Economic Contributions and Challenges of Immigrant Entrepreneurs to Their Host Country – Case of African Immigrants in Auckland, New Zealand

Entrepreneurship is an important concept in both developing and developed societies today. Although there is no consensus on the definition of entrepreneurship, it is believed to be a process of creating value by bringing together a unique package of resources to exploit entrepreneurship opportunities (Morris, 2002). This study aims to discover the economic contributions and challenges of immigrant entrepreneurs to their host country, and focuses on African small business owners in Auckland, New Zealand. Literature on immigrant entrepreneurship was reviewed, resulting in a discussion of the economic contributions of immigrant entrepreneurship as well as its challenges. Data was collected using face-to-face, semi-structured interviews, observation and field notes as the sources of inquiry. A purposive sampling technique was used to select 17 participants. All participants were African immigrant small business owners running businesses in Auckland. Thematic analysis was used to analyse the data collected (Braun & Clarke, 2006).

Introduction
New Zealand is a small nation with a population of 4.5 million in 2016 (Statistics New Zealand, 2016) and therefore it has a relatively small domestic market. The backbone of the New Zealand economy is its small and medium enterprises [SMEs] which are piloted by entrepreneurs (Omisakin, Nakhid, Littrell, & Verbitsky, 2015). New Zealand SMEs constitute up to 90.7% of all firms and provide about 50% of New Zealanders with jobs (Omisakin et al., 2015). Because of the size of its population, New Zealand is committed to promoting the export of its domestic production to foreign markets. Therefore, New Zealand has signed both bi-lateral and multi-lateral trade agreements, including a common economic relationship with Australia in 1983, the New Zealand-China trade agreement in 2008, and the most recently signed multinational trade agreement, called Trans Pacific Partnership Agreement (TPPA). It is argued in international business that domestic businesses with access to international markets can attain more rapid growth and long-term profitability, leading to overall economic growth and development (Charles, 2015). For this and other reasons, New Zealand's choice to encourage its export markets in the face of its population challenge is most welcome.
Globally, entrepreneurship is an important concept in both developing and developed societies today. There has been a growing interest by researchers investigating entrepreneurial activities and, as a result, entrepreneurship has become a popular construct but with various meanings. Today, in the academic world, there is no consensus on the definition of entrepreneurship; hence, many researchers adopt their own definitions of entrepreneurship and create

Concept of Entrepreneurship
The word 'entrepreneur' is French and is literally translated as 'between-taker' or 'go-between' (Hisrich & Peters, 2002a). Looking at the term 'entrepreneur' from the perspective of economic literature, Cantillon (1734) introduced it as a risk taker. Entrepreneurs are regarded as extraordinary people with a great ability to utilise other factors of production to produce goods needed by mankind. Entrepreneurs are therefore regarded as active figures in the business world and its processes, and essential to grow and develop the economy of most countries.
Generally, an entrepreneur is seen as the person who bears the risk of coordinating all other factors of production and who possesses the psychological capacity to energise and coordinate entrepreneurial activities. There are a number of characteristics and traits that an entrepreneur must possess to enhance a business: an entrepreneur must be innovative, be able to take at least a minimum risk, be autonomous, be able to persevere, have some level of independence, and have an internal locus of control (Aggarwal & Gupta, 2006;Hisrich & Peters, 2002b;Morris, 2002). However, immigrant studies have reacted against this, saying that looking only at the individual qualities and abilities of entrepreneurs does not make an entrepreneur. According to Lumpkin and Dess (1996), other factors beyond the entrepreneur's control and ability can also predict entrepreneurial success. Therefore, Lumpkin and Dess argue that entrepreneurship is the interaction between the individual and opportunities in the environment. It can be concluded that entrepreneurship can be seen as the ability of the entrepreneur to identify and exploit opportunities within an environment that are previously unidentified and unexploited. From the above, entrepreneurship involves multiple events such as recognition of an opportunity and acting on the identified opportunity.
Though the term entrepreneurship has been used for decades, still there is no consensus about its definition and the processes involved (Williams, Round, & Rodgers, 2010). In an attempt to give a concise definition to entrepreneurship, Morris, Kuratko, and Covin (2008) summarised the common themes found in entrepreneurship literature as the creation of wealth, enterprise, innovation, change, employment, value and growth. However, Morris et al. ended up describing entrepreneurship as a process of creating value by bringing together a unique package of resources to exploit an opportunity.
Entrepreneurship studies have suggested several factors needed to attain entrepreneurial success. Such factors include culture, age, education, gender, managerial know-how, industry experience, social skills, entrepreneurial readiness, length of time, size of enterprise, and capital (Charney & Libercap, 2000;Kolveried, 1996;Kristiansen, Furuholt, & Wahid, 2003;Mazzarol, Volery, Doss, & Thein, 1999). It is also argued that cultural perspective, which affects firms' performance, could influence entrepreneurial activities. Entrepreneurship studies have corroborated the opinions of the researchers in this area (Lee & Peterson, 2000;Mueller & Thomas, 2001). Some entrepreneurship studies have suggested that entrepreneurs aged between 25 and 44 years are the most entrepreneurially active (Kristiansen et al., 2003) and that the male gender is more into entrepreneurship and more helpful in entrepreneurial intention than females (Charney & Libercap, 2000;Kolveried, 1996;Mazzarol et al., 1999), and they concluded that education produces self-sufficient entrepreneurs.
Many of these factors are relevant to entrepreneurship, but an entrepreneur also needs to possess some personality traits that ensure business success. Forbes (2015) identified five personality traits that ensure an entrepreneur will succeed in business. These factors are: Passion: It is most important that an entrepreneur should have passion for business to be successful. Without passion, it might be difficult for an entrepreneur to get beyond the initial level. Being passionate goes beyond monetary value. Resilience: Being an entrepreneur is challenging, especially financially, but entrepreneurs should be able to learn from past challenges and come back from failure. Self-awareness: A successful entrepreneur should be able to identify his/her strengths and weaknesses and use these to better his/her business. Patience: To be successful in business an entrepreneur must have patience in dealing with employee relationships, business negotiations and communications, so that the business goal can be attained. Persistence: An entrepreneur must be persistent; starting a business requires persistence because in reality reaping benefits takes longer than expected.
Another factor shown to influence entrepreneur business success is family background (Glancey, Greig, & Pettigrew, 1998). It is also said that entrepreneurial readiness is a reference to entrepreneurs' self-efficacy to succeed and attain business goals, leading to business success (Cromie, 2000). Self-efficacy is a foundation of human motivation and personal accomplishment. Kristiansen and Indarti (2004) found a significant correlation between self-efficacy and entrepreneurial intention.

