means square error of approximation (RMSEA) reached 0.056, and the standardized root mean square residual (SRMR) obtained a value of 0.050. As the IFC and TLI did not reach adequate values, the model had to be readjusted. This readjustment has shown that variable 9 loads on variable 3, and variables 4, 11, and 24 load on variable 2 (see Table 3 and Figure 1).

Empirical Research
First, we examined whether sex may inference the resulting factors. For this purpose, we used

Empirical Research
First, we examined whether sex may inference the resulting factors. For this purpose, we used Levene's test to verify variance equality and subsequently Student's t-test for independent samples, and finally, Cohen's d to determine the effect size. Levene's test (with values higher than 0.05) showed that the groups were homogeneous. Student's t-test revealed statistically significant sex differences in the RecCon factor (t (2, 371) = −2.997, p ≤ 0.01, DM = 0.202, d = 0.37), with women scoring higher, and with a medium effect size (see Table 4). An Analysis of de Variance (ANOVA) was performed to determine possible statistically significant differences in the resulting means. After verifying these differences, first, Levene´s test was applied to the future teachers' specialty, confirming the equal variance in the two factors (p ≥ 0.05), and subsequently, a post hoc Bonferroni contrast was carried out. The RecCon factor results showed statically significant differences between the PE students and the ChE students, with higher scores in the ChE group, with a medium effect size (F (2, 370) = 5.140, p ≤ 0.01, DM = 0.23, d = 0.41) (see Table 5). With regard to the inference of age after dividing the sample into three groups, participants between 21 and 24 years old scored significantly higher in the two factors. Levene´s test yielded values of p ≥ 0.05, so that equal variances were assumed and therefore the Bonferroni Post Hoc Contrast test was applied.
The results showed statically significant differences in PerRes between participants under 21 years of age and those between 21 and 24 years (F (2, 370) = 5.545, p ≤ 0.01, DM = 0.23, d = 0.41) and between those under 21 and those over 24 (F (2, 370) = 5.545, p ≤ 0.05, DM = 0.22, d = 0.35). In the RecCon factor, no statistically significant differences were observed (see Table 6). The inference of the future teachers' university was verified. Levene´s test yielded a value of p ≥ 0.05, indicating equal variances. There were statistically significant differences the between the USE students and the UNE students only in RecCon, with higher scores in this factor in the USE students (F (2, 370) = 5.466, p ≤ 0.01, DM = 0.21, d = 0.38) and a medium the effect size (d = 0.45) between UNE and UCH. UCH students also scored higher than UNE students in PerRes, with a medium effect size (d = 0.60) and a medium the effect size (d = 0.37) between USE and UCH (see Table 7).

Discussion
The aim of this study was to confirm the factorial structure of CD-RISC for reliable application teachers in training for ChE, PE, and SE. The validation process was performed through EFA and CFA, yielding a two-factor distribution, Resources and Control and Tough Personality (ResCon and PerRes). This result differs from that proposed by the scale's authors [8], which obtained the following five factors: personal competence, confidence and intuition, positive acceptance of change and secure relationships, control, and spirituality.
The Tough Personality factor is associated with the Personal Competence and Confidence and Intuition factors, whereas the Resources and Control factor is associated with the Positive Acceptance of Change and Secure Relationships, and Control factors. The items corresponding to the fifth factor (spirituality) were not used. This result does not differ very much from other works that have modified the number of items and/or factors, after the adaptation and validation of the scale, adjusting it to different contexts [35][36][37][38].
After validating the scale, we tried to determine possible differences due to sex, age, study specialty, and home university. Regarding sex, women seem to be more resilient than men. These results were corroborated by Moreno and Sáiz study [48], which indicate that the differences by sex may be due to the presence of a higher level of empathy in women, but they contradict the findings of other authors concluding that men had higher levels of resilience than women. In this regard, see Allan, McKenna, and Dominey [23] and Erdogan, Ozdogan, and Erdogan in the case of university students [25], Ramírez and Castro with adolescents [24], and Cachón, Cuervo, Zagalaz, and González, who studied self-concept in teachers in training [29].
Forján and Morelatto analyzed the levels of resilience in teachers, finding that PE teachers scored higher than ChE teachers [9]. However, in our results, future ChE teachers obtained higher scores than PE teachers. This may be due to the fact that PE students do not have a profile of teaching as defined as those of ChE and SE, since being still in the beginning of the degree they still do not know their future specialization. Furthermore, our results have shown that the level of resilience increases with age, corroborating the results obtained by Suárez-Bagnasco, indicating that older people have higher resilience scores than younger ones when comparing people between 30 and 60 years old [49].
