Sheath knife

A sheath knife is a fixed-bladed knife that fits in a sheath of leather or other material such as nylon or kevlar. The sheath is used to protect the knife and as a carrier. Most importantly, the sheath protects the person carrying the knife (e.g. in the pocket or hanging on the belt) from potentially serious injuries that the sharp, unprotected blade could easily cause. To provide sufficient protection, sheaths made of soft materials, such as leather, often have reinforcements, inside or outside of the sheath, made of metal sheet or other suitable materials having sufficient strength.
The blades vary in size, shape and construction.
In Australian law, "sheath knife" has a different definition. In this case, they are a type of non-folding, fixed-blade knife which has "a sheath which withdraws into its handle", thus giving something of the effect of an "out-the-front" flick knife. These knives, like flick knives, are classed as "prohibited weapons" in Australia.


Trench effect

The trench effect is a combination of circumstances that can rush a fire up an inclined surface. It depends on two well-understood but separate ideas: the Coandă effect from fluid dynamics and the flashover concept from fire dynamics:
The trench effect occurs when a fire burns beside a steeply inclined surface. The flames lie down along the surface, demonstrating the Coandă effect. The flames heat the material farther up: these emit gases that autoignite in a flashover event. The flames from these areas are themselves subject to the Coandă effect and blow a jet of flame up to the end of the inclined surface. This jet continues until the fuel depletes.
Background.
The trench effect became known because of the scientific investigation of the King's Cross fire. The fire started on an escalator (containing combustible wood) between the Piccadilly line platforms and the ticket hall at King's Cross St. Pancras tube station. Many eyewitnesses indicated that early on, the fire in the escalator was of manageable size: officers from the Fire Brigade and British Transport Police indicated that the fire appeared no larger than a large cardboard box burning. Those present were surprised when it suddenly threw a sustained jet of flame into the ticket hall. The Coandă effect alone could not explain the sudden blast that blew some survivors off their feet.
The relatively inconspicuous flames associated with the Coandă effect, hugging the space on and under the inclined trench of the escalator steps, led many travellers to believe they were not in immediate danger. One survivor reported approaching the escalator and noting thick black smoke that suddenly blew up. The main loss of life came from the sudden flashover, rather than the precipitating flames of the 'Coandă effect' fire itself. The people in the ticket hall at the top of the escalators, whilst avoiding the visible flames, were caught in the path of the flashover.
In the early stages of the fire, most of the flames were lying down in the escalator trench: only a few visibly protruded above the balustrade. The sides of the trench further enhanced the effect by preventing heat loss by radiation to the side, insulating and concentrating the heat along the narrow trench. Emergency services were not prepared for a major fire, due to the lack of visible flames. When the treads of the escalator flashed over, the fire grew dramatically and ignited most of the ticket hall. The HSE's Health and Safety Laboratory in Buxton lit fires in -scale and -scale models of the escalator and ticket hall, which demonstrated that the trench effect was the main cause of the intensity and rapid spread of the King's Cross fire. The sudden flashover may be attributed to the wood gas (mainly methane) emitted from the pyrolysis of the wooden escalator itself. When the concentration of gas reaches a critical value, the lower flammable limit, the gas suddenly catches fire in the presence of a flame, resulting in an explosion.
An episode of the television series "Forensic Files" entitled "Flashover" detailed the King's Cross fire, along with the computer modelling and other analyses which discovered the trench effect. An episode of the television series "Seconds from Disaster" entitled "London's Subway Inferno" detailed both the King's Cross Fire based on eyewitness accounts and the investigation leading up to the discovery of the trench effect.
The trench effect has also been cited as the cause of rapid spread of wildfires up hills, which has led on several notorious occasions to the deaths of multiple firefighters.


7mm Remington cartridges

7 mm Remington cartridges are all rifle cartridges with bullets of diameter developed and sold by Remington.
These cartridges include:


List of Superfund sites in Washington, D.C.

This is a list of Superfund sites in Washington, DC designated under the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act.