Contribution and Significance of Immigrant Entrepreneurs to Host Countries
Immigrants are globally perceived as being highly skilful, entrepreneurial and are needed for economic growth, development and innovation. McEvoy and Barratt (1992) analysed migrants' business motivation and identified pull and push factors. Domboka (2013) found Black African women were motivated into business in the UK by various pull factors: the discovery of a business opportunity, financial gain, wanting to be their own boss; and push factors: inability to secure a good job; being discriminated against in the labour market. Schmis (2013) found Vietnamese in Germany were self-employed because of their inability to secure jobs in the restricted German labour market. Similar studies carried out in New Zealand found that immigrants in New Zealand were discriminated against while searching for a job, leading some to becoming self-employed (Butcher, Spoonley, & Trlin, 2006). However, some immigrants are pulled into entrepreneurship because they want to be their own boss and need extra income.
Irrespective of immigrants' motivation, the contributions of immigrant entrepreneurs are visible in most countries and they are mostly essential in most developed and developing economies for this reason and others. Most developed and developing countries have created special visas and entry requirements in an attempt to attract immigrant entrepreneurs (Fairlie. & Lofstrom, 2013). Similarly, Immigration New Zealand follows the same pattern of these countries to attract skilled immigrants and immigrant entrepreneurs to help propel the New Zealand economy. According to Immigration New Zealand (2016), a potential immigrant qualifies for a three-year entrepreneur work visa if he/she can secure a minimum capital investment of NZ$100,000 with a clear business plan, clean history of no bankruptcy, business failure and fraud, has good health and character, and meets the English language requirement. It has been confirmed by entrepreneurship authors that creating business is higher among the foreign-born than the native-born in countries such as the United States, United Kingdom, Canada and Australia (Borjas, 1994;Clark & Drinkwater, 2000;Fairlie, 2008;Lofstrom, 2002). According to Fairlie and Lofstrom (2013), immigrant entrepreneurs are making substantial contributions in the technology and engineering sectors of the economy in the US. Above all, immigrant entrepreneurs have been spectacular in giving employment to both immigrant and local workers, thereby reducing social tension that could have resulted from a high rate of unemployment. Immigrant entrepreneurs' contribution to their host countries is not only noticeable in cities, but also in villages and rural areas.
According to Dana (1995), immigrant entrepreneurs made an immense contribution to the economic growth and development of the remote sub-Arctic community by being the chief source of jobs. Immigrants, with their entrepreneurial activities and skills, contribute to the growth of their host country both in the cities and suburbs by increasing the quantity and quality of goods and services produced, thereby making available various good and services (Kloosterman & Rath, 2003). Entrepreneurship is seen as a source of economic growth and, if properly managed, it should serve as a source of national prosperity.
Entrepreneurship studies identify countries such as the United States, Canada, the United Kingdom and Australia as the main destination for immigrants. They are believed to be more prosperous and developed because immigrant entrepreneurs play a prominent role in their economic development by injecting new capital into the economy, establishing new businesses and, more importantly, creating employment leading to wealth creation. From previous studies, the same is applicable to New Zealand. Immigrants have injected new capital into the New Zealand economy, established new businesses, and provided employment for both migrants and locals, making New Zealand society better off (Hunter, 2007;Masurel. et al., 2004).
According to Whitehead, Purdy and Mascarenhas-Keyes (2003), ethnic minority businesses (EM) in the UK account for 9.8% of small businesses with employees. The Greater London Authority (2005) assessed the contribution of Asian-owned small businesses in London and highlighted the following: most Asian-owned firms are relatively small and 56% have one to four employees; some migrant Asians (Chinese) are more likely to be self-employed.

Challenges of Immigrants in Business Activities
Migrants' challenging experiences can be analysed from two perspectives: before and after migrating. Sometimes migrants migrate when they can no longer cope with the challenging situation in their home country (due to political, economic and social adversity). This explains why migrants from North Africa are willing to cross the Mediterranean Sea to Europe against all odds to establish a new life (Nkrumah., 2003). This also explains why migrants sail in boats from Sri Lanka to Australia across the Indian Ocean. On arrival in their host country, migrants are faced with the challenging experience of settlement, culture, language, employment and a host of other factors. The most important challenge for a migrant to overcome is finding employment, as this is fundamental to being able to sustain himself/herself. However, gaining employment is not easy as migrants are often discriminated against for a number of reasons, including being unable to speak the host country language fluently, or from a lack of host country work experience. Mostly, migrants go into small businesses because of the challenging experiences they have had in the labour market or because they recognise an opportunity to run a particular business (Volery, 2007b). Borjas (1986) asserted that migrants can more easily secure employment or start running small businesses within their ethnic enclave. Borjas' view was that as more migrants of the same ethnic nationality begin to live in the same enclave, various business opportunities will spring up in response to the needs of the group.
Immigrants start their businesses amidst challenges and anticipate challenges as they start to run the business, though they might not know the extent of the challenges they will encounter. Irrespective of the immigrants' host country, the most common challenge for immigrants in business is finance. Financial challenges could come at the start of the business, while it is running or when it is needed for expansion. Reasons could include the formal financial sector not being willing to make funds available to immigrant businesses because they are sceptical of the immigrant businesses' ability to pay it back. For instance, Ram and Deakins (1996) found that African-Caribbean immigrants in small businesses in the UK were faced with finance problems and it was evident that banks were biased against assisting them. This group of immigrant business owners succeeded because they were self-motivated and optimistic about their businesses. Similarly Robb and Fairlie (2007) argued that immigrant businesses are less likely to have loans approved and are therefore less likely to apply for loans because of fear of denial, and are also more reluctant to initiate loans for their business ventures. Contrary to this, Kollinger and Minniti (2006) pointed out that if immigrant business owners have what is valued enough to be collateral, it might not be difficult for such businesses to secure loans from a financial institution.
According to Brenner, Ramangalahy, Filion, Menzies, and Amit (2000), Chinese entrepreneurs in Canada are faced with challenges associated with access to finance, marketing/sales, management skills, high tax rates and a low level of business survival. Similarly Holguin, Gamboa, and Hoy (2007) found Hispanic small business owners in the US are faced with problems of raising capital either at start-up or for future growth because they are often unable to obtain loans from the financial markets. While the most common challenge among immigrant entrepreneurs is finance, some immigrant entrepreneurs' challenges go beyond this. According to Fawcett and Gardner (2006), after comparing challenges faced by both Korean and Filipino entrepreneurs in the US, the authors found that Koreans are faced with the problem of a lack of proficiency in English.
Immigrant small business entrepreneurs in Australia are challenged by their inability to familiarise themselves with how businesses should be run in Australia, and a lack of cultural awareness of their new environment (Collins, 2003). Corroborating this, Gaskill et al. (1993) argued that small immigrant businesses in Australia face four major challenges for survival: poor strategic management, poor marketing, a competitive environment, and the difficulties of growth. The authors concluded that unless these four challenges are well handled by the manager/owner, the business will fail.
This study adopted cultural theory and opportunity structure theory to explore the phenomenon of African immigrants' challenges before business start-up and while running a small business in Auckland. The researcher reviews the use of these theories in resolving participants' challenges in running businesses.
Hoftstede (2011, p. 3) defined culture as "a collective programming of the mind which distinguishes the member of one group or category of people from another". Culture is regarded as a collective phenomenon that is shaped by an individual's social environment. Scholars of migration have emphasised cultural values like hard work, involvement of family members, religious ties and trust as the main source of some immigrant cultural groups' successes in business (Bonacich, 1973;Waldinger et al., 1990). The researcher agreed with the author as these factors helped most participants in the study to keep their businesses alive during times of difficulty.
According to the cultural theory, ethnic cultural resources assist immigrants in their business start-ups and the growth of their businesses in their host country. Most participants in the study used ethnic resources to grow, as a customer base, and to finance their businesses. For instance, almost all participants lack finance from the formal sector.
The only source open to them was the ethnic community. This could be by networking for finance through their ethnicity or nationality. Participants also culturally sourced funds for their businesses through families and friends. Apart from these, most immigrants' businesses, particularly those dealing in culturally related businesses, depended on their ethnic group for customers and business growth. Participants who deal in African foods, clothing/fashion obviously will depend on customers of African ethnicity for their business. That is why they mostly complained of low population or size of market as one of the challenges of their businesses.
The cultural perspective also suggests that immigrants who relocate to their host country with entrepreneurial skills and abilities previously developed in their home country, a pre-migration cultural tradition of entrepreneurial mentality, great knowledge of an ethnic social network, and with an ethnic niche market, will be successful in their immigrant entrepreneurial performance (Chrysostome & Arcand, 2009). This also explains why some participants in this study claimed that their type of business (African fashion, hair, barbing) was mostly learnt through their involvement in African culture before migrating to New Zealand.
According to Aldrich and Waldinger (1990), migrant opportunity structure is made up of "market conditions, access to ownership, job market conditions, and legal and institutional frameworks". Opportunity structures may be available through which migrant entrepreneurs can access business opportunities. Findings from this study identify with Aldrich and Waldinger's opportunity structures. Two participants, who were struggling and willing to establish their businesses in a particular sector and region, were able to do this when the situation permitted. One participant was able to penetrate a white-dominated business because the owner of the business she bought was relocating to Australia and no other buyer was available. Similarly, a second participant bought a business not common among Africans when other bidders were not forthcoming because they could not raise the funds. Other participants had the opportunity to own businesses when the first and second generation of children of the owners were not interested in continuing with the business. Opportunity structures created an opportunity for these African immigrant entrepreneurs to access these businesses when the existing local business owner was relocating, or there was no willingness from family members to continue with the business. This opportunity enables a migrant business owner to open his business in a non-African ethnic immigrant market. Aldrich & Waldinger (1990) suggested that at retirement, it is likely that first-generation immigrants sell off their businesses (because their first-and second-generation children are not willing to take up generational businesses), therefore, newly arrived migrants looking for businesses could grab these opportunities and buy a business.
In this study, participants belonging to the same cultural and ethnic community, which helped generate the required resources for their business take-off, created co-ethnic feeling, relationships and interactions. This further helps generate business finance, business information, training, and the necessary market needed by their businesses.

