extfieldsofstudy:
Physics
Environmental Science

text:
Sustainable Design Treatments for Thermal Range

The research deals with the thermal range phenomenon at the in inhabited areas. The shape and size of buildings varies according to the location, weather conditions and elements of the environment, thus exploring the nature, the negative effects, the causes and the elements of the human environment that help increase this phenomenon to the aim of developing the appropriate solutions to reduce the effects of the thermal range phenomenon. Hence emerged the issue of this research (The Absence of Comprehensive and Clear Sustainable Design Solutions to Reduce the Phenomenon of Thermal Range). In order to find solutions for this problem, a comprehensive conceptual framework was developed that illustrates a set of sustainable design solutions to reduce the phenomenon of thermal range. The theoretical framework application concepts on selected local study cases adopted to determine the extent to which these cases are met for the sustainable design solutions within the theoretical framework. By analyzing the results of the application, the selective local study cases showed that they did not acquire these solutions a matter that leads to the increase of this phenomenon and its multiple negative effects. The research concluded that the adoption of the sustainable design treatments within the theoretical framework is contributing to reduce this phenomenon that most of our local cities are suffering from.

Introduction
Most of Iraqi urban regions and cities are suffering from the phenomenon of the thermal range or so-called the thermal island, which results in a negative effect on the daily life of the district or the city. This phenomenon is considered a major challenge that contradicts the sustainability principles. The research deals with a general knowledge framework of the thermal range phenomenon. This research divided into two parts. The first part brings into view a set of general definitions of this phenomenon in addition to a set of practical experiences of some regions and cities that suffer from this phenomenon.
In the second part of the research, the special framework application was discussed. This part included the formation of a special theoretical framework, the implementation of this framework in addition to the and final conclusions.
The cognitive problem of the research will be presented within the light of what mentioned above: (The Unavailability of a Clear and Comprehensive Sustainable Design Solution to Reduce the Thermal Range Phenomenon).
The aim of the research is presented as follows:(Providing A Theoretical Framework That Shows A Range of Sustainable Design Solutions That Can Be Adopted to Reduce the Of Thermal Range Phenomenon).

General Definitions
Thermal range: Is a climatic term called the phenomenon of high temperature in the cities and large industrial regions compared to the surrounding rural areas, this term also sometimes called the thermal island [1].
The thermal range is a thermal phenomenon that is formed as a result of the local climatic changes caused by a mankind through various activities as a result of the establishment and development of the city or region, as one building can generate a different local climate than it was in the same location before the establishment of that building, the walls and tiled floors store the received heat during the day then reflect solar radiation after sunset to the surrounding atmosphere.
The phenomenon of thermal range depends directly on the total area covered by materials with great potential of heat absorption and storage such as asphalt, concrete and stone. The ratio of the reflected thermal radiation is relatively limited, in addition to the buildings and paved areas within the city, the industrial and commercial activities, in addition to the traffic all leads to the accumulative effect on the thermal environment, as a result of this accumulation; the temperature of the city increases and consists a high temperature area compared to other surrounding areas. This phenomenon is called (thermal or thermal island) [2].
Thermal range: It is a phenomenon that occurs in the built-up areas in which the human lives. The temperature in this area is 10 degrees Celsius higher than the surrounding environment. High temperatures in these islands are due to the increased absorption of sunlight by urban components, such as concrete and roads, floors that paved with asphalt, which have less reflective ability and higher thermal capacity than those found in the natural [3].
The thermal range is also defined as a range in which the temperature rises contrary to the surrounding temperature distribution.
This range, which is usually found in cities, represents a heat peak, which shows the decreasing of temperature by moving away from it in all directions, a phenomenon that exists in different regions of the world with different size and forms according to the location, weather conditions and urban and architectural characteristics [4].

Factors and causes of the of thermal range phenomenon
The factors and causes of this phenomenon varied between natural and artificial factors. The factors behind this increasing phenomenon in the city can be summarized as follows: 1-The Geographic location of the city Topographic characteristics and micro-climate conditions are considered permanent influences that cannot be eliminated or controlled [5] 2-The space of the city or region: Cities of considerable amount of population , industry and vast spaces alongside with the dense of traffic caused the emitting of height energy from these activities which increase the concentration of this phenomenon, as a study in Colombia and Maryland conducted in 1981 that in 1968 when the population was 1000 people was the maximum difference in the temperature is one degree Celsius comparing with 1974 the population increased up to 20 thousand people that the difference became 7 degrees Celsius in temperature.
On the other hand, the industrial activities within the city have changed the amount of clouds and rainfall that occur in and around the city. Some studies have shown that rainfall levels are higher during the weekdays than on weekends and holidays [5]. Structural density within the city or region This means that the percentage of built area. This built area increases as the percentage of construction increases. The possibility of availability of gardens and green spaces, which greatly reduce the concentration of the phenomenon, is reduced. This factor is proportional to the factor mentioned before, the higher the density of population, the greater the density of construction in the city or region [5].

-Reflection Coefficient:
Roads and parking spaces with dark asphalt surfaces absorb solar radiation, which greatly increases the phenomenon, unlike light-colored buildings and roofs that reflect a large part of the solar radiation. The green areas reduce the heat intensity and help cool the air by evaporating moisture [5].
5-Height of Buildings: The high and convergent buildings increase the heat degrees, which emitted by human activities and may reduce the speed of the air, this air greatly helps to expel the heat generated within the city in the upper space as in Figure 1. areas and air movement in the city, Source [5]. Other secondary factors of the thermal range phenomenon: A group of secondary factors that are considered to be the causes of the phenomenon including: • The decreasing of the lost net land-based radiation from the streets and roads of the city because of the narrow streets and high buildings and the lack of open space between the buildings out to the sky. • The increasing of the thermal storage obtained by the walls of the buildings and asphalt roads during the day and the decreasing of the thermal storage during the night (asphalt-paved streets contributed significantly to the absorption of the heat. • Heat emission from human sources through the consumption of energy in homes, motor vehicles on the roads, fuel engines at factories or workshops and the generators of electricity in the city. • Several buildings considered as a windbreak.
• Transportation traffic increases harmful emissions from vehicles.
• Materials commonly used in the urban areas on the pavement and ceilings, such as concrete and asphalt, which are characterized by their thermal conductivity. Glass and other surfaces contribute to absorbing and reversing sunlight • Lack or absence of the green areas in the urban cities.
• Lack of artificial water areas.
Consequential negative aspects of the thermal range phenomenon [6]: -• The Increase in energy consumption for cooling and conditioning buildings.
• The Increase in the proportion of pollutants emitted into the air as a result of the fuel burning to generate electricity. • Increasing the proportion of ozone gas in the ecosphere due to the high temperature, the presence of ozone in the upper layers of the atmosphere protects the Earth and humans from harmful UV rays. Being near the surface of the earth makes it a major cause of the formation of smog.

Previous cases
Vancouver City: • Vancouver is the third largest city in Canada. due to the replacement of plants and green belts with the residential, commercial and industrial asphalt or cement buildings. As a result of this process, the surface temperature of this city rises [7]. (2), the downtown of Vancouver is warmer than the countryside and districts. The upper part is cooler than the rest parts of Vancouver due to the vegetation. Most of the farms are mediumtemperature in the Fraser River Valley as in the map in Figure 3.  We consider a surface heat islands when the temperature is at least 5 degrees above the average of the CMA, Source: [8] The conclusion of the above mentioned, we find that the disappearance of green areas, vegetation and green belts in Vancouver contributed to the thermal range phenomenon increasing in spite of the cold weather of the city. Vancouver suffers from a thermal range because of the replacement of vegetation by asphalt and concrete. Masdar City: Masdar is an Arab city that harmonizes with its environment. It is considered as an emerging global center for renewable energy and clean technologies, similar to the Arab countries that proceeded. Masdar is a model of sustainable urban development, both regionally and globally, the city is considered as a profitable commercial project, feasible and viable through providing the best environment for life and work with minimal environmental damage. Several sustainable treatments have been used in the city to match global climate change and to find safe enhancement for energy. • Energy Management Masdar City reduces energy consumption by circulating the best world's energy-supplement and commercially efficient technologies by distributing stringent building efficiency guidelines concerning thermal insulation, low-power lighting specifications, windows glazing proportion , Natural lighting utilization , intelligent equipment installation, intelligent meters, building management intelligent systems, integrated distribution management system and power management system extending throughout the city to control electric load over electric power transmission net from generation to consumer. • Transportation services: In response to the priorities of Masdar master diagram -which aims to encourage a walking community -there will be a wide choice of public and personal transport that will ensure easy movement through the city. As a result, walking and using of self-propelled transport will be the ideal means of transport to reach many places in the city. This is considered as a result of the planners' focusing on the creation of many shaded sidewalks and wide corridors throughout the city. • Building materials: The carbon amounts caused by construction works are significantly reduced through Eco-friendly supply chain. Masdar City contributes to reducing the overall economic impact of the materials used in the city through a detailed assessment process of materials and products that considering environmental, economic (including costs and quality) and social aspects. In addition to the above, the city uses more sustainable materials and better solidity than conventional materials. This includes the use of slag concrete (industrial waste) to replace cement, significantly reducing the level of carbon emissions caused by traditional concrete, as well as providing better performance and greater strength. In addition, recycled and developed aluminum was tested in cooperation with Masdar City, the result is achieving high standards of performance that exceeded international standards. • Examples of materials used in Masdar City Buildings: • 100% of timber comes from sustainable forests.
• 90 % of recycled aluminum used in interior facades.
• Slag-based concrete reduces the environmental impact of carbon by 30-40%.
• Using watercolor free of volatile organic compounds may harm human health.
• Reinforcement bars are made of 100% recycled steel.
• Masdar City represented one of the cities that tried to control the phenomenon of thermal range and reduce its impact through a series of sustainable treatments, the most important of which is energy management, sustainable transport services, in addition to the use of sustainable building materials that contribute to reducing and limit this phenomenon.