It was confirmed that USE students had a more resources and control, and the difference with the UNE students was statistically significant. Results of the earlier studies have shown that USE student´s show more academic engagement, also pointing out that women have higher scores in commitment to teaching studies than men [50]. It would be interesting to check whether the level of resilience of teachers in training could somehow predict their commitment to the studies.
Regarding the limitations of this study, the small size of the sample, its non-random nature, and the low participation of universities should be noted. In relation to future lines of research, it is necessary to replicate a study in a larger population using data on the commitment to the studies, seeing if the levels of resilience can predict it, and, based on these data, thus prepare the implementation of programs that improve resilience in both future teachers and active teachers.

Conclusions
In conclusion, psychological resilience is the ability to cope with a crisis or to return to pre-crisis status quickly, to remain calm during a crisis and to move on from the incident without long-term negative consequences. It can be symbolised by the phoenix arising from its own ashes, which is equivalent to a human being's ability to overcome difficulties and renew his or her strength and, hence its importance as a technique in teacher training. The instrumental research yielded a two-factor distribution of the CD-RISC. The empirical research revealed that women and older individuals had higher level of resilience than men, younger individuals, and future ChE teachers. Teachers with low levels of resilience can show difficulties in being empathic with schoolchildren. It was necessary to know these levels of resilience in the case of students participating in the study since being still in the beginning of their degree it is possible to implement intervention programs that improve these levels.


Imperatives of Paradigm Shift in Current Pedagogical Strategies in Nigerian Public Universities

This paper is an exploratory research that focuses on the extent of preparedness by Nigerian Public Universities (NPUs) to cope with the challenges imposed by the Covid 19 pandemic. NPUs are characterized by traditional pedagogical approaches in academic engagements with students. The advent of Covid 19 requires a change from traditional strategy to Information Communication and Technology (ICT) mediated pedagogical approach to remove constraints imposed by compliance with Covid 19 protocols, namely social distancing, self – isolation and total lock down. Attempt to mitigate the ravaging effect of COVID 19 pandemic, led to the closure of universities in Nigeria (both private and public). This poses serious challenges to NPUs in that, while private universities activated their virtual learning environment for academic engagement with students during the lockdown, NPUs were incapacitated and are yet to be opened. The paper therefore examined the concept of virtual learning, the influence of ICT revolution on pedagogical strategies, the readiness of NPUs for virtual learning as well as constraints to virtual learning in NPUs. Some of the observable challenges facing virtual learning in NPUs include: poor ICT Policy, low internet penetration, high cost of access to the internet as well as attitudinal problems of students and lecturers towards ICT. Based on the problems highlighted, the following recommendations were made: formulation of an enduring ICT policy and its implementation by the Federal Government, adequate funding of NUPs, massive deployment of ICT infrastructure for virtual learning, reduced cost of internet services, provision of WiFi on the campuses, training programmes for lecturers and students on proficiency in ICT skills and improved access to internet facilities by lecturers and students in NPUs.

Introduction
The statistics published by UNESCO on March 25, 2020 revealed that COVID-19 pandemic has disrupted schooling for more than 87% of the world's student population, leading to closure of schools in 165 countries. This equates to 1,524,648,768 students, or 87.1% of the world's student population. In order to mitigate the ravaging effects of COVID-19 pandemic, global reactions have been simultaneous on strategies for survival. These strategies include social distancing, self-isolation and total lockdown which reduce physical contact among the citizens to the barest minimum. These measures pose serious challenges to all educational institutions that rely mostly on traditional (face-to-face) pedagogical relationships.
In Nigeria, as part of the damage control of corona virus, the Honourable Minister of Education directed all educational institutions in the country to close down immediately. On April 3, 2020, the Federal Government directed all vice chancellors, provosts and rectors on how to reopen using virtual learning after two weeks of closure. Unsure of how soon the COVID-19 pandemic will end, the Minister directed all tertiary institutions to activate learning environment to enable students continue their studies through digital device. He observed that COVID 19 has changed everybody and as such lecturers should device alternative ways to keep the system and academic activities going through the creation of virtual learning environment.
This directive is premised on the appropriateness of technology in enhancing teaching and learning processes, particularly during the scourge. Globally, pedagogical relationship in the educational system is facing a lot of transformation due to the influence of Information Communication and Technology (ICT). For instance, Maphalala and Adigun [1] remarked that the implication of technology in higher education is obvious in this present time of COVID-19, when physical/social distancing has become the 'new normal' and communication and interpersonal relationships are fostered through digital platforms or online media. Clearly not many nations, developed or developing have any plan 2 American Journal of Educational Research for e-learning as back-up when things go wrong with the traditional (face-to-face) mode of engagement with students. For many, online education is perceived only an alternative, a second chance in a bi-modal system of learning. In most Nigerian Public Universities (NPUs) online education is completely alien to both lecturers and learners.
