Introduction

This chapter introduces the book as well as the multi-country research project that provided the basis for the research, data and analysis undertaken. It establishes the relevance and critical nature of the focus of our research project, which is effective political leadership in disasters and crises. It explains the approach that we have taken to this topic and presents a roadmap for readers regarding what to expect. Here, we briefly outline the contents of each chapter. Our book presents a challenge to researchers to reconceptualize and transform their approach to research about the involvement of politicians in disasters and crises by looking for examples of what constitutes best practice.

Introduction
IntroductIon I've very much got this thing, the more you can depoliticize disasters, the better. You'll get better quality decision-making; otherwise you run it all around the noisy minorities and whomever the politicians think is the swinging voter. (SEM2, interview, 2013) This quote goes to the heart of what this book is about-that is, how politicians can demonstrate effective political leadership in disasters and crises. This book demonstrates the usefulness of academic research and the value that research can bring to those who manage and respond to disasters and crises. Through extensive interviews (listed in Appendix 1), we identify best practice for those managing the involvement of political actors in disasters and crises. These events are always political in nature, providing opportunities for politicians to capitalize on them in the hope that they will be re-elected; if an election is not looming, then they want to be seen to be helping their constituents. Our book brings to light the theoretical and practical factors that inform the management of the involvement of political actors in disasters. It addresses a largely unmapped area of disasters, which is how politicians might best engage with emergency organizations and various publics in the different stages of disasters and crises. In a This chapter is authored by Jacqui Ewart. disaster or crisis, the flow of timely and accurate information is regarded as a key factor in reducing harm to those caught up in and recovering from the event, and politicians can make an important and worthwhile contribution to this. We argue that bridging this significant gap in the disaster literature will help to build resilience across nations at all levels-local, state and federal. As we completed writing this book, the COVID-19 pandemic was in its first couple of months, and we noted with concern that some organizations had adopted an approach of business as usual. However, we argue that during a disaster or crisis such as this pandemic, a business as usual approach is not appropriate and indeed may have significant ramifications for businesses, organizations and, ultimately, people's lives.
While we approach our book from the perspective that disasters are inherently political events, we also recognize that not all information provided during a disaster is political. For example, emergency management organizations are focused primarily on providing information that is aimed at preventing the loss of lives and, after the initial phase of a disaster, assisting with the recovery. The information provided to news media by those who witness or directly respond to disasters or crises is not driven by political concerns; however, various researchers have suggested that crises and disasters are 'political events' (Kelman 2012a;Liu 2007;Olson 2000;Olson and Gawronski 2010) and, as Kelman (2012b, p. 14) goes on to say, disasters are inherently political and it is 'naïve to think otherwise' (Kelman 2012b). Similarly, Wei et al. (2010Wei et al. ( , p. 1016 suggest that the type of information provided by official sources during a disaster is 'always a political decision'. These researchers suggest that those managing disasters and crises are highly aware of the politicized nature of these types of events and also conscious that they can be seen as opportunities on which politicians can 'capitalize' if an election looms while shoring up their chances of re-election in the long term. The question that has not been explored by researchers is how those charged with managing planning and responses to disasters deal with the politicization of these types of events.
We were involved in crises and disasters management roles in our professional lives before joining academia. We have also been involved in researching and writing about disasters during our academic careers, and we have both been affected directly by natural disasters and crises, and also managed them. The project from which this book emerged involved interviews with a range of senior emergency managers in ten countries, and was prompted by a gap we identified in the existing research into disaster communication.
This book emerged from a research project that began in 2012 and continues today. We undertook dozens of interviews with top level emergency managers in Australia, New Zealand, Canada, the United States, the United Kingdom, Iceland, Mongolia, Germany, Norway and Sweden. While many of these interviewees were happy for their names to be used, others requested and were given anonymity for a variety of reasons, including that their reflections were made some time after they had left their relative positions and they did not want to appear to be speaking on behalf of the organization for which they had previously worked. They had been through a range of positive and sometimes negative experiences with politicians. We drew on their collective wisdom to inform various parts of our book and their combined wisdom will no doubt assist those managing disaster and crisis responses and politicians. Their wisdom also provides important lessons for political actors and their minders when confronted by a major emergency.
While researchers had approached the involvement of politicians in disasters from a political perspective-that is, by looking at whether they were re-elected following a disaster (e.g. see Abney and Hill 1966;Bodet et al. 2016;Healy and Malhorta 2009), we identified a major deficiency in relation to research about how they should perform and provide leadership in a disaster or crisis. We set out to address that with the help of our study participants, who had been involved in managing responses to disasters and crises for many years.
When we began our research project in 2012, we noticed that very little attention had been paid to analyzing how politicians behaved when communicating with the public during the various stages of disasters. This prompted us to begin to explore this issue, first in Australia where we are based and then, as opportunities arose, in other countries. While our interviews were often opportunistic, we were given access to some of the world's leading disaster and emergency managers, who generously provided their time, expertise and insights into the questions that began to emerge from our research. Key among those questions was what effective political leadership looked like in disasters from the perspective of senior disaster and crisis managers. Our book focuses on this perspective because these people are frequently on the receiving end of demands from politicians, who are keen to capitalize on news media opportunities when disasters occur. Social media has also expanded opportunities for the aforementioned individuals to capitalize on disasters, while also presenting potential pitfalls and traps for them. The insights shared by our study participants in this book provide valuable tips and tools for those charged with managing politicians' demands during the various phases of disasters. Conversely, their advice will be valuable for politicians who might be drawn into a disaster, regardless of whether they want to capitalize on the events or they are involved for other reasons.
We have discovered that relationships between politicians and disaster managers can be tenuous or strong. As Kuipers (2018, p. 186) explains, these relationships are symbiotic: 'behind every great crisis leader there must be an institutional machinery that enables a decisive response'. However, sometimes the institutional machinery can break down when the desire of politicians to capitalize on a disaster overrides the need to ensure emergency managers have the space and resources to respond to the disaster and manage the aftermath. Given this, we take a pragmatic approach to our research, arguing that developing healthy and effective relationships between elected officials, emergency managers and communities when life and property are at stake during natural disasters requires more than theory: it demands practical tools and guidance.
Further, we have seen-and continue to see-that politicians often lack situational awareness when it comes to disasters and crises. At a time when disasters and crises are on the agendas of politicians and news media, and are increasingly prominent due to extremes in the intensity of natural disasters, we address a largely unmapped area of disasters. Urban and regional sprawl, coupled with sea and tree changers, has led to increasing numbers of people living in hazardous areas. Politicians have a key role to play in communicating about disasters and crises when the flow of timely and accurate information is regarded as a key factor in reducing harm to those caught up in and recovering from these events. In Australia and elsewhere in North America and the United Kingdom, there is a push from government to make individuals more resilient in relation to natural disasters. At a recent press conference, an Australian chief fire officer from Tasmania warned residents to prepare for the forthcoming bushfire season, telling them, 'If you own the land you own the risk' (Doyle 2018). Therefore, we take a pragmatic approach to developing healthy and effective relationships between elected officials, emergency managers and communities when life and property are at stake during natural disasters.
Drawing on our in-depth interviews, relevant research and examples, we focus on theoretical and practical factors that inform the management of political actors' involvement in disasters. Themes that emerged from the data form the basis of a series of recommendations and a best practice model, both of which focus on improving the relationships between political leaders and emergency management personnel. We draw on key case studies that demonstrate the positive and negative influences of political actors on disaster responses and recovery, and how these influences are managed by various agencies. Each of the chapters in this book is designed to explore the issue at the heart of the book: how politicians can be effective leaders in disasters and crises. We aim to help bridge the working relationship gap between the tactical level-that is, the operational response-and the political level. We identify the issues that inform these responses and relationships, and offer solutions.
In Chap. 2, we discuss the politics of disasters, in particular why disasters are political events. While we know that not all people involved in a disaster find it a political event, the research has highlighted that many politicians view disasters as an opportunity to showcase their leadership and build momentum for re-election. We look at this issue for two reasons: disasters are increasingly affecting people and economies because more people are living in areas that are vulnerable to hazards; and politicians are increasingly getting involved in public communication at the critical stage-that is, when a disaster or crisis occurs. The economic costs of disasters are substantial. In 2017, for example, insurers around the world expected the cost of losses from natural disasters would be somewhere in the vicinity of A$172 billion (SMH 2018). The literature points to the increasing impact of disasters on societies and economies worldwide and the increasing involvement of political actors in disaster response, management and communication. The research has highlighted that at times of disasters and crises, when life and property are at stake, immense expectations are placed on political leaders to communicate and act. These pressures are multi-faceted and are exerted by the various publics affected by disasters, by political parties whose futures are at stake and by government agencies charged with managing responses and needing the resources to do so. There is much at stake for politicians, too. They are expected to show leadership and are held accountable for the actions they take or fail to take during and after disasters and crises. There is no doubt that the risk to their political careers if they fail to act or fail when they act is a primary motivation for their performance at these times. In other words, their political survival is under threat.