Method of Data Collection
This study employed an interpretive case study research approach for its data collection. Case study research examines a phenomenon using one or more methods of data collection such as interviews, documentary reviews, archival records, direct observation, participant observation and field notes (Yin, 1994). Myers (2008) argues that case study research in business-related studies uses empirical evidence from the group or organisation studied in an attempt to research the subject matter in context. (Myers, 2009). Interview methods were mainly used for data collection. A document review plays a crucial role in case study research because it forms a rich source of evidence to complement interviews. Documents can take the form of letters, internal memos, reports, newspaper articles and so on. Some participants provided their power bills, rent bills, and water bills to support their argument that it is expensive to run businesses in Auckland.
Businesses recommended through snowball sampling techniques were visited covertly to negotiate inclusion in the study. The visit involved direct observation of each business. This gave the researcher an opportunity to assess whether the recommended business met the study's participant selection criteria, which emphasised that the owner must be an African migrant, and the business must be of African value. The researcher obtained more information to augment other information sources such as field notes and interviews.
Field notes of the visits to business premises were made to identify the location, age group and ethnic backgrounds of owners, as well as the number of staff employed and customer profiles. The researcher compared the field notes taken during visits to notes taken during and after the main interview. This enabled the researcher to build a rich description of each participating business.

Interviews
The most preferred technique for interpretive studies is the interview technique because it is regarded as the most effective in accessing and interpreting information collected from the participants (Myers & Newman, 2007). By interviewing participants, they were able to voice their challenges as well as what they have been contributing to the New Zealand economy. (Bryman, 2008). To attain the desired goal of this study, the interviewer made use of semi-structured interviews.  (Bryman, 2009). I ensured I wrote observation notes while the interviews were on, which gave me an opportunity to record in writing my observations about the interviews, especially any non-verbal communication by participants that cannot be recorded on tape (Denscombe., 1998). I also probed the interviewees further on their responses to the questions where necessary.

Semi-structured Interviews
It was difficult for the researcher to estimate accurately the number of African migrant businesses or entrepreneurs in Auckland because there has been no data in this regard by government or its agencies. In this type of scenario, the researcher can employ a purposive method in the selection of participants (Grinnell & Unrau, 2005). In qualitative data collection, purposive sampling can "hand-pick" a sample for the study, but selecting or hand-picking must reflect the quality of experience and knowledge with relevance to the research problems (Denscombe., 1998). Therefore, purposive sampling was used for this study because it allowed the selection of participants on the basis of the participants' knowledge of the research problem (Grinnell & Unrau, 2005).
The proposed study sample comprises 15-20 participants who are African migrant small business entrepreneurs in Auckland. However, the researcher stopped further interviews when there was an indication that the interviews had attained saturation.
In this study, the initial approach to known networks was explored. For example, access to some migrant community associations was secured. Such associations as the African Communities Forum Inc. (ACOFI) Auckland, Association of Nigerians in New Zealand, Ghanaian Association of New Zealand, Ethiopian Community of Auckland and the Zimbabwean Association of New Zealand approved the researcher's visits to association meetings where the research was advertised and participants solicited. These initial contacts then introduced the researcher and the research to members who were willing to participate in the research interviews.

Data Analysis
Data in this study took the form of interview transcripts collected from research participants that reflected on African immigrant entrepreneur economic contributions to New Zealand as well as the challenges in running businesses. Thematic analysis was used to analyse data collected. Thematic analysis is defined as a process of identifying, analysing and organising themes from the data collected. To establish this, the researcher carefully read and re-read the data collected (Rice & Ezzy, 1999). Anderson Anderson (2007) regarded thematic analysis as the most foundational of qualitative analytic procedures because of its informed objectivity. Using thematic analysis enabled the researcher to obtain themes to describe the phenomenon under study (Daly, Kellehear, & Gliksman, 1997).

Presentation of Findings and Discussion
Findings from this study will be discussed, starting with the participants' information and their business characteristics.

Participants' Information
The study found that four participants started their businesses five years before the study; three participants commenced their business four years earlier; four participants had been involved in business activities for three, seven, 18 and 20 years respectively; two participants revealed that their businesses had been running for the past 10 and four years. However, four participants had only started their businesses a year before the study.

Participants by Age
The participants were between 30 and 58 years old. Six participants were male and 11 were female. The reason for the wide gap between the males and females involved in business activities, as observed by the researcher, was that females are more likely to start small business because of the need to help upgrade the family income, work closer to home to care for children, and, from a cultural perspective, most African females learn the art and skills of African traditional businesses from their mothers. The 11 females in this study are in the beauty industry and African food sector of the economy.

Participants by Years in New Zealand
Four participants had been in New Zealand for between five and nine years. Seven participants had been in New Zealand between 10 and 14 years while five had been in New Zealand for between 15 and 20 years and only one participant had been in New Zealand for more than 20 years. More than two-thirds of participants had been in New Zealand for more than 10 years.

Economic Contribution of Immigrant Entrepreneurs
The most important contribution made by African immigrant entrepreneurs to the New Zealand economy is in creating wealth and employment by establishing new businesses and growing businesses in New Zealand, and increasing the country's global linkages. Creating businesses enables African immigrant entrepreneurs to provide employment opportunities for other immigrants as well as locals. All participants in this study employed between two and six employees. Employees were from different ethnic groups in Auckland, New Zealand. Related literature argues that migrant businesses are found in all sectors of business and economic activities in most developed and developing countries, contributing to economic growth (Fairlie, 2008;Fairlie & Lofstrom, 2013). These businesses provide employment for both migrants and locals making New Zealand society better off (Hunter, 2007;Masurel. et al., 2004).
African entrepreneurs are contributing to the New Zealand global business network. They bring trade and investment opportunities and grow New Zealand business. One of the participant is the sole importer of Dark and Lovely, which she brought to New Zealand 19 years ago, and she has also brought other products to New Zealand. Another participant is the sole importer of two African foods from Australia. Other participants import and export products. Migrants' personal networks have contributed greatly to the New Zealand economy by attracting foreign investment and promoting trade with other countries (Morgan, 2002).
The study indicated that participants were contributing their quota to the development and growth of the New Zealand economy through payment of business taxes, collecting goods and services tax (gst) from customers on behalf of the government, and remitting these to the appropriate government departments. Participants generate income for their employees and government through taxes paid by their employees. This is helping the New Zealand economy to grow and develop, and resolve some associated social problems. Participants in the study who engage in import and export of goods and services generate import and export duties and other port-related charges for the government. Most of the businesses represent a link (intermediary) between New Zealand and other countries. However, while some businesses had been running for five to 15 years making profits and contributions to the economy, some had not been making progress, and the New Zealand government should assist them, as recommended in the study.
Findings in this study were similar to the results of some other entrepreneurship research; for instance, Mamani (2016) found immigrants contributed to Canadian prosperity because they mostly owned small business and incorporated more businesses than the locals. Similar to New Zealand, 24% of SMEs in Canada with at least one employee are owned by immigrants (Statistic Canada 2014). Okonta and Pandya (2007) confirmed the entrepreneurial capabilities and the positive economic contributions of African and Afro-Caribbean immigrants in the United Kingdom. Similarly Ram and Deakins (1996) acknowledged the roles of African minorities using their networks to facilitate businesses to and from African countries to the UK.
Most participants in the study consider themselves as ambassadors of African culture. They are proud of their culture, and promotion of their cultural heritage in New Zealand was their priority. They started by introducing many new African foods and fashions to New Zealand, including distinctively African hairstyles such as African braiding, weavings and dreadlocks. Today, African fashions, cuisine and culture are part of the multicultural offerings in New Zealand. Every year, a day is dedicated to Africans in Parliament in Wellington. African churches and mosques are attended by non-Africans, there is an African day and festival in Auckland. African migrants are socially responsible in New Zealand society (Walrond., 2012), and African migrants work in all facets of New Zealand organisations such as the corrections department, NZ Customs Service, the police force, hospitals, colleges and universities. African migrants have made New Zealand a multicultural society and have contributed greatly to New Zealand being a tolerant society that reflects the wider diversity of values of the rest of the world.
It is a common difficulty for African immigrant entrepreneurs to secure loans from financial institutions at the start of their businesses. As a result they mobilise funds from their home countries, friends, family, ethnic connections, and personal savings, injecting new capital into the New Zealand economy. Apart from this, the average African immigrant possesses great value and skills in entrepreneurship, entrepreneurial orientation and education; today's immigrant children also contribute to the future labour force. Another important contribution of African entrepreneurs to the New Zealand economy is in revitalising dying businesses. Two participants bought one dying business each, injected fresh capital into them, and today the businesses are doing fine. The above table shows the types of challenges immigrant entrepreneurs face in running businesses in Auckland, New Zealand.

