Using Digital Twin Technology in Engineering Education – Course Concept to Explore Benefits and Barriers

Abstract Digital Twin (DT) technology is an essential technology related to the Industry 4.0. In engineering education, it is important that the curricula are kept up-to-date. By adopting new digital technologies, such as DT, we can provide new knowledge for students, teachers, and companies. The main aim of this research was to create a course concept to research benefits and barriers of DT technology in engineering education. The research confirmed earlier findings concerning digitalization in engineering education. DT technology can increase motivation for studying and improve learning when applied correctly.

Introduction
Digital twin technology is one of the main technologies related to Industry 4.0. It is vital in engineering education that the curricula and the contents of the education are kept up-to-date including the educational environments and know-how of the teachers.
Students, teachers, and companies can benefit from utilizing new digital technologies, such as, DT tools. This can have an impact on the employment of the students and competitiveness of the companies [1].
The main aim of this research was to create a course concept to research digital twin technology in engineering education and to adopt the technology in education. The research also aimed to explore the benefits and barriers of DT technology, to evaluate its inclusion into the curricula *Corresponding Author: Antti Liljaniemi: Metropolia University of Applied Sciences; Email: antti.liljaniemi@ metropolia.fi Heikki Paavilainen: Metropolia University of Applied Sciences; Email: heikki.paavilainen@metropolia.fi and its maturity level, as well as to find the best way to adopt the technology.

Scientific Contribution
To summarize our contribution, this research introduces a new DT based concept for teaching. Further, this paper closes the toolchain loop by testing and evaluating industrially used DT tools. Continuous feedback is important while developing new software products. Finally, our research was experimented with BSc students. It describes the best practices for implementing DT technology in engineering education.

History of the Twins
The phrase digital twin is commonly used in industry and the scientific community; however, an exact definition of this concept is currently lacking. The concept of using "twins" originates from NASA's Apollo program for which at least two identical space vehicles were built, allowing the engineers to mirror the conditions of the space vehicle during the mission, the vehicle remaining on earth being called the twin [2,3].
The present technology known as Digital Twin (DT) was first introduced in 2002 by Michael Grieves. DT definitions in prior research emphasize that each system consists of two systems, the physical system and a virtual system, which contains all of the information about the physical system [4][5][6]. Siemens defines it as follows: "A digital twin is a virtual representation of a physical product or process, used to understand and predict the physical counterpart's performance characteristics. Digital twins are used throughout the product lifecycle to simulate, predict, and optimize the product and production system before investing in physical prototypes and assets" [7].

Digital Twin Technology
Digital twin technology examples are already in use in manufacturing and some other sectors. The tools to work with twins can be wide product lifecycle management (PLM) packages or more narrow products similar to Visual Components for a specific purpose. The benefits of DT technology include cost cutting, reduced time-to-market, and predictive maintenance. Earlier research classifies digital twins into three sub-categories [8,9]: 1. Digital Model, which is a digital representation of an existing or planned physical object, with no automated data exchange between the physical-digital objects. 2. Digital Shadow, which exists as an automated oneway data flow between existing physical-digital objects. 3. Digital Twin, in which the data flows between the physical-digital objects which are fully integrated in both directions.

Using Digital Twin Technology in the Course "Simulation in Control
System Design"

Methods
The main research method was action research, which was used to conduct the observations, recorded by taking notes, in order words, the KJ technique. The research was planned in three cycles between 2016 and 2018. The first cycle involved creating the course concept and the second cycle was based on observations made during the first. The third cycle was similar to the first and second cycles but with the necessary modifications applied. Furthermore, after the third cycle, the students answered a survey concerning the application of digitalization and DT technology in the course. Furthermore, the statistical data of the DT courses were analyzed and compared with other courses. The digitalization inquiry conducted was the same inquiry used in the Digitalization in Professional Education research [10]. In addition to the inquiry, a set of Digital Twin related questions were added. The same inquiry was used to be able the compare the results.

KJ-technique
KJ-technique (also sometimes referred to as an "affinity diagram" (Figure 1)) is named after its inventor, Jiro Kawakita [11]. The technique is one form of action research. It allows users to categorize their observations into classes, to prioritize them, and finally, to decide which activities should be next performed. The method was applied in the following way: Step 1: Two Focus Questions were determined, Benefits and Barriers.
Step 2: Teachers implemented their ongoing observations throughout the course.
Step 3: After the course, the observations were written onto Sticky Notes.
Step 4: Sticky Notes were added to the wall.
Step 5: Similar items were grouped.
Step 6: Each group was named according to the category it seemed to represent.
Step 7: The groups with the most notes were then selected as being the most significant, then in order to reduce the number of categories, the teachers placed the remaining notes into the larger categories.
Step 8: Finally, groups were ranked and prioritized. The next course cycle was planned based on observations made, grouped, ranked, and prioritized.

Course Description and Participations
To adopt and research digital twin technology, a course named Simulation in Control System Design was chosen. This course is part of the studies of machine automation, which is one of the three majors within the mechanical engineering department.

Course Description
The learning outcomes of the course were: -On completion of the course, the student will be familiar with the possibilities of simulations and able to create useful simulation models to test product behavior. -The student will be able to use simulation models to develop and test the steering and control algorithms.
The prerequisites and co-requisites demanded a knowledge of 3D modeling and CAE. The recommended optional programme components: -The student advisor will recommend optional programme components for each student based on their individual study plan.
The course content covers: -Advantages of simulations.
-Principles of creating a simulation model, as well as its verification and testing. -Various simulation environments. -Simulation cases in various applications.

Participations
The research was planned in three cycles. The first cycle was implemented in 2016, and consisted of creating the course concept, developing and implementing the action plan, gathering and analyzing the data, identifying the problems, and evaluation. The results were used to plan the second cycle. The participants of this first cycle were 21 students and two teachers. The second cycle was implemented in 2017, for this cycle some minor modifications were made for the concept. The participants of this second cycle were 28 students and two teachers. The third and final cycle was implemented in 2018; for this cycle, the students answered a survey after the course concerning digitalization and digital twin technology. The participants of this third cycle were 42 students and two teachers.
As is typical in action research, the teachers also were the researchers of the study. In this study, the researchers were full participants due to being permanent science and technology teachers at the university.

Course Concept to Research and Adopt DT Technology
This research started in spring 2016. The machine automation major had new curricula and a new upcoming course: Simulation in Control System Design. During 2016, different DT pieces of software were tested and compared. Tools that were tested: NX Mechatronics Concept Designer (MCD), Mevea and Visual Components. NX MCD was chosen to be used in the first course implementation in autumn 2016. NX MCD (Figure 2) is part of the Siemens PLM tools. It is a physics-based modeling and simulation tool. One feature of MCD is its ability to validate that the product designed works properly prior to it being built. This validation is enabled by the re-use library, from which a user can quickly add data to the functional model. This data includes joints, motion, sensors, actuators, collision behavior, and other kinematic and dynamic properties for each component. This allows a physics-based, interactive simulation to verify machine operation [7]. With MCD, it is also possible to implement a virtual commissioning of a functional model. A new concept was created for this course. The study module is divided into two parts, Part 1 is a theory part and Part 2 a hands on project, each part lasting 8 weeks. During the first part, the students examine the digital twin software tools and then work on individual exercises. After the first period, students are divided into project groups and a large digital twin project is distributed to the groups. The project has four parts: designing a 3D model of a mechatronics equipment, converting the 3D model into the digital twin with the NX Mechatronics Concept Designer, designing a PLC program for the equipment, and linking the PLC with a digital twin through OPC. Finally, when the projects are ready, the groups demonstrate the projects to the teachers and perform a virtual commissioning. The topics of the projects included mechatronic equipment, such as -Delta, Scara and ABB YuMi robots -Conveyor belt, XYZ crane -Darts thrower, turntable -Smart Factory

Designing a 3D Model
In the project, the 3D model is designed with the Catia CAD tool. Students are free to use other CAD tools as well, for example, SolidWorks or NX. The model can be designed completely from the beginning or available 3D models can as well be used from the manufacturer catalogs. Designed models need to match the actual mechatronics equipment. 3D models are transferred to NX MCD in stp-format. One machine used as a project subject was a Delta robot, which is used in various mechatronics courses ( Figure 3). In addition to actual existing equipment, students have an opportunity to use imaginational equipment, such as, the ABB FlexPicker ( Figure 4).