COVID-19 pandemic has posed serious challenge to NPUs when viewed against the directive to migrate from NUPs' conventional teaching methods to virtual learning. It is observed that while private universities in Nigeria engaged their students through virtual learning during the lockdown, students in all NPUs were denied any form of interaction. On account of the realities lecturers and students in NPUs find themselves during the lockdown, and their reflections of being unable to engage virtually, one can reasonably conclude that NPUs were ill prepared to cope with challenges of COVID-19 pandemic. The inability of NPUs' to engage students in teaching and learning activities during lockdown occasioned by COVID-19 pandemic is therefore a source of concern. This could be an indication of lack of suitable technology and requisite knowledge by lecturers and students for virtual learning.
The purpose of this paper therefore, is to examine the concept of virtual learning, the influence of ICT on pedagogical process; assess the readiness of NPUs for virtual learning and highlight factors that constraint virtual learning in NPUs.

Concept of Virtual Learning
According to Schlosser and Simonson [2] virtual learning is learning that can functionally and effectively occur in the absence of traditional classroom environments. Van Beek [3] indicated that virtual learning comes in several forms, namely; Computer-Based, Internet-Based, Remote Teacher Online, Blended Learning and Facilitated Virtual Learning. Similar forms of virtual learning are sometimes grouped into broader categories: i) Online Learning: This is any form of instruction that takes place over the Internet. It includes Internet-based instruction; remote teacher online instruction; and blended learning and facilitated virtual learning that involves these two virtual learning methods. It excludes computer-based learning. ii) Full-Time Online: This is online learning with no regular face-to-face instruction or facilitation. It is Internet-based and remote teacher online learning only, though it may include some occasional interaction with human teachers and facilitators.
According to Folayan and Folayan [4] e-learning applications and processes include web-based learning, computer based learning, virtual classrooms and digital collaboration. Racheva [5] observes that virtual learning combines e-learning; web-based learning; distance learning and blended learning. In addition, the major advantage is that virtual learning overcomes many drawbacks of the physical environment such as time, facilities and environment as well as the capacity to bring new pedagogical techniques into traditional forms of education and makes learning more personalized and convenient.
The application of ICT in the teaching and learning process, otherwise known as e-learning, is described as an expanded digitalized, multimedia online learning environment that supports conventional face-to-face teaching and learning, [6]. According to Maphalala and Adigun [1], through e-learning, course content and knowledge sharing is made possible among individuals or groups of learners and their instructors irrespective of their location or distance from one another. In other words, e-learning has the potential to address inequalities and provide a more conducive educational environment. According to Mahmud, Ndoni and Omodara [7], ICT has become part and parcel of education and brought about changes in the technological era all over the world. One single thread running through various classifications of virtual learning is the role of ICT in instructional delivery. It then follows that without ICT, virtual leaning is impossible.
According to Adu [8], ICT is the convergence of computer systems with telecommunication network to acquire, process, store retrieve and transmit data and information which then encompasses information storage tools such as computer Disc, Read-only Memory (CD-ROM), magnetic tapes, computer files, data bases, and network internet-based tols and technologies. The Learning Management System (LMS) is becoming increasingly popular as a platform that provides opportunities for online interaction with students, with centralized information about the students' progress. LMS is a software application for the administration, documentation, tracking, reporting, automation and delivery of educational courses, training programmes or learning and development programmes. According to Mahabeer and Pirtheepal, [9], the LMS has become the elearning platform used by Higher Education Institutions (HEIs).
The foregoing has been an attempt to clarify certain terminologies that are common in the application of ICT to pedagogical relationships. The next section of this paper will examine how ICT has transformed pedagogical relationships in educational institutions.

Influence of ICT Revolution on Pedagogical Strategies
Various scholars have defined ICT in different manners. Teo and Beng Lee, [10] defined ICT usage as the utilization of the internet along with computer networks, World Wide Web, email and search engines used in the production and sharing of information. Nwafor [11] described the various components of ICT as including but not limited to audio, camera, e-mail, facsimile (Fax), internet, intranet, main frame computer, minicomputer, microcomputer, photography, teleconferencing, videos, websites word processing computers among others. According to Garba and Alademerin [12] the knowledge components of ICT known as ICT-literacy has become part of the basic labour requirement in knowledge driven societies; and a necessary foundation for higher education and professional development. According to Obayan [13] ICT has increasingly become a foundation of modern societies and economies. She added further that there is tendency that people without access to ICT are denied the option to participate in new ICT-based jobs, e-government, ICT-improved health care, and ICT-enhanced education and other activities that are connected with technology.