Formation of the theoretical framework (sustainable design treatments for thermal range phenomenon):-
First: treatments on urban fabric level: 1-Using the idea of integrated urban fabric, it protects buildings from wind loaded with dust and sand and reduce the amount of direct radiation falling on the outer walls. 2-Protect the footpaths from external climatic conditions by narrowing them, taking into account the covering or shading parts of these footpaths by using buildings or other complementary elements such as trees or wooden umbrellas, which permeated with climbers. 3-The use of trees, plants, water spaces, green areas within streets, squares and pedestrian paths, taking into account using defoliate plants in winter to benefit from the sun. 4-Heading towards the Interior-oriented horizontally, where the building heights ranging between (1-3) floors. 5-planting thick green belts towards winds which loaded with heat and dust to cool and purify the air before entering the buildings. Interior-oriented horizontal architecture through using internal pavements and minimizing the external openings as a protection against the sunlight and hot sandy wind. 2. Ventilation should take into consideration when designing the external openings of the building; a slot should be above the main opening to exile the hot air. 3. Construction of the exterior walls of the buildings to be thick with high thermal capacity materials in addition to the using of cavity walls. 4. The use of natural cooling devices such as courtyards and air towers and the air catchers to bring air and achieve natural ventilation within the spaces of buildings. 5. Using the rough finishing and light colors, especially white because it has the ability to reflect the heat. 6. Internal courtyards and external buildings spaces should be coordinated by planting trees and placing water elements in soothing air temperature. 7. An extent, cornices, fractures in the facades of the building and the uneven surfaces of the building are the main factors to provide a lot of shade. Third: Other Design Treatments The green roof treatment: When using this treatment, these results would be observed: -The Green roofs of buildings have the ability to improve the thermal performance of the roofing system through insulation so as to be considered an insulating layer.
-Shading is reducing surface temperature. The plants shade that ceiling preventing sunlight from reaching directly to the surface.
-The evaporation process cools the air, as plants absorb water through their roots and release water from liquid to vapor. 2-Using of certain technologies for clean or alternative energy: -Magnetically levitating train for transport purposes -Artificial trees -Hydro power plants -Solar and wind power plants 3-Green parks within the area or city: in order to reduce the thermal range phenomenon pollution. The use of trees, plants, water spaces, green areas within streets, squares and pedestrian paths. Heading towards the Interior-oriented horizontally, where the building heights ranging between (1-3) floors. Planting thick green belts towards winds which loaded with heat and dust to cool and purify the air before entering the buildings. Interior-oriented horizontal architecture through using internal pavements and minimizing the external openings.
Sustainable Design Treatments on the building design level (Architectural design) 2 Ventilation should take into consideration when designing the external openings of the building; a slot should be above the main opening to exile the hot air. Constructing the exterior walls of the buildings to be thick with high thermal capacity materials in addition to the using of cavity walls. The use of natural cooling devices such as courtyards and air towers and the air catchers to bring air and achieve natural ventilation within the spaces of buildings. The use of the rough finishing and light colors, especially white because it has the ability to reflect the heat.
Internal courtyards and external buildings spaces should be coordinated by planting trees and placing water elements in soothing air temperature.

Application
The section's goal is to apply the theoretical framework to selected local samples in order to determine the extent to which the local sample has achieved these design treatments that reduce the thermal range phenomenon in our urban areas and cities, from the urban fabric integration to the design of the building.

Applicable study cases: Al-Kadhimiya District in Baghdad:
The Kadhimiya is one of the most important Islamic cities in Iraq, its importance emerges from the presence of the two imams of Musa al-Kadhim and Muhammad al-Jawed (peace be upon them) [9].
The ancient Kadhimiya area, adjacent to the Kadhimiya Mosque with its radio concentric design bazaars and twisting alleys, is a clear embodiment of the organic model with its integrated fabric with high climatic and environmental treatments. Figure 10 illustrates the pattern of alleys, on which the compact traditional houses are held.

Al-Sadr district in Baghdad:
Al-Sadr district is located in Iraq, Rusafa, to the east of the province of Baghdad. It was established in the 1960s to settle population of southern Iraq in Baghdad, which was planned on the basis of the fourblock system, Quadratic planning, where the division of the blocks locks the residential blocks between them, which are divided into residential houses. When enlarging any part of the Satellite imagery of the area, we observe that it reflects one repeated pattern, which represents one of the most important values prevailing in the modern style. Although there is more than one design within this pattern, but it is not enough to achieve the desired aesthetic diversity, resulting in monotony, especially when repeating the same model on the opposite sides of a street, Figure 11 illustrates the pattern of orthogonal streets that determine the divisions and forms of residential plots.
Description and analysis of local study cases according To a design concept: -The selected sample (Kadhimiya) shown that the most residential buildings are distinguished in one building form which is the fenced compound dwellings; it is characterized by the inner courtyard. In this type of building, the boundaries of the residential building are within the boundaries of the land which leaves no further space outside. The only respite of the residential unit is the interior courtyard whereas it is considered the main center of the family activities. (Figure10). The case is in the second selected sample (Sadr City) is different, where there are three types of residential units which are the separate, semi-detached and semi-contiguous type. The existence of the building block within the boundaries of the plot may leave the outside spaces that used as walkways, outdoor gardens or car garage, whereas the interior courtyard of the traditional house was the only open space within the residential unit. Theses leftover spaces have a negative climatic effect, the disintegration of the urban fabric and the increasing of the solar acquisition during the hot season is a result of their ad adjacency.  10 -Through the satellite imagery (Kadhimiya) city planning has been adopted both types the linear and radio concentric type for climatic necessities represented in gradual gradient spaces resulting a difference in passing air pressure which leads the continuous air movement within the fabric in addition to the social necessities as privacy and gradation from the public to private. While the second sample (Sadr City) was adopted gridiron design, resulting in a monotonous urban fabric unsuitable for climatic conditions. Description and analysis of study cases, according to the physical condition: Considering the design method applied to the urban planning level in each of the two study cases, this section will review the design method as follows:--Relating the first case, we note that the housing units with cubic shapes and solid from outside, which achieves the lowest thermal acquisition of solar radiation during hot times. With building adjacent, they form a high building density and a huge size relative to the surface area, reducing the exposition of the surface area to the solar radiation. Because of the residential units adjacent, there is little importance of the orientation. The closer the buildings, the less important the orientation is. The average number of floors is (2) was due to the majority of traditional residential unit's compliance with a fixed number of floors which is two floors, this is one of the basic features in the traditional residential areas characterization. In the second case, we find a variety of housing units forms. The divergent building blocks of residential units, leads to an increase in the number of interfaces exposed to solar radiation because of the formation of scattered sizes lead to increased thermal acquisition, the average number of floors is (1.5), this percentage was due to the horizontal extension of construction because the large areas of residential plots.
-Concerning the physical condition of the street spaces in the first sample, we note that the organic pattern of narrow and twisting alleys achieved local climate due to the continuous curves in the street space, which achieve a change in orientation, which helps thermal stabilization by stagnation of cold air down the street. These bends help to form shaded and sunny areas at the same time, which creates a continuous movement of air within the urban fabric, theses air movements are free of dust particles and grains of sand, which settle down the alley due to continuous bending.
-Relating the dimensions of the vertical section of the residential street, represented in the index as (L / W) was between (1: 3-4), which considered as a great climatic fit to the harsh weather conditions in Baghdad, especially during the summer, this ratio increased the shaded area of the alley. The length and width of the street is a response to the harsh climatic environment where the alleys used as channels for the movement of air control and distribution. Relating the second sample, we find that the gridiron pattern of the straight streets makes them passages full with dusty and uncontrolled movement of the air. The (L / W) index is higher than that in the first sample to (1: 5.5-6,) resulting in a huge, sunny open space. This is due to the garden and frontal setbacks imposed by the new planning legislation. It is designed primarily to accommodate vehicle movement, ignoring the climatic appropriateness to be provided to a residential area within Baghdad's dry hot climate. We find that the length of the streets in the second sample reaching (460 m -1010 m) while the width of the street is (12 m) as average. The increasing length and width of the streets are in response to the requirements of gridiron planning, ignoring the hot and dry climate of Baghdad. 4.2 Final Results and Discussion: -Baghdad city considered a hot, dry area as it is characterized with its high rates of solar radiation, especially in summer; we suggest the adoption of connected or semi-detached housing unit's pattern, for the purpose of increasing the adjacency of residential units and reduce the solar radiation exposition.
-within climatic necessities, It is preferred to adopt both types the linear and radio concentric type planning of a residential neighbourhood in the city of Baghdad, characterized with continental climate, in order to create a gradual gradient creates a continuous air movement within the urban fabric as a whole due to differences in air pressure resulting from the change in the size of the road.
-As the climate of the study area is hot (dry), therefore we need to smooth the atmosphere, especially during the summer through various means, including the use of fountains and dense vegetation areas  11 on both sides of the road space in urban squares, which leads to reducing the air temperature and create a relatively mild climate compared to the general climate due to the ability of these trees to absorb heat and moisturize the atmosphere by vapor water in addition to shading. -Concerning the road space forestation, the selection of trees planted on the sides should be of seasonal tree type. This kind of trees give good climatic characteristics as they grow a dense of leaves in summer to give the shadows but shed these leaves in winter, allowing the sun to transmit into the urban space. To achieve this goal, a correct spot and appropriate tree type should be chosen. In a hot, dry climate of Baghdad, it is preferable to use round shape trees and be cultivated in groups to get the appropriate shadows.
-The selection of the structural form of buildings should be based primarily on the climatic appropriateness of the dry, hot climate conditions and then other functional and aesthetic requirements are considered. Therefore, the selection of the truncated structural forms nearby rectangular in their shape would be more effective in the continental climate of Baghdad city.
-The effectiveness of the climate performance of the building does not work in isolation from the surrounding urban space, therefore the distance between the opposite buildings must take into account, to ensure both functional and climatic appropriation at the same time It is mentioned here that the purpose of determining the ratio of the height of the building to the width of the opposite street space is (Reducing the transmission of solar radiation into the urban space -control the wind penetration to the street, especially during hot times).
-Relating the finishing materials, it is preferable to reduce the use of asphalt tiles in the urban spaces tiling, especially the urban squares, because of its significant effect on reducing the climatic effects of the urban fabric as a whole by increasing the reflected solar radiation.
-The paving should be reduced in the streets dedicated to the vehicles. Other materials with a lower reflectivity, such as stone or bricks should be used in finishing the paths and passages dedicated pedestrians.
-The organic street style is recommended with curved forms to control the air movement as well as increasing the shade, in relation to the angle of sunlight transmitting and the surrounding building height.