Converting the 3D Model into Digital Twin
The second part of the project is to convert the 3D model into a simulation model, in other words, the first phase of a Digital Twin. For this purpose, the 3D models must be imported into NX MCD. First, the necessary rigid and collision bodies are defined. After defining of the bodies, the necessary joints are configured to enable movements ( Figure 5). Finally, sensors and controls are defined for the physics simulation. Sensors ( Figure 6) are needed to monitor the physics simulation and to connect the sensor elements to PLC inputs to implement a virtual commissioning. Controls (Figure 7) are needed to control the simulation and to connect the control elements to PLC outputs. The designed DT model can be tested by adding the sensors and controls to a so-called inspector or connecting it to a simulation or real PLC.

PLC Programming
The third part of the project is designing a PLC program for the equipment. For this, a requirement specification is given to the students. The PLC program should include the following parts:  In machine automation, Siemens TIA, Beckhoff Twin-CAT, and Codesys PLC systems are the most commonly used; therefore, the project groups can choose from among these systems. If students wish, they can also use some other systems such as Raspberry Pi or Arduino.

Virtual Commissioning
The final and fourth part of the project is to perform a virtual commissioning. Project groups connect the designed PLC programs with NX MCD models. For building the interface, NX MCD provides different technologies such as OPC DA, OPC UA, and Profinet ( Figure 8).
Virtual commissioning can be implemented as software-in-the-loop simulation (SIL) or as hardware-inthe-loop simulation (HIL). In the SIL simulation, the PLC program is simulated with a PLC simulator in the PC. In the HIL simulation, the PLC program is run and tested in a real PLC connected to a PC with the NX MCD model (Figure 9).

Results and Discussion
The present study confirmed the earlier findings concerning digitalization in engineering education. Digital tools and DT technology can increase study motivation, students' own responsibility for learning, as well as improve learning. However, digitalization as a form of learning is sometimes overly emphasized in lieu of a more personal encounter with the teacher and other learners. Compared with other machine automation courses, the yield and first time through were at the same level. DT technology did not increase or decrease these key indicators. The main benefits of the technology were the development of expertise and increased motivation for studying. The main barriers were IT problems, lack of resources, and teachers' inadequate expertise.

Digitalization Inquiry
After the third cycle, an inquiry was carried out for the third cycle students. Answering percentage was 92%. The inquiry was the same as used in the Digitalization in Professional Education research [10]. In addition, a set of Digital Twin questions were added.
The first part of the inquiry covered digitalization in general. Based on first part, students identified the benefits of the digitalization in the following way ( Figure 10): -Has increased my motivation for studying -Has increased my own responsibility for learning -Facilitates tracking of studies -Facilitates learning from other students -Improves learning Compared to previous digitalization research such as Digitalization in Professional Education (DiPE), the results were similar [10,13]. In DiPE, the average was 2.5 for two of the questions 'has increased my motivation for studying' and 'improves learning'. In this study, the average was 3.0 for these questions, from this point of view, machine automation students perceive the digitalization very pos-itively. Although they recognize that digitalization is already sometimes excessively emphasized instead of a personal encounter. From a teacher's perspective, it is not sufficient that a digital task such as DT project is set, one must provide for technical support and assist, preferably 24/7.
The second part of the inquiry covered DT technology. Based on this part, students identified the benefits of DT technology in the following way ( Figure 11): -I think the course will be useful to me in the future -Digital Twin technology has increased my motivation for studying -Digital Twin technology has made learning easier with the course -Digital Twin know-how makes my job easier and I feel that there is a need for this expertise in working life Compared to part one, DT technology was recognized even more positively than digitalization overall. The technology was not familiar to the students before the course. The IT environments did not receive that positive feedback, probably due to the problems encountered while accomplishing the project. In order to facilitate the students' learning and improve accessibility, the DT tools and environments could be placed into a virtual server, which would increase flexibility.

Action Research
An action research method called KJ-technique was used to observe recognitions for two questions, benefits and barriers of the DT technology in education. After each cycle, the observations were classified and prioritized. This information was used to further develop the course concept. Finally, after all three cycles, the all observations were classified and prioritized once more and analyzed to resolve the benefits and barriers of DT technology in education. The conclusions of this action research were the following groups.
Priority 1 groups: -Development of expertise -Increased motivation for studying -IT problems Priority 2 groups: -Constant course development -Ensuring the resources -Other problems and barriers -Teachers inadequate expertise -Students inadequate starting level One clear benefit was the development of expertise related to DT technology. Both students and teachers gained new knowledge and in some cases, this resulted to find employment. The other explicit benefit was increased motivation for studying. Students perceived the DT technology beneficial for their future careers.
When adopting DT technology in education, one possible barrier is potentially the IT problems. During the research and when using the NX MCD, students had problems with the OPC interface due to different OPC products in the same PC. Furthermore, some conflicts were faced due to Windows updates. Thus, one must pay attention keeping software up-to-date and prepare for possible problems.
Other observations were that the technology is evolving fast and thus constant course development is necessary. DT tools and software are quite complex tools and learning curve might be high, therefore, ensuring resources is vital. Working with new technology and applying it in this way means that teachers do not necessarily have answers for all the questions immediately.

Statistical Data
The statistical data of the DT courses were analyzed and compared with other machine automation courses in Metropolia (Table 1). In the other courses, the teachers were the same and students correspondingly. The key indicators used were (Table 2): -Yield -the passing percentage -FTT -First Time Through -the percentage of how many students pass the course on the first try -Average grade -courses are scored from 0 to 5, 0 means failed and 5 is the highest score Yield for all three cycles was 92%, FTT 92% and average grade 3.6/5. Compared with other courses, these key indicators were at the same level. DT technology did not appear to have any significant effect. On the other hand, professional software tools are also used in other machine automation courses.

Conclusions and Future Work
The aim of this research was to create a course concept to research digital twin technology in engineering education and to adopt the technology in education. As a result of this research, a digital twin course was successfully created to confirm the concept. The current setup still has limitations and needs to be further developed. The benefits and barriers were analyzed and researched. Obviously, many digital tool already exist which are commonly called DT tools; the strictest DT definition [8] was: Digital Twin, the data flows between the physical-digital objects are fully integrated in both directions. According to the definition, most of the current tools are so called, Digital Model and Digital Shadow tools. To achieve and to be able to design a true Digital Twin, the technology needs to be developed and researched further.
When using the tools as separate design tools, the operation was stable, but when digital twins were connected with PLCs, many problems were confronted with OPC version and other malfunction issues. To use and exploit the created twins and the technology in other courses, one al-ternative would be to create a virtual mechatronic lab [1]. This would enable the using of the twins in other courses and further research of the benefits.