The ICT has been of tremendous influence in enhancing pedagogical strategies in the developed countries. The pedagogical practice has become more innovative and flexible as the teacher is no more seen as a custodian of knowledge and can switch method of instruction delivery in order to make it student-centered. Pelz [14] indicated that one of the principles of online pedagogy is centered on the fact that the instructor must give way to students-led learning in an online course due to the distance between the instructor and the student.
Again the use of ICT has enabled increased students engagement with online tools. The ICT especially the Internet has become a necessity to a large portion of the world population today as well as the best, largest and most useful encyclopaedia of information [15]. Adu and Galloway [16] opined that ICTs have been used in education for many purposes such as for memory retention, skill acquisition, understanding of the subject matter, independent study, and motivation. It can as well be used to promote the use of modern methods of teaching which includes among others cooperative learning, peer group dramatization through play and problem solving.
Agabi, Agbor and Olulube [17] opined that global efforts at proactively creating knowledge society through ICT include components of computer hardware and software, network connectivity and several other devices that are essential to knowledge management. Apagu and Wakili [18] opined that adoption of ICT by teachers will enhance effective teaching, due to its enhancement of good course organization, effective classroom management, self-study, collaborative learning, tax oriented activities, and effective communication between the actors of teaching-learning process and research activities.
Nwezeh [19] observed that ICTs have introduced new methods of teaching and conducting research and have been brought into education facilities for online learning, teaching and research collaboration. Through e-learning course content and knowledge sharing is made possible among individuals or groups of learners and their instructors, irrespective of their location or distance from one another [1]. According to Onasanya, Shehu, Oduwaiye and Shehu [20], the impact of advancement in computer and internet technology is felt in all spheres of human endeavour particularly in the area of socio economic and to some extent the education industry. Introduction of ICT in education plays a role in shifting responsibility for learning from teacher to student and does not however remove the need for classroom leadership nor does it invalidate related traditional teacher skills and practices [21].
Hannshek and Wessmann [22] opined that ICT is an existing and widely deployed technology that can be mobilized to step up the pace and scale of transformation in teaching and learning process in higher education. While science and technology has revolutionized the whole world, the use of ICT in education has certainly influenced and enhanced teaching and learning processes, [23]. Lopez [24] remarked that ICT has provided innovative opportunities for teaching, learning, research and administration in higher education.
One aspect of technology that comes in handy is the social media. Williams and Adesope [25] observed that social media in education are used to foster learning by allowing social interaction, active participation and engagement of students in classroom discussion. Ojokheta and Onimisi [26] opined that it is universally known that social media have become an integral part of public discourse and communication in the contemporary society. Sutherland, Davis, Terton and Visse [27] remarked that a study conducted across 15 countries identified students in higher education as being responsible for increasing the use of mobile computing devices such as tablets and smartphones, with 67% attributing their academic success to the use of modern technologies. Clement [28] observed that in 2019, an estimated 2.95 billion people were using social media worldwide, a number projected to increase to almost 3.43 billion in 2023.
The foregoing is a clear indication that ICT would continue to play a predominant role in teaching-learning process. This implies that it is imperative for educational institutions to embrace modern technology in order to be relevant in the 21 st Century knowledge economy. Additionally, there is the urgent need for NPUs to leverage on ICT to cope with challenges of COVID-19 pandemic.
The prospect of compliance by NPUs with the directive on deployment of virtual learning for interaction is dependent on a number of factors. For instance, it would be interesting to know whether these institutions have the resources for virtual learning. These institutions will require a Learning Management System (LMS) that enables them to deliver and track educational system in virtual space. The lecturers and students might not be adequately equipped for the demand of LMS. For instance, the behavioural intentions, attitudes and perceptions are essential factors among academics that influence their adoption and use of e-learning platforms for academic instruction [29]. This implies that both the academics in NPUs must have the prerequisite skills in terms of training for the use of LMS coupled with technical support that is essential for their competency in content development, management and e-facilitation.
The extent of readiness by NPUs to engage in virtual learning in order to overcome the challenges imposed by COVID-19 pandemic will be the focus of discussion in the next section.

Virtual Learning Readiness of NPUs
The suspension of operations of schools in reaction to the scourge has exposed the negligence on the part of government in their success on e-learning, education infrastructure, displaced persons as well as access to free and compulsory qualitative basic education and host of other educational facilities [30]. Nigeria has the highest number of learners affected by the country-wide lockdown that became operational in Nigeria on the midnight of Monday, 20 March 2020 and has resulted to over 30 million learners in the country being temporarily out of school, [31].