We also acknowledge that some research has demonstrated that disasters have brought political enemies together and that responses have the potential to cross both national and international borders, with politics sometimes set aside to respond to the disaster. The disappearance of borders and difficult historical, social and religious politics at this time is an interesting phenomenon. Another fascinating factor at play in the politics of disasters is that many political actors are poorly equipped to deal with a disaster. They are largely disengaged from the preparation phase, because the types of activities that are undertaken in this stage do not attract news media attention. They often fail to engage with emergency managers, so when a disaster strikes they have a poorly developed understanding of operational procedures and requirements. A politician being uninformed while under pressure to take charge and communicate can mean they quickly become a problem for responding agencies. The risk of a politician providing incorrect information prior to and during a disaster, leading to loss of life and property, rises exponentially when that politician does not have a grasp of the complexities and nuances involved in managing disaster responses. This creates a nightmare for emergency response agencies. Our interviewees identified that politicians who move their communication style from supportive to tactical can intentionally or unintentionally take over the role of providing official disaster information, including evacuation warnings, without sufficient expertise, credibility or situational knowledge. Social media can add to this pressure when political actors are well connected to followers who expect information when calamity strikes. There have been instances where politicians have effectively used social media to support the response and recovery efforts, and examples where their attempts to do so have gone awry. We examine how politicians should respond to disasters. This chapter provides the context for the remaining sections of the book. It examines key aspects of the literature, principally from the perspective of the impact of political actors' involvement in disaster management and communication.
In Chap. 3, we provide a theoretical framework and examine operational approaches to disasters. Both of these scaffolds provide a strong foundation for the following chapters. We examine the management principles of mitigation, preparation, response and recovery. While we acknowledge that operational personnel will be very familiar with these approaches, others in allied organizations, such as non-government organizations (NGOs), journalists and volunteer groups, and political actors, may not be; they may therefore require further explanation and guidance in this area. Here we take a broad approach to exploring disaster theories, drawing from a variety of scholarly disciplines because no single definition provides a theoretical approach that will suit all disciplines involved in this field. Key theories that inform research into disasters include those of social trust and government performance, specifically Coleman's (1988) study of relationships between various actors and social trust. This chapter also draws on some of the key social capital theorists, including Putnam's (2001) finding that networks build social capital, which has been described by Lin (1999) as the 'electricity' that circulates in the form of cooperation and resource sharing in response to disasters. As observed by Putnam et al. (2003), social capital is built on trust, which in turn stimulates cooperation; this then builds trust. This is a key theory that informs practice and responses during the various phases of disasters. Wei et al. (2010) suggest that information provided during a disaster is 'always a political decision'. Cole and Fellows (2008) found that confusing messaging emerged from different types of sources, and that the lack of source credibility-particularly in relation to government officials (including politicians)-was a problem during disasters. Importantly, this finding places political actors in a difficult position when communities turn to them in the expectation that they will restore normalcy and rebuild public confidence and trust in government. The problems with these interactions are heightened when the news media start the blame game in the aftermath of a disaster. A return to normalcy can take a long time, given informal and formal inquiries and investigations that may take months or years to conclude (Jong 2017), and politicians can either be part of the solution or many choose to disengage.
In Chap. 4 we continue to build on the lessons outlined in Chap. 3, attending to the role of political actors in disasters. We drew on data from our extensive and in-depth interviews with elite emergency managers around the world to inform this chapter. Research into the involvement of politicians in disasters and crises highlights that politicians and governments are often held accountable for how they respond. Politicians' responses to disasters are sometimes closely interwoven with attempts by various publics and those in political opposition to lay blame for a disaster in its aftermath. Arceneaux and Stein (2006, p. 50) maintain that at such times, if members of the public believe politicians have erred in preventing a disaster, they are 'willing to attribute blame and punish incumbents accordingly'. We argue that the way politicians communicate to various publics before, during and after disasters is crucial to shaping how those publics respond during the recovery phase and also how they engage with the blame game.
In addition, we suggest that a key role for politicians in relation to disasters is to reduce the anxiety and uncertainty that accompanies such events for various publics, especially those directly affected. We draw on Jong's (2017) work, which argues that society and victims turn to political actors to provide 'meaning making' following a calamity. This entails making sense of the situation within a broad perspective. Therefore politicians are expected to (Jong 2017(Jong , p. 1026 interpret the situation, use rhetoric to make sense of the situation, make sure they are concerned about the emotional and physical well-being of citizens, and actively communicate what is happening and what needs to be done. We take a new approach to examining this phenomenon, looking at it from the perspective of disaster management officials. Whereas Jong (2017) observes that the political actor becomes the 'listening ear' for the victims and families, we examine senior disaster managers' takes on how this process should be managed through the lens of reality, giving due consideration to perceptions. Politicians' involvement in the grieving process is important for two reasons, according to Ono (2017, p. 337), who asserts that it opens doors for elected officials to interact with their constituents and 'helps them recover from the damage as they have greater access to national and local resources'.
Disasters can be highly pressured environments, and politicians who are under pressure in complex and rapidly evolving situations face major challenges in relation to how they respond and communicate because, at least in the early part of the disaster, reliable information is often lacking, and they may have poor situational awareness. The insights we provide into these issues are important, but we also attend to the ways in which disaster agencies manage the demands of their political masters, who are concerned mostly about public perceptions of their leadership and of the degree of control they appear to have over the situation. We highlight that behind the scenes, emergency managers are responding to the involvement of politicians by diverting them and managing their involvement.
We also turn our attention to the influences that traditional news media and social media have in the various phases of disasters. People facing a disaster seldom use, decide to trust or act upon information obtained from a single information source. In seeking first-hand local information, they will 'channel swap' across traditional news media. They will also go online, seeking information from news websites and social media, and contact family and friends. Social media place immense pressure on political actors, many of whom use social media platforms such as Twitter to provide information to their constituents, those directly and indirectly affected by disasters and crises. Political actors who provide misleading or inaccurate information during critical times can quickly come into conflict with disaster agencies. When this happens, such as during warnings about disasters, those who potentially are affected will seize on the different messages as a reason not to act, creating difficulties for those managing responses.
Political leadership at times of disaster often occurs within high-pressure environments. In Chap. 5, we turn to one of the most problematic aspects of the relationship between those charged with managing responses to disasters and crises: the demands of political actors for tours of the front line and the associated publicity that accompanies such visits. Politicians are driven by a desire to be seen to be responding to the disaster, and they are motivated by the possibility of various publics recognizing and potentially rewarding that response. As we note in this chapter, some researchers have recognized that when the response and recovery processes associated with disasters are going well, it brings credibility to those political leaders who have been visibly associated with these events. The dilemma faced by emergency managers is that where responses are working well, that means 'natural disasters and crises affect public opinion and even create opportunities for local politicians to claim credit for services provided to constituents' (Ono 2017, p. 340). We draw on key examples of news media coverage of politicians' actions during disasters to demonstrate the importance of timing and public perceptions. These examples include President George W. Bush, who faced extensive criticism when he flew over flooded New Orleans to inspect the damage from Hurricane Katrina. The perception that his actions created was that he did not care about the people affected by the disaster because he was not on the ground with them. On the other hand, there are political leaders who enter the disaster zone far too early, bringing with them journalists to record their activities while those who have been evacuated from the affected area are kept away by authorities. We look at some examples of where this has occurred and the problems that these actions have caused. We draw on key theorist Jong (2017, p. 9), who sums this problem up neatly: 'societal perceptions define when public leadership is required.' To that end, we explore the vexed question of when and how politicians should visit the scene of a disaster.
Apart from the literature and examples of news media coverage, we explore this question from the perspectives of those we interviewed. Our interviewees highlight the delicate balance they have to navigate between meeting political demands, safeguarding those visiting the scene and ensuring that resources are used where they are most urgently needed and not diverted for unnecessary reasons.
Our findings highlight the somewhat formulaic response by emergency managers to politicians' requests for tours of disaster sites at inappropriate times. This chapter also examines the problems politicians create for themselves when they act inappropriately in the midst of a disaster or its aftermath, and how their actions sometimes draw the news media's attention away from those affected by the disaster. Inappropriate actions and poor communication can extend to the way they use social media during disasters. We explore key examples that highlight the errors politicians make at these times and their consequences. In addition, we set these mistakes against the key findings of the literature that tease out the tightrope political actors walk in relation to how various publics perceive them and their actions. Ingham (2014) aptly summarizes the situation politicians face: if they do not go to the disaster scene, they are lambasted for failing to care, while those who do are criticized for exploiting a media opportunity rather than genuinely helping with the relief effort. In order to help those charged with managing the expectations of politicians, this chapter will detail the strategies and tactics our interviewees use to deal with the frontline demands of political actors. These vary according to the intensity and phase of the disaster or crisis, and the type of demand being made. We also explore the potential ramifications for those managing a disaster if they fail to manage a politician's expectations.