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Knowledge transfer and innovation performance of small and medium enterprises (SMEs): An informal economy analysis

SME operators in the informal sector of developing economies have a significant influence on their nation's economies through their involvement in international business relationships. However, the existing deficiency in the literature to show empirical relationships between knowledge transfer, from these SMEs and their international business partners, and innovation performance is a significant gap in the strategic management and international business literature. Therefore, this paper explores the link between knowledge transfer and innovation performance of informal economy SMEs that are involved in international business relationships. The study included a survey of 370 owners-managers and managers of small and medium enterprises in Nigeria's informal electronic market. Using Structural Equation Model (AMOS 22) this study shows that knowledge transfer dimensions, such as R&D and social networking, have varying levels of impact on innovation performance of informal sector SMEs. Knowledge transfer from training showed an inverse and insignificant relationship with innovation performance. The study established implications and recommendations that will be useful for theory and practice.

Introduction
The significance of knowledge transfer has become more renowned as a critical element in the micro, small and medium enterprises (MSMEs) sector. Knowledge transfer is the movement of knowledge through a/ some channel(s) from one individual or firm to another (Abou Hashish, 2017). It also refers to practices that include the exchange of individuals' experiences and work-related knowledge (Tassabehji et al., 2019). Within international business relationships, such as with Home-based MSMEs operations and their foreign business associates, knowledge transfer involves both tacit and explicit knowledge exchange (Cerchione et al., 2015;Ibidunni, 2020). Explicit knowledge is any form of experience that is codified and can be stored through documentations for future reference while tacit knowledge is the use of intuition to discern issues (Hajidimitrious et al., 2012;Ibidunni et al., 2018a). Regardless of what type of knowledge is involved with an international business relationship, knowledge transfer is vital to the smooth operations of SMEs. This assertion is evident through its ability to help organisations to have an advantage on a wide range of skills and expertise, thus complementing new product innovative performance of firms involved in such knowledge-based relationships.
According to Zubielqui et al. (2015), SMEs can achieve innovation performance through leverage on knowledge transfer relationships with their foreign business partners. Although, this claim has a global concern for SMEs, within the context of the present study is particularly crucial to SMEs operating in Nigeria's informal economy, where the business value chain involves procuring products and services from business associates in foreign nations, like China and other Asian, European and American economies. Consequently, new product innovation performance will reflect in the way SMEs in Nigeria can make good use of the knowledge from their international business partners to become creative with ideas and transform into a producing nation with a higher quality of products, services and business processes. Innovation provides opportunities for growth in new markets, new ideas and new invention (Bessant and Tidd, 2007;Adegbuyi et al., 2018).
According to Baumann and Kritikos (2016), within the German region more than 90% of large companies report the introduction of new products innovation during three years, the share of medium-sized firms report innovation is about 80% and more than 65% in small firms. Small and Medium Enterprises in Nigeria are involved mainly with international activities where they transact businesses through (products and service) importation from foreign business partners based in other countries spread across European, North American and Asian countries. Nonetheless, very little exist in their business activities, especially in the area of innovation performance, especially new product innovation, and hence repositioning Nigeria among the league of producing economies, away from its present consumption stance. Also, it might suggest that there are minimal efforts by Nigerian SMEs to deliberately make efforts to engage in knowledge transfer activities, such as training, research and development, social networking and collaborations with their foreign business partners.
This research, therefore, raises a question about the capacity of SMEs operating in the informal sector of developing economies (for example, Nigeria) involved in international business relationships, to relate with knowledge transfer from their foreign business associates and to translate same into viable new product innovations. More obvious is the fact that there is a shortage in the existing literature that shows empirical relationships and that explain the processes between knowledge transfer and innovation performance in informal economies, such as Nigeria. Nevertheless, the importance of understanding the relationship between knowledge transfer and innovation performance within these developing and informal economies, like Nigeria, cannot be overemphasised. Nigeria, as a world's fast-emerging economy and the largest economy in Africa (Giles, 2018;PwC, 2019). Nigeria is a choice location for many Asian and European businesses and a fast-growing country for technology utilisation (Adi, 2015;PwC, 2016;Ogundana et al., 2016;Nigerian Communications Commission, 2018). Therefore, this study focused on investigating the link between knowledge transfer and innovation performance of Small and Medium Enterprises in an Informal Economy, such as Nigeria.

Concept of knowledge transfer
Several studies in the field of knowledge management and strategic management have investigated different dimensions of organisation and management of knowledge in various economic and industry contexts (Liyanage et al., 2009;Trautman and Mckee, 2014;Mislan et al., 2016;Hassan et al., 2017). There are distinctive parts of knowledge management, which include knowledge creation, knowledge capture, knowledge sharing, knowledge application and knowledge transfer (Liyanage et al., 2009;Ibidunni et al., 2017). Findlay first introduced knowledge transfer in 1978, with descriptions as knowledge sharing, knowledge obtaining, and knowledge stream (Sheng et al., 2013). Different Literature views the exchange of knowledge as the transference of information from the root to the beneficiary in a given setting. Davenport and Prusak (1997) established that learning exchange includes two activities: transference (sending or introducing information to a potential recipient) and ingestion by a gathering of individuals or by an individual. If knowledge has not been transmitted or consumed for a desirable purpose, active knowledge exchange has not occurred.
Knowledge transfer or exchange involves organisational learning transits between a source to a beneficiary for achieving predetermined outcomes (Nguyen and Burgess, 2014;Hassan et al., 2017). In a broader sense, it incorporates employee willingness to interact with others (donate knowledge) and to also learn from them (collect knowledge) (Saide et al., 2016;Ibidunni et al., 2018b). Knowledge transfer has six stages: examining, codification, deliberation, dispersion, ingestion, and affecting. A knowledge transfer framework comprises of four classifications, in particular, the sender, collection of learning, approach, and accomplices or get .

Concept of innovation in an organisation
Innovation is the practice of conceptualising and processing of novel ideas that generate commercial values in the form of new products and services. Within the purview of business practices, innovations have an end goal of servicing customers' expectations in new ways (Jackson et al., 2013). It is a strategic organisational tool through which organisations manage change and establish a new market breakthrough (Ndesaulwa and Kikula, 2016).
Organisations innovate across several levels, including products, services, manufacturing designs, service delivery procedures, and managerial processes or in designing the organisational hierarchy (Omodafe and Nwaizugbo, 2017). However, and most often, innovating is associated with the production, to meet new customer requirements; and with processes with a focus on improving on procedural efficiencies and effectiveness. According to Scholars like Mwangi and Namusonge (2014) and Shinnar et al. (2018) innovation is critical to the growth and competitiveness objectives of any organisation, be it small, medium or large. Besides, most organisations consider innovation as an essential element to increase their profit and market share (Meroño-Cerd an and L opez-Nicol as, 2017; Shujahat et al., 2019).
Earlier research conducted revealed that innovation positively affects the performance of firms (for example; Hewitt-Dundas and Roper, 2018). A study carried out by Ndesaulwa and Kikula (2016) revealed that innovation should be widely encouraged across the country and organisational levels because of its role in promoting economic worthiness. This argument rests upon the fact that innovation proves the firm or nation's dynamic capability, especially concerning managing environmental shocks (Oludayo and Ibidunni, 2019).
There is much argument about the types of innovation. Still, the primary focus surrounds Schumpeter's (1934), four types of innovation they are product innovation, process innovation, market innovation and organisation innovation (Tavassoli and Karlsson, 2015). Products and process innovation are closely related to technological innovation, while market and organisation innovation is in the category of non-technological novelty (Abel-Koch et al., 2015).