Identified Challenges
The study found that immigrant business owners in Auckland are mostly confronted with challenges such as the high cost of running businesses, low population leading to low sales, difficulties in running businesses, and customer inability to pay for services rendered.

High cost of Running Businesses
Five participants experienced high costs in running their businesses in Auckland. The high costs were incurred through high power bills, high rents and high taxes. It is challenging because their businesses are small and, with continual increases in utility bills and without increased sales volumes, they are bound to run at a loss. Participants were of the view that income from their businesses was not sufficient to pay for business bills. They claim that sometimes they needed loans to pay off bills owed. Two participants claimed that in the past they had sold their valuables to offset bills.

Lower Population/Customer
Five participants relate their challenging experiences of running business in New Zealand to population. They all agreed that the size of a country's population plays a big role in the level of sales leading to profit. Their argument was from two perspectives: the number of African immigrants in New Zealand is very low, which has a negative effect on their businesses, particularly for those involved in African goods; those who deal in universal business also view the size of New Zealand's population as being relatively small compared with its land size and history. According to Volery (2007b), one factor that makes businesses profitable is population, which is important for business growth because, without customers, a business will die a natural death. However, the opinions of the participants were that the New Zealand government needs to grow the population. This might be right from their perspective of making profit when there is a huge population. However, it goes beyond that as more population requires more infrastructure which costs money and takes time. The researcher believes that the greatest resources any country has are people, because without people all other resources are useless. Therefore, I am of the opinion that New Zealand needs to grow its population subject to available resources. On the other side, participants running at a loss could collaborate with a view to reducing their losses.

Difficult to Run A Business
It was hard and challenging for five participants to start up, as well as run their businesses after take-off. Some explained that it was like a war for them at start-up, because of their inability to meet with some requirements, and after take-off of the business, especially their inability to source finance from the financial sector. However, the researcher observed that one contributory reason for participants' challenges in running businesses was that some of them lacked knowledge of running businesses and they did not have prior knowledge of New Zealand customers' buying attitudes and behaviours. In fairness to these participants, some were pushed into starting businesses, therefore, they may have a shallow knowledge of entrepreneurship. This is justified by the data collected from participants, which shows some did not have a sound knowledge of the art of business in their host country.

Customer Inability to Pay for Services Rendered
The study found that when some participants were dealing with their African customers, they found that some of them did not have money to spend because they were refugees and depended on support from the government. Some who had jobs complained that the pay was never enough, while some had been searching for a job without success. For this reason, they were unable to purchase used items that welfare offered to them at low prices, much less buy new items. This has negative effects on other African businesses as well, because some who are expected to patronise these businesses lack resources to do so.
Some challenges faced by participants in this study are similar to those found by Pinkowski (1998) in his study of immigrant small business owners in the UK, Germany and the US. The author summarised his finding as follows: immigrants are challenged in the acquisition of capital necessary to start up businesses; immigrants lack information needed to establish businesses; immigrant small businesses often lack the capability to survive in highly competitive environments. Similarly, Schmis (2013) identified that minority business owners often experience financial challenges in running businesses in their host countries. According to Holguin, Gamboa, and Hoy (2007), Hispanic small business owners in the US are challenged in raising capital to start businesses. These challenges, as identified by this author, may lead businesses into hardship and the costs of running businesses might go up, as found in this study.
However, this study is unique in two findings: businesses are challenged by low population/market/customers; the inability of customers to pay for services rendered to them. The researcher categorises this as the study's contribution to entrepreneurship literature and study.

Recommendations
The recommendations below are possible approaches to dealing with the challenges of African immigrant entrepreneurs running businesses in New Zealand.
The study recommends New Zealand grows its population by allowing more migrants (skilled and migrants with entrepreneurial orientation). With more population the country will be able to produce more consumables for people to purchase. With this, New Zealand will not be dependent on other countries for consumables, and business will flow because businesses flourish when there is population to buy what is produced. Julian Simon, in his lecture covered by C-SPAN.org, Mar 27, 1997 entitled Material Welfare and Standard of Living, said "the ultimate resource of any country is people" (skilled, energetic, innovative, hopeful young people with economic and business endowments) (Simon, 1997). In conclusion, New Zealand should not leave its economic fate in the hand of other countries.
From my personal contact with participants, it became obvious that most of them lack the knowledge and ability to prepare simple budgeting, bookkeeping and financial statements. Therefore, this study recommends that the African community requires a kind of "African business advisory board" that would help African entrepreneurs in these areas of need: business budgeting, business finance, bookkeeping and preparation of financial statements for businesses.
The study recommends that government should establish specialised financial institutions like a small business development bank, a national industrial bank such as in Canada (Business Development Bank of Canada), also in Nigeria (Nigeria Industrial Development Bank). Such banks if established should be made accessible to small businesses being run by immigrants, who could be given loans to start or run their businesses at cheaper rates compared to banking and/or other financial institutions.

Suggestions for Further Research
It is recommended that another study, not limited to one ethnic group, be carried out on the entire business sector in Auckland, New Zealand, to find out if the same motivational factors induced them into business. The outcome of such a study will reveal if the motivational factor is the same for the entire population of small business entrepreneurs in Auckland or if there are differences.
Another area of future research could be that we have only 17 participants in this study. This is a small sample size and the results cannot be generalised to all immigrant business owners in Auckland. Therefore, further research could be done by taking a larger sample which could produce more relevant results that can be more general.

Conclusion
The purpose of this study was to examine the economic contributions and challenges of immigrant entrepreneurs. The study focused on African immigrant entrepreneurs in Auckland, New Zealand. The aim of this study was to produce a previously unavailable document on indigenous African migrants' involvement in business activities in Auckland, New Zealand.
The researcher concludes this study from the findings of Anetomang (2009) that small businesses play an important role in employment creation, poverty reduction, innovation, diversification and in the growth of the economies of nations.
Generally, small businesses play a crucial role in the development of every country, be it developing or developed. For this reason, many countries have enabled the growth of the small business industry by creating opportunities for its establishment. This is mostly aimed at job creation and the contribution towards the growth of national and local economies.
Participants in this study created employment through their business activities for a large number of people, provided tax revenue for the government, improved the standard of living of people, and contributed to the development of the country. While the study found the contributions of participants as discussed above, it also acknowledged the following challenges participants faced in their involvement in business activities: high costs of running businesses; low population; difficulty in running businesses, customers' inability to pay for goods bought and/or services rendered. The study also discussed how the cultural and opportunity structure could help immigrants alleviate their business challenges.
However, while the findings of this study are mostly similar to previous academic findings, the following are observed as being unique to this study: low population; customers' inability to pay for goods bought and/or services rendered. The researcher considers this as the study's contribution to entrepreneurship literature and bridging the gap in literature in this area.
The study made appropriate recommendations and suggestions for further research.