American Journal of Educational Research
The COVID-19 pandemic is one of the numerous pandemic that has threatened human race and outbreak of another virus is not avoidable. The reality is that only educational institutions that have access to modern technology will be able to survive in another outbreak. According to Kekic and Miladinovic [32] past researches on outbreaks suggest that such practices like physical and social distancing during outbreaks tend to continue even after the outbreak. The implication of this is that the learners, teachers as well as school managers would still be living in fears of the virus which would invariably prevent learners from interacting with one another in the school [33]. The extent of readiness by NPUs for virtual learning is therefore a source of concern. At present the utilisation ICT by NPUs for teaching and learning process is limited to blended learning. Allen and Seaman [34] defined a blended learning course as having between 30% and 80% of the course delivered online while they considered an online course as having at least 80% of the course delivered online.
The National Open University of Nigeria (NOUN) is the only public university in Nigeria in which the academic calendar does not suffer much dislocation occasioned by the closure of schools in Nigeria. This is because as a dedicated distance learning university, emphasis has been placed on the use of ICT for facilitation with students across different geo-political zones in the country. The University hosts the Africa Centre of Excellence on Technology Enhanced Learning (ACETEL) which is a World Bank sponsored Education Management System. Despite its robust ICT facility when compared with other NPUs, the mode of engagement with students at the NOUN falls under blended learning. This is due to occasional face-to-face engagements with students at various study centres across geo-political zones of Nigeria.
The success of virtual learning in NPUs hinges on attitudinal change of academics. The implementation, usage, management and sustenance of e-learning approaches to education and learning in Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) depend largely on the academics, [1]. They will need to learn new skills to teach students how to search for and use information from the internet and other safety issues, [35]. According to Garba and Alademerin [12] the transformation of the educational system through the application of ICT to a large extent depends on teacher's ability, effectiveness and competence in the use of ICT equipment for personal and educational purposes. Before introducing e-learning, institutions are expected to get prepared with adequate environmental, technological and other facilities, [36].
Although before the COVID-19 pandemic, ICT was a compulsory requirement for all seeking employment as academics in all institutions of higher learning in Nigeria. For instance, Garba and Alademerin [12] observed that the revised National Policy on Education incorporated the integration of ICT in education. In addition, the policy makes it compulsory for academic staff in all higher institutions to integrate ICT in their pedagogical practices. Yusuf [37] indicated that the government consideration for ICT integration in Nigerian educational practices is to empower and strengthen the competence of the education industry towards meeting up with those responsibilities in the National Policy on Education.
Compliance with ICT facilities is part of accreditation requirements, as indicated in the National Universities Commission (NUC) Basic Minimum Academic Standard Documents (BMAS). However, it is doubtful if most NPUs can scale this accreditation hurdle on ICT readiness under a transparent process. This is based on allegations that during accreditation, most Federal universities are treated with kid gloves by the NUC saddled with the oversight function since both the NUC and Federal public universities are Federal institutions.
Experience has shown that once NPUs libraries are equipped with state of the art ICT facilities, it is often taken for granted that these universities are ICT compliant during accreditation. There are NPUs where faculties cannot boast of a single computer unit while lecturers procure individual laptops through personal loans obtained from Cooperative and Thrift Societies. In rare cases where Wifi is available, the signal is so weak. This situation speaks volume about the extent of preparedness of NPUs for virtual learning particularly in this COVID-19 pandemic era. This implies that a wide gap still exists between the formulation of ICT policy and its implementation in Nigeria.
During the lockdown private universities were able to teach, conduct examinations, moderate students' projects and graduate their students through virtual learning. However, NPUs were unable to deploy virtual learning for teaching and learning process even before the lockdown. The ability of private universities to activate their ICT platform for teaching and learning process during the period has been attributed to stringent licensing criteria by the NUC. In addition, ability to charge economic fees boosts their financial status. Unlike NUPs where tuition ranges from less than $270 to $540 per session, tuition in private universities including faith based universities is between $1,400 and $8,400. In addition, the low enrolment figure in private universities when compared with public universities put private universities at an advantage since there is less demand on their ICT requirement. The ability of private universities for engagement with students through virtual learning is captured by Olanipekun [38]. He observed that while Ajayi Crowther University and other private universities in the country kept engaging their students during the lockdown period, NPUs were shut down as a result of lack of logistics and effective ICT platforms to continue teaching Nwagwu [36] traced the history of e-learning in Nigerian universities to 1995 when the National Universities Commission (NUC) initiated the Nigerian Universities Network (NUNet) with a view to enabling the universities expand the reach of their training activities, update and widen their teaching, research and overall development using ICT. However, ICT facilities in most Nigeria universities can be said to be grossly inadequate as evident in some research findings. While some university communities in some countries enjoy free or inexpensive internet access, students and faculty/staff in NPUs must pay for time spent accessing the internet, whether at a cybercafé or in the library. Maphalala and Adigun [1] observed that South Africa has access to the benefit presented by technologies in the 21 st Century. In a study conducted by Folayan and Folayan [4] it was revealed that students in UK universities have access to computers when needed and that UK universities have WiFi available all over their campus for personal computers and computers in laboratories and library also have internet facilities. They added further that what some Nigerian universities such as the Obafemi Awolowo University have are an e-portal that does not provide for collaboration or even class materials.