Chapter 6 deals with a difficult and complex topic: the relationships between those who are responsible for managing disasters and their political masters. Drawing primarily on our interview data, we identify the rules that govern these relationships and the management and exchange of information between these parties during a disaster. This is important because, as we discovered, there are very few written rules and so a series of unwritten rules are used to guide the interactions and relationships between these groups. Our elite interviewees explain that the relationship between them and their political masters, across all phrases of disaster management-mitigation, preparation, response and recovery-is based largely on cooperation grounded in mutual acceptance of one another's roles. Emergency managers also engage with politicians through ongoing verbal discussion or email correspondence, with communication intensifying during the response phase. We also point to some challenges that arise in the course of these relationships-for example, while a senior emergency manager may have a strong relationship with the minister directly responsible for a response agency, the involvement of other politicians less familiar with operational activities and resources can be challenging. While communication between these parties increases exponentially during the response phase of a disaster, the most productive period for communication and relationship formation is in between disasters. At these times, emergency managers welcome the interest of politicians in their activities and they note that engaging with politicians at these times can result in increased funding and a better understanding of operational procedures and limitations among political actors. Relationships are built and cemented during these periods, free of the constraints and demands involved when they are preoccupied with responding to disasters. Such understandings can only serve to improve the relationship and engagement with politicians when a disaster occurs.
In Chap. 7, we explore the role played by politicians in communicating with various publics in the different phases of disasters to tease out what represents best practice in this area. Importantly, everyone we interviewed agreed that political actors have a role to play in communication with communities at times of disasters, particularly because individuals and communities affected by disasters have an urgent need for accurate and timely information. While there was consensus among our interviewees, we discovered that in different countries, and across agencies, this was managed with varying degrees of success. Some of our interviewees argued that the communication abilities, personalities and leadership styles of politicians are central to helping emergency managers deal with managing the disaster and obtaining as effective a response as possible. We drill down to what politicians should say, when they should say it and how they should deliver their messages. This is important because timing is crucial in relation to whether it is a politician or an operational leader who speaks in the different phases of disasters. In addition, we explore some of the issues associated with interactions between political leaders and mainstream news media because the more local a disaster is, the more news media attention it will attract. We explore examples-both good and poor-of how politicians interact with news media, including two highprofile examples of how politicians engaged with news media, including the then Queensland Premier Anna Bligh during the South-East Queensland floods of 2010-11. These were massive floods, with almost two-thirds of the state flooded. Bligh was lauded for her strong leadership under incredibly difficult circumstances (de Bussy and Paterson 2012). Bligh's leadership was also the focus of significant social media posts with the Twitter users praising her actions, while criticizing the poor leadership displayed by the then Prime Minister Julia Gillard. We contrast her leadership and communication style with that of former US President George W. Bush, who was roundly condemned for his poor performance during Hurricane Katrina (Gasper and Reeves 2011;Harris 2011;Liu 2007). We delve into what constitutes effective political communication and leadership both before and after disasters, in order to give politicians and their minders some useful strategies and practical tips to ensure they are helping, not hindering, response and recovery efforts.
Chapter 8 focuses on another group of important, but often unnoticed, people: the political minders. They are often unseen by the public but often perform a critical go-between role, liaising on behalf of their minister or local member of parliament to gain access to the disaster area and capitalize on news media opportunities. We draw on our interviews and examples to demonstrate what goes on behind the scenes. Political minders are under enormous pressure to ensure their politicians receive news media coverage, particularly broadcast coverage. The demands are intense for politicians, but even more so for emergency managers, who have to consider their medium-to long-term career goals after the disaster passes. To that effect, we examine how emergency managers juggle the competing demands from local, state and federal politicians and how they prioritize the various requests made by these political actors. This is an area that has received surprisingly little attention despite the significant role politicians can play, and have played, in providing a leadership role and officiating as spokespeople during disasters. One useful article explored the separation between ministerial and departmental media advisers in the context of public relations and the notion of 'spin doctoring'. Stockwell (2005) proposes the idea of a Chinese wall, suggesting that departmental advisers could be drawn into the ministerial and political environment, contributing extensive resources in order to distribute the political message to various publics. In the context of a disaster response, Alistair Wilson, senior disaster communications officer for the Australian federal government (interview, 2010), argues that there are two 'separate' approaches in disaster response management: the 'political' and the 'program' levels. As with Stockwell's Chinese wall analogy, Wilson contends that the lines are becoming blurred, with ministerial staffers having increasing control over departmental media teams. This presents problems for those charged with emergency management, as Wilson explains: Now that means that the ministerial advisers, the media advisers in particular, have a good deal of power. The days of an individual department or agency or division's spokesperson talking (to the media) are being a little bit diminished and that's perhaps a sad trend in that the people in the media want an operational person to talk to.
Emergency managers are acutely aware that perceptions and timing are key when it comes to managing political interests during the response phase of a disaster. Sometimes the pressure to go to the scene of the disaster is driven by political staffers rather than the politician, with one disaster response manager (MEM1) noting that '99 per cent of the time it's their staff' who want media exposure of their political leader on the ground.
We conclude the book by focusing on the lessons learned in the course of our ten-country research project. We present, describe and discuss our unique best practice model for emergency managers engaging with politicians before, during and after disasters. This model offers the potential to improve the relationships between political actors and emergency officials. We provide a series of tips and suggestions distilled from the interviews we undertook, the international literature and our analysis of examples of disasters in which politicians have been involved. This chapter draws together the key themes from each of the preceding chapters to provide a practical, easy-to-apply best practice guide that is based firmly in the realworld experiences of our elite interviewees, the existing scholarship in relevant areas and our analysis of the examples of politicians' behavior at times of crisis and disaster that has been woven through this book. Inspired by a real example, where a political leader, emergency managers and response agencies combined their efforts to address the various publics affected by and interested in a major disaster, we have called our guide the 'tandem information model'.
This model has been designed specifically for media conferences delivered by a range of participants, including elected officials. We focus on news media conferences because they are regarded as one of the best practice approaches to delivering information during a disaster or crisis. These occasions provide an opportunity to provide information simultaneously to various publics-those directly affected by a disaster, those who might have relatives involved, communities surrounding the immediate disaster and those at a distance-via a variety of traditional, online and social media platforms. They also provide opportunities to ensure that the management of disasters and crises is transparent and responsive because they present the public face of attempts to respond and allow journalists to ask questions that should go to the heart of the information sought by the public. We were inspired by this example because it demonstrated best practice in disaster communication and management, but we also note that often joint media conferences present a danger where a motivated politician seeking re-election might attempt to capitalize on the event by taking over and talking about matters outside the disaster or crisis that could potentially be damaging to the response. We explain how the model works, how emergency managers and politicians can work together in media conferences and what information each should present. Because the focus of our model is on sharing public information at one event, it thereby reduces the risk of mixed or confusing messaging. This approach enhances source credibility, and accommodates the political aspects of disasters and the authority of the messaging. Three essential disaster-messaging criteria also flow from this approach: leadership (operational and political), empathy (political) and directions for action (operational). These messages are critical to the good management of disasters and to outcomes for those affected. Our model involves the politician and the senior uniformed emergency officer co-hosting a media conference, public meeting or other activity. Based on the findings we have presented in this book, we suggest the following model for best practice in political involvement in public information provision during a disaster: • Non-disaster periods offer the best, and most productive, opportunity to build relationships between political actors and disaster agencies. • Political actors should be actively involved in the pre-impact and recovery phases, but should take a step back during the response phase. Those communicating in the various phases of a disaster need to be seen by the public as a credible sources of information. • Political messaging should be about empathy, support and reassurance. The focus should be on the right source providing the right message at the right time. • Operational messaging should contain warnings, operational data and instructions for people about how to help themselves.
• Emergency agencies should manage political demands according to how they would be perceived by various publics by asking the question, 'How would this look?' • Our model for the tandem delivery of disaster information provides a workable, mutually beneficial platform for both operational and political communication.
This book is designed to facilitate a transformation in the way researchers think about and approach disaster research that focuses on communication or examines the role of politicians in these types of events. In this respect, it opens up the terrain of disaster research by providing new perspectives on politicians' involvement in disasters from the viewpoint of senior leaders in disaster and crisis management. The research findings explained in this book will also be of interest to scholars in a variety of disciplines, including journalism practice and studies, because they examine some news media coverage of disasters. Communication scholars will find the issues at the heart of this book-such as how emergency managers and politicians communicate with each other and with the various publics affected by disasters-relevant to their work. Public relations scholars will also be interested because interactions between politicians and the public are inherently about image and relationship management. In particular, we hope this book will be transformative for those working in the disaster management field because those we interviewed in the course of our research have shared important insights that will assist those working in this field when confronted with demands from politicians. Community and non-government organizations involved in the various phases of disasters will also learn much from the book because they too come into contact with politicians in the course of their work. Finally, we hope that politicians and those working in their offices, including political, policy and media advisers and speech writers, will respond positively to our research findings because they can either help or hinder disaster and crisis preparations, responses and recovery.


