Eﬀectiveness of the Psychological Capital Intervention Model on Organizational Procrastination of Skill Workers in Iran Khodro Diesel Company, Iran

Background: The Luthans intervention model is an educational model designed and developed to enhance psychological capital and psychological capital is a concept mainly obtained based on the theory and research in positive psychology and is used in workplace. Objectives: The current study aimed to investigate the eﬀectiveness of psychological capital intervention, developed by Luthans, on the organizational procrastination. Patients and Methods: The statistical population consisted of 600 skill workers in Iran Khodro Diesel company, Tehran, Iran, of whom60participantswereselectedusingtherandomsamplingmethod. Participantsweredividedintwogroups(controlandex-periment groups). Measurement tools included Organizational Procrastination Scale (OPS) and the Luthans Intervention Program was performed only on the experimental group. Results: Multivariable variance analysis showed that pretest and posttest diﬀerence of procrastination scale and subscales were aﬀected by intervention and had a lower level in the experimental group, compared with the control group. Results of the univariable tests showed that the diﬀerence of procrastination scale and subscales were signiﬁcant in both posttest and follow-up stages according to descriptive results. Conclusions: TheLuthansinterventionmodelandmethodledtoadecreaseintherateof organizationalprocrastination;therefore, it was recommended to hold some courses such as the Luthans intervention program.

Background
The Luthans intervention model is an educational model designed and developed to enhance psychological capital (1,2). Psychological capital is a concept mainly obtained based on the theory and research in positive psychology and is used in workplace (3). Hope, optimism, selfefficacy, and resiliency are the components of psychological capital upon which measurement and management can be applied (4,5). Hope is a motivational state and is composed of 3 elements: agency, design, and goal (6). Optimism is a relatively fixed and general internal attribution to positive events. Self-efficacy means certainty about required abilities to achieve success, and believes in the ability to overcome challenging tasks. Resiliency is known as the positive mental capability to return, deal with problems, and change positively toward achievement and progress, which helps individuals to accept responsi-bility (7).
In the Psychological Capital Intervention model (PCI) developed by Luthans, some programs are designed in order to promote psychological capital with a focus on each of its components. For example, regarding hope, some educations are arranged to teach appropriate, useful, and accessible targeting. Then, the ways of identification and utilization of various paths are investigated in research objectives. In the field of optimism, some programs are used to identify and separate real optimism from unrealistic optimism and also increase the level of positive attributions. Self-efficacy is provided through programs such as feedback, positive reinforcement, and substitution reinforcement in order to establish proper grounds for experience. It increases through feedback, positive reinforcement, and training by examples and substitution reinforcement. Moreover, some measures are taken to strengthen resiliency particularly through tenacity. Trust in capabilities affects the results of the events and the use of opportunities to promote and progress (2,8).
The PCI is tested in several educational and service institutions. According to the results, this model increases psychological capital as well as learning incentives, while it decreases negative attitudes toward work (9). It also affects organizational performance (10,11). Guy showed that PCI educational model can decrease stress and increase resistance to environmental pressures as well as entrepreneurship. Therefore, it is suggested that organizations design programs using this model and its educational structures as tools toward progress. A study by Alipur et al. (12) showed that this model can improve people's mental health. The results of another research showed that this model and its educational structures were effective in decreasing work burnout (13). Moreover, the results of another study, which tested the model with pretest-posttest implementation with a control group, indicated that this model had positive effects on the promotion of psychological capital, increasing self-confidence, and decreasing the feeling of helplessness, pessimism, the feeling of personal insufficiency, and hopelessness and it can be used to deal with problems associated with workplace as well as the effectiveness of management policies and procedures (2,10).
Procrastination is a challenge for many organizations (14). Organizational procrastination means postponing, procrastination, disregard, and negligence to professional tasks and responsibilities. Psychologists think that procrastination puts off works supposed to be done and is related to performance (15). If procrastination continues, it changes into a habit and leads to less self-efficacy (16). It also leads to an increase in stress, failure, and lack of access to goals followed by waste of time and resources and negative outcomes in mental health (17). However, research shows that this phenomenon is universally pervasive and 15% to 20% of adults have procrastination as a permanent problem (18). Therefore, it seems necessary to find strategies to decrease it. As a result, researchers investigate different factors related to procrastination. Steel (18) believes that procrastination depends on various factors such as fear of failure, hopelessness, depression, inability to manage time, and work problems. Ozer et al. (19) considered fear of failure, idleness, and resistance against control as the causes of procrastination. Moreover, investigations showed that procrastination is associated with some features such as hopelessness, lack of personal accomplishment, depression, feeling of personal insufficiency, shyness, low self-esteem, anxiety, social phobia, forgetfulness, disorderliness, lack of energy, and behavioral inflexibility and it is possible to reduce procrastination with changing them.
In recent years, several studies were performed in the field of psychological capital with some variables and job and organizational problems such as performance and job satisfaction (3), anxiety and stress in workplace (10), organizational citizenship behavior (20), attitudes toward work, absenteeism and job turnover, and work burnout (13). The results of these studies showed a significant relationship between psychological capital and such variables.
Moreover, the results of the studies show the effectiveness of the Luthans educational model (10,11) on some variables such as the feeling of personal insufficiency, hopelessness, pessimism, self-efficacy, and resiliency can change performance significantly. Therefore, it may affect procrastination, which is under the influence of the mentioned variables. This is especially true about performance, because procrastination is known as lack of appropriate performance (15). Thus, it can be possible to increase psychological capital through the Luthans intervention model and as a result decrease organizational procrastination. If the effectiveness of this model is confirmed, it can be used to decrease organizational procrastination.

Objectives
This article aimed to investigate the effectiveness of the Luthans intervention model on the organizational procrastination in industrial environments.

Population and Statistical Sample
In the current quasi-experimental research performed based on the pretest-posttest design with a control group, statistical population included experts working in Iran Khodro Diesel Company, Tehran, Iran, with a total number of 650 people. Sample size and numerical variables were calculated according to the following formula: According to the above equation, approximately 22 subjects were selected and according to the possibility of loss of samples and negative effects on ultimate results, 30 participants were selected for each group based on the systematic random sampling method and randomly assigned into experimental and control groups. Inclusion criterion was the skill workers of Iran Khodro Diesel Company who had university education. Exclusion criteria were any history of mental problems, psychological and psychiatric treatment, and attendance less than 7 intervention sessions.

Measurement Tools
The scale of organizational procrastination measurement was used for data collection. This scale was developed by Saffarinia and Amirkhanirazlighi. The scale measures the rate of employees' procrastination in their tasks. The questionnaire consists of 25 items and 3 subscales of insufficiency, emotional disruption, and work avoidance and evaluates procrastination on a range of 5 degrees from 1 to 5. Sixteen items are used to evaluate insufficiency, while 5 items are used for emotional disruption and 4 items for work avoidance. To evaluate the total reliability of the test, insufficiency, mental anxiety, and work avoidance showed the formal reliability of 0.75, 0.642, and 0.734, respectively. The coefficient of internal consistency with Chronbach's alpha was 0.892 for total scale and 0.709, 0.885, and 0.555 for mental anxiety, insufficiency, and work avoidance, respectively (21). Social negligence questionnaire designed by Saffarinia was used to investigate simultaneous validity and the result was 0.633. Factor analysis was used to determine the scale reliability and according to the results, more than 0.47 variance scores were explained with this scale. Moreover, the results of factor analysis showed that the 3-factor model had proper fitness (http://www.drsaffarinia.ir).