Nwagwu [36] in a study conducted on e-learning readiness at the University of Ibadan with lecturers as study samples reported that the lecturers did not support that their institutions and government provide enough training opportunity required to prepare students and their lecturers for good e-learning experience. In addition, they also strongly disagreed that the ICT equipment that could drive e-learning was available. However, they had no problem with content readiness of the University since they were the creator. Even though this study was conducted in the premier university in Nigeria his findings could be taken as a reflection of the situation in most NPUs.
Research ICT Africa (RIA) is an ICT and regulation research network based in South Africa. The RIA Nigeria ICT Survey of 2012 found that only 3.4% of households, or 747,025, have a fixed internet connection, and that 62% of internet users go online primarily via their mobile phone. The organisation also reported that 58.1% of Nigerian web traffic was via mobile handset and other mobile devices. According to Odufuwa [39] the poor penetration of fixed household internet is directly linked to absence of the fixed lines over which internet access products are typically delivered; low penetration of computers and inadequate power supply.
The results of the demand-side RIA Household and Individual ICT Access and Usage Survey for 2012 show that majority of households in Nigeria continue to be excluded from the full range of communication services. Radio (65%) and TV (53%) have the greatest penetration at household level in Nigeria, and fixed telephony (0.3%) and dedicated household internet (3.4%) are the least accessed ICT tools. Arising from this low penetration of dedicated household internet, Odufuwa [39] opined that low level of personal computer diffusion and fixed lines have created a scenario whereby the mobile handset is presently the principal device for accessing the internet and mobile internet is usually an individual access method rather than a shared household access method. RIA found that 62% of internet users go online primarily with personal mobile phones. Commercial internet locations (cyber cafes) are the second most popular (45%) means, followed by shared desktop computers, laptops or other mobile devices including tablets.
In 2015, the Networked Research Index (NRI) assessed the indicator policies and institutions that facilitate and enable a country to fully influence Information Technology for improved competitiveness and knowledge integration. The outcome of the assessment indicated that Nigeria dropped seven places to rank 119 th out of 143 countries surveyed while that of 2013 was 113 th out of 144 countries assessed [40]. The World Economic Forum (WEF) has ranked Nigeria 119th out of 139 economies in the overall ranking of its Global Information Technology Report (GITR) for 2016. A comparative analysis of three years NRI for selected countries in sub-Saharan Africa and the west revealed that among the sub-Saharan African countries, Nigeria was ranked 119 th coming behind The Gambia, Ghana Senegal and South Africa.
Olulube et al [40] observed that the overall results of the NRI indicated that given the existing IT penetration rate, evidence may suggest that it may take African countries and indeed Nigeria over 100 years to catch up with the west to improve knowledge management. In 2018, Research ICT Africa (RIA) Survey in Nigeria demonstrates that a significant portion of Nigerians (71%) do not use the internet. In addition, among countries surveyed, Nigeria ranks second in internet penetration, behind South Africa, though the penetration level in Nigeria is still low at 29%, not much more than half that of South Africa. The main reasons for not having a working internet connection in households is that it is viewed as not necessary, the cost of equipment to connect is too high or household members do not know how to use it [41].
The digital divide is not only observed among individuals but also across countries. A number of African countries are still below the critical mass of 20% of the population required for the country to benefit from the network effect associated with improved information flows, productivity gains and economic growth [41]. Figure 1 shows that Tanzania and Rwanda have less than 20% internet penetration. Nigeria is above the critical mass threshold and ranked second behind South Africa which has internet penetration of 49.72%. As ICT continues to dominate intellectual discourse in the 21 st century, Nigerian universities need transformation in their traditional role of knowledge dissemination. This is corroborated by Tremblay, Lalancette and Roseveare [42] who opined that notwithstanding the advances in information technology (IT), higher education in developing economies are still faced with multifaceted challenges in their academic programming and reaching the goals of supporting the development of knowledge societies. Ifinedo [43] opined that it is pertinent to note that the revolution taking place in higher education is not widespread and there is the need to strengthen ICT penetrations to reach a larger percentage of students, faculty and non-faculty in our institutions of higher learning.
In a comparative analysis study conducted by Folayan and Folayan [4] on existing e-learning tools between five universities in Britain with five universities in Nigeria, findings from their studies reveal ICT readiness of Nigerian universities. While all the five universities selected in Britain had 100% access to computer and internet, the five Nigerian universities selected for the study had the following scores: Afe Babalola University Ado Ekiti (90% access to computer and 90% access to the internet); Ekiti State University (35% access to computer, 10% access to the internet); Obafemi Awolowo University (60% access to computer, 50% access to the internet); Ahmadu Bello University (50% access to computer, 30% access to the internet), LAUTECH (50% access to computer and 20% access to the internet). This outcome of this study is illustrated in Figure 2 and Figure 3.