Study on Effective Ways to Improve the Core Competitiveness of Innovative Smes

The core competitiveness of enterprises is an important factor to maintain the long-term stable development of enterprises, which can enable enterprises to occupy a stable position in the fierce market competition. By analyzing the survival environment faced by small and medium-sized enterprises, this paper studies the effective ways to improve the core competitiveness of innovative small and medium-sized enterprises, so as to provide valuable reference for the rapid and healthy development of small and medium-sized enterprises in shandong province and even the whole country.

INTRODUCTION
Since the reform and opening up, China's overall economy has witnessed rapid growth, especially small and mediumsized enterprises have made great progress. Small and medium-sized enterprises have become an important part of China's national economy, and become one of the main forces to promote the rapid development of China's economy. Promoting the development of small and medium-sized enterprises is an important strategy to promote the adjustment of national economic structure, and also an important link to achieve the strategic goal of innovation and entrepreneurship. However, with the indepth development of economic globalization, China's small and medium-sized enterprises face more and more competitive pressure, the competition environment is also more and more complex, many small and medium-sized enterprises lack of core competitiveness, life cycle is often very short. According to the survey, the average five-year mortality rate of smes in China exceeds 90%, and the average life expectancy of smes is less than 3 years. By analyzing the survival environment faced by small and medium-sized enterprises, this paper studies the effective ways to improve the core competitiveness of innovative small and medium-sized enterprises, so as to provide valuable reference for the rapid and healthy development of small and medium-sized enterprises in shandong province and even the whole country.

The domestic environment
The law of the People's Republic of China on the promotion of small and medium-sized enterprises is a law enacted to improve the business environment of small and medium-sized enterprises, promote their healthy development, expand urban and rural employment, and give play to the important role of small and medium-sized enterprises in the national economy and social development. Take shandong province, which has the third largest economic value in China, as an example. In the past two decades, shandong province has continuously introduced policies to promote the healthy development of small and medium-sized enterprises, encouraging their rapid development. Shandong province people's government has issued "about to encourage the development of science and technology innovation of small and medium-sized enterprises of certain rules relating to the notice," to encourage the development of science and technology innovation of small and medium-sized enterprises in shandong province several money carries out detailed rules ", the small and medium-sized enterprises in shandong province to promote ordinance, "the shandong province science and technology innovation of small and mediumsized enterprise development the special support fund management interim measures" and a series of policies, the implementation of these policies, founded in small and medium-sized enterprises, innovation and development, improve the development of small and medium-sized enterprises environment, maintain the lawful rights and interests of small and medium-sized enterprises and promote the healthy development of small and mediumsized enterprises (smes) play a pivotal role.

The international environment
Since US President Donald trump took office, the us has repeatedly increased tariffs on Chinese goods and banned Chinese high-tech companies from investing in the us. "Area" strategy in our country, is the "silk road economic belt" and "Marine silk road" in the 21st century, relying on China and relevant countries existing multilateral mechanisms, with the help of the existing and effective regional cooperation platform, and actively develop along with the country's economic partnership, to create mutual political trust, economic integration, culture include the interests of the community, fate community and community responsibility. International cooperation on the "One Belt And One Road" will promote the alignment and coupling of development strategies of countries along the belt and road, promote inter-country connectivity, tap the potential of markets in the region, promote investment and consumption, and create demand and employment. Jointly building the "One Belt And One Road" will promote economic policy coordination among countries along the belt and road, and promote regional cooperation at a greater scope, level and depth. At present, the Chinese economy and the world economy are highly interconnected, and Chinese enterprises are highly interconnected with foreign enterprises. Chinese enterprises will certainly be highly integrated into the world economic system.

Domestic competition is getting fiercer
"Mass entrepreneurship and innovation" comes from premier li keqiang's speech at the summer davos forum in September 2014. Li keqiang proposed to launch a new wave of "mass entrepreneurship" and "grassroots entrepreneurship" on 9.6 million square kilometers of land, so as to form a new trend of "mass innovation" and "innovation for all". On September 18, 2018, the state council issued the opinions on promoting high-quality development of innovation and entrepreneurship and creating an upgraded version of "mass entrepreneurship and innovation", which has set off an unprecedented wave of entrepreneurship across the country. While streamlining administration and delegating power and creating a relaxed business environment, competition among enterprises has become increasingly fierce. Shandong and zhejiang provinces, for example, have a bigger economy than zhejiang but less economic dynamism. In shandong province, traditional industries account for 70%, and state-owned enterprises are the main force. Shandong province's economic characteristics are large but not strong, prominent structural contradictions, the lack of enterprise vitality. Zhejiang is a big province of private enterprises, all walks of life has a sound industrial chain, enterprise competitiveness is strong, full of vitality, development so far, it can be said that zhejiang businessmen in the country and even the world is a "magical existence". With the proposal of China's innovation and entrepreneurship strategy, more and more people will be involved in the entrepreneurship boom, and the competition between enterprises will be more fierce, and the competition will be more brutal. Enterprises lacking competitiveness can only face elimination.

International competition is getting tougher
The world today is undergoing complex and profound changes. The deep impact of the international financial crisis is emerging, the world economy is diverging, and the pattern of international investment and trade and multilateral investment and trade rules are undergoing profound adjustments. Nowadays, economic globalization and regional integration have become an irreversible trend of internationalization, which is bound to make market competition more intense. The international environment facing enterprises is constantly changing and technological means are constantly improving. Although smes are facing challenges on their development path, there are also opportunities. Co-construction of "One Belt And One Road" has brought new opportunities and challenges to China's small and medium-sized enterprises. In order to survive in the increasingly brutal competition and stand firm, many small and medium-sized enterprises in China must establish their own core competitiveness and constantly improve themselves in practice.

An Effective Way To Improve The Core Competitiveness of Smes
Economists prahalad and hamer first put forward the core competitiveness in harvard business review in 1990. They believed that "in the short run, the quality and performance of a company's products determine its competitiveness, but in the long run, it is decisive to build and enhance the company's core competitiveness". The concept of core competitiveness has been widely recognized by the Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research, volume 466 academia and the business community, and has attracted the attention of entrepreneurs all over the world. But what is core competence? Different scholars have different views and definitions: prahalad and harmer are the core products and technologies of enterprises, namely the core competitiveness; Jay barney believes that the core resources and core capabilities of enterprises are the core competitiveness; Barton believes that knowledge and learning are core competencies. Rafa and zorro believe that the core competitiveness of enterprises is formed through long-term accumulation, which is permeated into the corporate culture and develops with the development of corporate culture [1]. In general, the core competitiveness of an enterprise is a factor that can maintain the long-term stable development of the enterprise and obtain the competitive advantage. To be specific, core competitiveness refers to the irreplaceable ability of an enterprise to keep adapting to environmental changes and keep it higher than its competitors. Meanwhile, this ability should be long-term and irreplaceable. As an independent economic entity, enterprise competitiveness is formed by the allocation and creation of enterprise resources in competitive market and the organic combination of its resources. It is able to compare with other enterprises in the same industry in terms of market ownership, value creation and development maintenance. Enterprise competitiveness is a relatively abstract comprehensive concept with multi-level meanings, which contains two meanings: first, the core competitiveness is owned by enterprises, and it is difficult or impossible for competitors to replicate in a short period of time. Second, core competitiveness is the ability to bring excess profits to enterprises. It can be said that the core competitiveness is the most important and critical capability among all the capabilities of an enterprise [2]. The strength of the core competitiveness determines the position and destiny of an enterprise in the market competition. In many small and medium-sized enterprises, the core competence has not been the leadership attaches great importance to, companies often only pay attention to, head of the production and market, the value is the enterprise management and product marketing, in the intense domestic competition and cruel face international competition, small and medium-sized enterprises want to survive and development, also must foster and strengthen the core competitiveness of enterprises.