Training and innovation performance
Ibidunni (2019), suggested that to an extent, organisational success rely on its human resource capabilities. Employees with high levels of exposure to the job or business-related training are considered a cornerstone for such success. More so, in the present global economy organisations are faced with increasing levels of competition, rapidly evolving technologies and highly dynamic operating environment. Also, the effects of Globalization and the evolving customer preferences have their tolls on stiffening the operational procedures in the business economy. Consequently, organisations, and especially SMEs, must keep abreast with changing patterns through training. According to Ibidunni et al. (2017) intense competition and the rapidly changing market environments, cause firms to find ways to capture or create knowledge that can improve their products or develop new products to satisfy customers in other to gain a competitive advantage in the industry.
Consequently, employee training is perceived to be a viable channel to new knowledge creation and transfer that will help them develop the required innovations (Blome et al., 2014;Zou et al., 2018). Regular training guarantees entry to outside knowledge, and it expands a firm's tendency to innovate (Falck et al., 2009;Ibidunni, 2019). Consequently, this study hypothesises that, H1. Knowledge transfer acquired through training enhances the capacity of informal economy SMEs' for improved innovation performance.

R&D and innovation performance
Studies have shown that knowledge sharing based on R&D is a critical activity for the success of SMEs' innovation performance (Gupta and Wilemon, 1991;Fain et al., 2011;Shim et al., 2016). This is without prejudice to how R&D knowledge flow is channelled in the organisation, whether it be from diverse or controlled sources (Cuervo-Cazurra et al., 2018). According to Frankort (2016) firms make the most of R&D knowledge transfer for innovation when the firms have established an active partnership in similar technology domain, while yet operating in different product markets. Generally, small and medium enterprises that are highly profitable with innovations appear to incur some percentage of more cost on R&D than those that do not (Baumann and Kritikos, 2016). Thus, validating the payoff in R&D expenditure as a way of driving SMEs' innovation performance. The assertions of Adomako et al. (2019) support the fact that R&D intensity on successful innovations is better achieved through international R&D relationships.
Consequently, explaining the importance of R&D as a fundamental mechanism of knowledge transfer among partners in a global business relationship. Within the Nigerian SMEs industry, a study of this nature is critical to provide empirical evidence for the relationship between R&D and innovation performance, because very minute R&D activity exists within the SME sector (Olughor, 2015;Adelowo et al., 2017;Booltink and Saka-Helmhout, 2018). The limitations associated with limited R&D derives from their lack of human and financial capital to execute the enormous tasks involved with R&D (Baumann and Kritiko, 2016). However, this study anticipates that empirical evidence of this nature would instigate a positive response from the SME industry actor. Consequently, we hypothesise that: H2. Knowledge transfer through R&D has a significant impact on informal economy SMEs' drive for improved innovation performance.

Social networks and innovation performance
Social networking, drawn from the social integration theory, is a practice whereby social actors connect within a system governed by mutual interests and relationships (Beresnevi eiût€ e, 2003). Social networks are an aggregate of informal and formal relationships which entrepreneurs build with the environment that are internal and external to their context of operation (Hakimpoor et al., 2011;Jevwegaga et al., 2018). Social networking is a viable knowledge transfer indicator and a viable platform for aiding learning (Birley, 1985;Miller, 2005;Tian et al., In press). According to Hung (2017), the density of social networking among teams, such as a group of entrepreneurs, enhances their centrality of technology, which in turn could result in higher innovation performance for the firm. Ogunnaike and Kehinde (2013) argue that social networks are critical to entrepreneurial success because they give entrepreneurs access to knowledge and technology required for market and technology innovation performance (see Figure 1). Therefore, this study suggests that, H3. Knowledge transfer acquired through social networking enhances the capacity of informal economy SMEs' for improved innovation performance.

Methodology
The research design adopted in this study is survey research. In the survey method, this study gathered opinions of respondents by the use of questionnaires. The population of this study was 100,000 ownersmanagers and managers of small and medium enterprises in Nigeria's informal electronic market (Ayeni et al., 2018). The informal sector of Nigeria, and especially its electronic market, is an economic sector that consists of businesses that are not fully regulated by governments and other institutions; they are businesses that are only partially registered and do not maintain complete books of account (Bank of Industry, 2018). This present research considers the informal sector as a very strategic aspect of the Nigerian economy that is worthy of research focus because the informal sector consists of more than sixty-five per cent of Nigeria's business economy and employs seventy-two per cent of Nigeria's economic population . In using the survey method to gather responses for this study, the descriptive approach of research established the link between knowledge transfer and innovation performance of Small and Medium Enterprises in Nigeria's Informal Economy. The descriptive design is of particular importance to this research agenda because it supported the study's aim of investigating the degree of the impact knowledge transfer dimensions on innovation performance of SMEs in the developing informal economy that is involved in international business relationships. To test the hypotheses and analyse the data for this study, SPSS and AMOS 22 was used to examine the goodness of fit criteria and the relationship between knowledge transfer and innovation performance of SMEs. The ideal conditions that apply to use Structural Equation Modelling AMOS 22 guided the execution of this study. For example, Loehlin and Beaujean (2017) suggested that a minimum sample size of 100, or where possible 200 and above, is suitable for establishing theories using AMOS. The 370 respondents that formed the basis for this study justify the appropriateness of SEM analysis for the study. Also, the preconditions surrounding the goodness-of-fit measures, for example, root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA), comparative fit index (CFI) and Tucker-Lewis index (TLI), as argued by Hair et al. (1998) and Byrne (2001) guided the analysis stage of this present study. Within the MSMEs cluster, literature has shown the effectiveness of knowledge transfer along the supply chain to be the primary source of innovation (Corral de Zubielqui et al., 2019). Valdez-Ju arez et al. (2016) examined the role of knowledge management and transfer dimension on performance of SMEs, with innovation as a mediating variable. Hence the central emphasis was on the economic performance of the firm. The fascinating insights from these existing studies have given credence to and elaborated understanding of the relationship between knowledge transfer and innovation performance (Susantya et al., 2012;Putra and Santoso, 2020;Erdin and Ozkaya, 2020). However, the present study demonstrates novelty by investigating knowledge transfer of SMEs that are operating in the context of a developing economy and are involved in international business relationships with foreign business associates.
Consequently, items in the research instrument adapted from existing research that closely related to the present study; and the research instrument items were modified to fit into the present study. Details on Knowledge transfer variables such as questions on training, including the exposure of SME operators to continuous development to acquire new skills on the job, were gotten from O' Regan et al. (2010). Questions on R&D, defined as the extent to which SMEs invest in R&D spending, were obtained from Hottenrott and Lopes-Bento (2014). Social networking items, defined as the identification of SME operators within a social network that enhances Intra and inter-industry knowledge sharing, were extracted from Beresnevi eiût€ e (2003); Tian et al., (In press). The dependent variable is new product innovation performance and is the ability of SMEs to mobilise technology and skill to innovate new products that meet customer demands. It adapted from Kesinro et al. (2018), Ibidunni et al. (2014).

Sampling
The sample size for this study derived from using the Bartlett et al. (2001) formula. Based on their sample size determination parameter, a sample size of 370 respondents was used for this study. The respondents consisted of owners-managers and managers of small and medium enterprises in Nigeria's informal electronic market. Table 3 depicts the demographic characteristics of the respondents for this study. For this research, the simple random sampling method facilitated the process that ensured that selection of respondents was made without human bias, hence giving every member of the population the equal chance of participating in the survey. However, during the time of administering the research instrument, respondents who declined to participate in the study were respectably excused and replaced based on convenience of other respondents.