Implementation Method
After clarifying the research objectives to the subjects and asking for their cooperation, organizational procrastination scale was implemented for primary estimations. Then, participants were randomly divided into an experimental and a control groups and the experimental group received educational programs based on the Luthans educational model for 10 two-hour sessions. Educational sessions were held once a week. In the current study, individuals received education in a group of 30 participants (the goals are listed in Table 1). To comply with ethical considerations, it was announced that the results would be confidential and the analysis would be done in a group. It should be noted that during the study, members of the control group did not receive any interventions. Since Iran Khodro Diesel Company is very big with a physical space of about 4000 km 2 and given that participants were selected from experts, it was impossible for members of the 2 groups to contact directly and continuously to exchange information about the contents of intervention sessions. However, in a session held for collection of posttest data, some questions were raised regarding the relationship of members of the 2 groups during the previous months. The results showed a weak relationship among participants and therefore, information exchange in high amounts was rejected. At the end of the course, organizational procrastination scale was completed by all participants again and posttest data were obtained. Another test was implemented 2 months later to measure sustainability of outcomes.

Results
In the current study, the Luthans educational intervention was used as independent variable with 2 levels (being in intervention group or in control group). The scale of procrastination and sub-scales of insufficiency, mental anxiety, and work avoidance were proposed as dependent variables; therefore, MANCOVA analysis was used in the study.
At the end, data were analyzed with SPSS version 16. First, some demographic characteristics of participants were determined (Table 2). The data in Table 2 shows similar characteristics of both groups regarding the level of education, gender, employment, and work experience. Since there were no differences between the variables in the pretest, t test was used to investigate the distribution of variables. Results showed no significant difference between the experimental and control groups in the pretest phase (t = 0.110 and P = 0.263).
The Kolmogorov-Smirnov test was used and the results showed that all variables (P > 0.05 and Z = +1.96 to -1.96) had normal distribution. The current study used MAN-COVA and ANCOVA to test the hypothesis.
The Levin test was used to investigate the presupposition of variance equality. The results showed that for the scale of procrastination and sub-scales of insufficiency, mental anxiety, and work avoidance, variance equality was confirmed and they met presupposed requirements to be used in statistical tests ( Table 3).
As it can be observed in Table 3, pretest and posttest differences in the scale of procrastination and subscales of insufficiency, mental anxiety, and work avoidance were in a lower level in the experimental group compared with the control group. Significance of these changes can be determined through inferential statistics. Inferential results of MANCOVA such as Pilaie trace (0.159, 0.205), Wilk Lambda (0.841, 0.795), Hotling tracing (0.189, 0.258), and Roy largest root (0.189, 0.258) showed significant changes both in pretest and follow-up stages.
The results of univariable tests are presented in Table  4.
Based on the data provided in Table 4, F= 9.253 was significant at P < 0.05. In other words, there was a significant difference between the posttest scores of procrastination between the experimental and the control groups by adjusting for the effect of pretest; insufficiency F = 339.9) was significant at P < 0.05. In other words, there was a significant difference between the insufficiency of test and posttest scores in the control group by adjusting for the effect of pretest and the difference was significant. Mental anxiety (F = 4.665) was significant at P < 0.05. Also, work avoidance (F = 4.546) was significant at P < 0.05. In other words, there was a significant difference in posttest scores between the experimental and control groups by adjusting for the effect of pretest.
Results of covariance analysis at follow-up stage are listed in Table 5.
According to Table 5, the follow-up studies showed that after 2 months the Luthans method resulted in the reduction of procrastination and inefficiency components, mental anxiety, and work avoidance.

Discussion
The current study investigated the effectiveness of the Luthans intervention model on decreasing organizational procrastination of employees in industrial centers. Participants' demographic information (Table 2) showed that in both groups, characteristics such as degree of education, gender, type of employment, and experience were almost similar. Descriptive indicators associated with procrastination and each sub-scale, are presented in Table 3. According to Table 3, the scores of pretest in procrastination and its sub-scales showed a slight difference in the 2 groups, but the average of posttest scores was lower in the intervention group, compared with that of the control group. In other words, implementation of intervention program based on the Luthans educational model had positive effects on employees' procrastination and reduced it. These findings were consistent with the results of Li (11). The current study results showed that the Luthans model can affect the incentive to work and change inefficient methods and also affect people's willingness to continue strengthening activities. Abbas and Raja (22) showed that people with higher psychological capital did more efforts to use new work strategies and perform their work-related affairs in determined time period. In a study by Norman et al. (23), psychological capital was introduced as a powerful predictive factor in relation to negligence and work misbehaviors. Avey et al. (24) found that psychological capital had negative relationship with some variables such as job dissatisfaction and delay in performing tasks and an increase in psychological capital leads to a decrease in these variables. Moreover, psychological capital decreased procrastination and affected organizational commitment positively (25). Mental capital increased self-confidence and created positive attitudes toward life and job. As a result, procrastination and delay decrease, and the level of interaction among employees increases (4). In a study by Waterman (26), it was suggested that an increase in components of mental capital can lead to self-confidence, happiness, and interest in job and life. Roberts et al. (27) considered psychological capital as a determining factor in decreasing job stress, negligence, and uncivil behaviors. Luthans et al. (1,10) through the educational intervention increased the mental capital of the organization as well as its financial returns. Studies performed by Avey, Luthans and Youssef (24) showed that an increase in psychological capital led to better job performance, job management, and performance. Therefore, it is possible to decrease procrastination, work burnout, and job problems through increasing psychological capital (25).
Another finding of the current study was that the Luthans intervention had positive effects on procrastination sub-scales (insufficiency, mental anxiety, and work avoidance) and decreased them. This finding was consistent with the results of Luthans et al. (10). They found positive relationship among psychological capital with organizational atmosphere, implementation of decisions, and performance. Etebarian et al. (28) found a relation- Data are presented as mean ± SD. ship between psychological capital and reduction of job problems, job dissatisfaction, procrastination and com-mitment. According to their findings, it is possible to obtain positive effects by increasing psychological capital.
Hodges (4) concluded that an increase in psychological capital can decrease postponing of the activities and increase the level of proper performance. A study by Luthans et al. showed that an increase in optimism toward workplace hope led to more incentives and better performance and consequently decreased insufficiency and work avoidance (10).

Conclusions
Conclusions were made based on the results of tests among the employees in an industrial organization; therefore, the generalization of the results to the personnel's of other organizations should be done with precautions, which is one of the limitations of the current study. To improve the concept of psychological capital in the scientific literature, further researches are still required.
Finally, it can be said that since the concept of psychological capital is recently introduced into scientific texts, more researches are needed to provide robust results. However, the results of the current study provided some evidence that the Luthans intervention model can decrease employees' organizational procrastination. Therefore, given the effectiveness of this program the following recommendations can be given: Due to the importance of psychological capital and its impacts on variables such as procrastination, work burnout, efficiency, and job satisfaction, organizations and institutes should be more aware of its role and hold educational courses such as the Luthans intervention program in workplace to improve psychological capital and consequently reduce procrastination. Researchers are recommended to study the follow-up step among employees of organizations and consider different categories such as gender, age, and education separately to determine long-term effects and the rate of their stability and survival. Describing concepts such as optimism, pessimism, real and unreal optimism and their difference.
Providing definitions of self-efficacy and discussing the characteristics of self-efficient people.
Providing definitions of resiliency and discussing the characteristics of resilient people.