Conclusions
-The selective applied samples were varied in their patterns (organic and gridiron pattern). The organic pattern was ideal in its response to the climatic influences. Therefore, the thermal range phenomenon was less effective, especially in the early stages of the urban fabric design. However, when the requirements of modern life changed with its transportation, this urban fabric design has been disintegrated, especially after the constructing of wide streets. The phenomenon of thermal scale began to increase. -Gridiron pattern and new designs (foreign designs) are not climate-friendly (It shows the increasing in concentration and intensity of the thermal range phenomenon) especially in the hot, dry climate of Baghdad.
-Within a dusty, hot and dry climate such as in Baghdad, a curved and winding street is preferable, in order to control the hot, dusty air movement in addition to the formation of a fine micro-climate environment that reduce the concentration of the thermal range phenomenon.
-Concerning forestation as a factor in reducing the thermal range phenomenon, it is preferably using seasonal trees within the urban fabric because of the great effect in covering the sun during the hot season (summer) and allows the solar access to the urban fabric during the cold season (winter).
-Concerning street orientation, thermal range phenomenon and Baghdad climate, it is preferable to direct the streets towards the north-northeast and south-south-west direction to increase the climatic efficiency of the area in addition to achieving the largest solar acquisition during the winter and less solar exposition during the summer, the result is to reduce the concentration of thermal range phenomenon.
-Relating the orientation of the facades and walls of buildings, thermal range phenomenon, Baghdad climate (the eastern and western fronts receive higher thermal energy than the North and South), It is preferable to orient the long facades of buildings in (north and south) direction. As for eastern and western façades and walls of the buildings, it is better to adjacent buildings to obtain natural shading which reduces the thermal acquisition and thus reduce the concentration of thermal range phenomenon.
-Relating the building and finishing materials within thermal rang phenomenon, it is preferable to use sustainable building materials that contribute to reduce and limit this phenomenon. Concrete surfaces and asphalt pavement materials increase the temperature of ambient air. Therefore, asphalt pavement should be restricted only in vehicular traffic areas not in open spaces, urban squares and pedestrian areas. It should be replaced with other materials such as stone for the purpose of soothing the local climate of the urban fabric. Also, it is preferable using light colors in finishes to increase their ability of reflection to minimize buildings absorption of solar radiation, as coating surfaces in white help to reduce the phenomenon of thermal range.

Recommendations
It is difficult to eliminate this phenomenon because it is linked to several factors that are difficult to eliminate but its implications can be reduced by following sustainable design treatments that lead to control and limit its effect within areas as follows: -The use of light colors for the surfaces and walls of buildings to increase their ability of reflection to minimize buildings absorption of solar radiation, as coating surfaces in white help to reduce the phenomenon of thermal range -Reduce the exposure of asphalt surfaces in car parks and roads to solar radiation through forestation. Increasing forestation within cities to soothe hot weather through evaporation process.
-Elimination of inactive air points in the cities by directing them to the prevailing winds to diffuse and fading the accumulated heat. -Planting the largest number of trees through an environmental strategy targeted at considerable residential communities. -Vegetation of plants over building roofs that can store a considerable amount of heat. This solution will not be effective unless it is on a large scale and must be through careful study of all environment variables, only one building shown contains a plant surface among a huge number of buildings, which means that this building unnoticeable influence .officials must interfere to legislate laws that oblige the owners of buildings, especially the huge ones to vegetate the roof surfaces.


Efficiency of Human Resource Management in Industrial Automation Enterprises with Prospects of Innovative Susceptibility

In modern conditions of innovative development, the most important resource of production companies and corporations is the innovative susceptibility (IS) of personnel. The key to this is an innovative organization of the personnel management system (HRMS). Accordingly, the task of the study is to analyze the typical HRMS structures of Ukrainian enterprises in comparison with the global ones in order to form an innovative HRMS development strategy and, on this basis, to increase IS of stuff. The goal of this study is to compare the levels of HRMS development in advanced global companies and Ukrainian enterprises in the field of industrial automation. As part of this study, methodological, statistical analysis method of technical and economic characteristics of Ukrainian and world leaders of enterprises in the field of industrial automation are used. As well as, comparative analysis method to characterize the organizational management structures of enterprises; method of expert and analytical assessments of HRMS, including analytical trend analysis to characterize the dynamics of the influence of the HRMS subsystems of industrial automation enterprises on the level of innovative susceptibility of personnel. The result of the study is to obtain an assessment of the impact of HRMS subsystems of industrial automation enterprises on the level of innovation susceptibility of personnel, as well as the formation of the potential field of innovation susceptibility of personnel based on measures to increase the innovation of organizational management systems of an enterprise. Keywords—Human Resource Management System, HRMS, innovative susceptibility, industrial automation enterprises, comparative structure analysis, homogenizing values diagram