Enterprise development strategy innovation is the premise of promoting core competitiveness
Small and medium-sized enterprises should keep up with regional development heights and update their industries in a timely manner. Instead of sticking to traditional industries and seeking no changes, they should adjust their development strategies, deploy future-oriented innovation initiatives in advance, and seize the commanding heights of development actively. In the face of the global economy, since the outbreak of the financial crisis, the world economy has entered a long period of deep adjustment. Major developed countries and emerging economies have also adjusted their development strategies. In early 2018, the shandong provincial government issued by the major project in shandong province on the kinetic energy conversion between the old and the new proposed new kinetic energy conversion implementation plan notice explicitly put forward structural reforms to the supply side as the main line, with new technologies, new industries and new forms, new model as the core, with knowledge, technology, information, data, and so on new production elements to support the industry system. In the face of the old and new kinetic energy conversion strategy, small and medium-sized enterprises is faced with new challenges and opportunities in east China's shandong province, the new policy implementation, will push the change of new enterprises, small and medium-sized enterprises in the change either die, or growth, so to change development strategy is to improve the core competitiveness of the important premise, it determines the enterprise's development direction, fate walk home.

Cultural innovation is the basis for improving core competitiveness
Corporate culture can influence other factors of an enterprise's core competitiveness, and the innovation of corporate culture can promote the innovation of enterprise management and production technology. Corporate culture is the soul of an enterprise. It can form the overt symbols or rituals of the enterprise and form the implicit values or spiritual qualities of the enterprise. Cultural innovation is the foundation of enterprise innovation and the foundation of enhancing enterprise core competitiveness. Only by shaping and supporting the enterprise culture of innovation can smes attract innovative talents. China has a history and culture of more than 5,000 years, and shandong province is a major cultural province and the birthplace of Confucian culture.

Advances in Social Science, Education and Humanities Research, volume 466
Corporate culture can promote enterprises to leave a good impression in the market, so that consumers recognize enterprises, trust enterprises, thus increasing the stable customer rate. Innovative small and medium-sized enterprises should be the organic combination of tradition and innovation, innovative culture in the inheritance, build respect individuality, respect for talent, innovation, enterprising, accept risk, tolerate failure of open, diversified enterprise culture atmosphere, from the aspects of enterprise concept, rewards and punishment system to encourage employees to share resources, wisdom, innovation, to reach the company's values, rules and regulations, code of conduct, symbolic ceremony, such as the unity of content and form, promote cultural innovation ability, so as to promote the core competitiveness of innovative small and medium-sized enterprises (smes).

Technological innovation is the key to improving core competitiveness
Technological innovation ability is the source of the core competitiveness of innovative smes and the source of the development of innovative smes. A new round of technological revolution and industrial revolution speed, the gathering burst, especially information technology, biological technology, manufacturing technology, new materials, new energy technology widely penetrated into various fields, such as technology innovation is a new engine to the growth of enterprise competition ability, enterprises improve the quality of our products or services, plays a key role in the technological innovation capability of firms.

Management innovation is the guarantee of improving core competitiveness
The enterprise's management mode and management resources have a great influence on the enterprise's core competitiveness. If an enterprise has technology and talents, but no scientific and reasonable management mode or management resources, then there will be technological wastage, brain drain consequences [3]. Among the basic functions of management, the innovation function permeates every link of planning, organization, command, coordination and control. Management innovation ability covers enterprise system innovation, organizational structure innovation, management technology and method innovation, including innovation management profit rate, leadership innovation consciousness, internal and external organizational coordination ability, institutional innovation and organizational change ability, management innovation method application and other factors [4]. Excellent management innovation ability is a strong guarantee to enhance the core competitiveness of smes.

Integration into the global economy is a window to enhance core competitiveness
The pattern of global integration is taking shape, and the co-construction of "One Belt And One Road" has accelerated the economic cooperation between China and other countries [5]. Small and medium-sized enterprises (smes) are unable to compete with large domestic enterprises due to their small scale. Therefore, going global and integrating into the international economy is an effective way to promote the continuous growth of enterprises. Enterprise growth mainly includes: customer growth rate, main business revenue growth rate, profit growth rate, total asset growth rate four aspects. Compared with large and medium-sized enterprises, it is difficult for innovative smes to have cost advantages. Therefore, smes should implement differentiation strategy to drive differentiation through innovation. By integrating into the global development window, it is easier to find distinctive products or services, go international, build the brand and characteristics of international products, and expand the customer group and increase the growth rate of customers.

CONCLUSION
In a word, with the increasing complexity of the market environment, the core competitiveness of smes is related to the development of the lifeline of enterprises. It plays a positive role in the development of small and mediumsized enterprises by comprehensively analyzing the environment of enterprises, studying the effective path of improving the core competitiveness of enterprises, and forming innovative enterprises. By analyzing the living environment faced by small and medium-sized enterprises in China, this paper studies the path to improve the core competitiveness of innovative small and medium-sized enterprises, explores and gives an effective plan, which provides valuable reference for the rapid and healthy development of small and medium-sized enterprises in Shandong province and even the whole country.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT
This work was supported by the first construction unit of the high-level vocational schools and specialty construction plan project with Chinese characteristics (no. 14 of faculty letter (2019)) --A project construction school shandong vocational and technical college of commerce; Shandong province management research project "shandong province innovative smes core competitiveness research" (project no. JZ201916).


A bibliometric analysis of food tourism studies in Southeast Asia

Abstract The purpose of this study is to examine a situation of food tourism research in Southeast Asia. By analysing literature and bibliometric, this paper investigates the feature of food tourism research and essential contributions. The research findings deliver an investigation of food tourism research in Southeast Asia based on systematic review studies and social network analysis. The paper found that there is one central cluster of food tourism articles, based on the South East Asian region focus. Articles are grouped into four viewpoints, including macro level, micro level, customer, and author viewpoints. However, only macro-level perspective articles have a direct linkage with food tourism themes. Thus, there is room for future research in this field.

Introduction
About 40% of tourists' budgets (Boyne, Williams, & Hall, 2002) or one-third of total expenditures in a journey's place (Hipwell, 2007) is for food. Thus, food becomes an essential factor in destination marketing strategies (du Rand & Heath, 2006). Official national tourism websites in many countries raise food as a cultural attraction. For example, France values wine tourism which not only let tourists sip or purchase wine, but vineyards and wine activities also attract tourists to visit France (The France Tourism Development Agency, 2017). Food can enhance destination as it ties with daily and unique cultures and local production (Everett & Aitchison, 2008

PUBLIC INTEREST STATEMENT
This research highlights s a situation of food tourism research in Southeast Asia. It focuses on how knowledge of food tourism in Southeast Asia are formed. This study shows that macro perspective studies had a deep focus on specific food tourism. Food commodities, services, and activities were parts of marketing destination or tourist attractions. Moreover, food and environmentally friendly practice, hygiene, and food production were the focus of micro perspectives. The focus of tourists' perception concerns food service and product features. Thus, this study recommends that food tourism businesses should take care of food and environmentally friendly practice, hygiene, and food production while destinations should focus on food commodities, services, and activities.
Southeast Asian countries have various tourist attractions to visit and absorb a local way of living. In the year 2015, Southeast Asia attracted 104.6 million international tourist arrivals, which counted as 8.8% of the market share (United Nations World Tourism Organization [UNWTO], 2016). It represented the second highest in Asia and the Pacific country zones in international tourist arrivals (UNWTO, 2016). Many cities in this country zone are famous for street food (Tsai & Wang, 2017) and many countries have their foods as major tourist attractions (Horng & Tsai, 2010). Local food does represent not only local culture but also local ingredients. Having local food and ingredients as a product can create a competitive advantage to destinations because product-based strategies grounded in destination resources can generate sustainable tourism development (Stokes, 2008;Weaver, 2001). Tourists can taste local dishes related to destinations through various options such as restaurants, food hawkers, and food court.
To understand the stage of knowledge in the food tourism industry is essential in developing the industry. Practitioners in food-related hospitality and tourism fields can apply research findings to improve and enhance their products and services. However, concerning researchers' knowledge, there are a few studies focus on bibliometric analysis in food tourism research, especially in the Southeast Asia region. The bibliometric analysis method can help both researchers and practitioners to have a holistic standpoint and move forward to the next step to provide better products and services for customers. Thus, this research aims to clarify the extent of academic research in the area of food tourism in Southeast Asia. This study has several research objectives. First, the study investigates journal articles in tourism and hospitality categories. Second, the study determines whether there is a specific nature of studies conducted focusing on Southeast Asian countries. Third, the study learns critical findings and contributions from selected articles. Forth, the study reveals the connection among selected articles. This study analyses journal articles by using bibliometric analysis of Southeast Asian countries to understand how to fulfil the attempts. This study focuses on selected articles in the Web of Science (WoS) database up to 2018.