Sustainability in the Tourism Business

Sustainable tourism is a multi-stakeholder issue, whose aim is to stimulate the balanced exploitation of natural resources at the local level and to limit the social and environmental impacts. The businesses operating in the tourism sector mainly consist of SMEs. Their impact, although less significant if considered individually, are significant at the local level, particularly considering the cumulative effects produced by tourism businesses in a specific area and the role such businesses can play in influencing the behavior of tourists/guests. Focusing on the positive impacts and limiting the negative effects at social and environmental levels, represent the key to sustainable tourism for businesses.

Sustainable Tourism
Although the notion of sustainable development is now integral to research related to tourism, social science and management, its evolution and significance at both institutional and research levels are quite recent. The first modern challenges to economic growth in terms of sustainability emerged between the 1960s and 1980s. The first studies highlighted the existence of a relationship linking the growth and availability of natural resources, focusing on the need to limit their overexploitation in order to maintain specific levels of wellbeing over time (Barnett & Morse, 1963;Meadows et al., 1972). In the 1980s, much scientific research demonstrated the global, cumulative and, often, irreversible effects of pollution, involving all natural matrixes: air, soil, water (Hall et al., 2015). In 1987, the WCED (WCED, 1987) published the report "Our common future" (known as "Brundtland Report"), which is a milestone in the evolution of sustainability, and which provided the first (and most famous) definition of sustainable development i .
In the following years, as a consequence of globalization, new challenges emerged involving social dimensions. Multinational companies began to locate their plants in developing countries; new joint ventures were constituted between companies operating in the West and developing countries, thus creating new opportunities for business and customers. The lower salaries, lower costs of land, closeness to raw materials and increased demand (UN, 2005;Navaretti et al., 2001) were some of the attractive elements. Globalization was a big opportunity, however it highlighted new challenges for business and society in relation to the protection of human rights ii , safeguarding local communities and local cultures, and finally integrating ethical issues in managing global supply chains (Burns, 2015;Falk, 2002;Maloni & Brown, 2006;Salvioni & Astori, 2013). These topics have been widely studied in the literature (Cassel, 2001;Cragg et al., 2012;Hillary, 2007;Ruggie, 2014;Seuring & Muller, 2008). In Symphonya, Vurro et al. (2014) presented the results of some interesting research. Based on a survey involving 91 Italian companies, they demonstrated that companies implementing proactive sustainable supply chain management (SSCM) approaches, tend to increase the collaborative relations with both suppliers and distributors (and not just in one direction of the supply chain), with positive effects in terms of market performance and innovation (Vurro et al., 2014).
In addition to manufacturing businesses, since the 1990s, after the first World Conference on Sustainable Tourism (WTO, UNEP, UNESCO, EU, 1995), sustainability has also involved the tourism sector. Since then the balance between the anthropogenic burden generated by tourism and the socio-environmental issues, has become central (Buckley, 2012). Sustainability has also become an important concept in relation to tourism planning and development (Southgate & Sharpley, 2002;Yuksel, et al., 1999), because of its both positive and negative effects on the community and society, the economy, and the natural environment. Choi and Sirakaya (2006) stressed that, if tourism development is not planned appropriately, it can destroy the very resources (e.g. economic, environmental, and social) that are the foundation of tourism in a community. Franzoni and Pellizari (2016) highlighted the importance of climate change as heavily affecting decision-making in the tourism industry. The authors describe the tourism industry as a strongly weather-sensitive economic sector, but, at the same time, they highlight the strategic importance of the challenge of climate change and global sustainability for the tourism industry.
It is evident that, to be successful, tourism development must be planned and managed in a sustainable manner. This management needs the direct and active involvement of all the subjects involved in tourism, maintaining over time the focus on protecting the local natural and cultural heritage, limiting pollution, and searching for an equilibrium between the positive and negative social, environmental and economic impacts. These subjects are all the stakeholders (Freeman, 1984) who are interested in initiatives related to tourism and who are affected by tourism flows. They can contribute actively to managing tourismrelated issues (Byrd, 2007). Taking into account the existing relationships is necessary in order to correctly direct decisions and to limit the risk of initiatives that do not reflect community interests and opinions. In addition, participation can potentially lead to the prevention of major conflicts between stakeholder groups (Healey, 1998), and represents an opportunity to adequately plan sustainable tourism thanks to the involvement of all public and private representatives (Battaglia et al., 2012).
Thus, the question is: who are the potential stakeholders in sustainable tourism? Firstly it is the tourists, who are the main actors and who create a positive impact and negative pressure at the local level. Their flows should be managed by both national and local authorities, which identify the potential impacts, evaluate their importance, and establish rules to limit the negative effects. Their evaluation should take into consideration specific features of tourism, such as the seasonality of flows and the geographical concentration of impacts. In this process authorities may be supported by (1) experts and technicians, who are capable of designing innovative programmes to make tourism sustainable, and (2) local control bodies, which are committed to monitoring the compliance of other stakeholders according to the regulations.
Another fundamental stakeholder category is the local communities and the local citizens. They enjoy the positive effects of tourism (such as income, new job opportunities) however they suffer from the environmental pressure related to pollution, waste and overexploitation of natural resources, as well as social impacts, related to an unequal distribution of wealth and risks for new forms of abuse. They can influence the initiatives of local authorities, by organizing associations specifically focused on sustainability-related topics.
Finally, businesses are key in sustainable tourism because of the strong correlation between their profitability and the preservation of the natural, historical and cultural local heritage. These features can contribute to increasing tourism attractiveness. The regenerative capacity of resources and the maintenance over time of the cultural heritage and landscape are essential to ensure the attractiveness of an area, to guarantee a high level of tourism and, finally, to support the survival and profitability of the companies located there. The challenge of sustainability for tourism companies is thus strategic, because it represents a qualifying asset of their business.
This paper is organized as follows. A brief description of the role of business is outlined in Section 2. In Section 2.1 the tourist demand is analyzed (with particular focus on outlining the profile of the sustainable tourist), and in Section 2.2, some managerial strategies that can be adopted by tourist companies are designed. In Section 3 an emerging issue is explored, related to the role of certifications in the tourism sector. Finally, in Section 4 some conclusions are drawn.

The Challenge of Sustainability
The businesses operating in the tourism sector mainly consist of SMEs, as widely stressed by the tourism literature (Thomas et al., 2011). Such organizations somehow typify the sector and can be vital to job creation (Wanhill, 1999), competitiveness (Novelli et al., 2005), economic development (Andriotis, 2002), and sustainable tourism (Fuller et al., 2005;Horobin & Long, 1996). Because of the significant growth rates and dissemination in a specific geographical area, several papers (Holden, 2008;De Freitas, 2009;Battaglia et al., 2012) have demonstrated that tourist businesses may be considered as extremely polluting, and can generate complex social-cultural impacts. The impact of tourist flows is significant at the local level due to the cumulative effects produced by tourism businesses and the close relationship between business and other local actors. Evaluating the positive impacts and limiting the negative effects at social and environmental levels, represents the heart of sustainable tourism for businesses.
The link between this specific sector and the local natural and social contexts occurs at two levels. The reason for protecting the local natural and historicalcultural heritage is that they represent the main sources of profit for local tour operators. However, the possibly excessive protection and safeguarding may result unappreciated by tourists, with a negative impact on the sector.
By looking for a good balance between 'protection' and 'accessibility' is the contribution that business can make to sustainable tourism. However, finding such a balance is not the only target for a tourism business. Indeed, in defining sustainable pathways of growth, it is necessary to balance the complexity of sustainability-related issues with criteria and standards of comfort and hospitality, as well as traditional efficiency goals. Efficiently allocating natural resources (such as energy and freshwater consumption) and human resources (such as staff), is essential in order to increase the competiveness of companies, and to attract as many clients as possible through a high quality service based on a good reputation.
In summary, safeguarding the local natural and socio-cultural heritage, making it available for tourists to enjoy, guaranteeing specific levels of quality and standards and, finally, managing resources in an efficient way, represent the areas that need to be managed by tourism businesses, and represent their main challenge in relation to sustainability.
One of the problems in finding a balance amongst the various forces is the fact that only a minimal number of the negative impacts produced at social and environmental levels are generated by the provider of the service, that is the tourism business. Unlike the principal industrial sectors, in the tourism sector the impacts are primarily "indirect", that is the impacts linked to the decisions and behaviors of many different types of parties, other than business, including the very users of the service. Directing these different elements towards more sustainable behavior is one of the strategies that the most active businesses need to consider. Before outlining the tools used by businesses, it is opportune to highlight the demand side, in order to draw a profile of the sustainable tourist.