INTRODUCTION
It is commonly known that the personnel is the most important resource of innovative development of each company under current conditions. A well-organized Human Resource Management System (HRMS) is considered a key success factor. The aim of this research is the comparison of HRMS development levels in the world's leading companies and Ukrainian enterprises of industrial automation. Consequently, the task of the research is a comparative analysis of typical HRMS structures of both domestic and foreign enterprises with the aim of forming a strategy of HRMS development and the increase of innovative susceptibility (IS) of personnel.
The area of human resource management is one of the basic elements of an effectively managed company. In the era of the knowledge-based economy, its importance becomes strategic as the effectiveness of activity within this scope largely determines the achievement of the company's competitive advantage. Knowledge-based resources can be particularly important to ensure this advantage [1], but they may also play a significant role in the process of creating innovativeness [2], as well as to contribute to the improvement of the organizational performance [3]. It happens so because the area referred to above pertains to the management of an organization's most valuable capital, i.e. the human capital and the knowledge it possesses. However, innovativeness is also needed, and perhaps primarily, as regards the management of these valuable resources. Owing to such an approach, improved effects can be expected [4].
Human resource management professionals view organizational change and their roles in it matters because those perceptions serve as a foundation for how they define their roles and as a boundary for what they see as possible. Despite the importance of understanding these perspectives, few studies have explored human resources professionals' views of organizational change and their roles in it. Data from 547 human resources professionals across a wide range of industries and organizational levels reveal the perception of top-leader involvement in 80 percent of successful changes and numerous roles being held by human resources professionals including -change agent‖ and -consultant.‖ Additionally, the data revealed that most human resource management professionals tended to view successful organizational change as primarily occurring in a top-down, hierarchical manner. A minority-yet potentially consequential-portion of the respondents viewed their role in organizational change as limited or not very important [5].
In the last century and a half, U.S. industry has seen the emergence of several different management models. Theory of this evolution based on three nested and interacting processes. First, identify several successive waves of technological revolution, each of which prompted a corresponding wave of change in the dominant organizational paradigm. Second, nested within these waves, each of these organizational paradigms emerged through two successive cycles-a primary cycle that generated a new management model making the prior organizational paradigm obsolete, and a secondary cycle that generated another model that mitigated the dysfunctions of the primary cycle's model. Third, nested within each cycle is a problemsolving process in which each model's development passed through four main phases: identification of a widespread organizational and management problem, creation of innovative managerial concepts that offer various solutions to this problem, emergence and theorization of a new model from among these concepts, and dissemination and diffusion of this model. By linking new models' emergence to specific technological revolutions, we can explain changes in their contents. By integrating a dialectical account of the paired cycles with an account of the waves of paradigm change, we can see how apparently competing models are better understood as complementary pairs in a common paradigm. In addition, by unpacking each model's phases of development, we can identify the roles played by various actors and management concepts in driving change in the models' contents and see the agency behind these structural changes [6]. Study provides new insights into the outcomes of employee voice opportunities as well as the microfoundations of organizational innovative performance [7]. Extending the traditional strategic HRM perspectives by incorporating the micro-and meso-level relational factors that are critical to knowledge development and sharing, joint production efforts, and collective improvement initiatives. In so doing, it addresses the observed lack of multi-level theorizing regarding the links between high performance work practices and the intra-organizational processes and behaviors that lead to the superior organizational outcomes associated with those practices [8]. During the analysis of the role of IS of personnel in the rise of enterprises activity efficiency the conclusion about the growth of the leading firms (of Western Europe, USA and Japan) guidance realization of the role of HRMS management ensuring was drawn. It being understood that it is necessary to strengthen the role of corporate preparation of certain specialists with the aid of the balanced combination of components of management and personnel ensuring subsystems.
Dynamic terms of market development and consequently the tasks on the increase of personnel competitive advantages set the growth of requirements and terms of competitions for substituting of vacant positions as well as the obligatory standards of management ensuring of professional trainings, intellectual resources engagement, their corporate cooperation and social welfare [9,10,11].
As part of the study of the publications dedicated to the HRMS level of domestic enterprises it was found that the current level of development of HRMS is quite low. Normally the working conditions, accounting, training, legal support and motivation of personnel are partly provided, while we can feel the great deficit of subdivisions and specialists of intellectual resources engagement, formation of corporate management style, social labour ensuring and vital functions of personnel [12].
In view of this, the aims and tasks of the following research were formulated.

II. THE SHORT DESCRIPTION OF INDUSTRIAL AUTOMATION
The short description of industrial automation market sub-industry in Ukraine and CIS: an economic crisis brought in some new accents on the market of domestic products. Industrial programmable electronic controllers are produced in Ukraine and in the Russian Federation. While the market vacuum was filled by the imported products of better quality [9]. In Ukraine there is a variety of enterprises specialized on industrial automation: LTD "OVEN", PC "Elektrothermomethriya", PJSC "Manometer", JSC "Terra", LTD. "AS Privod", LTD "Microl", PJSC "Plant "Transformer", NSPF "Regmic", LTD -DS Electronics‖, PC "Skloprilad ".
Summarized data on the Ukrainian industrial automation enterprises are presented in a Table 1.  In the course of the analysis of the personnel innovative susceptibility role in improving business, performance we can make a conclusion that the management of the leading companies in Western Europe, Japan and the USA has long been aware of the necessity to provide HRMS. All enterprises face two problems. One of them is the rise of innovative susceptibility of personnel and the second one is enhancing of competitive advantages of these enterprises. That is why it is necessary to consider the structure of organizational administrative subdivisions. Moreover, it is important to consider the corresponding HRMS of the Ukrainian enterprises in order to provide the IS growth. Data on subdivisions that are responsible for the increase of innovative susceptibility of personnel are presented in a Table 3.   TABLE III.  SUMMARY TABLE ON [13].

Advances in Economics, Business and Management Research, volume 95
Performing data analysis from the Table 3, it may be concluded that in different companies there are different structural subdivisions that occupy HRMS. In the company Оven, there are subdivisions that are responsible for development and training of personnel. There are also some similar subdivisions in such companies as Manometer and Megamega. At the factory, "Transformer" there is a remote training service (RTS) and at Skloprilad there is a department of training and development of personnel (DT&DP). However in most cases the main duties on a management and development of personnel belong to the HR service. An expert analytical study of the enterprises was conducted and it can be presented in the following way.
For example in relation to the analytical study of the state of HRMS of enterprise Oven the corresponding HRMS subsystems were analyzed. An analysis was conducted based on the questionnaire for the interrogation of the leading specialists of enterprise (chiefs of production (2 persons), leaders of productive sectors (6 persons), chiefs of departments (7 persons), leaders of commercially-sale cells (8 persons), HR departments and service of personnel (4 persons), leaders of groups (4 persons). A sample consists of 31 people. Moreover, the analytical data were taken from the enterprise representatives of the industrial automation subindustry during the meetings, general seminars, conferences, exhibitions, associations, based on opinion exchange, and from the open sources based on the empiric estimations.
As a result of analysis it is possible to make the following conclusions: almost all of the domestic companies have an unsystematized character of functions influence on innovative susceptibility of personnel that is estimated in 37-40% from the potential of sub-industry enterprises HRMS. Only in the company Oven the potential is about 47% that indicates that it is necessary to adopt experience of leading world companies [14]. To our opinion, during the analysis and systematization of the presented data of HRMS subsystems on IS of personnel. It is necessary to take into account the following features of the nature of functions impact: Episodically: a function is implemented in unsystematized way, depending on a certain situation and subjective initiative of personnel this character of influence insignificantly influences on the subsystems realization and accordingly on IS of personnel. Fragmentary system: a function is partially implemented depending on the level of qualification of specialists on a personnel and subjective opinions of guidance; this character of influence has a slight impact on realization of subsystems and accordingly on IS of personnel. No system: a function is implemented unsystematically, depending on the availability of regulatory and guidance documentation and HR specialists with the corresponding level of their qualification, this character of realization has the positive impact on IS of personnel. The whole system: a function is implemented by HR specialists in a sufficient measure, in accordance with the current regulatory and guidance documentation of enterprise this level of realization has a significant influence on IS of personnel. System: a function is implemented constantly and

Advances in Economics, Business and Management Research, volume 95
sequentially, there is the system of highly skilled specialists on a personnel intercommunication, who creatively use the provided norm-methodical potential and progressive (foreign) experience for HRMS. This character of realization fully influences on IS of personnel.
As we see from a summary Table 4, HRMS developed in general from 37 to 47%, here prevails without system or fragmentary character of influence of functions on IS of personnel, that talks about that is prospect for development HRMS.
It is demonstrated in a Figure 1.   (Table 5).

Multinationals
Ukrainian Inc. -personnel administration department, -personnel management department, -capability department, -social development, -service of corporate administration, -department of corporate development, -executive office, -corporate strategy, -strategy and development of company, -HR recruiting, -supporting center of basically knowledge, training, -experienced resources and legal questions, -financial and social systems of motivation, -health protection, -stimulation of business development, -providing quality and environment protection, -specialist on engaging of intellectual resources.
-personnel department, -personnel service, -training center, -technical training department, -remote training service, -service of labor and environment protection, -legal department, -labor and wages department.
The potential field of development of management ensuring HR (Human resources)
The sample of the world leaders in industrial automation production includes the following companies: Danfoss A/S, Schneider Electric, Siemens AG, Asea Brown Boveri Ltd, Moxa Inc., Allen -Bradley, Delta Electronics Inc., Yokogawa Electric Corporation, OMRON Corporation. Information on the generalized structure of HRMS subdivisions is formed on the ground of the specialized sources characterizing the role and engagement of these Advances in Economics, Business and Management Research, volume 95 companies in the development of world industrial automation market [15]. Apart from this a close organizational and technological collaboration with a company Danfoss was arranged, that is the ОЕМ-partner of an enterprise Oven. As part of this collaboration, an exchange of key specialists and experience is executed. On the results of this cooperation, the seminars and webinars are conducted [16]. In a Table 5 you can see the consolidated data on subdivisions structure of HRMS's departments in both Ukrainian companies of industrial automation and the multinationals. According to the table, Ukrainian enterprises provide the labour conditions, accounting, staff training, legal support and motivation of personnel. At the same time, an analysis of the leading world companies' HRMS departments reveals some differences: 1. It is paid more attention to the personnel development as there are more departments of professional social and intellectual profile.
2. There are some subdivisions dealing with the marketing, attracting and ensuring the personnel corporate development. It means that the administration of company realizes the importance of an appropriate structurizing and integration of personnel in accordance with the changing tasks of subdivisions and the whole company.
3. The level of social labor standards on the Ukrainian enterprises is low. According to the world experience, providing the decrease in influence of negative factors of labor conditions at the workplace, regular maintenance of psychoemotional and physical state, different social packages etc. helps to increase the level of intellectual resources of personnel.