Food tourism
The word "culinary" may denote as ingredients, foods and beverages preparation and production, inspirations, events, social structures and food tourism (Ignatov & Smith, 2006). Food is a crucial motivation dimension for tourist destination visits (Joan C. Henderson, 2009). Food can link tourism and destination together as good food is a useful dimension of tourist destinations (Horng & Tsai, 2012a) for it plays an essential role in promoting and differentiating tourist destinations (Horng & Tsai, 2010). For this reason, culinary tourism is a part of cultural tourism (Horng & Tsai, 2010). The term "Culinary tourism" was formed in 1998 (Horng & Tsai, 2012a) and is relevant to travel to discover and enjoy local cuisines and creating culinary experiences (Wolf, 2002, as cited in Horng & Tsai, 2012aKivela & Crotts, 2006). Ignatov and Smith (2006) described culinary tourism as tourists either consuming/purchasing or observing/studying local food or food production process and perceive that this is a critical travel motivation. Other terms regarding food tourism are tasting tourism, wine tourism, food tourism and gastronomy tourism (Boniface, 2003;Brown & Getz, 2005;Hall et al., 2004;Kivela & Crotts, 2005).
Culinary tourism resources include food, food activities, facilities, events and organisations (Ignatov & Smith, 2006;Smith & Xiao, 2008). Destination restaurants' atmosphere, taste, and other aspects can generate tourists' sensations and experiences during their holiday (Kivelä & Chu, 2001). Specific destinations can be famous due to their unique cuisine (Cohen & Avieli, 2004). Food is a crucial dimension for dining experience (Tsai & Lu, 2012). The local or national destination can use food tourism as a core element in destination branding (Henderson, 2009). Although food takes part in the tourism industry, there are different tourists' needs and expectation regarding food consumption. Boyne, Hall, and Williams (2003) divided tourists into four types according to food information search; (i) tourists actively search for food information, (ii) tourists search for food information but not actively, (iii) tourists take part in food activities but not consider food as a critical element for their visit, and (iv) tourists have no interest in excellent cuisine.
Food tourism also links with gastronomy. Gastronomy relates with services part of the economy and the culture. Kowalczyk (2020) mentioned that gastronomy is essential in the economy and socio-demography of the city. Lately, studies in gastronomy and tourism aim to discover the current and future potential of local food in destination marketing. For example, Mohamed, Hewedi, Lehto, and Maayouf (2019) studied Egyptian DMO websites to market local food tourism and gastronomic practices and found that the usage of food culture on Egyptian DMOs websites is still in the beginning stage. Lau and Li (2019) studied urban food festival and found that urban food festival creates outstanding connotations on the opinion of a place. Urban food festival can produce placelessness experience with placeness tourism. Thus, local food can be a drive of destination food and create a destination food image. Moreover, destination food can effect food preference and consumption among tourists (Promsivapallop & Kannaovakun, 2019).
Local food was marketed paralleled to local culture (Gyimóthy & Mykletun, 2009;Sims, 2009) as food motivates tourists to visit or revisit destinations (Ignatov & Smith, 2006;Kivela & Crotts, 2006;Tresidder & Hirst, 2012). As a tourist destination, food is an essential item in many Southeast Asian cities and countries (Henderson, 2016;Henkel, Henkel, Agrusa, Agrusa, & Tanner, 2006;Tsai & Wang, 2017). Thus, these countries promote culinary tourism (Horng & Tsai, 2012a). For example, Thailand has advertised the country with the "Global Kitchen Project" and improved national gastronomic uniqueness (Sunanta, 2005). Singapore has developed food variety and cultures as a critical destination attraction (Joan C. Henderson, 2016;Horng & Tsai, 2010). From local ingredients and local cooking style, tourists can feel local culture through local food. Culinary tourism helps local communities to create job opportunities as well as to preserve local food culture (Horng & Tsai, 2012a).

Bibliometric analysis in tourism
Bibliometric analysis is an analysis based on quantitative information of significant previous academic articles from the bibliographic database (Omerzel, 2016). The bibliometric approach includes sorting citations, authorships, keywords, themes, and methodology (cited by Koseoglu, Rahimi, Okumus, & Liu, 2016). Scholars use bibliometric methods to contact research or publication performance and plot a structure of focus studies (Cobo, López-Herrera, Herrera-Viedma, & Herrera, 2011). Koseoglu et al. (2016) divided bibliometric methods into three groups, namely, review studies, relational techniques, and evaluation techniques. Review studies contain a systematic review, meta-analysis, and qualitative approach. Relational techniques include citation analysis, bibliographic analysis, co-wording analysis, and co-authorship analysis. Evaluative techniques contain productivity measures, impact metrics, and hybrid metrics.
In the tourism area, many studies applied bibliometric methods. For example, Köseoglu, Sehitoglu, Ross, and Parnell (2016) used the bibliometric method to analyse business ethic articles in tourism and hospitality industries, and Omerzel (2016) applied bibliometric analysis in evaluating articles related to innovation in hospitality and tourism. Koseoglu et al. (2016) studied bibliometric studies in tourism and found that these methods suggestively enlarged from the year 2008 onward. Studies may utilise bibliometric analysis in order to focus on specific purposes. There are several articles uses bibliometric studies to analyse specific tourism and leisure themes such as the development of research in medical tourism (Chuang, Liu, Lu, & Lee, 2014), the core and balance framework in family leisure studies (Townsend, Van Puymbroeck, & Zabriskie, 2017) and environmental justice issue articles in leisure field (Mullenbach & Baker, 2018). Several scholars applied bibliometric studies to form knowledge in certain places such as Benckendorff (2009), Galani-Moutafi (2004, and Silva, Rodrigues, Mendes, and Pereira (2010). In term of food tourism bibliometric studies, Sánchez, de la Cruz Del Río Rama, and García (2017) studied wine tourism research state in WoS and Scopus. They found that there were differences in scope, data, volume, and coverage policies between databases. This study would like to focus on a specific theme as well as a specific place, which is the food tourism theme in the Southeast Asia region.

Methodology
This study confined with the published articles in peer-reviewed journals in the WoS Core Collection database, which include Science Citation Index Expanded (SCIE) and Social Sciences Citation Index (SSCI) up to early of 2018. This study applied "food", "culinary", "gastronomy", "wine", "coffee", "tourism", "Southeast Asia", and specific countries as search keywords. In searching for progress, this study selected a topic to gather search result as it contains title, abstract, and keywords while searching. This study focuses on hospitality and tourism articles only. This because during search progress, some search results did not match with a food tourism focus. Then, researchers read articles and selected only articles focusing on food tourism in Southeast Asian countries. Finally, this research selected 12 articles for the study.
After collected and selected articles, analysis from both qualitative and quantitative data was applied. This study employed bibliometric methods. Ruhanen, Weiler, Moyle, and McLennan (2015) mentioned that bibliometric study used statistics to evaluate academic articles. First, a primarily quantitative approach was selected as it can classify, measure and analyse information in the articles such as journal, authors, keywords, research methodological approach, data collection, and results. Previous studies in tourism applied the analysis approach (Köseoglu et al., 2016;Line & Runyan, 2012;Omerzel, 2016;Ruhanen et al., 2015). Later on, this research conducted a systematic literature review approach. Regarding Kwok, Xie, and Richards (2017), a systematic review (i) focuses on specific issues, (ii) involves structural approach, (iii) focuses on specific study areas, (iv) categorises the most excellent indication and (v) the future research can extend the knowledge. As this research would like to evaluate the status of food tourism articles, thus the study focused on the methodological approach, findings, and implementation. Lastly, this research operated a social network analysis approach. The analysis offers information about the social network altogether (Hambrick, 2017). It has been used in various topics in tourism fields such as destination image (Wang, Li, & Lai, 2018), online reviews (Tussyadiah & Zach, 2017) and tourist attractions (Liu, Huang, & Fu, 2017). A sociogram was created for the analysis because it displays nodes and lines of the network members and reveals their relationships (Hambrick, 2017). Thus, this research employs social network analysis to realise the structure of food tourism studies in South East Asian Countries. Research methods can be explained, as illustrated in Figure 1.