Second
Hope, optimism, self-efficacy, resiliency Investigating the amount of hope and life satisfaction in participants and creating motivation.
Introducing the concept of learned helplessness and its role in optimism and pessimism.
Discussing the role of learned helplessness in reducing self-efficacy.
Providing definitions of resistance and introducing its components (commitment, challenge, and control).

Third
Hope, optimism, self-efficacy, resiliency Informing participants of the role of goals in creating and increasing hope.
Familiarizing participants with the process of attribution and the concept of control.
Investigating the relationship between motivation, will, and self-esteem with self-efficacy and feedback technique.
Concentrating on commitment, and using some techniques in order to promote it.

Fourth
Hope, optimism, self-efficacy, resiliency Familiarizing participants with the ways to obtain clear and attainable goals.
Familiarizing members with internal, external, overall, specific, stable, and unstable attributions and the role of each one in optimism.
Investigating and discussing the ways to increase self-esteem and self-efficacy and use positive feedback technique.
Concentrating on challenge, how problems change into challenges, and increasing the willingness to confront them.

Fifth
Hope, optimism, self-efficacy, resiliency Teaching how a split a big goal into smaller ones in order to increase the likelihood of achieving them.
Familiarizing the members with the role of attributes in optimism.
Concentrating on control and discussing the ways to increase a sense of control on life.

Sixth
Hope, optimism, self-efficacy, resiliency Informing participants of how to formulate clear and concrete objectives.
Teaching how to create and develop positive internal attributions.
Using substitution reinforcement technique through providing global and regional examples of self-efficient people.
Familiarizing participants with problem-based and excitement-based strategies and their role in increasing resiliency.

Seventh
Hope, optimism, self-efficacy, resiliency Familiarizing members with the role of determining daily goals in achieving bigger goals and how to perform it.
Using the technique of unfavorable events analysis into more unfavorable in order to promote optimism level.
Familiarizing participants with scientific ways of problem solving and their practical role in increasing self-efficacy.
Familiarizing participants with direct or problem-based strategies and encourage them to use these strategies more.

Eighth
Hope, optimism, self-efficacy, resiliency Familiarizing members with the ways to use various paths in achieving their goals.
Using the technique of unfavorable events analysis and determining positive outcomes of these events in order to increase the level of optimism.
Inviting a successful and self-efficient person in order to use concrete patterns in increasing self-efficacy. 8 Int J High Risk Behav Addict. 2017; 6(4):e63206.


Capacity Analysis Of Parking Lot And Volume Of Vehicle Toward Sustainable Parking Convenience

The development of human's population is having effect on the increase of facilities and transportation needs. One of the primary problems is the availability of parking area. This has occurred in Universitas Indonesia (UI), mainly in Salemba Campus. The availability of land is not as equal as the number of vehicles, which are to be parked, that is why the convenience of students, lecturers and employees at UI is unsatisfactory. The purpose of this paper is to know the level of parking convenience that is affected by the capacity of parking lots and the volume of vehicles in UI Salemba Campus. The results of this research indicate Salemba campus's parking index. The motor index is still in the category of medium (index 0.945) and the car parking index has less category with a parking index 0.485. While with the location of research object being behind the UI Salemba campus, the results obtained were both the motor and the car are still in the category of “enough” with the parking index of, that is 0.657 for the motor and 0.777 for the car. So theoretically, the parking management at Salemba Campus is in an unsustainable parking degree because, if there is no long-term solution, it will increase congestion in the surrounding area and intensify the dissatisfaction of existing parking users.

Introduction
DKI Jakarta is the most densely populated province in Indonesia with a density of 15,015 inhabitants / km 2 in 2013 [1]. The growing number of working population with various activities in Jakarta has an impact on the increasing need of transportation facilities and infrastructure. That mobilization increases the complexity of managing transportation problems in Jakarta, especially during working days at the hours of entry and return. The availability of parking area becomes one of the indicators of facilities and infrastructure that has a significant influence on traffic density [2], one of which is DKI Jakarta. Transportation facilities in the Jakarta area, especially Central Jakarta, experienced significant growth for private vehicles, such as cars and motorcycles. The minimum availability of parking spaces will influence the driver's time for searching a place to park their vehicles, and this issue can lead to congestion, increase in emissions, and traffic safety [3,4]. The availability of this parking lot is not only stipulated in a policy within the government of DKI Jakarta, but also on all levels, including educational institutions such as the Universities in DKI Jakarta as one of the goals to mobilize the citizens. The condition of the campus's parking management in DKI Jakarta has become the main focus because it is one of the alternative solutions to the complexity of traffic congestion problems, in addition to the focus of public transportation and public road infrastructure. Some of the university have limited land that is not comparable with the number of existing vehicle, as an example we took the parking areas at Universitas Indonesia (UI) Salemba.
Universitas Indonesia (UI) Salemba is located at Central Jakarta, consist of six department, more than 3000 people including the lecturers, students, and the employees. Inadequate parking management and poor availability of parking space are major obstacles in the coverage of activity at UI Salemba. Despite of the university's area that approximately 17,252 ha, the university only provides a merely quarter or less for the parking area, meanwhile most of the students in this university bring their own vehicles, whether it is a car or motorcycle. And not only the students, but also the Lecturers and the employees. The logical consequence of increased private transportation ownership on UI Salemba campus is its relevance to the aspect of parking management and parking availability for Lecturers, Students, Employees and Guests. The purpose of this paper is to know the level of parking convenience that is affected by the capacity of parking lots and the volume of vehicles in UI Salemba Campus.
Management of parking undergone manually or with a system of cooperation with one company that has parking technology, did not give a positive contribution in solving the problem. In the period before the beginning of 2016, the management of parking on the campus UI Salemba is done manually by involving employees and Security of UI Salemba. Many complaints were submitted from parking users toward the manager of the parking at UI Salemba. Then, in the next period of early 2016 up to now, Campus UI Salemba parking management is managed in collaboration with professional parking management companies.
Parking management that includes the availability and determination of parking rates is sometimes not too popular to be accepted and known to the public, especially in many developing countries. In several cities in developing countries which have implemented parking management, they are limited to a certain area within the city. Whereas in the centers of developed countries such as Munich (Germany), and London (England), whose inhabitants have higher levels of welfare, it scales very high in terms of availability and cost on parking spaces to decide driving to a location even a decision for car ownership.

Theoretical Review
The Parking Space Unit (SRP) is an effective broad measurement for vehicles, including the free space and door-wide openings [5]. School or college car parks are grouped into 2 groups: worker / lecturer / teacher working in the college, and parking for students [6].
Determination of parking in general should consider [9]: 1. The width of road 2. Volume of traffic in road 3. The characteristic of velocity 4. Dimensional vehicle 5. The nature of the land allotment and the role of the road concerned Off-street parking can be divided into two types: parking lot and parking garage. Determining the parking space requirements associated with the building function is using the L / SRP approach. Theoretically, the requirement of parking space amount can calculated using the ratio method R = L / SRP. The ratio method is based on the ratio of the floor area of the building (L) to the units of parking space (SRP), which is divided into road sections or parking blocks. The units of parking spaces are of several kinds: parallel spatial systems, cross systems, and parking space systems for two road spaces [7].