IV. CONCLUSIONS
Ukrainian enterprises experience the lack of innovation oriented skilled personnel called to provide the growth in efficiency of development of the enterprises. During the development of regulatory and guidance documentation of enterprise the experience of leading companies is not used enough. It should be taken into account and modified according with the Ukrainian particularities. Based on the presented material we can make the conclusion about the necessity of development of HRMS with the purpose of coming under the world leading companies standards. It is required to focus on the development of corporate management methods and functioning of personnel corresponding quickly changing market conditions and experience of social security. The goal was set: to analyze the system of factors of HRMS, from that. Vision of influence on the increase in the level of IS of personnel. For this purpose, the system of factors of HRMS that influence the increase in the staff's IS has been improved and presented, it is possible to provide the organizational and managerial component of the work of the staff based on the development of measures that ensure the corresponding organizational and managerial conditions for this increase. From this, it was concluded: a systematic set of factors of HRMS, which affects the increase in personnel, IS, relative to the area of the PA, which allows providing organizational and managerial component of the work of staff based on the development of measures that ensure the appropriate organizational and managerial conditions for this increase.


A longitudinal analysis for informativeness of earnings announcements in Borsa Istanbul

Purpose – The purpose of this paper is to assess the information value of earnings announcements for the 2007 – 2017 period in Borsa Istanbul. Design/methodology/approach – Abnormal volatility (AVOL) and abnormal absolute return (AAR) in the three-day window around the earnings announcement are used as proxies for information content. A pooled regression of AVOL and AAR is conducted to test for the existence of information content and analyze its time trend along with its determinants. Findings – The authors find significantly positive AVOL and AAR which shows that earnings have information content for investors during the sample period. Furthermore, both proxies demonstrate a positive time trend after controlling for various firm characteristics and surprise measures. The authors take this as evidence that overall informativeness of earnings has increased over time. The authors observe that this increase is most prevalent for growth companies and earnings announcements with high absolute surprise. This study provides partial support for the hypothesis that value of earnings announcements has increased after an improvement in information dissemination technology with the inception of the online disclosure platform, KAP. Practical implications – Understanding information value of earnings announcements is of interest for companies which prepare earnings reports, regulators who set standards on their content and frequency and investors which make investment decisions based on information released at these announcements. Originality/value – There had been few non-US studies related to information value of earnings announcements. The overwhelming majority of these are conducted using limited data sets from the latter part of the last century and only analyze annual earnings announcements. The authors aim to shed light on the subject using a broad and recent sample of quarterly earnings announcements from a major emerging market, Turkey.

Introduction
Earnings announcements are the main scheduled and periodic corporate announcement for listed firms in a stock market as they provide a wealth of financial and operational information with regard to the latest fiscal period. As such, an analysis of whether these announcements are valuable in terms of their content is of interest for companies, investors as well as regulatory bodies. Beaver (1968) was the first to empirically examine the information content of earnings announcements. From a valuation point of view, an earnings announcement could be considered to have information if it leads to change in market participants' expectation for future returns. Accordingly, Beaver (1968) used abnormal volatility and abnormal volume at the time of announcement as gauges for information value as the former reflects the resulting change in expectations of the market as a whole while the former reflects changes in the expectation of individual investors. Landsman and Maydew (2002) used similar proxies to those in Beaver (1968) for information content and concluded that there is an increase in the informativeness of quarterly earnings reports in the USA for the 1972-1998 period.
The non-US evidence on information content had been scarce and mostly conducted with limited data sets using only annual earnings announcements. Also, the samples used are not recent and accordingly do not reflect the changes in market structure in the last two decades such as the emergence of algorithmic trading. In this study, we empirically look at whether quarterly earnings announcements have information content and how the informativeness of these announcements has changed over the 2007-2017 using a broad sample comprised of over 12,000 observations coming from 396 companies listed at Borsa Istanbul, the sole stock exchange in Turkey. As proxies for information content, we use abnormal volume (AVOL) and abnormal absolute return (AAR) around earnings announcements defined similar to Dellavigna and Pollet (2009) and Asthana and Balsam (2001), respectively. We find significant information content at earnings announcements for our sample period with average AVOL and average AAR both greater than 0. Comparing annual earnings announcements with interim earnings announcements, we observe a higher AVOL, but lower AAR at annual announcements. Therefore, our findings do not suggest that annual earnings announcements are more informative than the interim earnings announcements. In line with Landsman and Maydew (2002), we find a positive time trend in both AVOL and AVAR even after controlling for firm characteristics such as size, book-to-market and beta as well as the magnitude and direction of surprise. This implies that the informativeness of earnings has increased at Borsa Istanbul and this is not solely attributable to change in firm composition over time. Our regression analysis also shows that this time trend is more pronounced for growth companies and earnings announcements with a greater magnitude of surprise.
Looking at several drivers of the observed increasing trend in the information content of earnings announcements, Francis et al. (2002) singled out over-time expansion in concurrent information such as issuance of operational guidance as the main driver among them. Although we think this could be a plausible explanation for the positive trend in earnings informativeness in Borsa Istanbul, a full-blown analysis similar to Francis et al. (2002) is beyond the scope of this paper. However, we examined whether the introduction of the public disclosure platform (KAP) has made earnings announcements more valuable for investors as evidenced by a stronger market reaction. The KAP is an online platform similar to EDGAR in the USA at which companies are required to disclose all material corporate announcements first before other communication channels. KAP which was introduced in June 2009 replaced a paper-based heavily manual process at which companies send relevant information to the Borsa Istanbul through fax (see Mugaloglu and Erdag, 2011 for more detail). Hence, it could be argued that KAP helped democratize the information environment by allowing market participants to access material corporate information with no delay and with no cost. To reduce the effect of potentially confounding events, we analyze the impact of KAP on a sub-sample which consists of observations with earnings announcements made between one year before the KAP introduction and one year after the KAP introduction. We find that the AAR is higher in the post-KAP period ( June 2009-May 2010) compared to pre-KAP period ( June 2008-May 2009), but there is no similar significantly positive change for AVOL. Accordingly, our results are not conclusive on whether a significant change in the information dissemination technology had an impact on the informativeness of earnings announcements.

Literature review
Using a US sample of 506 annual earnings announcements for the 1961-1965period, Beaver (1968 established that earnings announcements have information content as evidenced by significant abnormal volume and abnormal volatility around earning announcement dates.

JCMS 3,2
Following this seminal work, several studies with more extensive data sets and different methodologies such as Morse (1981), Kiger (1972), Bamber (1986) and Ziebart (1990) reached similar conclusions on the information content of earnings. A related research question is how the informativeness of earnings announcements has evolved over time. Using a broad sample of 92,613 firm-quarter observations for the 1972-1998 period, Landsman and Maydew (2002) found that the magnitude of abnormal volume and volatility increased over time which they took as evidence of increased informativeness of earnings announcements. Francis et al. (2002) look at three different explanations for Landsman and Maydew's (2002) finding of increased information content of earnings. These are increase in the absolute amount of unexpected earnings conveyed in the announcements, increase in the intensity of investors' average reaction to unexpected earnings and increase in the amount of information released at earnings announcements. Their findings do no support the first two explanations and they conclude that the observed increase in information content is driven by the over-time expansion in the amount of concurrent information disclosed in firms' earnings announcements. In particular, they find that the length of earnings announcement press release grew from an average of 517 words in 1980 to 2,427 words in 1999 while disclosure of detailed income statement grew monotonically from 8.5 to 77.8 percent. Collins et al. (2009) confirm that expansion in the amount of concurrent information disclosed by firms is a driver of increase in information content. However, they also find that the market's increased reliance on non-GAAP Street earnings which are typically disseminated concurrently with firms' earnings announcements by analyst estimate clearinghouses such as IBES is also a factor in explaining informativeness.
The international evidence on the information value of earnings is scarce compared to the evidence for the USA. Earlier work which utilized relatively limited data sets such as Odabasi (1998) for Turkey, Rippington and Taffler (1995) for the UK, Pellicer and Rees (1999) for Spain, Gajewski and Quéré (2001) for France and Sponholtz (2008) for Denmark is supportive of the hypothesis that earnings announcements have information content, but their sample sizes do not allow for an extensive cross-sectional or temporal analysis of information content. A more recent and comprehensive study is DeFond et al. (2007) which analyzes over 50,000 annual earnings announcements in 26 countries for the period 1995 through 2002. They measure the information content of earnings announcements as the two-day abnormal return variance around earnings announcement and show that the information content is higher for countries with higher quality earnings, stronger enforcement of insider trading laws, more frequent interim financial reporting and greater financial disclosure. Truong (2012) analyzes the information content of earnings announcement in New Zealand for the period 1994-2009 using a sample of more than 2,500 semi-annual earnings announcements. He finds that the information content of earnings announcements as measured by abnormal volume and abnormal volatility has increased significantly over time for both interim and preliminary earnings announcements. Truong (2012) also tests the relation between the adoption of International Financial Reporting Standards (IFRS) and the information content of earnings announcements and shows that the information content of earnings announcements increases considerably in the post-IFRS adoption period in New Zealand. Truong (2012) argued that this is consistent with the view that the IFRS adoption improved the quality of accounting information and partly explains the rising trend in the information content of earnings announcements.