It is important to note the influence of ownership on observed disparities in access of students to computers and internet in these institutions as revealed in Figure 3. For instance, Afe Babalola University Ado Ekiti is privately owned with low student intake but high tuition fee while the rest are public universities owned by either Federal or state governments. As mentioned earlier in this article, the large students' population coupled with meager tuition fees denied the NPUs access to necessary fund for procurement of ICT facilities for virtual learning. Access to Computer Acess to ICT As at July 2019, Cable Magazine ranked Nigeria's download speed at 176 th among 207 countries measured globally. This is 24 places down from its 152 nd position in 2018 and 81 places from its 95 th position in the 2017 rankings. The Report added further that Nigeria has an average download speed of 1.5Mbps, that is, a deep from 1.86Mbps recorded in 2018. Situating this figure in context, it means then that it will take more than seven hours to download a five gigabyte HD file on the average. This is several hours behind the fastest broadband speed of 85.2Mbps of Taiwan where it takes just eight minutes to download the same file, (The Nation, 2020). This scenario indicates the pedestrian status of NPUs in the use of virtual learning for students' engagement both before and during COVID-19 pandemic era. This is therefore, a threat to Nigeria's vision of university education to among other objectives have a vibrant and robust university system with high level of techno-literacy.
In view of the directive from the government to universities to activate virtual learning to engage their students during the lockdown, the reality is that NPUs lack necessary facilities to comply with this request. This is partly responsible for the inability of NPUs to reopen since they were closed down in March 21 st , 2020. The closure of NPUs in reaction to COVID-19 pandemic clearly indicates that there are institutional and systemic factors that hinder their reopening

Constraints to Virtual learning in Nigerian Universities
The ability of Nigerian universities to provide a learning environment that is conducive with necessary infrastructure such as uninterrupted power supply; ICT driven facilities and research equipment are some of the factors mitigating the use of virtual learning by NPUs. Folayan and Folayan [4] succinctly put the state of ICT facilities in Nigerian tertiary institutions thus: it is obvious from available data that the penetration and use of electronic tools in Nigerian tertiary education is still very low and in some cases near non-existent. In most tertiary institutions in the country, the fact that ICT facilities and computers are not available is worrisome.
Government as proprietor of public universities influences development and growth of education through their policy. The most important area is that of funding. The precarious funding situation of NPUs has been a recurring issue. The Academic Staff Union of Universities (ASUU) often claims that their agitations are centered largely on funding and revitalization of NPUs. While private universities are free to dictate their tuition, NPUs are restricted. In fact, tuition is free in Federal universities. The free tuition policy in Federal Universities, without adequate funding has denied them access to major revenue required for the development of ICT infrastructure. Table 1 shows the share of education on the national budget from 2009-2018. The figures reveal that government has consistently failed to meet the United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organisation (UNESCO) minimum standard of 26%. Gillwald et al, [41] identified other challenges facing the ICT industry in Nigeria that could continue to jeopardise the realization of national policy objectives as: • The long delays in processing right of way permit as well as their arbitrary costing models have resulted in the prohibitively high cost of leasing transmission infrastructure. • Damage to existing fibre infrastructure as a result of cable theft; road works and other operations. • The lack of reliable, clean electricity supply over the national grid; • Constrained investment in the industry; and • The limited existing backbone infrastructure inhibits further expansion of broadband. Agabi et al [17] opined that government policies and the political and regulatory environment must show commitment to bring the benefits of ICTs to our knowledge institutions. Africa and indeed Nigeria need to prioritise ICT usage, knowledge, skills and development if it has to benefit from new knowledge economy and the competence needed to stimulate national development. Osagwu [45] observed that Nigeria is far from being near the digital age if credible and trustworthy policy measures are not immediately put in place, because IT services and products are changing by the day. Kehinde and Muyiwa [46] remarked that the major problem in the wheel of progress with regards to the adoption and implementation of ICT policy in Nigeria is the government's indifference towards ICT policy. The transformational changes that are meant to facilitate utilisation of ICT equipment in pedagogical practices in Nigerian universities require vibrant policies of Government which could resolve other matters. Unfortunately, such policies are yet to be implemented in Nigeria.