Methodology
The research method in this paper is done with mathematical calculations that test the relationship of land parking capacity with the understanding that is the total number of vehicles, both motor and car, parking at certain intervals. The study was conducted in October 2016 because it was assumed that there was a new, professionally managed parking management. Recording time is done in 2 shifts, i.e. morning and afternoon, but time calculation is done at break time. The observation time is 4 consecutive days and done when the lecture is happening normally. This condition was chosen because the mobility of vehicles to campus is relatively high. To determine the value of Parking space capacity in UI Salemba in one hour, can be obtained with dividing the total stall available in the In this study the time interval is one hour. Parking space capacity is calculated to analyze how the vehicle expert fluctuates once every hour. The amount of parking space capacity here is obtained from the number of vehicles that have been using parking spaces on a certain parking lot in a certain time unit. So according to Directorate General of Land and Transportation, the equation to find the parking capacity consist of: While the volume of parking can be explained as the number of vehicles parked at the study site for a certain period of time, in this case calculations are grouped for 30 minutes. Furthermore, the survey data were analyzed to obtain parking volume in each study location for 1 hour. The formulation to calculate the volume of parking space as follows: (Accumulation = Q in -Q out + Q s ) Explanation: Q in = Number of Vehicles entering the parking location Q out = Number of Vehicles out of the parking lot Q s = Number of Vehicles that have been in the parking lot before the observation is done.

Results and Discussions
The parking capacity at UI Salemba campus is calculated by dividing the total stall by the average length of parking. Parking capacity is calculated at 10:00 am to 14:00 pm, the peak busy hour in UI Salemba where the activity of the campus mainly started and finished.  In the previous calculation of parking land and parking volume, the data obtained from the calculation results will then be carried out into advanced analysis phase by determining the parking index of the calculation of parking capacity and parking volume. Parking Index is the comparison between parking capacity and parking volume. Parking index can be used as an assessment measure of parking space requirements, whether the parking space located within UI Salemba campus environment is still in accordance with the standards to accommodate parking requests. The parking index is divided into three categories namely Good (Index 1), Enough (Index <1 and> 0.5), Less (Index <0.5). Based on the previous explanation, the parking index of each location in the parking area in UI Salemba is shown in the table below: Table 2 Parking Index at Campus University of Indonesia Salemba Based on the calculation of the parking index above, the location in front of UI Salemba campus environment, especially the motor parking area is still in the Enough category of parking index, in the number of 0.945 almost close to the number 1 (normal standard parking index), but different with car parking area with category of Less with parking index of only 0.485. While with the location of behind the campus UI Salemba shown that both the motor and the car are still in the category of Enough with the parking index which is, in sequence, 0.657 for the motor and 0.777 for the car.
The less ideal condition of parking especially for cars according to Rye's statement (the transportation and mobility management expert from Napier University Edinburgh) stated that "The car takes place on the road, but on average of 23 hours per day, a car occupies the parking space, And when the car is used, it takes 2 units of parking space at the origin and in the destination, so a lot of space needed for the car. Cars, which are parking, require at least 8 square meters and often more than that for maneuvering space. It is a huge need, especially in densely populated urban areas where land prices are very high. Often, cars get space for parking larger than space for humans to settle." [8]. So based on the calculation of parking load towards parking area, capacity of parking space must pay attention to the existence of a system that take to consideration the function of area, service function of road, traffic volume and direction of movement.

Conclusion
Based on the calculation of the parking index above, the location in front of UI Salemba campus environment, especially the motor parking area is still in the Enough category of parking index, in the number of 0.945 almost close to the number 1 (normal standard parking index), but different with car parking area with category of Less with parking index of only 0.485. While with the location of behind the campus UI Salemba shown that both the motor and the car are still in the category of Enough with the parking index which is, in sequence, 0.657 for the motor and 0.777 for the car.
With this outcome, theoretically, parking management at Salemba University is in an unsustainable parking degree because if there is no long-term solution, it will increase congestion in the surrounding area and the dissatisfaction of existing parking users.
According to the previous description and observation in the research location, then in this research, we try to give suggestions. The suggestions are: 1. It should be provided / placed an active parking attendant in each parking location to assist in the smoothing of vehicles parked so that the provision of parking lot becomes more effective. 2. It needs to be given clear parking restrictions such as giving garrison to parking lots that have not been equipped with markers, so there is no vehicle parking in the wrong place. 3. Creating vertical parking lot (Building Parking) is the best way to solve limited horizontal parking area. With this vertical parking lot, all vehicles and cars can be well managed and do not cause new problems.


extfieldsofstudy: Engineering Physics

text:
Designing Intelligent Secure Android Application for Effective Chemical Inventory

Mobile services support various situations in everyday life and with the increasing sophistication of phone functions, the daily life is much more easier and better especially in term of managing tools and apparatus. Since chemical inventory management system has been experiencing a new revolution from antiquated to an automated inventory management system, some additional features should be added in current chemical inventory system. Parallel with the modern technologies, chemical inventory application using smart phone has been developed. Several studies about current related chemical inventory management using smart phone application has been done in this paper in order to obtain an overview on recent studies in smartphone application for chemical inventory system which are needed in schools, universities or other education institutions. This paper also discuss about designing the proposed secure mobile chemical inventory system. The study of this paper can provide forceful review analysis support for the chemical inventory management system related research.

Introduction
In the earliest days of chemical inventory managing system, laboratory assistant wrote down the chemical stocks purchase, or they looked at how many units were gone, expired or damage at the day's end and the n did their best to forecast future needs. When inventory management system has their revolution, there are many options available today that have change the landscape of chemical inventory management from even 10 years ago. Software or automated system makes chemical inventory tracking easy, allowing laboratory assistant keep real-time inventory and monitor chemical usage. In terms of managing the chemical stock, there will be an easy task for assistant laboratory because with the existing automated chemical inventory management system.
While size and complexity differ considerably among laboratories, every lab manager must master a few essential tasks. They fit into two main categories: overseeing physical assets and managing human resources, with the synergistic goal of maximizing efficiency. Traditional chemical inventory management systems have a tendency to create menial tasks for the whole organization, from spending time searching for chemical containers to reordering stock that can't be found. After years of research, what may seem to be inconsequential losses of time and funds can add up to a serious amount of wasted resources [1]. This affects not only the qualitative environment of the lab but also your organization's long-term operational costs.
Besides that, according to Lester Bynam, (2009), some of high school management did not realised the importance of chemical inventory management system [2]. Chemical inventories found in high schools contain a vast array of chemicals ranging from safe and suitable for education at the secondary level to extremely hazardous, unsuitable and inappropriate for those unknowledgeable or untrained in their use and potentially harmful to the environment. So, in order to maintain lab safety compliance more efficiently, chemical laboratory may need to consider the implementing a digital or automated chemical inventory management system. This paper consists of four main sections and organised in sequence as follows;  Section 1 describes about introduction that introduced the idea and concepts of the chemical inventory management system.  Section 2 provides reviews about researches that have been done in similar scope and also related to this project. This section also discusses about the characteristics for every system that have been reviewed to improvise the proposed system.  Section 3 presents discussion and explanation about the system design and development process. This section also describe about the interfaces of the proposed system.  Section 4 discusses about the implementation and conclusion of this proposed system.  References section consists of the list of all references used in this paper.