Variables and sample selection 3.1 Defining measures for information content of earnings announcements
We use abnormal volume (AVOL) and abnormal absolute return (AAR) as measures to proxy information content of earnings announcements. We define AVOL for firm i in quarter q similar to Dellavigna and Pollet (2009) as the difference between the average log trading volume during the announcement window [t−1, t + 1] and the average log trading volume during the non-announcement period [t−60, t−11] (see (1a)). On the other hand, we define AAR similar to Asthana and Balsam (2001) as the difference between the average absolute value of daily return during the announcement window [t−1, t + 1] and the average absolute value of daily return during the non-announcement period of [t−60, t−11] normalized by the standard deviation of absolute return during the non-announcement period (see (1b)). When constructing both abnormal volume and abnormal volatility, [t−10, t−2] window is intentionally excluded from the non-announcement period to avoid the impact of any market activity in anticipation of the upcoming earnings report: 3.2 Explanatory variables Time trend. In order to examine how AVOL and AAR at earnings announcements change over time, we define a time trend variable, TIME which is incremented by 1 for each month in the sample period, taking values ranging from 1 to 133. Annual earnings indicator. The amount of information content of interim earnings announcements could differ from the level of information at annual/fourth quarter earnings announcements as extensively discussed at Basu et al. (2002). In order to account for this difference, we introduce a binary variable ANDUM which takes a value of 1 if the announcement is a fourth quarter/annual earnings announcement and 0 if the announcement is an interim earnings announcement.
Absolute value and direction of surprise. Consistent with Kim andVerrecchia's (1991) model, Bamber (1987) found that there is a positive correlation between abnormal trading volume at earnings announcements and the absolute magnitude of earnings surprise. Accordingly, we include the absolute value of unexpected earnings as an explanatory variable as in Landsman and Maydew (2002) and Truong (2012). The variable |UE| is constructed for a given security i in quarter q as in Equation (2) by dividing the absolute value of the difference between the reported net profit for the current quarter and its value in q−4 by the value of market cap at the end of quarter q. Several studies document an asymmetry between reaction to negative and positive earnings surprises (see Skinner and Sloan, 2002;Conrad et al., 2002). In order to capture this potential difference, we introduce the dummy variable SURPSIGN which takes the value of 1 if UE for firm i in quarter q is above the median UE for that quarter and 0 otherwise: MarketCap i;q : (2) one-year before KAP introduction and one-year after KAP introduction to reduce the effect of potentially confounding events. Variables for firm characteristics. As noted in Landsman and Maydew (2002), an observed change in our information content proxies could be simply due to change in the composition of sample firms over time. In order to control for these changes, we introduce SIZE measured as the market value of equity in billions of US dollars at the end of quarter q, B/M measured as the ratio of the quarter-end book value to market value of equity and BETA estimated from regressing daily stock returns on BIST-100 index returns for the non-announcement period of [t−30, t−394]. For the regression analysis, we use the logarithm of SIZE instead of SIZE as the distribution of the raw values of this variable is highly skewed. • we require market cap value and book value are available at the end of the quarter t and require them to be greater than $5m and non-negative, respectively; and

Sample selection and summary statistics
• there is at least 12 months of past return and volume data to compute AAR, AVOL and beta. Table I presents descriptive statistics for the full sample used. The average values for the two information content proxies we employ are both significantly greater than 0 with average AVOL at 0.14 and average AAR at 0.28. This points to an extensive market reaction and accordingly significant information content at earnings announcements. However, there is also significant variation in market reaction as AVOL and AAR are −0.40 at the 25th percentile indicating that there is no positive abnormal market reaction to a significant part of the sample. The average observation in our sample has a firm size of $0.78bn, a book-to-market ratio of 1.09 and an absolute unexpected earnings of 5 percent.  Figure 1 graphically illustrates a gradual increase in both AVOL and AAR at earnings announcements over the sample period of 2007-2017. In order to understand the dynamics behind this increase, we employ a regression-based approach similar to Landsman and Maydew (2002) and regress AVOL and AAR against the time trend variable, TIME, the annual earnings dummy, ANDUM and the interaction between this variable and TIME (see specifications at 3 below). The Columns 1 and 2 in Table II report the results of these regressions for which T-statistics are corrected for heteroskedasticity and serial correlation using the Huber-White maximum likelihood estimation procedure. The time trend coefficient for both AVOL and AAR regressions is significantly positive with t-statistics of 9.1 and 6.5, respectively. This provides strong evidence that the information content of earnings as proxied by AVOL and AAR has increased over time in our sample period. On the other hand, the evidence on whether earnings informativeness is higher or lower for annual earnings announcements is mixed. The coefficient on ANDUM at Column 1 is positive and significant at the 1 percent level, while it is significantly negative at Column 2. Hence, AVOL is higher for annual earnings announcements, while AAR is lower. An interesting finding is that the coefficient on TIME×ANDUM at Column 1 is negative and significant at the 1 percent level indicating  that the time trend in abnormal volatility is weaker for annual announcements compared to interim announcements. We obtain qualitatively similar results when we define AVOL and AAR using earnings announcement windows of [−1, 0] and [0, 1] rather than the [−1, 1] window utilized in this study.

Results
The Columns 3 and 4 show the results when we add the variables |UE|, SURPSIGN, ln(SIZE), B/M and BETA and interaction variables of these variables with TIME to the regression. The time trend coefficients for both AVOL and AAR remain significant at 1 percent level suggesting that the increase in the informativeness of earnings announcement is robust to the inclusion to a set of explanatory variables. The observation that the AVOL is higher, but AAR is lower for annual earnings announcements compared to interim earnings announcement also continues to hold true after adding control variables as evidenced by the significantly positive coefficient on ANDUM at Column 3 and significantly negative coefficient on the same variable at Column 4. The negative coefficient on TIME×ANDUM at Column 3 confirms our finding that the time trend in AVOL is weaker for year-end announcements. Finally, for both AVOL and AAR the coefficients on TIME×B/M are significantly negative at the 1 percent level, while the coefficients on TIME×|UE| are significantly positive at the 1 percent level. We interpret these results as growth companies and earnings announcements with bigger absolute surprise having a more pronounced positive trend in the information content of earnings announcements: AVOL ¼ aþb 1 TIME þb 2 ANDUM þb 3 TIME Â ANDUM þϵ; AAR ¼ aþb 1 TIME þb 2 ANDUM þb 3 TIME Â ANDUM þϵ: In order to analyze the impact of the introduction of the KAP on the informativeness of earnings announcements, we run the regressions at 4 below on the KAP sample. The significantly positive coefficients on the POST-KAP variable at Columns 2 and 4 show that the AAR is higher in the post-KAP period compared to pre-KAP period in both the specification without control variables as well as the specification with control variables. However, our results do not point to a similar positive change in AVOL due to KAP being made available as the coefficients on the POST-KAP are not significantly different from 0 at Columns 1 and 3. The adoption of KAP had a significant impact on the AAR around earnings announcements, but did not have a similar impact on the AVOL. Therefore, our findings provide only partial supportive evidence for the hypothesis that the earnings announcements garner higher market reaction with the improvement in the information dissemination technology with KAP (Table III): AAR ¼ aþ b 1 POST À KAPþb 2 ANDUMþb 3 POST À KAP Â ANDUM þϵ: (4b)

Conclusion
In this paper, we study the informativeness of earnings announcements and its time trend in Borsa Istanbul using abnormal volume and abnormal absolute return as measures for information content. We show that earnings announcements are significant information events with both measures being significantly positive around the three-day window surrounding the earnings announcement. Furthermore, we find a positive time trend in informativeness which is most pronounced in growth companies and announcements with high absolute surprise. Analyzing interim earnings announcements in addition to annual earnings announcements allow us to observe how the information content of annual announcements compares to information content in interim announcements. We find higher AVOL, but lower AAR at annual earnings announcements which suggest that annual announcements are not strictly superior to interim announcements in terms of their informational value for investors. Finally, we examine the introduction of the online disclosure platform KAP as an improvement in information dissemination technology. We find an increase in AAR after the introduction of KAP, but no change in AVOL. We think a fruitful venue for further research could be conducting a comprehensive study to see which of the competing explanations such as increase in concurrent information, improvement in access to information or change in investor sophistication best explain the increasing informativeness of earnings announcements. (1)


extfieldsofstudy: Medicine Psychology

text:
Youth Study Recruitment Using Paid Advertising on Instagram, Snapchat, and Facebook: Cross-Sectional Survey Study

Background The use of paid social media advertising for targeted study recruitment is an effective strategy in health research and evaluation, specifically to reach diverse youth participants. Although the literature adequately describes the utility of Facebook in recruitment, limited information exists for social media platforms that are more popular with youth, specifically Instagram and Snapchat. Objective This paper outlines a paid advertising approach using Instagram, Snapchat, and Facebook to evaluate a statewide youth marijuana prevention campaign. The objective of this study was to compare recruitment metrics across Instagram, Snapchat, and Facebook for two surveys documenting youth knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors related to retail marijuana in Colorado post legalization. In addition, the study assessed the feasibility of using Instagram and Snapchat as effective additions to Facebook for youth study recruitment. Methods A social media recruitment strategy was used to conduct two cross-sectional surveys of youth, aged 13 to 20 years, in Colorado. Geographically targeted ads across 3 social media platforms encouraged the completion of a Web-based self-administered survey. Ad Words and Snap Ads were used to deploy and manage advertising campaigns, including ad design, placement, and analysis. Ad costs and recruitment metrics (ie, impressions, link clicks, and conversion rates) were calculated across the three social media platforms. Results Over two 1-month periods, 763,613 youth were reached (ie, impressions), 6089 of them clicked survey links (ie, clicks), and 828 eligible youth completed surveys about knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors related to retail marijuana. Instagram converted 36.13% (803/2222) of impressions to clicks (ie, conversion rate) in the first survey and 0.87% (864/98982) in the second survey. Snapchat generated the most impressions and link clicks, but it did so with the lowest conversion rate for both surveys, with a 1.40% (1600/114,200) conversion rate in the first survey and a 0.36% (1818/504700) conversion rate in the second survey. Facebook maintained a consistent conversion rate of roughly 2% across both surveys, despite reductions in budget for the second survey. The cost-per-click ranged between US $0.25 and $0.37 across the three platforms, with Snapchat as both the most cost-effective platform in the first survey and the most expensive platform in the second survey. Conclusions Recruitment and enrollment outcomes indicate the use of Instagram and Snapchat, in addition to Facebook, may be a modern, useful, and cost-effective approach to reach youth with surveys on sensitive health topics. As the use of Facebook declines among youth, the use of more popular social media platforms can augment study recruitment for health research and evaluation efforts.