Sustainable Tourists
When on holiday, tourists (and in particular mass tourists) want to escape their everyday life (McKerner, 1993;Dolnicar & Grun, 2009), and they exhibit atypical behavior compared to how they behave at home. In terms of sustainability, tourists tend to be less involved in environmentally-friendly behavior, and focus less on the social impact of their actions.
Despite this, some tourists are more inclined to sustainability (Dolnicar, 2015;Dolnicar & Long, 2009). Tourists that are potentially of this type include visitors to parks and natural protected areas, those who spend their holidays in eco-lodges (for instance, certified facilities), excursionists, climbers, adventure tourists, vegetarians and vegans, campers, members of environmental and/or social associations/NGOs (WWF, Friends of the Earth),and [volun]tourists (tourists choosing specific destinations characterized by important social issues in order to give aid to specific communities).
The same studies have also highlighted how, in the last few years, the socialenvironmental sensitivity of tourists has increased, with an increasing appreciation of the 'socio-ecological quality' of the services provided. The research conducted to date has thus highlighted the readiness of tourists to 'appreciate' the sustainability options proposed by operators in the sector, without necessarily opting for this type of offer. A tourist operator's commitment towards sustainability, therefore, seems to contribute to the client's satisfaction with the service offered. However, the appreciation and commitment to sustainability occurs ex-post (or, at most, whilst the tourist is consuming the service), but it's not a determining factor in the buying choices for tourists. A 'competitive' touristic service, therefore, should offer qualitative characteristics and analogous pricing in relation to the best competitors, and, at the same time, advantages and benefits in terms of sustainability.
Considering 'sustainability' as part of 'total quality' means overcoming the idea that sustainable tourism is just a service intended for "niche markets", i.e. elite markets or those of extremely reduced dimensions. In terms of a tourism demand based on sustainability, the tourists need to go through an awareness and reinforcement phase. This needs to occur alongside the 'traditional' variables (price, comfort, location, etc), which can add a "sustainable" added value. This added value, in the same way as the other factors, can influence the tourist's choice and reward the commitment to sustainability.
In this slow and gradual maturation of the touristic demand focused on sustainability, the roles of certain entities (which can be defined as 'intermediaries') become crucial. Firstly, travel agencies and tour operators play an important role in directing their clients towards more sustainable choices. As such, there is a wide array of associations and NGOs operating in various fields of environmental protection and responsible tourism, which, although not directly advertising touristic services, are key players for the operators in the sector because they can influence the final demand.

Managing Sustainable Business
There are two main perspectives in relation to the management of a sustainable tourism business: -the need for an equilibrium between the elements that characterize the sustainability strategies of a business.
-the need to establish a strategic relationship with the tourist/guest, who is the principle player (among the stakeholders involved in the management of sustainable tourism) involved in sustainability initiatives.
In order to ensure a holistic and integrated management, it may be useful to identify different types of socio-environmental impacts, and then to establish the appropriate tools to regulate and manage them. In the analysis, we consider an SME operating in one or more of the following sub-sectors: accommodation (B&Bs, hotels, holiday residences, camping sites, holiday villages), bathhouses, restaurants and catering services, cafés and pubs, bars etc. Two types of socio-environmental impacts can be identified. 1) Direct impacts: under the direct managerial control of the organization.
2) Indirect impacts: those over which the organization has no managerial control, as they are not directly linked to the business activities.
The direct impacts include both environmental and social aspects. The direct environmental impacts include the consumption of natural resources (such as energy from non-renewable resources, freshwater), the production of unsorted waste, emissions into the atmosphere (deriving, for instance, from thermal household appliances), sound pollution, noise, odors etc. An additional category is the impacts linked to the selection of suppliers (selection of food suppliers in a short supply chain, organic products, etc.), which concern the sourcing policies of the business.
Besides the environmental impacts, under the direct operations of the company, the social impacts related to human resource management also need to be considered. These are connected to the protection of human rights, the definition of practices aimed at ensuring equal opportunities for the employees, health and safety, the right to education, and a transparent system of career advancement. All these direct impacts should be identified in detail by the organization, and be analyzed and evaluated. They represent the basis for the subsequent implementation of the most adequate managerial tools.

Figure 1: The Tourism Business
Indirect impacts also need to be taken into consideration. This is the most challenging area of sustainability management, as these impacts are connected with the movements and concentration of tourists in specific locations. The indirect aspects require the 'contribution' of one or more parties external to the organisation who then generate outward direct impacts (positive and/or negative, social and/or environmental). These parties can be defined as 'intermediaries', as they are located between the organisation and the final impact produced by their own behaviours. Therefore, the intermediary party directly generates a social and /or environmental impact, however its behaviour can be influenced (or even conditioned) by the choices and behaviours of the organisation. The intermediary parties, in the case of businesses such as those previously described, are the tourists (hotel guests, campers, restaurant and bar clients, etc). Their impacts can involve the environmental dimension (for instance, disrespectful behaviour towards the environment during a visit to a natural park, or the effects in terms of the sound, traffic and air pollution produced by cars), but they can also involve the socio-cultural sphere (for example, a lack of awareness of local customs and religious traditions of the host population, or, again, disrespect towards the socio-cultural heritage of a certain destination).
It is only through the active involvement of these parties that an indirect impact can be evaluated, managed and improved. Information and dialogue can then raise the awareness of tourists, and thus lead to a reduction in the negative impacts related to their behaviour.
Once the direct and indirect impacts have been evaluated, businesses can implement specific practices aimed at limiting the negative effects. Such practices can include both environmental and/or social dimensions, and can be directly managed on behalf of the company or go through the intermediary(-ies) or party(ies). The following box lists some of the good practices that can be adopted by businesses in the tourism sector.

Table 1: Good Practices for Sustainability -Examples
Requesting that hotel guests use towels multiple times (and leaving them on the floor when dirty) Water recovery solutions (e.g. harvest rainwater systems) and energy savings (e.g. systems for automatically switching lights on and off) Bicycles available for guests Differentiated bins to stimulate garbage separation Solar energy systems and photovoltaic systems Minimal chemical cleaning products (using products with environmental certifications) Technological innovative solutions (e.g. condensing boiler, household appliances in A++ class, etc.) Promoting green awareness initiatives to guests (regarding correct behavior when visiting specific sites) Sustainable food products, including organic, locally-grown, vegetarian and plant-based foods Excellence in employment standards to protect human rights (such as: freedom of association and right to collective bargaining, elimination of forced or compulsory labour, abolition of child labour and attention to underage workers, elimination of discrimination in employment and hiring, health and safety at work…)

Training and career promotion policies
Promotion of local food Information on historical-cultural local heritage