Infrastructural deficit is identified as one major barrier to the integration of ICT into instructional delivery in NPUs. ICT infrastructure consists essentially of a set of components that are the foundation of an ICT service such as typical physical components (computer and networking hardware and facilities) but also various software and network components. Adeosun [47] showed that lack of ICT resources and poor infrastructure prevents full implementation of ICT in Nigerian tertiary institutions. The RIA Nigerian ICT survey described bandwidth situation in Nigeria as paradoxical. It reported that since 2010 there has been a massive increase in wholesale submarine bandwidth capacity via landings at the country's coastal city of Lagos. However, terrestrial domestic networks to carry these links inland are in low supply resulting in minimal impact on retail pricing levels for internet access.
Odufunwa [39] remarked that poor penetration of dedicated household connections across Africa are primarily due to the absence of fixed telephone lines over which household internet access products are typically delivered, the substitution of fixed telephones with mobiles, the low penetration of computers and inadequate power supply. Nwezeh [19] identified absence of basic office gadgets and technologies like computers, printers, faxing machines, photocopiers, binders and projectors not to talk of internet in most tertiary institutions in Nigeria. Adekunmi, Ajala and Iyoro [48] reported high cost of browsing, slow internet speed, and power outage as some of the problems confronting undergraduate students at Olabisi Onabanjo University, Ago Iwoye in the use of internet. The foregoing indicates that lack of access to basic ICT equipment, low internet connectivity and computers and the inadequacies in the use of educational software constrained efficient deployment of ICT for virtual learning in NPUs.
The success of a desirable transformation to digital environment to a large extent depends on teachers' efficiency and competence in the utilisation of ICT for personal and educational purposes. Nwagwu [36] opined that lecturers play very critical roles in the design and management of e-learning programmes; they are the facilitators and teachers of students; they negotiate and intermediate between agencies of government and communities among others. Thus it is expected that lecturers must exhibit high degree of computer literacy in the deployment of ICT for pedagogical relationships with their students.
It is therefore expected that effective usage of ICT must be preceded by positive mental disposition. Various studies have been conducted on lecturers' attitude to usage of ICT. Migliorino and Maiden [49] identified the combination of positive attitude about ICT use and ICT skills as accepted precursors for effective use of ICT. Olumorin [50] reported that lecturers have positive attitude towards computer, but computers were not used for instructional purposes. Seo [51] reported that lecturer's attitude was a factor in fostering ICT adoption in education. The speed at which technology is evolving could also make it difficult for lecturers to make informed decisions regarding which devices to use. This demands frequent update in the knowledge and skills of lecturers on ICT through regular training. Training could also pose serious challenge in view of paucity of fund. Ajegbelen [52] reported that many lecturers in Nigerian tertiary institutions have never used computers and are terribly shy when confronted with this new technology and terminologies relating to ICT. On the part of students, various studies tend to confirm that students generally display positive attitude towards ICT usage particularly for academic purposes. Ani [53] reported that undergraduate students extensively use the internet, but majority relied on commercial internet services and cybercafés due to poor internet services in the university.
Skilled manpower is also required for the maintenance of ICT equipment. Nwagwu [36] reported availability of limited expertise because there are few technical staff to maintain the operations system. Teoh and Hoe [54] reported that lack of, and inadequately trained personnel as challenge to the use of ICT in most Nigerian higher institutions. Maphalala and Adigun [1] state that academics in the Higher Education Institutions (HEIs) from Africa are plagued by systemic challenges and have limited skills required for the implementation and integration of e-learning. Furthermore, there is deficit in e-learning policies in many of the African HEIs, and a lack of technical and administrative support for the academics for the implementation and use of e-learning facilities.

Conclusion and Recommendations
It is inferred from the discussion in this paper that outbreak of COVID-19 pandemic has exposed lack of capacity for virtual learning by NPUs. It is observed that activation of virtual learning by NPUs as directed by the Government is not feasible and at best a political gimmick. This is premised on observed indicators that constrain virtual leaning in NPUs. Unlike some universities in Britain and private universities in Nigeria, NPUs are constrained by systemic and institutional variables on deployment of virtual learning. Consequent upon these challenges, NPUs have remained closed since March 20, 2020 due to COVID 19 pandemic. This is because traditional pedagogical (face-to-face) relationships make compliance with COVID 19 protocols impossible. In order for NPUs to remain relevant in the 21 st knowledge economy, a paradigm shift in their traditional pedagogical strategies is inevitable. Based on the foregoing, the following recommendations are made: • Government should put in place enduring policies that facilitate Internet penetration in the Country. • There should be an improvement in relevant ICT infrastructure all over the country. • Service providers must be given adequate incentives to reduce charges on access to internet. • Adequate provision of ICT facilities in NPUs for easy access to internet. • Academic staff must be provided with relevant tools that facilitate access to computer and internet services. • Provision of free internet facilities for students and academic staff on the campus. • Training and retraining programmes for staff who will in turn train the students. • Computer science department in each of the public universities must be encouraged to develop software packages that are affordable in the country