Measurement models
This study tested for reliability using Cronbach's alpha test. It associates each measurement item to every other measurement item and finds the average. Cronbach's alpha tests the reliability of a multi-item scale. When the coefficient is either 0.70 or higher, it is acceptable in a social science research study. The reliability coefficient of items used for the present study is 0.871. Hence, the present study established that the scale items were consistent with the intended purpose of what the research set out to measure. Moreover, for the individual instruments the results showed the following: training (α ¼ 0.852), R&D (α ¼ 0.876), social network (α ¼ 0.576) and innovation performance (α ¼ 0.914). The values justify the reliability of the scale items because most values are greater than the benchmark of 0.7. Confirmatory Factor Analysis (CFA) confirmed the validity of the research items. According to Fornell and Larker (1981) and Hair et al. (1998), CFA must meet three important conditions namely, (1) all item loading should be 0.65 and greater (2) composite reliability (CR) value should be 0.8 and greater, and (3) the values of average variance explained (AVE) for each item should be 0.5 and above. This present study also ensured discriminant validity for the constructs. Discriminant validity reflects the extent to which constructs differ from one another. By the general rule, Fornell and Larker (1981) suggested that the AVE should be higher than the shared correlations between the constructs. As reflected in Table 2, the condition for discriminant validity is fulfilled in this study because all items are above 0.5 and are higher than the squared correlations shared between the constructs. This assertion was established by average variance explained values, as presented diagonally in Table 2. More so, the mean values ranging from 3.8 to 4.2, and the standing deviation values generally less than 1 indicates that respondents regularly share a common opinion that suggests high levels of agreement on the items covered in the research instrument. The statistics, also, reflects that there is generally a correlation between the variables of interest at p < 0.01 level of statistical significance.

Analysis
A total of 370 copies of questionnaires administered to respondents were filled correctly and returned by the respondents. Table 3 shows the respondents' demographic characteristics. Out of 370 respondents, 298 are male operators, while 72 are female operators. Also, 54 (14.6%) respondents are below 20years, followed by 156 (42.2%) respondents between 21 -30 years, 114 (30.8%) respondents between 31 -40 years and 46 (12.4%) respondents are 40 years and above. Moreover, 190 (51.4%) of the respondents are single, 162 (43.8%) of the respondents are married, 18 (4.9%) are either divorced or widowed. 120 (32.4%) of the respondents have below 5 years' experience in the business, 150 (40.5%) of the respondents have 5-10 years' experience in the business, 100 (27.0%) of the respondents have 10 years and above experience in the business.

Test of hypotheses
This study relied on the goodness of fit criteria for any SEM-AMOS analysis as postulated by previous studies. As depicted in Table 4, RMSEA (0.043), TLI (0.974) and CFI (0.981) satisfied the suggestions as presented by Hair et al. (1998) and Byrne (2001). Also, the normed chisquare results (χ2/df) for this study was 1.681, which satisfied the cut-off requirement, as argued by Kline (1998). Therefore, the following values in Table 4 confirm this study's goodness of fit statistics. Figure 2 shows the path analysis for this study. The standardised form of regression results obtained from the statistically significant path analysis shows an effective relationship between knowledge transfer and innovation performance. The theoretical background with interpreting the standardised results from a regression relationship implies the change in the dependent variable as a result of a 1 unit standard deviation in the predictor variable (Freeze and Raschke, 2007). From the path diagram in Figure 2, R&D (r ¼ 0.20) and social network (r ¼ 0.16) demonstrated the strongest relationships with innovation performance. The importance of R&D and social networks to the new product innovation capability of SMEs involved in international business relationships is, therefore highlighted by these results. By implication, shifting activities and investments relating to R&D in the SMEs industry will result in up to β ¼ 0.20 upward shift in the innovation performance of the SMEs.
Similarly, investments in social networks will move new product innovation performance of SMEs positively upward by β ¼ 0.16. The relationship between training and innovation performance was negative and minute (β ¼ -0.09). Although this relationship is contrary to expectation, yet it may be indicative of the fact that informal sector SMEs rarely engage in any form of training relationships with their foreign partners.    Moreover, the result signifies that training does not make any significant contribution to the SMEs new product innovation performance. The results, also established that informal relationships and knowledge sharing acquired from social interactions, collaborations and strategic alliances built from social networks instead prove to be more effective than any procedural training activities. The present result from this study is significant for improving the performance of Nigeria's SMEs sector. Currently, the SMEs sector accounts for about forty-eight per cent of national GDP and about ninety-six per cent of the total number of businesses in Nigeria, employing eightyfour per cent of the total population (PwC, 2020). Despite this, the SMEs sector is still primarily hindered in terms of maximising its potentials for growth and development (Wale-Oshinowo et al., 2018). The role of knowledge transfer for operators in the industry has received very minimal attention in existing research. However, in existing studies, the importance of knowledge sharing has been established to be critical to SMEs performance growth (Mislan et al., 2016;Hassan et al., 2017). The outcome from this study emphasises that the possibility of economic contribution, especially in terms of innovation performance, of SMEs involved in international businesses, can be improved significantly by focusing on social networks and R&D. Table 5 shows the p-value indicators for all the relationships reflected in the path analysis. The Table reveals that all p-values for the reflective models are significant (sig. ¼ 0.00, p < 0.01). The reflective nature of the structural model indicates that the changes in the latent variable results directly from changes in the indicators of such variable (Freeze and Raschke, 2007). The results in Table 5 shows that the reflective relationships of each construct were significant for Training, Social networks, R&D and new product innovation performance. Moreover, the results partially established the relationships between the knowledge transfer of SMEs and their innovation performance. The statistical result affirmed that R&D (sig. ¼ 0.00, p < 0.01) and social networking (sig. ¼

Discussion
This study focused on investigating the relationships between knowledge transfer and innovation performance of Small and Medium Enterprises (SMEs) in the Informal Sector of a developing economy, precisely Nigeria. Specifically, this research work raised three hypotheses from the review of the literature. The first hypothesis suggested a possible impact of training on innovation performance of the SMEs. Based on the results from the structural equation modelling analysis, training did not have a significant influence on SMEs' innovation performance. Hence, the emphasis on training as a strategic knowledge transfer tool for SMEs involved in international businesses may not necessarily enhance innovation performance. This result may suggest that SMEs operators in the informal economy of developing nations like Nigeria are more particular about real-life engagement with their businesses and learning through practical meetings with their international business associates that engaging with organised training programmes.
Moreover, the fact that most operators in this sector do not possess formal education could also be a resultant factor. The assertion is such that the SMEs operators in this sector have developed business skills through informal apprenticeships, rather than through organised training. Consequently, the result of this study demonstrates a different perspective from studies in more developed economies suggest that training enhances the survival rate of SMEs (Ibrahim and Ellis, 2003). The assertions of Terziovski (2009) also suggest that SMEs can achieve better organisational procedures and achieve higher levels of productivity by emphasising employee training. According to O'Regan et al. (2010), strategically focusing on training by SMEs grants them the leverage of accessing and utilising external and internal knowledge for the good of the organisation.
The second hypothesis for this study proposed an impact of research and development on innovation performance of SMEs operating in the informal sector. Based on the statistical analysis carried out, the result revealed that R&D positively impacted on new products development. Hence, SMEs in the informal economy of developing nations like Nigeria, which are involved in international businesses can support their innovation performance objectives by adoption R&D as a viable tool. Cummings and Teng (2003) asserted that R&D as a veritable tool of knowledge transfer works well for firms in international business relationships when each party well understands the essential aspects of knowledge to be transferred. R&D, in particular, generates new knowledge that is frequently the source of the firm's innovation performance (Grandinetti, 2016;Falola et al., 2020). Enterprises conducting R&D bring forth innovations and are generally the first to introduce new products, services and production processes into the market (Hottenrott and Lopes-Bento, 2014;Ibidunni et al., 2019). Evidence abounds that SMEs that conduct R&D make more profit from innovations than those that do not conduct R&D, and they also introduce new products to the market.
The third hypothesis was to identify the impact of social networking on innovation performance. Based on the structural equation modelling carried out, the result revealed that social networking impacts positively and significantly on the innovation performance of SMEs operating in the informal economy. Consequently, knowledge transfer that occurs during social networking that occurs between the SMEs and their international business associates help these SMEs to achieve technology breakthrough and new market breakthrough for their businesses. In line with this finding, existing research suggests that firms use social networking to develop connections through online communication, thereby empowering them to improve areas of concern, especially about technology adoption and enhancing their market competitiveness (Culnan et al., 2010;Gandomi and Haider, 2015).