Introduction
In the United States, social media is becoming increasingly valuable to recruit youth participants in health research and program evaluation. Evidence supports that social media is an advantageous approach to recruit hard-to-reach populations and individuals with specific disease states [1][2][3][4][5][6]. Some studies find social media recruitment strategies more cost effective, compared with traditional enrollment methods [2]. Many reviews suggest that using these platforms for study recruitment is effective in reaching adolescents and young adults [3,7,8]. These reviews demonstrate that youth are more forthcoming with self-administered surveys, using technology platforms, particularly when it comes to disclosing information on sensitive topics [9].
The universal use of social media among younger populations motivates researchers to utilize Web-based strategies. According to the US Department of Health and Human Services and the PEW Research Center, 71% of teens use more than one social media platform; finding Facebook is no longer the social media platform of choice for young people [6,10]. In 2018, the social media landscape shifted, reporting YouTube (85%), Instagram (72%), and Snapchat (69%) as the most utilized social media platforms by young people [6,11]. As social media preferences evolve, a continued understanding of how to reach youth is critical to eliciting information on health behavior.
Targeted paid advertising on social media platforms is a useful way to increase the reach and diversity of young study participants. Existing literature describes the utility of Facebook in youth recruitment [1,2,10,[12][13][14][15][16], but there is limited understanding about the role of other (more popular) social media platforms, including Instagram and Snapchat. This paper outlines a paid advertising approach using Instagram, Snapchat, and Facebook to reach and enroll 2 cross-sectional samples of youth potentially exposed to a statewide marijuana prevention campaign. The objective of this study was to compare recruitment metrics (ie, impressions, link clicks, conversions, and recruitment cost per survey) across Instagram, Snapchat, and Facebook for surveys documenting youth knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors related to retail marijuana in Colorado. In addition, this study assessed the feasibility of using Instagram and Snapchat, in addition to Facebook, for youth study recruitment.

Overview
From December 9 to December 29, 2017, and from May 4 to June 1, 2018, the evaluation team used a social media recruitment strategy to obtain 2 cross-sectional samples of youth in Colorado. The strategy utilized paid, geographically targeted ads on Instagram, Snapchat, and Facebook to encourage the completion of a self-administered, Web-based survey. Ad images contained virtual links that prompted youth to complete an anonymous survey using Qualtrics software (Qualtrics, Provo, UT), hosted by The University of Colorado [17]. A total of 8 US $50 gift cards (ie, Target, Amazon, Spotify, and VISA) were raffled weekly to incentivize survey completion. The study was classified as program evaluation and was considered exempt from institutional review board approval; all methods adhered to ethical human subjects' research protections.

Eligibility Criteria
Eligibility criteria included youth (1) aged 13 to 20 years, (2) currently living in Colorado, and (3) who completed a Web-based survey.

Ad Design
Ads for Instagram and Facebook were maintained using Ads Manager, a Web-based ad campaign creation and management tool [18]. Snapchat ads were developed and monitored using Snap Ads [19]. Each social media platform required specifications on ad delivery, ad content, design language, targeted audience, and dates of deployment (Table 1). Social media advertisement designs delineated by modality are available in Multimedia Appendix 1.
Instagram and Facebook ads utilized carousel images, headings, caption text, and hyperlinks to promote link clicks to enroll in the Web-based survey. Youth advisors from stakeholder groups provided feedback to the images, headings, and hashtags to ensure relevant and engaging content for the target population. Similarly, using a Snap Ads design template, the ad comprised a headline, animated images, and a call to action (ie, swipe) to promote participation.
Each social media platform reviewed ads before deployment. Ads underwent 3 to 5 days' worth of appeals and iterations to meet each social media platform's policies [18,19]. Snap Ads rejected any ads that included Marijuana or Weed. In addition, Ads Manager required multiple appeals to ensure the ads were not promoting illegal substances. The evaluation team addressed the concerns by describing the intent of the ads and removing sensitive language (ie, "weed" or "marijuana").

Ad Placement
Ads Manager and Snap Ads defined ad placement using ad sets. Ad sets determine the reach of the ads, specifically the location, age group, genders, and budget of the recruitment ad campaign. Ads ran during specified date ranges, targeting youth (aged 13-20 years) in Colorado (Table 1). To narrow the scope of the Facebook campaign, specific counties were targeted using a 30-mile radius for harder-to-reach rural communities.
On Facebook, ads were displayed as News Feed ads (ie, ads embedded in the dynamic news field central column) and right column ads (ie, displayed in the static column on the right side of the screen). Youth accessing Facebook on their desktop computers viewed both ads, whereas mobile users saw News Feed ads only. On Instagram, images were displayed in a linear format, labeled as a sponsored ad within the user's personal Instagram feed. On Snapchat, images were displayed using the Stories feature; links were introduced to end users, when browsing local stories, and the survey was accessed by swiping up.

Social Media Ad Costs
Advertising costs differed among social media platforms on the basis of predetermined budgets and payment methods. The evaluation team allocated lifetime and daily budgets per ad to set maximum dollar amounts spent, also referred to as bids. Purchased through an auction basis, bids charge was based on link clicks (ie, pay per click), impressions, or actions during the advertising window. Advertisers compete for ad placements using a bidding process. Higher bid amounts improve the campaigns' chances of securing more impressions. Snap Ads and Ads Manager monitored these transactions with their respective Web-based dashboards to improve ad delivery efficiency and optimize campaign delivery [20].
Each cross-sectional survey maintained a total budget of US $1000. The evaluation team delineated daily and lifetime budgets throughout the campaign: Snapchat (US $50/day; US $300/lifetime), Instagram (US $13/day; US $350/lifetime), and Facebook (US $13/day; US $350/lifetime). During cross-sectional survey #2, a lack of impressions in Facebook ads allowed the team to reallocate dollars to Snapchat's lifetime budget, a higher impression-generating platform, to maximize response rate. This adjustment increased Snapchat's lifetime budget to US $670 and decreased Facebook's lifetime budget to US $25. Excluding incentive budgets, the cost per completed survey (across all social media platforms) was US $1.62 for initial recruitment periods, and for the subsequent recruitment periods the cost per respondent was US $4.76.

Analysis
The dashboards for Ads Manager and Snap Ads presented recruitment outcomes for analysis. Measures included the following: (1) impressions, which describe the number of which ads were displayed, as indicated by the ad set target population, and this included whether the ad was clicked or not; (2) link clicks, the number of participant clicks to the ads' desired destination (ie, Qualtrics survey); (3) conversion rates, which indicate the proportion of people exposed to the image (ie, impressions) who clicked on it (ie, link clicks); (4) standard response rate formulas, which calculate the screening, refusal, and completion rates for the survey based on eligible participants; (5) recruitment cost-per-survey, which is calculated by dividing ad costs by the total number of completed surveys.
The analytic sample excluded youth who indicated their age was younger than 13 or older than 20, and the sample excluded those who did not provide a valid Colorado zip code. To ensure participant veracity and uniqueness, the team conducted consistency checks (ie, asking age at a point in the survey and month and year of birth at another) and reviewed the internet protocol (IP) address for all participants. When the team found inconsistencies in reported age and duplicate IP addresses, the analysts removed participants from the sample. In addition, the final analytic sample removed all partially completed surveys. The team compiled and cleaned the exported data from Ads Manager, Snap Ads, and Qualtrics. Recruitment measures were calculated by ad delivery dates. Completion rates were determined on the basis of the number of eligible surveys completed via Qualtrics.