Related Work
In parallel with the passage of the latest technology, chemical inventory system has been experiencing a new revolution from antiquated or traditional inventory system to automated inventory system. For traditional method, manual entry in inventory spread sheets can often open opportunities for human error [3]. Hence, chemical inventory management system has been updated from manual management method (paper-based) to automated management method using barcode, QR code and web-based system via smart phone in order to increase their lab management efficiency.

Current Related Inventory Management
Of late, many devices and smart phones have been used widely for similar related purposes. Previous studies have shown that many researchers and developers have developed automated inventory related system. They use smartphones to efficiently check in, check out and look up detailed information on assets and inventory by scanning barcodes or QR codes. Therefore, more researches need to be conducted to improve the technology and capabilities of smart phone to meet the requirement in conducting the chemical inventory management in laboratory.

EMS. Inventory system.
EMS.Inventory is an Android mobile app developed by Chemical Safety Software that helps monitor, move and update chemical containers from cradle to grave (also known as purchase through disposal) [4]. EMS.Inventory records and updates chemicals from the moment they are received on site, distributed, stored, used and disposed. By controlling and updating chemical quantities and storage locations, chemical inventories are stored with compatible chemicals only and never exceed permitted limits. This improves workplace safety and reduces acquisition and disposal costs. MS.Inventory is used alongside Chemical Safety's EMS cloud-based application. It reduces recordkeeping time, streamlines chemical purchasing, and facilitates distribution, sharing and disposal of chemicals. With EMS.Inventory, information is updated in real-time, which allows for timely and accurate management and regulatory reporting. Employees, Lab personnel and management can quickly assess and validate information onsite at any time. The example of graphical user interfaces (GUI) of the system as shown in Figure 1

MSDSonline Chemical Inventory Scanner.
In 2015, VelocityEHS, a software company has produced an automated inventory management system which is MSDSonline Chemical Inventory Scanner [5]. This system basically used device's camera, and scan a QR Code label to retrieve and edit the status of the lab chemical containers. All changes automatically update the inventory in the online account. MSDSonline a compliant chemical inventory starts with knowing what materials are onsite, where they are used/ stored, their precise quantities, and ensuring each has an MSDS QR Code. This Chemical Inventory Scanner mobile application works seamlessly with an MSDSonline HQ or HQ RegXR Account, giving user a quick and easy way to locate and manage the contents of chemical containers in the workplace. User can also scan the QR Codes to retrieve product information and the MSDS document. The example of graphical user interfaces (GUI) of the system as shown in Figure 2.

SafeLab Application.
Safe Lab application is an android based application developed by XDeveloper Software Company in India [6]. This application was developed for safety lab information and inventory-keeping software as a chemicals inventory management system. This application has safety chemical features. It can show the details and the meaning of important chemicals safety symbols for example the chemicals is irritant for skin and eye. So, the lab user will know the safety level of the chemicals in the lab. This application also can generate the chemicals label for new chemicals. Lab assistant can add the details of the new chemical for labelling, and then the application will save as an image. Then, the lab assistant can print that label and use it to the new chemicals container. The example of graphical user interfaces (GUI) of the Safety Lab Application as shown in Figure 3.

Comparing Selected Current Related Inventory Management Application for Review
In order to get an overview of studies about current related chemical inventory management using smart phone application, a comparison between all three application is needed. It is important to obtain an overview on recent studies in smartphone application for chemical inventory system which are needed in schools or universities nowadays, and to compare how those apps are running which can help for inventory management.
Some characteristic was discussed in order to get the best characteristic for the new proposed chemical inventory application. Some of the characteristic needed is user authentication, chemical description access via smart phone, chemical availability monitoring access, and updating chemicals description. User authentication is needed to control the lab data only can be access by registered lab user. Besides that, chemicals description access via smart phone also needed to avoid lab user from touching the chemicals container without knowing the chemical's hazardous description. So, the lab user just read the chemical's hazardous description on their smart phone instead of reading at the chemicals container. Other than that, chemicals availability monitoring access via smart phone also important for lab user or lab assistant to know and monitor the stock availability in order to ensure the lab chemicals always available for lab user. The another characteristic that needed for the chemical inventory application is updating chemicals description. This is important for lab assistant to update latest chemicals description. The comparison of current related chemical inventory management using smart phone application as shown in Table 1.

Designing Application
Based on the comparison of current related chemical inventory management using smart phone application in previous section 2.2, and also in Table 1, there are some basic specifications or characteristics needed in the new proposed secure mobile chemical inventory system. All the characteristics which is user authentication, chemical description access via smart phone, chemical availability monitoring access, and updating chemicals description will be main functional component for the proposed system.

Comparison QR Code and Bar Code
Studies from previous section 2.2, bar codes or QR codes is needed at chemical container in order to store the chemical product description. When debating on the issue of barcodes versus QR codes, as far as data types, barcodes are one dimensional numeric codes, and they are capable of up to 20 characters. This is simple for keeping track of inventory that leaves and enters a store, ensuring that retailers are constantly aware of what they have on hand. QR codes are two dimensional codes, capable of storing data horizontally and vertically. Therefore, the QR codes can hold up to 7100 characters of data, rather than the much lower number which barcodes hold. Additionally, the QR codes hold characters, numbers, symbols, text, and control codes. Due to the fact that the codes are horizontal and vertical, they store the same exact amount as the barcode can, but in only 1/10 of the space the barcode requires. So, when choosing barcodes versus QR codes, in the arena of data storage, QR codes are far greater at holding and keeping storage, and can even store text messages or website addresses [7]. Proposed secure mobile chemical inventory system will have a user authentication to protect data for the chemical lab. Proposed application also will used the QR code as a medium to store the information or details of the chemical. System was built in with the QR code scanner in order to read the chemicals detail on the smart phone. This proposed system also able to edit the data especially regarding the quantity of chemical stock to ensure the availability of the chemical stock. The example of graphical user interfaces (GUI) of the proposed secure mobile chemical inventory system as shown in Figure 5. This proposed secured mobile chemical inventory system has the log in page which is the process by which an individual gains access to this system by identifying and authenticating themselves. This log in page is important in order to prevent unauthorized users from misuse the system. When the log in process successful, user can use the system to scan the QR code and get the chemical product details such as chemical's name, manufacturing date, expired date, quantity, vendor, location and also description about that chemical. By scanning the QR code, the lab assistant can monitor the chemical availability and straight away update the chemicals description.


The Relationship between Size and Performance of Palestinian Water Service Providers

Studies investigating the relationship between size and performance of water service providers are abundant. Yet, this relationship has not been fully addressed in Palestinian water sector, particularly, after the issuance of water law 2014 which calls for merging water providers into large regional utilities. This research evaluates the significant effect of the size of Palestinian water service providers on non-revenue water, staff productivity, collection efficiency, average consumption, average price, operating and maintenance cost, working ratio, and gross profit. The multivariate analysis shows that there are significant differences in working ratio, non-revenue water, staff productivity, average price, and gross profit based on the size. On the other side, no significant differences have been found in average daily consumption, operating and maintenance cost per unit, and collection efficiency based on those providers’ size. The small service providers perform better in non-revenue water, staff productivity, and collection efficiency; wherein, large service providers are more profitable than small service providers. Implications of these findings by conducting further studies will add the value for better merging of the Palestinian water providers and the reforming process.