Implications
This study has adequately shown that knowledge transfer significantly impacts on the innovation performance of small and medium enterprises operating in the informal economy of Nigeria. Specifically, this study has made an original contribution to knowledge management and international business literature by examining SMEs in the developing informal economies that are involved in international business relationships. Based on the findings from this study, it this study asserts that SMEs operators should intensify on R&D as a way of keeping themselves updated on the latest developments in the market and the changing customer trends, to innovate according to identified patterns. Also, SMEs operators should endeavour to establish social networks both among themselves, to facilitate learning and current innovations, and with their international associates. The benefits derivable from such global social networks would include innovating with price innovation mechanisms, for example acquiring products at lower lost. Another important implication from this study is that policymakers and investors should focus attention on encouraging and funding R&D and social networking activities to improve innovations among the SMEs in the informal economy. Theoretically, this study has advanced reasoning in the knowledge management and international business literature about the impact of knowledge transfer and new product innovation performance of informal economy SMEs that are involved in international business relationships. The findings from this study establish a platform for further studies to be replicated in new developing economies and using a cross country analysis. The conclusions of this study apply to a larger group of SME operators in developing economies across the globe and such economies with similar characteristics with a growing informal economy. Hitherto, the literature consists of explanations relating to knowledge transfer among SMEs in international business from a developed economy perspective. The understanding of the characteristics and potentials of informal sector SMEs in international business relationships from a developing economy perspective has been an unfilled gap in the literature. Therefore, this study establishes empirical evidence about the relationship between knowledge transfer and new product innovation performance of informal sector SMEs in Nigeria.

Conclusion and further studies
In this study, the focus was on investigating the impact of knowledge transfer on innovation performance of small and medium enterprises in an informal economy. Following the findings from the structural equation modelling, the study concludes that knowledge transfer practices, especially R&D and social networking, have a significant impact on the innovation performance of informal economy SMEs that are involved in international business relationships. This study has advanced insights on the importance of stakeholders in the SMEs sector of informal economies to advance policies, funding and practices of R&D and social networking to improve SMEs innovative performance. Nonetheless, this study was limited to a single informal economy. Despite that Nigeria constitutes a substantial informal market in the global informal economy. Nevertheless, findings from future studies that will adopt a cross-country analysis may supply more robust insights.

Declarations
Author contribution statement A. S. Ibidunni: Conceived and designed the experiments; Performed the experiments; Analyzed and interpreted the data; Contributed reagents, materials, analysis tools or data; Wrote the paper.
A. Kolawole: Conceived and designed the experiments; Contributed reagents, materials, analysis tools or data; Wrote the paper. M.A. Olokundun and M. Ogbari: Contributed reagents, materials, analysis tools or data; Wrote the paper.

Funding statement
This work was supported by Covenant University Centre for Research, Innovation and Discovery.


Preliminary review of abstracts on a handbook on the future of work and entrepreneurship for the underserved

Scholars have declared that underserved communities will face the greatest marginalization due to disruptions in the 21st century. In our previous research engagements, we developed papers and presentations on 'The Future of Work and Entrepreneurship for the Underserved' and we shared data and our concerns for global income disparities and the need for a global perspective in this discourse. Purpose of Research- In this paper, we present a global snapshot regarding the future of work and entrepreneurship for the underserved and various perspectives from different authors on what these new changes predict for the underserved in the world. Design/ Methodology: After reviewing literature and determining key themes imperative to this topic, we put up a call for chapters that attracted diverse authors in academia and industry across the world representing different geographical regions including the USA, South America, Asia, and Africa. The abstracts were peer-reviewed and analyzed to identify commonalities and key areas of focus among the underserved communities worldwide. Results/Findings: The submitted abstracts found aligned with themes in education, technology and innovation, small business development, and diverse labor markets to the future of work and entrepreneurship for the underserved. They also explored other areas such as increasing utilization of labor in the unscaled economy through creativity and the use of emerging innovations and technologies. Additionally, the COVID 19 pandemic phenomenon was highlighted as a challenge that has exacerbated the need to address the future of work and entrepreneurship post-COVID. Practical Implications and Conclusions: We propose that unity in community and capacity building is vital to create shared prosperity. In this paper, we will share a summary of the chapters which will be included in the forthcoming handbook and perspectives on what the future of work and entrepreneurship will evolve into the new normal. We hope that this analysis will create further dialogue in academia, industry, and policy on how to ensure that the underserved are included in the future of work and entrepreneurship.

Introduction
A recent New York Times article by Thomas L. Friedman titled, "After the Pandemic, a Revolution in Education and Work Awaits", is an eye opener to the growing and widening income inequality and clearly demonstrates the need for a paradigm shift from preparing job seekers to preparing job creators, and advocacy for technology as a transformer of work culture from the bottom of the social pyramid up (Friedman, 2020). Friedman avers The reason the post-pandemic era will be so destructive, and creative is that never have more people had access to so many cheap tools of innovation, never have more people had access to highpowered, inexpensive computing, never have more people had access to such cheap credit -virtually free money -to invent new products and services, all as so many big health, social, environmental, and economic problems need solving.
While we believe education is a necessary ingredient for the transformation of the future of work and entrepreneurship, but it is not sufficient. Key aspects to the future of work include the ability to rapidly skill and up-skill global diverse laborforce as proposed by scholars around the world. It is through up-skilling, unlearning, and re-learning that the next set of employees and entrepreneurs will be ready to meet the new dispensation of work and entrepreneurship. Additionally, leveraging on innovative practices and technology in the "Unscaled" economy is essential for the development and growth of micro, small, and medium businesses (Rolle & Kisato, 2019, Gatewood & Sylvain, 2009, and inclusivity are vital to reducing the wage gap between the rich and the underserved globally (McKinsey, 2019, UN, 2020.

Literature Review
Many disruptions to the concept of work and new ways of living globally have been attributed to changes in technology. These disruptions have resulted in the development of different "ages"; from the Stone Age, Agrarian age, Industrial age, and now the technology age of the 21st century. The 4th Industrial Revolution (4IR) is marked by automation, digitization, artificial intelligence, and augmented realities (Rolle & Kisato, 2019;Taneja & Maney, 2018;Galindo and Mendez, 2014).
Scholars and pundits alike declare that the workforce in the 4IR will be more agile, diverse, and creative with the focus on producing bespoke products and services for a highly differentiated marketplace. Rolle & Kisato (2019) further point out the disparity between the rich and the poor will become a growing concern, and entrepreneurship for underserved communities will be salient to various discourses the world over. These discussions in academia, industry, and political spheres led these authors to develop papers and presentations on "The Future of Work and Entrepreneurship of the Underserved and shared data and their concern for global income disparity (Rolle & Kisato, 2019).
The critical questions, however, remain: will underserved communities participate in the emergent disruptions on the workforce and entrepreneurial practices? What new dynamics are required to ensure that underserved groups are ready for the future of work and entrepreneurship? Are there any case studies or models of successful integration for the underserved in a tech-centric world of work and entrepreneurship?