Descriptive analysis
After journal selection, the research analysed articles using quantitative methods, including the bibliometric analysis and network analysis. As shown in Table 1, articles were in Asia Pacific Journal of Tourism Research, International Journal of Hospitality Management, Tourism Management, Tourist Studies, International Journal of Tourism Research, Journal of Sustainable Tourism, Annals of Tourism Research, and Tourism Management Perspectives, which considered hospitality and tourism-oriented journals in the WoS. The first article was published in the year 1996, which is the work, by Telfer and Wall (1996). The most published year is the year 2012 which contains works of Chaney and Ryan (2012), J. C. Henderson, Yun, Poon, and Xu (2012), Tsai (2012a, 2012b), and Kasim and Ismail (2012). In terms of authorship, two authors contain more than half of the selected articles, followed by a single author. Lastly, Singapore is the most selected country as a place of study, followed by Indonesia, Thailand, and Malaysia. Two articles studied food tourism in Singapore (Chaney & Ryan, 2012;Henderson et al., 2012), while three articles conducted studies between Singapore and other countries (Horng & Tsai, 2010, 2012a, 2012b. Two articles did a study using two Southeast Asian countries, containing Singapore and Thailand (Horng & Tsai, 2010, 2012a. Table 2 shows the results of the methodological analysis in food tourism articles in Southeast Asian countries. This study applied the theoretical and methodological approaches codes and coding description from Ruhanen et al. (2015). As a whole, there were four approaches found in the selected articles. Case study and empirical study are the most applied approaches, followed by a comparative case study. The perspective of the study exhibits concerned aspects of the articles. The analysis found that the studies focus on the perspective of macro-level most, followed by micro-level, customer perspective, and author perspective.
In term of data used in selected articles, qualitative data accounted for 66.67%, while quantitative data were 33.33%. Moreover, the sample frame was primary data for 66.67%, followed by mixed between primary and secondary data for 33.33%. Lastly, in term of statistical analysis, qualitative methods such as content analysis were found as the most selected approach, accounting for 66.67%. Quantitative methods accounted for 33.33% with descriptive analysis, Mann-Whitney test, Chi-square, and a multiple regression model.

Review analysis
In the review analysis session, this paper would like to analyse the situation of published articles from three perspectives, including, macro-level, micro-level, and customer and author level. The research at macro-level focuses on how articles research the national scope. A work of (Horng & Tsai, 2010) investigated the food culture presented in East Asian countries government tourism websites, including Singapore and Thailand. A work by Horng and Tsai (2012a) studied vital success factors in culinary tourism in Asia-Pacific perspectives, which Singapore and Thailand were in this research. The article of Horng and Tsai (2012b) compared marketing strategies between Singapore and Hong Kong. A work from Chaney and Ryan (2012) focused on Singapore's World Gourmet Summit as a gastronomic tourism example, which promotes Singapore as a gastronomic destination. Lastly, Chong (2017) applied Diamond Model of Porter (1990) in analysing the competitive position of the wine tourism industry in Thailand. All papers collected qualitative data and analysed through qualitative approaches. Moreover, all articles specially described the food tourism theme such as gastronomic tourism, culinary tourism or wine tourism. Selected papers describe concepts of food tourism in broad manners, and then discuss situations within the countries. Horng and Tsai (2010) analysed tourism government websites in term of culinary marketing techniques and found that the websites provide culinary tourism experience information for potential tourists with their distinct characters. Moreover, the article provides a guideline to improve the websites. Horng and Tsai (2012a) formed vital success factors in Asia-Pacific perspectives and found that they were related to resources, governmental principals, marketing strategies, and educational environments. Horng and Tsai (2012b) discovered culinary tourism development in Hong Kong and Singapore in term of marketing strategies. In terms of Singapore, the study found that the country has diversified cuisine and culture. The success of marketing strategies can enhance the achievement of cooperation between the public and private sectors. This research provides ideas for building a culinary image by promoting culinary tourism through various forms such as food events, and authentic experiences. Both studies applied the resource-based theory perspective to analyse the strategies. Chaney and Ryan (2012) defined the development of New Asian Cuisine in Singapore and its role for the destination promotion using a case of the World Gourmet Summit. The paper analysed factors assisting the success of the Summit. Chong (2017) studied a situation of wine tourism in Thailand and found that it was a new-born industry, which required awareness of tourists and tourism operators. More knowledge and supports from supporting industries sector and government agency were needed. Thus, there are various types of food products, services, and activities served in Southeast Asian countries for the various rank of tourists groups. Most articles focus on food tourism as a marketing destination or tourist attractions. These articles take eyes on some specific emphasis such as the World Gourmet Summit, government website, tourism strategies, and wine tourism. Research at the micro-level perspective focused on a business standpoint. The article by Telfer and Wall (1996) analysed the connection between food production and tourism, based on a case study of food production projects in the selected hotel. The article by Kasim and Ismail (2012) emphasised environmental management practices in restaurants in Malaysia. Lastly, a paper from Ernawati, Sanders, and Dowling (2017) analysed products in community-based tourism, in which food and beverage are one of the elements. This research is in micro-level perspective, as this article would like to identify the criteria of products in order to create sustainability of communitybased tourism. Among the three studies, there is only one paper with a qualitative approach, while the rest used a quantitative approach.
The studies discover businesses in many aspects, which generate information about food tourism. Telfer and Wall (1996) explored the economic linkage between food production and tourism. As the food is an original consumed product in tourists' travel, to prepare enough food production for the tourism industry is essential. This study analysed food production projects of a hotel case in Indonesia. They found that there were connections between food production and tourism. The attention for economic benefit for local people was considered significant. Thus, the link between businesses and local production is essential to sustain the tourism industry. Kasim and Ismail (2012) discovered environmentally friendly practices used in the restaurant business. They found that there were weak practices in the restaurant business even though there were concerns about environmental topics. These may relate to various stakeholders such as the public sector, business partners, green supply chain businesses, and customers. Thus, the overall environmental friendly practice needs interactions among sectors. Ernawati et al. (2017) studied community-based tourism products perceived by host communities and tourists. Food and beverage are parts of nine products in this research. Perceptions of food and beverage were mostly associated. Both hosts and tourists agreed to favour the freshness of ingredients, local cooking practices and recipes, taste, hot and hygiene food, drink, and utensils. However, both hosts and tourists did not favour to have meals in restaurants. The agreement not to favour restaurants may relate to the nature of community-based tourism. From selected articles, it seems that the micro level studies mostly focused on business practices. Although there is no direct focus on any food tourism topic, it seems that the relationship between tourism business and food supplies is needed for declaring. Among three articles, concerns toward ingredients were raised in term of environmentally friendly practice, hygiene, and food production. With a less direct focus on culinary or gastronomic tourism at the micro level, there is room for researchers to extend the knowledge in this area.
Lastly, the customers and authors viewpoint articles focus on the perception of customers or authors in a specific situation. There are four articles in this group-two articles conducted through qualitative methods, and the others conducted with quantitative methods. The article of J. C. Henderson et al. (2012) studied hawker centres attractiveness in tourists' aspect. The paper of Wong and Musa (2014) studied retirement motivation in choosing Malaysia as a second home. This article has food variety as a part of motivators. Next, the study of Bell (2015) described an authentic space of home cooking school in Indonesia in economic and cultural aspects. Lastly, the study of Torres Chavarria and Phakdee-auksorn (2017) analysed attitudes of international tourists concerning street food in Thailand.
These studies show the perception of tourists and authors towards providers such as food hawker centres, street food, second home, and home cooking school. J. C. Henderson et al. (2012) studied hawker centres in Singapore and found that they have the potential to be an attractive amenity for tourists. Thus, the hawker centres can be tourists' attractions through destination marketing and product development. Wong and Musa (2014) discovered motivations of foreign retirees to be participants in a second home. Food is one of the motivations found in this study. The research showed that food variety which included exotic fruits and food diversity was a new motivation.
Moreover, the food importance is more than to fulfil the fundamental requirement, but rather leads to experience and fulfil needs. Bell (2015) studied home cooking school in Bali, Indonesia. The study explored the local space of home cooking school entrepreneur. It found that daily lives of local people could become a commodity and generate income for their family. Comparing to professional cooking school, there was rather a friend-like atmosphere in the home cooking school as residents may share their personal space with tourists through the service. The author mentioned that the case of personal space in the home cooking school might reflect the local politicoeconomic topics. Lastly, Torres Chavarria and Phakdee-auksorn (2017) explained attitudes of international tourists in terms of street foods in Phuket, Thailand. They identified important antecedents of intentions towards street foods. Affection was the most powerful factor affecting the intentions. Studies in customer perceptions mostly focused on how tourists perceived food service and products such as hawker centres, street foods or food variety. Unique characters of products and services provided in destinations can become an advantage as it may provide authentic feelings for tourists. In terms of author perception, the study specified topic in a very deep detail, which help generate insight of the topic. However, studies in author perception are quite rare.
Although macro perspective articles have a bigger amount than other groups, a portion of all groups is not far different. There is a direct connection between macro perspective articles and food tourism. All articles in the macro perspective articles directly describe the food tourism keywords such as culinary tourism, gastronomic tourism, and wine tourism. However, there is no direct food tourism keyword in other perspective articles. In term of data analysis, the macro-level and author perspectives articles were all conducted with qualitative approaches. Research in micro-level and customer perspectives applied both quantitative and qualitative approaches