Results
For cross-sectional survey #1, 618 participants were retained as eligible on the basis of age, residency, and survey completion ( Figure 1). This represents a 52.28% (618/1182) response rate. For cross-sectional survey #2, the screening process retained 210 participants, representing a 57.8% (210/370) survey response rate. Recruitment metrics for both cross-sectional surveys included impressions, link clicks, conversion rates, advertising costs, and costs per link click (Tables 2 and 3). For both data collection periods, Snapchat generated the most impressions and link clicks among the social media platforms.  In cross-sectional survey #1, Snapchat and Facebook had a higher number of impressions and link clicks than Instagram; however, Instagram outperformed Snapchat and Facebook in conversion rates. Instagram's high conversion rate (ie, 36%) remained an outlier. In cross-sectional survey #2, Instagram and Snapchat had a higher number of impressions and link clicks than Facebook. Although Instagram and Snapchat conversion rates were lower in the second survey, Facebook conversion rate was consistent in both the first and second survey. It is important to note that for the second survey, the team decreased the budget spending for Facebook ads and increased the budget for Instagram and Snapchat ads. Response rates were lower in subsequent recruitment periods. Instagram and Snapchat had a marked increase in the number of impressions and a moderate increase in number of link clicks in the second survey. Although Snapchat impressions were the highest among the social media platforms, costs per link click were the most expensive for cross-sectional survey #2.

Principal Findings
This paper outlined a paid advertising recruitment strategy, comparing recruitment across Instagram, Snapchat, and Facebook for surveys documenting youth knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors related to retail marijuana in Colorado. Although retail marijuana is legalized in Colorado, it remains illegal for those under 21. Obtaining a mechanism to engage with youth and document marijuana knowledge, attitudes, and behavior is critical, particularly where retail marijuana use is legal for older populations [22]. Social media platforms are useful mechanisms to reach youth and understand their illicit behaviors, given broad reach and the opportunity to share information anonymously [23]. As youth move away from older social media platforms and adopt the use of newer versions on the Web, additional research is needed to determine if Web-based recruitment strategies are equally effective across diverse social media platforms. In health-related studies that have incorporated social media platforms (ie, MySpace, Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter) for recruitment, Facebook proves the most successful platform, compared with MySpace, Instagram, and Twitter, across age groups [5,14]. Both Instagram and Snapchat are the more recent social media platforms that should also be further examined for recruitment capabilities.
Thus, this study expanded on current evidence-based social media recruitment practices and included social media platforms that are currently more popular and relevant to youth (ie, Instagram and Snapchat) [5,[24][25][26]. Differences were observed across platforms in youth recruitment in the 2 Web-based cross-sectional surveys; demonstrating that higher than typical numbers of youth who were exposed to our Web-based ads clicked on them [27]. The second survey had a high response rate for Web-based survey research, which typically ranges between 10% and 15% [28], but it ultimately yielded a lower response rate compared with the first survey [28].
The Ads Manager dashboard displayed few impressions on Facebook, which the evaluation team inferred was a reflection of declining interest in Facebook ads; however, Facebook still presented a feasible way to reach some younger adults (ie, 18-20 years old) for each survey. Such feasibility has been shown with a similar age groups (ie, 18-24 years old) [5]. It is possible that the reduced budget for Facebook ads for the second survey may have contributed to a lower number of impressions and link clicks. Subpopulations or hard-to-reach populations may require a larger Facebook ad budget and more time for ads to run to get a higher frequency yield [5]. In addition, it could be inferred that ads in regional counties, with high participation in the first survey, deterred participation in the second. Youth may have ignored an ad after having seen it for a previous survey. It is also possible that Facebook ads were ignored for the second survey if youth had already seen the ads in their Instagram and Snapchat feeds before they saw it on Facebook.
Instagram and Snapchat had a marked increase in the number of impressions and a moderate increase in number of link clicks in the second survey. This could have resulted from the increased ads budget, which increased ad visibility across the 2 platforms. Although a specific cost-effectiveness assessment is beyond the scope of this paper, the cost-per-survey comparison was generally consistent with what is observed in other studies [2].
Other Web-based health-related campaigns [5,23,24,29,30] demonstrated similar success in recruiting youth and young adults through Instagram and Facebook [13,22,31], although most cross-sectional studies used Facebook for recruitment [32]. In the first cross-sectional survey, the social media ads ran for 20 days and showed a total of 154,530 impressions and 3318 link clicks, across Instagram, Snapchat, and Facebook, and 618 completed surveys. In the second cross-sectional survey, social media ads ran for 28 days and showed a total of 609,083 impressions and 2771 link clicks, across the same 3 platforms, and 210 completed surveys. A study using Facebook ads only for 48 days produced a total of 144,635 impressions, 2129 link clicks, and 26 completed surveys among an adult multiethnic population [29]. A study using Facebook and Instagram ads for 1 week to recruit and reach young adults at high risk for smoking reached 324,959 individual users and resulted in 7249 link clicks, 6661 screener completions, and 1709/3357 (50.90%, eligible) completed surveys [5]. These findings suggest that recruitment and reach through a single social media platform might not yield targeted enrollment and ads using multiple platforms may be more advantageous. Other studies using social media platforms for recruitment of younger populations have instituted the use of multiple platforms (ie, Facebook, Instagram, and Twitter) [5,25] to reach target enrollment. Some studies have combined different recruitment methods to include social media, interceptive (face to face), and postal recruitment [5,31]. Though similar studies have also paid cost per click, this type of recruitment is shown to be cost effective than traditional methods [5,13,31].
This study showed the feasibility of incorporating Instagram and Snapchat to a traditional Facebook paid advertising recruitment strategy. Both Instagram and Snapchat required similar elements of ad content, design, placement, and budget considerations. Instagram utilized the same Web-based platform as Facebook (ie, Ads Manager) and streamlined logistics associated with setting up and monitoring the 2 campaigns. Not only is Instagram feasible for recruitment but it also has been associated with youth retention in a Web-based mental health and substance use interventions [26]. Thus, the initial draw to a study through social media may maintain interest in completing Web-based interventions and surveys. Although Snapchat ads required artistic animation, Snap Ads' design templates offered user-friendly ways to create ads even for researchers lacking graphic design skills. Both Instagram and Snapchat followed similar advertising policies, which aligned with Facebook. This allowed researchers to prepare for the approval and appeal process accordingly. Finally, the differences in advertising costs across platforms were negligible. Although more robust comparisons of recruitment strategies should be investigated, findings suggest incorporating Instagram and Snapchat as an accessible and practical addition to recruiting youth on the Web for health studies.

Limitations
Study limitations exist despite successful recruitment using social media ads. The recruitment evaluation design lacked a comparison recruitment process using in-person recruitment methods. In addition, the cross-sectional surveys gathered convenience samples; therefore, findings are not generalizable to the population of 13-to 20-year-old Coloradans. Understanding knowledge, attitudes, and behaviors of youth younger than 13 years old is critical for preventing retail marijuana intentions and use. However, because of social media advertising policies, sampling youth younger than 13 years old was not permitted. The findings only illustrate descriptive results related to social media recruitment methods for youth aged 13 to 20 years. Altering the budget in the second cross-sectional survey created a potential bias for Snapchat and Instagram success.
Although it is an unsupported hypothesis, the research team considered how external factors (eg, school holidays, final exams, and weather) may have contributed to responses across the data collection period. Such contextual factors should be considered in future social media recruitment approaches. In addition, all ads used the same images and content. Individuals who completed the survey before might have thought they could not complete it a second time. In addition, because of the anonymous survey link used in ads, there is limited understanding of which social media platform yielded the most completed surveys and which were most cost-effective. However, it would seem that the approach is more economically viable than hiring staff to recruit youth, travelling to specific recruitment locations, and spending time administering in-person surveys.
There are few methods in the scientific literature using popular social media platforms for youth recruitment, such as Instagram and Snapchat [25,33]. Although this study explored the use of modern social media platforms to reach young people, additional research is needed as technology and internet use trends continue to change.

Strengths
This study highlighted several strengths to the health sciences literature. First, limited scholarship describes the use of Instagram and Snapchat paid advertising for youth study recruitment. This offered a significant contribution to understanding how to utilize diverse social media platforms for health-related research and evaluation. The study demonstrates the usefulness of social media recruitment in health-related research, particularly in its ability to reduce data collection time and provide rapid results about emerging public health problems, such as illegal marijuana use in states where retail marijuana sell is legal. Traditional recruitment methods may take months, thereby adding to the time it takes to collect data and disseminate results. Innovative use of Snapchat as an avenue for recruitment showed high impressions, suggesting a noteworthy method to reach young people. Second, this evaluation offered unique contributions on how social media campaigns can use multiple platforms to maximize recruitment, reach, and engagement. Third, the study contributed to the literature by describing low-cost approaches for reaching young people using paid social media advertising [5,29,31].

Conclusions
Social media platforms can play a significant role in reaching young people for research and evaluation of youth-focused programs. These platforms are appealing to younger populations, allowing for easier design and tailoring to recruit specific populations [5,34]. The findings represent a feasible and modern approach to recruit cross-sectional samples using social media platforms beyond Facebook. A social media recruitment strategy that includes platforms most used by youth (eg, Instagram and Snapchat) can enhance Facebook recruitment approaches. Although no social media platform is a solution to study recruitment, diversifying recruitment across multiple platforms may increase response rates and improve researchers' ability to reach youth in an efficient manner. The use of multiple platforms may also broaden the reach for subpopulations and