Introduction
In water sector, finding a way to measure the performance of water service providers has been one of main concerns of regulatory bodies, non-profit organiza-tions and government entities around the world. Like electricity and energy sectors, this sector has received very special attention, not only because water is vital for every human being, but also because of its operation, management, and structure as a natural monopoly. In essence, the relevant studies about performance have assessed service providers' efficiency in a way of input and output in term of cost and production. It's necessary therefore, to look to other areas wherein service providers can work within to achieve financial sustainability.
Besides the efficiency of water providers within the sector, some other detailed topics such as non-revenue water, profitability, bills collection efficiency, and staff productivity, have received considerable interest throughout literatures. Regarding this, non-revenue water can influence in three ways: first, it decreases operating revenue due to unissued invoices. The second way consists of increasing cost of production, operation, and maintenance due to raise in cost of purchases and operations per unit produced and sold. The third one; it raises budget allocation for capital expenditure due to high investment level. Specifically, whether or not high level of non-revenue water, it's a core indicator to measure efficiency and sustainability of water providers. The less the non-revenue water, the more the efficiency and sustainability.
Together, employees' productivity and collection efficiency of service provider are major concerns of recent studies. The bills collection efficiency is necessary for continuity of water service providers. If no receipt by those providers, then, it will be difficult to continue delivering water services to their customers. The more regular invoice payment, the more the cash inflow and financial sustainability. However, the employees' productivity is a necessary indicator for efficiency of service providers. The less the number of employees and the large output produced, the more the productivity and financial sustainability.
Within the context of sustainability and performance areas, the relationship between water service providers' size and performance has many facets. Many studies show small water providers outperform large-scale ones in collection efficiency and non-revenue water reduction. However, in different countries, it proposes that large providers achieve more efficiency in non-revenue water reduction and water bills collections. The same results would be applicable for other performance sides such as staff productivity, working ratio, and profitability. As a result, carrying out a case study is necessary before taking decisions especially in recent years; where, a merging trend of small water service providers into large water utilities is becoming widely implemented in many countries.
The aim of this paper hence is to analyze, using multivariate technique, the relationship between size of Palestinian water service providers and performance areas. Those areas are important for service providers' financial sustainability and continuity in delivering water services. This is to be done by measuring performance of water providers at different sizes. Before that, next section in this paper shortly reviews studies related to this performance and size. Then it presents model specification and methodology that are applied. The analysis and policy implications have been carefully developed to provide practical implications for better performance of water sector.

Related Literature
Many literatures have tackled the relationship between performance and size of water service providers. Some studies indicate large size of water utilities may perform better than small due to economies of scale, scope and density. Others may argue that small provider is more efficient, manageable, and smart. It is imperative, therefore, to review related studies which to that end lead to exert the effect of small, medium and large size on different areas of performance and achievement.
Peda, Grosi, and Liik [1] studied the influence of ownership and size for 43 water utilities serve 68% of Estonian population on efficiency. The researchers found, the larger the size of water providers, the more the efficiency achieved. In water supply, many indicators measure the performance of service providers.
High volume percent of non-revenue water explains inefficient and poor management of water providers. Financially, non-revenue water leads to increase the cost of cubic meter sold, and decrease the revenue expected to be billed. A study in Zimbabwe shows service providers especially large size and in developed countries have better performance because of benchmarking and emerging of new equipment for leak detection. However, those capabilities are limited in developing countries and small utilities [2]. In South Africa, there is a study on 75% of total volume of water supply showed non-revenue water estimated for the whole country was 36.8%. The non-revenue water formed 46% of total cost for rural or small providers; where it about 35% of urban service providers cost [3]. As in summary, those related studies indicated that the larger the size of water providers, the more the efficiency achieved especially in non-revenue water reduction.
In the opposite direction, in some countries, small size of service providers may be more efficient than large. Cross sectional data has been collected from International Benchmarking Network for Water and Sanitation Utilities Database "IBNET" for water utilities serve in 68 countries [4]. The study finds small size of service providers performs more in non-revenue reduction and therefore, less in non-revenue water percent. The author concludes economies of scales are more evident in small service providers and tend to decrease in relation to the size of the operation. Bonifaz and Itakura, [5] analyzed the inefficiency and whether or not economies of scale exist in large urban water utilities in Latin America. The study sketches positive relationship between inefficiency and public owned and managed water service providers. From cost saving issue, the finding indicates no potential decreasing cost with large size of water providers. Therefore, the larger the size of water service provider, the more the inefficiency level, other things being constant.
In this paper, the researcher concludes that service providers' size has effect on non-revenue water and efficiency. In some countries, small water providers perform more efficient in non-revenue water reduction than large providers.
Where in other countries, large providers can decrease unit cost, emerging new equipment for leak detection and achieve more efficiency. In addition to water providers' size, other determinants may affect performance and they vary in different conditions and service areas.
Collection efficiency of water invoices is another area that service providers may be evaluated. William Connell [6] studied the impact of late payment on cash flow. The study finds smaller and medium enterprise sizes are particularly exposed to late payments compared with large enterprises. Abdullah Murrar [7] concludes that large scale of service providers have significant capabilities compared with small providers. Those capabilities, such as large number of collection centers and implementing advance technology can motivate customers to pay their water bills. However, small water providers can also motivate customers to pay their invoices. A cross-sectional data for eight small urban centers in Uganda has been obtained to determine customer decisions to pay water bills promptly. The study shows that social pressure strongly motivates customers to pay water bills [8]. Whether the motivation of customers is performed through social pressure or through new capabilities; the more the bills payment from customers, the more the water providers' financial sustainability achieved. It is important therefore to know which size has significant effect on collection efficiency compared with other sizes.
The size may affect positively on produced unit cost. Generally, the larger the scale of service providers, the lesser the cost of unit produced. A study for World Bank calculates how much operation and maintenance costs would increase with a doubling of service providers' size. Three different results have been found, the economies of scale were found in 10 cases, constant returns of scale in 7, and diseconomies of scale in 3 cases. The study shows, a water provider that doubles the size of served population would increase its costs by 61 percent and 75 percent in Africa and Vietnam respectively. However, some water providers have less benefit from double size as in Peru and Indonesia [9].
The size of service provider hence may affect staff productivity; Leung, Meh and Terajima [10] studied this effect and relation in manufacturing and nonmanufacturing firms for both in USA and Canada. The researchers found direct relationship between size of the firm and total factor productivity in both manufacturing and non-manufacturing firms. The average number of employees in large firms relative to output is less than in small ones, especially in manufacturing firms. In Palestinian water sector, three forms of water providers in term of production and size. Some of them produce and distribute water to their customers. Other providers only distribute it without production, and the other type produces partially, purchases the rest and then distributes it to end customers. It is important therefore, to know which size and structure from those types can achieve more in staff productivity.
Given the fact that generating profits is a key aspect of maintaining water service providers' financial viability and sustainability, the size of service providers may have positive or negative effect on the profit. For profit maximization purposes, a study over 1132 water service providers in Albania, Brazil, Norway, Russia and Poland has been developed. The findings show significant financial achievements by larger utilities at different aspects. The author recommends decision makers to gain from those achievements to merge small water providers into large scale [11]. Another study from France measured the benefit in water sold to final customers and water network losses. The study shows significant economies of scale, positive degree of economies of scope, short-run returns to production density and returns to customer density. Those results indicate that small local communities may benefit from merging into large water districts [12]. However, others may argue that small water providers may generate more profit percentage comparing with large ones. González and García [13] conclude that when there is greater scope of actions, it may be diseconomies conditions which can cancel out possible benefits related to the size of operations. Therefore, the researchers recommend carrying out case studies prior taking a decision.