Certifications and Labeling
An emerging issue in the field of sustainable tourism is the adoption and effectiveness of (eco) -certifications and labeling. These are instruments that entail an obligation to conform to a specific voluntary norm or standard of excellence established by a third party. Certifications and labeling have been used in many industries and, since the mid-1990s, they have also been adopted by the tourism sector. Although certifications and labeling are often used interchangeably, they have different meanings. Certifications are awards to businesses or activities that comply with standards that require more than what is prescribed by legal regulations. Standards can be product standards (related to requirements of a specific product or service), and process standards (outlining requirements that need to be respected in the development of productive processes). On the other hand, labeling is an award for an organization whose products/services have been recognized as having an excellent level of performance which can be physically measured, such as the unitary consumption of energy, water, percentage of recycled waste (Dodds & Joppe, 2009).
Many certification and labeling schemes exist related to tourism, and in particular related to 'sustainable tourism'. These involve the measurement and monitoring of management and/or performance related to a tourism business or to subjects (local authority, agency) governing a specific tourism destination. An organization (private or public) obtaining a certificate/label can easily demonstrate its commitment towards sustainability, and can provide detailed information on how its performance has been improved.
Certification programs measure a range of environmental, socio-cultural and economic equity issues related to businesses activities, to their products/services and to the community and physical/natural context (Honey & Rome, 2001). Many certification programs have been promoted by different organizations at an international level, and today there are more than 50 certification and labeling schemes. Programs have been created for accommodation, bathing establishments, food service providers, tour operators and intermediators, managers of protected areas, local authorities governing a specific tourism destination, etc. Some of these standards have been specifically developed for the tourism sector; others refer to organizations in general, and can be adopted by public and private organizations that manage tourism-related issues.
Compliance with the sustainability standard/performance of a specific organization is verified by a third independent body. The conformity is evaluated according to indicators and procedures established by the scheme and, if successful, the organization obtains the certificate and the right to use a specific logo. This recognition is useful to inform all external stakeholders that the organization has met the specific criteria established within the standard.
To be credible, these programs are based on third-party audits, characterized by specific check criteria and operational guidelines. The auditor should also not have any conflict of interest, and the indicators adopted should be generally recognized as representative of specific sustainability performances. Table 1 reports widely diffused sustainability certification schemes and labels. These are all schemes characterized by rigorous systems of accreditation and control.
Beyond the interest to contribute actively to sustainable development, there are several economic reasons for formalizing an environmental commitment and obtaining a certification. First, research has demonstrated that certifications are useful for teaching entrepreneurs/managers about sustainability in their operations, supporting them in the changes they need to make to their businesses (Graci & Dodds, 2015). Certification also tends to reduce operating costs, by optimizing energy and resource use (Font et al., 2003). Certifications stimulate the continuous improvement in performance, which leads to considerable reductions of costs of utilities (water, electricity, fossil fuels), maintaining the high quality of services (Bien, 2007).
Certifications and labels increase the knowledge of consumers and guests with regard to the commitment of business to sustainability, increasing their awareness towards responsible practices, and, finally, increasing their ability to distinguish between real sustainable practices and green washing (Graci & Dodds, 2015). They thus increase the credibility of certified organizations, and, consequently improve their image and reputation (Bien, 2007).
Finally, certifications are an opportunity to monitor the compliance with legal requirements in the fields of environmental protection, health and safety at work, and human resource management (Chan & Wong, 2006;Arocena & Nuñez, 2009), thus reducing the risks of penalties and increasing trust with all stakeholders (Dodds & Joppe, 2005).
In Italy, the Trento and Bolzano provincial authorities recently evaluated the environmental and economic impact of the adoption of the EU-Ecolabel in Trentino Alto Adige. Trentino Alto Adige has the highest number of Ecolabel certified facilities in Italy in the tourism sector (accommodation and camping). The survey was carried out between April and October 2015 and related to both certified and not certified facilities, involving more than 100 organizations. The results showed that the environmental impact of an Ecolabel facility is about 43% lower than a non-certified facility, thanks to the higher percentage of differentiated waste, the reduction in energy and freshwater consumption, and the reduction in CO2 emissions. In economic terms, this improved environmental performance has been quantified in a reduction of expenses of approximately 10.5 €/m 2 (that is -21% in costs incurred by a non-Ecolabel structure). Award recognized globally aimed at beaches and marinas regarding compliance with a series of stringent environmental, educational, safety-related and accessrelated criteria. Criteria refer to environmental information and education, water quality, environmental management, safety and availability/quality of services provided to customers.

Conclusions
This paper has examined the theme of sustainable tourism with a focus on the crucial elements that characterize the behavior of businesses, and which present the key challenges. Several crucial issues have emerged from our paper, both in terms of the research on sustainable tourism, and from a management perspective.
Firstly, it is only through the active participation of tourists in the improvement initiatives that tourism operators can attain the established objectives, and thus, gradually move towards sustainability. The tourist is responsible for the choice of services, and, thus, should be the first target in relation to awareness raising and increasing the demand for sustainability. Amongst all the possible stakeholders, it is the tourist's awareness that ultimately reflects the success of sustainable tourism on the end market.
The tourist needs to be able to easily identify the added value of the sustainable offer (which is never separate from the overall quality), thus contributing to reduce the 'niche' status of sustainable tourism. The success of sustainable tourism strongly depends on reconciling the needs of sustainability with the competitive capacity of the operators who commit to this cause. However, even with a more "sustainable" behavior, tourists are far from exhausting their ability to contribute to the sustainability of the sector. They need to continue to contribute with actions that are coherent with their initial choices: by saving on electricity or water and separating waste collection, choosing specific typologies of food, showing respect for the local culture and the socio-cultural heritage, etc. Education and information for tourists provided by the private operators are essential in in terms of achieving a reduction in the socio-environmental impacts. A second decisive factor for the promotion of sustainable tourism is the close connection between touristic activities and the local context, with relationships between business and various local stakeholders. The logics of proximity do not only influence the material but also the relational sphere, thus encouraging the creation of local networks that extol the achievement of sustainability objectives, and that find common solutions to common problems in a certain area. Contributions to the improvement of socio-environmental plans proposed by public administrations, (for instance creating networks with other businesses in the sector, or developing projects with NGOs or local associations committed to sustainability) are some of the possible initiatives. These connections are an important feature in both promoting sustainable models of production and consumption involving the whole supply chain in the field of tourism, and preserving natural resources, as well as guaranteeing the ethical behavior of tourism entrepreneurs and guests.
The third strategic role is played by the local institutions. For example, local authorities and other intermediary institutions, such as the Chambers of Commerce, local trade associations should support local businesses in overcoming barriers (particularly costs) to implementing new strategies and instruments (such as certifications) related to sustainability. Intermediary institutions should take on the promotion of policies and instruments aimed at increasing resources. Certifications can be strategic in ensuring the commitment of tourism operators to sustainability.
In the case of certifications involving destinations, intermediary institutions can encourage the participation and contribution of businesses to locally-promoted projects. On the other hand, in the case of business certifications, institutions could offer to bear some of the costs incurred by enterprises (particularly by SMEs). In both cases, rewards for participation, aimed at creating a market differentiation between sustainable and non-sustainable businesses, should be included (Battaglia & Frey, 2015) To conclude, these three strategies contribute to fostering a greater culture of sustainability in tourism, creating new opportunities both for the businesses in the sector, as well as the communities facing touristic flows. Although applicable in all countries, these three strategies are key to Italy, where tradition and environmentalcultural resources represent the main attractions for tourism and where promoting sustainability , can help to guarantee a balance between the quality of service and the protection of the social and natural heritage.


THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN ORGANIZATIONAL SPIRITUALITY AND EMPLOYEES PRODUCTIVITY (A CASE STUDY OF MARTIME UNIVERSITY CHABAHAR)

The present study aimed to The relationship between organizational spirituality and employees productivity (A Case Study of martime university Chabahar)in academic year 2017-2018. The present study is applied and is descriptive-correlation based on nature of study and study purpose. The study population is including all administrative staff of Chabahar martime University (244 subjects). To administer this study, 148 subjects have been selected randomly. Rego and Cunha survey of Workplace spirituality is used to evaluate work place spirituality and its reliability is 0.90 and Hersey and Goldsmith standard questionnaire is used to evaluate employees productivity and its reliability is 0.93. The data are analyzed at inferential statistics (correlation coefficient and multi-variate regression tests). The findings of study show that there is a positive and significant association between organizational spirituality and productivity of employees. there is a a positive and significant association Between all the components of organizational spirituality with employees productivity.