Purpose of Research
It has been noted that often, the underserved are not included in discussions on the future of work and entrepreneurship since a lot of these disruptive innovations take place in developed economies, with developing economies always playing catch up. The purpose of this paper is to expand the geographical reach of these discussions by presenting a snapshot of key areas of focus by authors from various regions globally, who are contributing to an edited handbook on the underserved and how the future of work and entrepreneurship will be transformed for this demography.
This paper seeks to answer 3 key research questions based on the responses from the abstracts received for this edited handbook: What are the key themes in discourses on the future of work and entrepreneurship for the underserved globally?
How is technology and innovation transforming the future of work and entrepreneurship for underserved communities globally?
What recommendations for academia, practitioners and policy makers will these insights provide for the discourse on the future of work and entrepreneurship globally?

Design/ Methodology
We made a call for abstracts and the authors were encouraged to use multiple approaches such as empirical, mixed, and case study to their research to ensure that the conclusions attained were grounded on the valid and verifiable evidence-based analysis. To further enhance scientific inquiry, the authors were advised to employ procedures and methods that were systematic and scientifically sound. The authors submitted abstracts on various topics that were peer-reviewed to reduce bias and ensure that scientific rigor was achieved in their methodologies.
To maintain and ensure robustness in thematic areas, we critically reviewed literature and proposed various key perspectives that are relevant, appropriate, and justifiable for the future of work and entrepreneurship globally. Content analysis was employed to summarize the key thematic areas of the abstracts. To increase reliability in the thematic categorization, the abstracts were reviewed independently by three authors, and the themes correlated to increase inter-coder reliability. These abstracts were summarized in main thematic areas and descriptive statistics were used to evaluate the geographical representation and thematic submissions from various authors. In this paper, we present an analysis of the abstracts from various authors who responded to the call for abstracts and propose recommendations for the future of work discourse.

Results/Findings
The data were analyzed descriptively to determine the geographical representation of authors and the key thematic areas submitted in the call for abstracts. These data are summarized below based on the geographical representation of authors and the key thematic areas for various abstracts that were submitted for the handbook.

Geographical Representation of the Authors
The call for abstracts was made to a global audience of scholars and authors by the CBER. The data revealed that the majority of the contributors were scholars and industry practitioners from the USA (39.1%), followed by Africa and South America with 21.7% each and Asia (17.4%); where (N=23). Although there was no contribution from Europe, this demographic representation was considered a representative sample of scholars and practitioners representing underserved regions globally. Our contributors wrote from the perspective of countries in the US, Kenya, India, Pakistan, Chile, Philippines, Bangladesh, Japan, Viet Nam, Nigeria, and Mexico.

Key thematic Areas
To key thematic areas, the data revealed that the majority of the authors presented abstracts inclined to themes in small businesses and entrepreneurship (34.8%) and what the future of work means for underserved communities in this sector. Concerning the diversity of the labor markets and education, the authors' representation in these themes was 26.1% and 21.7% respectively. Abstracts presented on technology and innovation concerning the future of work was represented by 17.4% of the respondents to the call; where (N=23). Although the respondents were more inclined to small business, there was a common thread on how each of the various sectors leveraged technology and innovation to enhance performance or outcomes. This finding was aligned with the main theme of the handbook on the future of work and technology.

Discussions and conclusions Content Analysis of Thematic Contributions from the Authors
Various authors have posited that there are key drivers of inclusivity for the underserved in the Future of work and entrepreneurship globally (Rolle & Kisato, 2019;Gatewood and Sylvain, 2009;UN, 2020). The Handbook, therefore, will be compiled in the following Chapter sub-sections: Section 1-Education: Section 2-Technology and Innovation: Section 3-Small Business Development: Section 4-Diversity of Labor Market and Section 5-Summary and Recommendations.

Section 1 -Education and the Changing Dynamics for the Underserved
Technological growth has exponentially increased in the 21st century. As the revolution comes to education and work, how will we prepare from the bottom up? Various authors have proposed new learning models that are imperative to propel this shift (Rolle, Billy, Kisato, Acevedo, and Zarbabal, 2017;Friedman, 2020). Friedman's article in the New York Times, for instance, cites an on-going shift in skills acquisition and what will become an ever-increasing demand to "learn how to learn" -framed as "radical re-skilling" or "just-in-case-learning" (Friedman, 2020). He further posits that we will finally be in the age of what you know matters more than who you know or more importantly for the global poor, where you come from. Additionally, Friedman cites evidence where academics and corporate partners are creating modular learning ecosystems that are independent of traditional educational constraints or boundaries. This concept is supported by numerous scholars globally who emphasized experiential learning and bespoke learning models that will cater to a different student and industry needs.
Although this seems to be a new model, there is little evidence that the purpose to explore education for underserved communities globally aligns them with the future of work and entrepreneurship in the 21st century. This gap in literature becomes a rich ground for academic discourse; thus, reinforce the justification for emphasis on education as a key driver in the Handbook.
Our various scholars start the dialogue on education with a challenge to the academy from the prism of community capacity building and digitalization as a change agent for economic development through entrepreneurial education. The chapter continues with a mixed approach to creating the next generation of entrepreneurs. The chapter addresses challenges for families in extreme poverty and posits ideas for innovation in education and economic prosperity. To address the nexus between education and demand for labor, both macro and micro impacts of Chile's declining mining industry on the demand for labor and the need for rapid adaptation of technology and education is postulated to transform the economy.
The authors discuss technologies used to support student learning in the mining and oil refining processes.
The subsequent chapter explores options for creating the next generation of entrepreneurs in Nigeria for industrial and national growth. The cross-sectional study findings indicated that the entrepreneurial mindset in Nigeria is low due to the opportunity cost of working in white-collar jobs in the public sector. Based on this finding, the authors recommend that entrepreneurial teachings must go beyond traditional teachings in the classroom.
Learning, unlearning, and re-learning have been proposed as the new model for future student in the 4IR. The next chapter amplifies continuing education, business ideas, innovation, and economic prosperity for heads of households in Southeast Asia. The author explores the historical trends of selfown startup businesses in rural communities. Issues addressed are the use of technology; skills needed for business; and opportunities for education, training, and financial support to sustain family businesses.
From the various contributions, it is evident that various scholars indeed declare that the current model of education might not serve in the new dispensation, and scholars, industry players, entrepreneurs, and students must engage in this discourse and re-imagine the new learning needs.

Section 2 -Technology & innovation for the future of work and entrepreneurship
The 21st century is characterized by technological disruptions and it is foolhardy to discuss this era without appreciating the role of technology and innovation (Rolle and Kisato, 2019;Galindoa and Mendez, 2014;Daugherty and Wilson, 2018;& Taneja and Maney, 2018). In the abstract submissions for the handbook, various authors present their insights and findings on what technological changes and innovations will portend for the future of work and entrepreneurship for the underserved.
We present two chapters on "Africa and the Disruptive Age: A discourse of work and entrepreneurship in tumultuous times." In the chapter, "Leveraging Technology and Innovation amidst and post Covid-19 Pandemic to the New Normal" in East Africa the authors reinforce the demand and need for computer-aided and related skills. They predict that the rate of technology and innovation change will produce new products and services in the East African region. They also posit that a "New Normal" will require a change in policy frameworks and regulations to sustain new product development and growth.
The chapter reviews contemporary policy frameworks in the East African States that are foundational technology leverages.
The chapter recommends the need to leverage technology and innovation in a COVID-19 pandemic to "New normal." From a different prism, another group of authors posits that technology is disrupting the creative industries and entrepreneurial ventures in underserved communities in Africa. The authors cite the diversity of culture, language, and ecology that serves to enhance and sustain multiple creative economies. The authors further indicate that while many industries shrunk during COVID-19, creative industries in Africa experienced growth. The chapter cites actual case studies of successful creative industries which adapted a paradigm shift in transforming talent to an enterprise. The authors concur with others that the creative industry will be the next phase of economic growth in Africa.
"Emerging trends of Entrepreneurship and work in Asia and Central America," is a case study of a technology start-up, ability to predict consumer market behavior using advanced technologies. The company's backbone is AI Technologies and Machine Intelligence that predict human behaviors and trends. The case study cited is based in Vietnam and demonstrates how technology delivers predictions and analytics to capture market segment growth. The chapter further shows how community and capacity building is executed with entrepreneurial opportunities to the underserved via a kiosk, low capital investment business model strategy.
The final chapter in this section, "Relationally Intelligent, Transcultural Automation and Innovation: A Learning-centric Strategy for Entrepreneurial Excellence in Underserved businesses" addresses income disparities in the US. The authors propose a trust-based relational intelligence model. Place-making, entrepreneurial ecosystem development and innovation district formations are reviewed. The findings will support cultural-specific policy approaches to innovation and establish practices for regional collaboration, technology adoption for skill transformation, and job creation.