Research Methodology
A review of related studies clearly indicates many performance areas are affected by size of service providers. This research will test by conducting multivariate analysis the relationship and significant impact of service providers' size on non-revenue water, staff productivity, collection efficiency, average consumption, average price, operating and maintenance cost, working ratio, and gross profit.
The performance areas are selected to achieve financial sustainability of service providers. Four dimensions have been considered: firstly, profit generated by service providers. For this factor, operating, maintenance cost, and average price are added. On the other hand, gross profit margin and working ratio have been included to support this dimension. Generally, less cost and high price, produce more in gross and net profit margin. Secondly, consumption issue, the average consumption may indicate as ability of Palestinian service provider whether small, medium or large to deliver quality of service and continuous supply. Generally, in Palestine, there is shortage problem in water supply. In some areas such as in Yatta & Dura, the per capita per person is less than 30 liters per day due to unavailability of water [7]. A study shows that domestic water consumption depends on adequacy of water supply up to customer satisfaction [14].
Thirdly, it is the bills collection efficiency dimension. It has been known that generating profit through increasing price and decreasing cost is the first step in financial viability. However, this profit shall be collected and changed into cash inflow to enable service provider to pay due invoices and operating expenses.
For this reason, collection efficiency has been reflected as key performance area.
The last dimension in this performance is service providers' efficiency in nonrevenue water reduction and employees' productivity. In summary, the less the number of employees and the large output produced, the more the productivity achieved. On the other hand, the less the non-revenue water percentage, the more the efficiency and financial sustainability.
To enrich understanding in these performance dimensions, site visit to different sizes of Palestinian water service providers to perform interviews with key managers was the first process in this method. The purpose of this visit was to recognize the environment wherein different sizes of service providers work in, and to verify the exerted factors with those managers. According to the Water Sector Regulator Council, (WSRC) service providers are classified into broad three categories based on number of connections they serve. The first one is Small, where, they serve more than 2000 connections. Medium category providers serve from 2000 to 8000 connections. However, the third category is related to large scale of distribution due to their service more than 8000 active connections [15].
In addition to interviews, secondary data has been collected from published performance indicator reports of Palestinian water services providers. The Performance Reports used to be published by the Palestinian Water Authority

Research Model
Referring to Figure 1, the framework is adapted to reflect multivariate analysis, where, in this research the examination evaluates significant relationship and effect of size predictor on non-revenue water, staff productivity, collection efficiency, average consumption, average price, operating and maintenance cost, working ratio, and gross profit. This impact may have positive or negative relation. The following diagram sketches this relation.

The size variable is determined according to the Water Sector Regulatory
Council based on number of connections of water service providers. However, the response variables are performance indicators collected from water providers and published in annual basis. Since only one predicator and many dependent variables, multivariate analysis of MANOVA is used. The goal of conducting MANOVA thus is to maximally discriminate between distinct groups of people, places, performance areas and things as. [17] [18] and [19].

Data Analysis and Discussion
The collected data from Performance Monitoring Reports is analyzed and tested using Statistical Package for Social Science (SPSS). Both descriptive and inferential analyses have been carried out. Appendix

Profitability Analysis
The first performance area in the descriptive and multiple comparison tables is working ratio; this ratio simply equals the total amount of operating and maintenance expenses incurred by service provider over operating revenue generated during the year. The purpose of this ratio hence is to measure the ability of the service provider to cover operating and maintenance cost from recognized revenue, and whether or not will be remaining amount to cover capital expenditures. The default amount of this ratio may be 1, wherein total revenue equals total operating expenses. Less than 1 means revenue covers operating expenses with considerable margin. Back to Appendix Table 1, it shows the more the size of service providers the less the working ratio. This can be explained as large scale of service providers can generate more operating profit comparing with small providers (S = 1.80 & L = 1.01).
Appendix Table 3 specifies whether or not significant differences among the three sizes of service providers. The table shows there is significant difference between small and medium size from the first side, and also significant difference between small and large size from the other side. However, insignificant difference is found between medium and large size of service providers. The same result is matched with the gross profit ratio, where, Appendix Table 1 shows direct relationship between size of water providers and gross profit. The larger the size of service providers, the more the profit generating accordingly.
Appendix Table 3 presents significant difference in gross profit between small and medium, small and large. On the other hand, there is no significant difference appeared between large and medium of service providers in term of gross profit. In aggregates, the two financial indicators work in the same direction and they give the same results. This explains that administrative expenses are not large amount that may affect profitability of service providers, and this confirms that large amount of cost is related to operating and maintenance cost with insignificant in administrative expenses.
This result is matched with other studies, Pervan and Višić [21] investigated the relationship between size of the firm and its profitability. The study proves that firm size has significant positive influence on profitability. A financial data was collected for about ten years to study relationship between size and profit of electrical firms. The results confirm statistically differences between small, medium and large firms size in profit rate. The researchers concluded that small firms have high profit compared with large, and this profit rate increases when those firms grow bigger [22].
As a general rule, the working ratio and gross profit are affected by revenue and cost. The more in billed revenue and less in recognized cost, the more in profit achieved by water service providers. The price of cubic meter sold plays major factor in revenue calculation, therefore, it's necessary to sketch average price and average cost per unit sold, side by side with gross profit and working ratio. The diagram comes with the fact that whether small or large service providers, there is also difference in cost and price values within the same size category.
Some large service providers incurred high cost and charge high price, and others within same size have less. In Palestine, the water supplies for service providers come from two sources: water production and bulk purchases. It has been noted that water providers incurred less cost once they depend on production rather than purchases. The above chart shows, the more the price, the more the revenue recognized, and therefore, the more in profit margin. To summarize, Figure 2 poses, results when moving from small to large service providers. It is noted that cost and price lines become closer as moving from small to large service providers, more also in gross profit margin, more efficiency in working ratio and difference values in the same size category.

Non-Revenue Water Analysis
Appendix Table 1 shows non-revenue water percent is less in small scale of service providers than in large providers. The non-revenue water is near to 29% in medium and small, where, its 37% in large water providers. This result is matched with another study in IBNET over water utilities in 68 countries. Caro-

Working Ratio
Gross Profit Average Price Operating Cost line Berg [4] finds a very dense connections and lengthen network especially in urban is likely more maintenance and has more pressure, therefore, more water losses comparing with small and in rural areas. Abdullah Murrar [23] finds negative correlation between the size of service providers in Balkan countries and non-revenue water percentage. The study shows the more the number of population, network connection density, and number of connections, the more the non-revenue water percentage.
In Palestinian water sector, large service providers always have old, dense network compared with small providers. The largest Palestinian water service provider is Jerusalem Water Undertaking, this utility provides water services for near to 62,000 connections, as of more than 370,000 residents. This provider was established in year 1949, so the network was placed in service before 70 years [24]. In the relation of non-revenue water and size of service providers Appendix Table 3 proposes significant difference between small and large service providers. Another statistically significant is also found between medium and large providers. Where, there is no significant difference between medium and small service providers in non-revenue water based on size (p > 0.05 = 0.887).
In this paper, to have real case study in size and performance issues especially in non-revenue, where, there is small Palestinian town supplied water by its small municipality. The number of water connections in this town is 1430 connections. The water network was built before few years to serve total number of population in the town which is near to 7000 residents. This small town performs well in water service provision: wherein, non-revenue water is less than 7%. Collection efficiency is 98%, and working efficiency is 0.99. In this setting, staff productivity index to 1000 connections is 6 employees. Far from this small town by 15 km, there is large service provider municipality delivers water services to more than 14,300 connections, with total number of population near to 80,000 residents. This large provider suffers from large non-revenue water which is 49%. The collection efficiency is only 51%. Even it has good working efficiency ratio and profitability; it has large number of employees per 1000 connections which are 7.67 employees [16]. The researcher may conclude that size and network place in service date have impact on non-revenue water and other performance areas.