Introduction
Higher education is one of the effective factors on fulfillment of social, economic and cultural policies development of countries [20]. The most important factor of productivity in organizations and finally the whole society is human resources and prosperity of any society lies in the improvement of and training its human resources. That's why organizations, with the help of human resources and behavioral specialists, take employees' training into a special consideration [2]. Today, ethical principles and spirituality of employees are of great importance for managers. In the past, it was assumed that the physical presence of employees at workplace was present and there was no need to their spirituality. Today, people are inclined to be present at work place with three dimensions, physical, mental and spiritual and separation of work life of employees from their spiritual life is not possible and it can reduce their morale [28]. Pawar (2008) defined organizational spirituality and said: Spirituality in organization is the organizational facility to experience spirituality by the employees [28]. Jurkiewics And Giacalone defined spirituality at work place: A framework of organizational values with the sign of a culture in which employees are beyond the work processes increasingly and their understanding of relationship with others is improved as enjoyment is experienced [7]. Spirituality integration with work life results in people more satisfaction with their work, besides when they finish their work and join the family, they help each other well. This integration causes that the organizations achieve high profitability with ethical and productive people [4]. Spirituality gives new attitude to human being and increases self-confidence considerably and a person can have much stability.
One of the effective variables on organizational spirituality is human resources productivity in organization. Productivity at employees level depends upon the analysis, measurement and improvement of human resources productivity as direct or indirect labor force [5].Today, in some organizations, reduction of productivity and human resources stagnation are returned into great challenge and this is because of the lack of optimal use of human resources and if we identify the effective components on human resources productivity, by improving them, we can improve productivity in the organization [17].

Study method
The present study is applied and is descriptivecorrelation based on nature of study and purpose of study. The study population is administrative staff of Chabahar martime University in academic year 2017-2018 as 244. The sample size is 148 by Morgan Table and relative stratified sampling method is used Rego and Cunha (2008)survey of Workplace spirituality is used to evaluate work place spirituality and Hersey and Goldsmith (1980) standard questionnaire is used to evaluate employees productivity. To evaluate validity of work place spirituality survey employees productivity, the questionnaires are distributed among University Lecturers to state their opinion regarding the fit of questions and components with scales. Work place spirituality survey includes 17 questions evaluating work place spirituality in meaning at work, correlation with others and consistency with organization values and Five-item Likert scale is used. Employees productivity survey consists of 27 items and five-item Likert scale is used in it and it evaluates the componets of Team sharing feeling (5question), Consistency of individual and organizational values (5question), Helping the society (3question), Enjoyment of work (2question) And opportunities for inner life(2question). The reliability of questionnaires is calculated by Cronbach's alpha for organizational spirituality as 0.90 and organizational productivity 0.93. The data are analyzed by Pearson correlation coefficient and multi-variate regression by SPSS, version 21 software.

Findings
Of 142 collected questionnaires, the descriptive data are as: Of total respondents there are 75 men (52.8%) and 67 (42.7%) women. Of total respondents, there are 11 people (7.7%)diploma, 34 people(13.4%) associate, 78 people (54.9%) BA and 19 people (13.4%) MA. Table 1 The mean and standard deviation of organizational spirituality and Employees productivity.   First hypothesis: There is a significant relationship between organizational spirituality and productivity of employees. Table 3 The evaluation of correlation between organizational spirituality and productivity of employees.

Result
Significance level Correlation coefficient Correlation H1 supported 0.000 0.793 Organizational spiritualityproductivity As shown in Table 3, significance level (0.000) is less than 0.05 and it shows that error percent is less than 0.05 and with the confidence interval 0.95, we can say there is a significant relationship between organizational spirituality and employees productivity. Also, the positive correlation coefficient (0.793) shows that with the increase of spirituality of employees of University, their productivity is increased. Thus, the main hypothesis of study is supported and H0 is rejected.
Second hypothesis: There is a significant relation between organizational spirituality components and Employees productivity.  Table 4, significance level (0.000) is less than 0.05 in all components of organizational spirituality and it shows that error percent is less than 0.05 and with confidence interval 0.95, we can say there is a significant relationship between all components of organizational spirituality with productivity of employees. Also, the positive correlation coefficient shows that with the increase of all components of organizational spirituality of employees of University, their productivity is increased. Thus, the main hypothesis of study is supported and H0 is rejected.

Discussion and Conclusion
The results of the study showed that there was a positive and significant association between organizational spirituality and productivity of employees. Results obtained in this research correspond to the results concluded in the studies of [3,4,13,22,5,6,9,15,14,8].
There are many evidences in which a great change is occurred in the majority of organizations and it is called spirituality movement. The organizations as considered as rational systems focused mostly on creating a space for spirituality. These aspects are less associated with the rules and mostly with meaning, purpose and correlation. Spirituality at work place helps the employees to focus on important issues in life; God, family, other people and the materialistic world. This spirituality enables the employees to have better and exact attitude to the position of God and others in their world [25].Also [15] stated that organizational spirituality had considerable effect on the welfare of employees, meaning, purpose, commitment and connection to organization and these factors increased productivity and improvement of organizational performance. There was a direct relationship between spirituality in organization and organizational performance. Spirituality leads to performance improvement. Today, many people are feel dissatisfaction and insecurity [23].Spirituality causes that a person achieves high level of awareness and his intuitional abilities are improved. This intuition is considered valuable guidance and managerial skill leading to one's productivity of productivity of organization.
The results also showed that . there is a positive and significant association Between all the components of organizational spirituality with employees productivity. Results obtained in this research correspond to the results concluded in the studies of[3,18,12,27,11,10,9, 15,16]. In a study, Ebadi Azar identified five factors of wage, materialistic and spiritual reward, welfare and service facilities, employees' participation in decision making and education process. Various studies have shown that due to the wide participation in management, not only the quality is increased but also the efficiency is increased considerably and employees mostly focus on development and application of common intellectual capabilities [26].Also [19] showed that spirituality increased commitment and conscience at work place. The employees who protect the organizational values have high individuality responsibility to the success or failure of organization. The clear spiritual view by fulfillment of individual benefits, provides a strong link between the employees and organization. Thus, motivation, team work and commitment to organizational goals are increased [24].With the improvement of spiritual climate in organization, the managers can improve organization commitment and individual and organizational performance. This is occurred as people with mental security feel others give value to them and they are competent to have respectable behavior and under such conditions, the members of organization feel purpose, selfconfidence and belonging and satisfaction [21].Stephan Rob in his study showed that the employees helping others add the efficiency of hospitals and increase the quality of services [27]. In Imam Khomeini, Valiasr and Rasul hospitals, there was a significant relationship between the helping behaviors and productivity of employees (Ibid). Also, motivation was the main factor of behavior of all people and it is a motivating force in motivation and encouraging people. If people enjoy in their work, this increases productivity in their job.
Also, for high productivity of University, the above recommendations are presented: 1-The attitude of managers of different sectors of University and chief of Marine sciences University of Chabahar to spirituality at work can help the improvement of productivity of employees and the performance of university is increased. It is proposed that instead of considering the materialistic needs, the managers consider meeting the social, mental and spiritual demands of employees to provide mental health of employees and achieve the organizational goals.2. Therefore managers should give serious attention to the subject of spirituality at work and attempt to improve spirituality at work. Managers can, taking measures such as job rotation, job enrichment and empowerment of employees, as well as attention to make work enjoyable, improve employees' perceptions of feeling spirituality at work3-one of the components of organizational spirituality is team sharing and it is proposed that by creating a friendly climate based on the collaboration between the employees of University can reduce the stress of employees and create social capital in University and this increases the correlation of employees and this also increases the productivity of employees of University.4-Survey of employees about values of University and considering health and life conditions of employees can lead to acceptance of goals and values of University values from the employees. If this is done truly, it leads to individual productivity and creates organizational productivity . It is proposed that top managers consider spiritual needs of teachers and attempt to create dynamic and motivating environment.Thus, by these actions, we can hope the employees enjoy their work and this increases their productivity. 5-The manager should communicate with the employees more and make efforts to apply team work among the employees of organization. Creating a space in which the people are encouraged for collaboration can be effective on establishing relationship between aiding behaviors and productivity. Some of the limitations of study are that the respondents avoid responding the questions due to the fear of risk of their job situation or they respond the questionnaires as conservative.