Section 3 -Small business development in underserved communities
Small business and development have long been heralded as the economic engine of most developing economies, however, the underserved communities in Africa, Asia, and the Americas are sometimes overlooked, further exacerbating the wealth gaps (DeGhetto and Kiggundu, 2016;Rolle and Kisato 2019;McKinsey, 2019). In this section, we present a diverse group of topics ranging from the transformation of urban slums to developing rural areas -both leveraging entrepreneurships. The first chapter is on bootstrapping strategies that transform urban slums.
The author cites several multi-year experiences transforming communities by engaging the entrepreneurial spirits of the poor. Successful cases in Argentina, Panama, and Mexico are presented demonstrating innovative methods of leveraging social capital, bootstrapping slum economies into successful neighborhoods.
In the subsequent chapter, "Development of Entrepreneurship: A Case of Rural Lakshmipur," the author states that much of the entrepreneurship activity is located in urban areas, while there is a need for increased investment in rural-based economies such as Bangladesh. The authors use focus groups, surveys, and interviews to analyze rural entrepreneurial potential. The authors contend that there were both demand and supply-side reasons for the lack of entrepreneurial activity.
Bangladesh and youth entrepreneur startups are the topic of the next chapter. The authors discuss the factors that determine a career path of work or entrepreneurship in the context of COVID-19. The authors address the career readiness for youth regarding the challenges of a complex post-pandemic business environment. The authors, however, share observations on how COVID-19 shifts specific youth startup case studies in Bangladesh.
"Implementation of the comprehensive entrepreneurship model for the internationalization of ecoefficient companies," seeks to develop an integrated model of entrepreneurship in a new model of companies.
The body of work reviews and analyzes technology based on entrepreneurship and develops a strategy that adapts to companies with an ecological basis for internationalization.
In "The Role of MSME in India: A Multiple Case Study Approach," the authors study the role of micro small and medium (MSME) in India. The study uses a multiple-case design of five MSME Indian companies. The results indicate that sustainable solutions exist and that the MSMEs are performing well. In conclusion, the authors provide a set of strategies adopted by the five MSMEs.
The former CEO of Solutions Learning shares his experience as a minority entrepreneur in the US. He observes that many minority entrepreneurs are self-funded and notes that access to opportunity rather than access to capital was the missing link in business success. Access to capital becomes an issue only when there is a need or demand to scale. Eventually, the author shares critical insights for entrepreneurs to live by.
There are two chapters on financing in the Handbook, "Financing small businesses in underserved communities efficiently during a crisis: lessons from the cold-19 pandemic in Kenya" and Inclusive Capital: Blueprint for US Economic Resurgence. The first refers to underserved communities as the informal sector in the Kenyan economy and posits that it was the worst hit by the COVID-19 pandemic. Both private and public interventions were made to help and support the sector. The study analyzes and documents the effectiveness of the interventions advanced to small businesses in the sector and shows the essence of financial support to small businesses in the advent of future crises. The next chapter explores the role, impact, and potential of underserved businesses in the US economy. The authors cite widening disparities and suggest lessons learned, discuss inclusion in the context of venture financing, make program and policy recommendations.
"Access & Impact: Combining community-first and digital methods for entrepreneurial education" is a case study of the Citizen Entrepreneur Explorers Program. The program is based in a US community college over three semesters and resulted in increases in student empathy and entrepreneurial selfefficacy. The author examines how the study outcomes have activated diverse populations of students.

Section 4 -Diversity of labor markets: creating inclusivity for the underserved
As the labor markets grow across the world, there is rising concern on whether diversity and inclusivity are incorporated by organizations globally (Rolle, Kisato, Rock and Winstanley, 2020;Ganesh, Memon, Kaushl and Kumar, 2018;OECD/European Union 2015). This section summarizes various insights from authors whose themes interlace the future of work with diversity in labor markets.
In "Beautypreneurs in India: Agency, Training, and Determinants of Success", the authors cite gender bias as a factor for the lack of female entrepreneurs.
The authors indicate that the beauty and salon sector is forecast for significant growth and over 70,000 women have been recently trained on-line. The study analyzes the micro-entrepreneurial model among women in underserved communities in India and assesses how the training providers leverage technology to offer online training during COVID-19.
"Effect of COVID-19 pandemic on the performance of women-owned micro-enterprises in Kenya," discusses the impact of lockdowns, curfews, and other public sector mandates on the professional and personal lives of women entrepreneurs. The authors argue that policy interventions favored larger ventures leaving small ventures with little support. Resource-based theory and real-options theory are used to explore options available for women-owned ventures. The preliminary findings indicate that the pandemic had a disproportionate impact on women-owned small businesses in Kenya, and indeed across the world.
"Female Immigrant Entrepreneurs: An Engine to the Inclusive Economic Development," reviews literature on self-employment trends of female immigrants. Using the US IPUMS database, the author explores self-employed immigrant women's human and social capital. The chapter addresses the gap in the literature and develops a case for researching female immigrant entrepreneurship.
"Immigrant Labor, Entrepreneurial education and the future workforce in India, Pakistan and Bangladesh," cites the history, demographics, population, and economy of the region. The author cites the decline in rural areas and trends towards rapid urbanization.
The chapter discusses the challenges of seasonal migrants noting generational exploitation in the workplace.
The author mentions that Bangalore's service and tech-based sector attracting skilled and professional talent from across the region. The study further discusses the problems of migrant workers and suggests several solutions.
"A qualitative study on perceptions of African Americans regarding Work from home benefits during COVID-19" discusses the historical difference between White and African Americans' perceptions related to job selection. The chapter attempts to mitigate barriers of social acceptance in the job selection criteria. The authors report the results of qualitative interviews from students in the job market working from home and its effects on the labor market.
"Workforce Diversity: Creating Profit and Employment Opportunities," cites the trend of recruitment of a more diverse workforce. The chapter discusses corporate interest in workplace discrimination laws; willingness to promote diversity as a social good; and recognition that workforce diversity can impact the bottom line. The purpose of the Chapter is to review methods that workplace diversity can positively impact productivity, revenues, and profits.
In summary, inclusivity and diversity of the workforce are key ingredients in ensuring the future of work and entrepreneurship since each group brings diverse talents and ultimately creates shared prosperity for all.

Section 5-Summary and recommendations
While we do not choose deliberately to present all the chapters here, we do believe that there is enough of a sample to provide the reader with the grandeur of the handbook. Once we have compiled the complete body of work, we will synthesize and summarize what we believe will be a roadmap of methods, tools, strategies, and resources to support development, launch, and grow entrepreneurial ventures in underserved communities. We will also glean insights from various authors and suggest recommendations for policy and practice for different players in society.