Collection Efficiency Analysis
The ability of service provider to collect water bills from its customers is an indicator for financial sustainability. This research indicates that small Palestinian service providers can collect 64% from their annual water bills; the medium providers collect 62%, where, large providers collect 63%. From statistical point of view, there are no significant differences between the three sizes based on collection efficiency (p = 0.669, 0.802, 0.846). A study over water invoices and collections strategies that implemented in Palestinian water service providers shows many predictors lead to increase collection efficiency as strategies of installation prepaid meters, warning on service disconnection, acquire technology, increas-ing the number of collection points, quality of water services, quality of other services provided and customers' satisfaction. All those variables motivate the customers to pay their water bills [7]. In Palestinian water sector, some of those strategies are always implemented in small, medium and large sizes of service providers. For instance, many small service providers install prepaid meters instead of postpaid meters. On the other hand, some large service providers follow advance technology and build many collection centers, where in medium size, there are many providers deliver high quality of service with prepaid meter installation. Therefore, it may be difficult to differentiate between small, medium and large scale of service providers in term of collection water bills.
The results of this research which are insignificant differences in collection efficiency based on the sizes of service providers are matched with previous reports. Hope, Foster, Krolikowski, and Cohen [25] examined the impact of mobile water payments in Kenya, Uganda, Tanzania and Zambia for 20 urban water service providers that are serving over 12.5 million customers. Some of those providers are in large scale, where, they serve near to 2.5 million residents with more than 300,000 connections. However, other providers are small, and they serve less than 3000 households. The paper shows that collection efficiency among those service providers is undifferentiated. The small and large have near average value of collection efficiency. In some countries, the collection efficiency may be compared with other performance indicators to make sure whether or not the problem is in overall performance or just in specific area. A study shows, low level of customers' payment causes increasing non-revenue water level. Since there is little incentive to save water when no intention to pay for it [3]. In this research, negative relationship between non-revenue water percentage and collection efficiency indicators has been found. The more the collection efficiency, the less the non-revenue water. (r = −0.152, correlation is significant at 0.05 level of one-tailed). This implicates that service providers may use the cash collected from customers to invest to decrease the non-revenue water. It also explains that the service provider which makes poor in collection efficiency may have weaknesses in other performance areas, especially in non-revenue water which is core performance indicator.

Average Consumption Analysis
The core function of water providers hence is to deliver water services to the customers. If there is no available water to deliver, then, the customer will not consume required quantity. In Palestine, the customers of Qalqilia and Jericho service providers have average consumption 170 and 271 liters per person per day respectively. Where in Dura and Yata municipalities, the average consumption quantities are 31 liters per person per day. Leaving other things being constant, the main reason for this variation between large and low consumption is water availability. In Qalqilia and Jericho, wherein large consumption quantities, the water providers are delivering in continuous supply mode. However, high intermittent supply is appearing in low consumption areas, i.e. the customers in Yatta and Dura may wait more than one month to receive water especially in the summer season.
Appendix Table 1 shows that customers of small and large service providers consume same quantities (Large = 95.4 and Small = 95 litters). From statistic point of view, there are no significant differences between small, medium and large service providers based on consumption as indicated in Appendix Table 3 (p = 0.475, 0.966 and 0.388). Explained in other term, the Palestinian water providers are undifferentiated in affording water service to their customers. To see why, remember that Palestinian water service providers can be classified into three broad categories in term of water supplies: firstly, some of them totally depend on their own wells i.e. through water production. Secondly, other providers totally purchase from the bulk provider (West Bank Water Department "WBWD"). The third type is mixing between both purchases and production.
Given the fact that most quantities of water supply are purchased, most of Palestinian water providers purchase from the same source. Therefore, no significant difference in the size of service provider is based on customer consumption.

Staff Productivity Analysis
The staff productivity ratio generally indicates the number of employees required to serve 1000 connections. If the number of staff increases relative to the 1000 connections, then, it will be less productivity. Appendix Table 1 shows that small Palestinian water providers require 4.6 employees to serve 1000 connections, where, the large providers require 6 employees to do the same job.
However, the medium size can serve the 1000 connections with only 3.8 employees. It seems that medium providers are more productive than small and large providers, since they can serve the same number of connections by 82% and 63 % of small and large providers respectively.
Appendix Table 3 proposes statistic significant relationship between small and large of service providers (p = 0.015), and also significant relation between medium and large (p = 0.000), where, no significance was found between medium and small providers. The reason for high number of employees in large providers relative to small and medium is poor management in hiring, and some staff may be also recruited to serve water department, but may serve other departments as safeguard staff, drivers and admin officers.
In Palestine, the fact that small size providers have more staff productivity than large size is matched with some previous studies. Marques [26] measured the total factor productivity of the Portuguese water and sewerage services. One aspect of the research was the correlation between the size of service providers and total factor productivity. The researcher found negative relationship between the size of service providers and the productivity. Many indicators have been considered to represent the size of service providers as number of inhabitants, main length, number of customers, and customers' density. All these variables sketch inverse correlation with the productivity of service providers.

Conclusions & Policy Implication
Measuring the effect of size on the performance of Palestinian water service providers is necessary at this phase. The Palestinian water law [27] calls for merging small service providers into large regional utilities. The purpose of this merging is to achieve more efficiency, water availability and more service quality at reasonable price. In Palestinian water sector, a few studies over this subject were prepared. This study evaluates the relationship and effect of size on different performance areas of Palestinian water service providers. Cross sectional data for those service providers have been analyzed using Multivariate Analysis of Variance (MANOVA). This analysis measures the effect and relationship of one predictor i.e. size of Palestinian service providers on eight responsive variables which are non-revenue water, staff productivity, collection efficiency, average consumption, average price, operating and maintenance cost, working ratio and gross profit.
The results show that there are significant differences in different performance areas as working ratio, non-revenue water, staff productivity, average price and gross profit based on service providers' size. In this setting, no significant difference has been found in average daily consumption, operating and maintenance cost per unit, and collection efficiency based on those sizes. The results show that small service providers perform better in non-revenue water, staff productivity and collection efficiency. On the other side, the large service providers are more profitable than small service providers.
In Palestine, the Palestinian Water Authority PWA is the policy maker in water sector. The results of this research may contribute in some performance areas through the reforming process. In non-revenue water side, exploring the specific reasons of low percentage in small providers comparing with large, such as upgrade parts of networks, high metering level and filling water balance, periodically will pave the way to reduce the percentage. Another strategy that small providers always implement, which leads to staff productivity and bills collection efficiency is prepaid meters. This strategy requires less number of staff to visit, read meters, and process invoices to the customers. It leads to high collection efficiency since parts of old and current debts are collected. However, the last result of this research shows that large providers have ability to decrease the cost and increase the average price, therefore, generate more profit comparing with small providers. Adapting those strategies in merging small service providers into large regional utilities may facilitate the merging process and achieve more performance in different areas.