Bibliometric analysis
A bibliometric analysis was done through Gephi program to find the relationship among studies. Bibliometric analysis is a method in categorising relevant previous studies by using quantitative information from the specific database (Gomezelj, 2016). This study applied social network analysis to gather social actors and the interactions among them. Du, Li, Brown, Peng, and Shuai (2014) mentioned that a social network comprises of multiple points and the connections between them and the analysis encompass quantitative exploration on the relationships. Results from the analysis present a valuable raise of conventional forms of analysis. This research collected bibliometric of 12 articles and specific papers cited those articles. Then it searched for linkage among research because scholars found particular research useful then they cite articles (Gomezelj, 2016). Thus, the methodology constructs the academic fundamentals of the present literature.
They were focusing on seed articles, resulting in Figure 2 displays one central cluster and four ungrouped articles. This result helps in to clarify the dominant attention of food tourism studies in Southeast Asian countries. The work of Telfer and Wall (1996) and Horng and Tsai (2010) have played a vital role in connecting other studies in the network. The work of Horng and Tsai (2010) had the most intense cooperation with other seed articles in the cluster as it had five direct connections and two indirect connections. The work of Telfer and Wall (1996) had two direct connections and two indirect connections with other seed articles in the cluster. It is apparent from Figure 2 that other scholars cited all seed articles in the cluster. Moreover, articles in all perspectives formed the cluster.
Apart from the cluster, there are four other seed articles not cooperate with other seeds articles. Works from Wong and Musa (2014) and Kasim and Ismail (2012) have been cited from other articles apart from the cluster. Lastly, works from Chong (2017) and Ernawati et al. (2017) were recent articles in the study field. Non-clustered articles were in macro-level, micro-level, and customers' perspectives. However, only works from Chong (2017) has a direct connection with the food tourism terms.

Discussions and conclusions
Food is a critical part of the tourism industry because tourists consume food almost half of their budget (Hipwell, 2007). After the term "Culinary tourism" formed in 1998 (Horng & Tsai, 2012a), there have been several studies focusing on food tourism such as gastronomic tourism, wine tourism, and coffee tourism. This study aims to investigate the stage of knowledge and nature of food tourism studies in Southeast Asia. Businesspersons in food-related hospitality and tourism fields can improve and enhance their products and services before research results.
Moreover, in terms of research perspectives, bibliometric analysis in food tourism research can create a holistic standpoint. Thus, this research aims to clarify the extent of academic research in the area of food tourism in Southeast Asia by using bibliometric analysis through several research methods. First, the study investigates journal articles in tourism and hospitality categories. Second, the study determines whether there is specific nature of studies conducted focusing on Southeast Asian countries. Third, the study learns key findings and contributions from selected articles. Forth, the study reveals connection among selected articles. This article applied bibliometric methods to understand publications structures and focus on food studies. The edge of the published articles was limited to the WoS Core Collection database in English language only.
Within the selected articles, the first study was published in the year 1996 (Telfer & Wall, 1996). With a decade disappear, the later articles have been published since the year 2010 (Horng & Tsai, 2010) onward. The growth in food tourism studies in Southeast Asia was quite small, with the most expansion in the year 2012. The study found that articles were mostly based on Singapore, followed by Indonesia, Thailand, and Malaysia. The articles were found with two authorships most. Case study and empirical study were two most applied methodological approaches. In terms of the perspective of study, macro perspective was the most focus theme, followed by micro-level, customer, and author perspectives, respectively. Moreover, qualitative and primary data were the most applied data in term of the type of data and sample frame. In term of analysis methods, qualitative approaches were the most applied method.

Source: Created by the authors
The analysis used in this study provides an idea of the position of food tourism studies in Southeast Asia. This paper divided studies into four groups, which adjusted from the work of (Omerzel (2016)). However, only macro perspective studies had a deep focus on specific food tourism such as gastronomic tourism, culinary tourism or wine tourism. In the macro perspective, various food commodities, services, and activities were parts of marketing destination or tourist attractions. None of the micro perspective studies had a relation with specific food tourism keywords.
On the other hand, the attention was on the relationship between food and environmentally friendly practice, hygiene, and food production. The focus of tourists' perception is toward food service and • Two authors contain more than half of the selected articles, followed by a single author.
• Singapore is the most selected country, followed by Indonesia, Thailand, and Malaysia.
(2) To determine whether there is a specific nature of studies conducted focusing on Southeast Asian countries.
• The growth in food tourism studies in Southeast Asia was relatively small.
• Macro perspective was the most focus theme, followed by micro-level, customer, and author perspectives, respectively.
• Qualitative and primary data were the most applied data in term of the type of data and sample frame.
• Qualitative approaches were the most applied method.
• Case study and empirical study are the most applied approaches, followed by a comparative case study.
(3) To learn critical findings and contributions from selected articles.
• Macro perspective studies had a deep focus on specific food tourism such as gastronomic tourism, culinary tourism or wine tourism.
• Food commodities, services, and activities were parts of marketing destination or tourist attractions.
• The attention of the micro perspective studies was on the relationship between food and environmentally friendly practice, hygiene, and food production.
• The focus of tourists' perception is toward food service and product features.
(4) To reveal the connection among selected articles. • Social network analysis cluster was formed, and the investigation of the cluster discovered the character of the field.
• There is central cluster connected eight seed articles.
• The work of Horng and Tsai (2010) played an important role as it was directly cited from a macro level, customer, and author perspectives seed articles.
Source: Created by the authors. product features. Although there was no direct emphasis on exact food tourism topics found in author perspective, there were detailed food features taken into account. Thus, there is room for future research in concentrating on specific food tourism topics. Moreover, as the major approach is qualitative methods, there is room for quantitative methods to ascertain the findings in future research.
With the bibliometric analysis, the notional background of food tourism studies in Southeast Asia was revealed. Social network analysis cluster was formed, and the investigation of the cluster discovered the character of the field. The results showed one central cluster, which connected eight seed articles. The work of Horng and Tsai (2010) played an essential role in the field because it has had a prominent connection with other seed articles in the cluster. The article was directly cited from a macro level, customer, and author perspectives seed articles. It was co-cited with other seed articles in the cluster. The work of Telfer and Wall (1996) was also described in specific seed articles. The results showed that the work directly and indirectly connected with macro-perspective seed articles only. Table 3 shows the summary of research objectives and research finding.
The contribution of this paper is its illustration of a value of bibliometric techniques as methods for disclosing food tourism research connection. This paper should be valuable for food tourism service providers and researchers. Business can apply food tourism to focus on their managerial implication. Moreover, this paper extends the social network analysis to understand the relationship between seed papers. Researchers can apply the methodology to other study fields. This paper hopes to encourage the further utilisation of social network analysis in the hospitality and tourism field of study.
Limitations of this study should be marked. First, this study is limited to Southeast Asian countries. The specific location leads to the restricted number of selected articles and cannot represent the industry. Second, selected articles were retrieved based on the WoS index in English, which may not contain every article in this theme. Third, the research terms were limited to food, culinary, gastronomic, wine, coffee, tourism, Southeast Asia, and specific Southeast Asian country names. Other food tourism terms were not in consideration of this study. Fourth, selected articles were limited only in hospitality and tourism categories. Future research in bibliometric and review analysis can enhance these limitations to fulfil the gap.