Pistol sword

A pistol sword is a sword with a pistol or revolver attached, usually alongside the blade. It differs from a rifle with a bayonet in that the weapon is designed primarily for use as a sword, and the firearm component is typically considered a secondary weapon designed to be an addition to the blade, rather than the sword being a secondary addition to the pistol. In addition, the two components of these weapons typically cannot be separated, unlike most bayonet-fixed rifles.
History.
Historically, some flintlock pistols of the 17th and 18th centuries were constructed as gun-swords, with the barrel of the pistol attached to the side of the blade of a shortsword or dagger. A shell guard protected the firing mechanism when it was used as a sword. These were used by French and German hunters to kill wounded wild boar. Examples of these weapons can be found in the armoury of Wawel Castle (Kraków, Poland). Similar weapons were made in India, including the katar (कटार), a thrusting dagger, modern variants of which may feature a single-shot pistol built into one side.
Military use.
In 1838, the United States Navy developed the .54 caliber, single-shot smoothbore Elgin pistol, which was equipped with an 11.5-inch Bowie knife blade and was intended for use by boarding parties; it was the first percussion cap gun in naval service, but only 150 were made. The Navy specifically intended them for the Wilkes-South Seas expedition. Reportedly, in 1840 a naval landing party used the pistol to good effect when Fijian warriors attacked the sailors on the island of Malolo. A few Elgin pistols were still in use during the US Civil War, but proved unpopular. The Navy quickly replaced them with the M1860 Cutlass, which remained in service until the 1940s. Some found their way into civilian hands and some ended up in the Old West.
Pinfire cartridge gun-swords were produced in Belgium during the mid-19th century, although in limited quantity. These custom-made weapons were sometimes used by European officers and featured a loading gate behind the basket hilt. In 1866 T Rauh of Solingen filed a United States patent on the design of a 9mm caliber pistol sword with a 32in blade.
During World War I, the British manufactured a limited number of Webley revolvers with folding blades, similar in design to the Pritchard pistol bayonet. These were used by officers in the trenches for close quarters fighting as the confined space made it difficult to use a sword. However, few were produced due to the expense and scarcity of raw materials.
A rare variant of the World War II Japanese Nambu automatic pistol was a pistol sword. It is possible that this non-regulation weapon was privately purchased by an officer as only one example is known to exist.
Civilian use.
Another notable example of a pistol sword was the Swedish 1865 Cutlass Pistol; 500 were ordered by the government and issued to prison guards. It was a breech-loading 2 shot weapon with a 14in by 2in blade weighing 2.5 lb. A few ended up on the other side of the Atlantic and one became part of Buffalo Bill's gun collection.
In the late Victorian era, some French swordsticks had built-in pinfire pepperbox revolvers to increase their lethality; these were carried by civilians for self-defense. However this idea was far from new; combination swordsticks and wheel lock pistols have been in use since the 16th century.
Disadvantages.
Pistol swords were not widely used and became uncommon relatively quickly, due to their expense and because instead of getting two weapons in one, one got a heavy pistol and a heavy, off-balance sword, as shown by the poor performance of the Elgin pistol.
Modern versions occasionally appear on the market, however, as novelties or collectors' items, including the Sierra Madre knife pistol.


Tuya

A tuya is a type of distinctive, flat-topped, steep-sided volcano formed when lava erupts through a thick glacier or ice sheet. They are rare worldwide, being confined to regions which were covered by glaciers and had active volcanism during the same period.
As lava that erupts under a glacier cools very quickly and cannot travel far, it piles up into a steep-sided hill. If the eruption continues long enough, it either melts all the ice or emerges through the top of the ice and then creates normal-looking lava flows that make a flat cap on top of the hill. Discovering and dating the lava flows in a tuya has proven useful in reconstructing past glacial ice extents and thicknesses.
Formation.
Tuyas are a type of subglacial volcano that consists of nearly horizontal beds of lava capping outward-dipping beds of fragmental volcanic rocks, and they often rise in isolation above a surrounding plateau. Tuyas are found in Iceland, British Columbia, the Santiam Pass region in Oregon, the Tyva Republic in eastern Russia, the Antarctic Peninsula and beneath the West Antarctic Ice Sheet. Tuyas in Iceland are sometimes called "table mountains" because of their flat tops.
S. Holland, a geographer for the British Columbia government, described tuyas in the following way:
Because they erupt under ice and water, tuyas have phreatomagmatic eruptions creating layers of breccia and hyaloclastite above pillow lavas. If the volcano breaches the surface of the glacier it will be topped by a subaerially erupted lava plateau.
Word origin.
The origin of the term comes from Tuya Butte, one of many tuyas in the area of the Tuya River and Tuya Range in far northern British Columbia, Canada.
While still in graduate school in 1947, Canadian geologist Bill Mathews published a paper titled, "Tuyas, Flat-Topped Volcanoes in Northern British Columbia", in which he coined the term "tuya" to refer to these distinctive volcanic formations. Tuya Butte is a near-ideal specimen of the type, the first such landform analyzed in the geological literature, and this name has since become standard worldwide among volcanologists in referring to and writing about these formations. Tuya Mountains Provincial Park was recently established to protect this unusual landscape, which lies north of Tuya Lake and south of the Jennings River near the boundary with Yukon. Around the same time that Mathews published his paper, the Icelandic geologist Guðmundur Kjartansson had distinguished between "móberg" ridges and tuyas in Iceland and proposed the hypothesis that they were formed during subglacial and intraglacial eruptions.
The term "tuya" may be derived from a Tahltan word.


Arthur Fields

Arthur Fields (August 6, 1884 – March 29, 1953) was an American singer (baritone) and songwriter.
Biography.
He was born Abraham Finkelstein in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, but grew up mainly in Utica, New York. He became a professional singer as a youngster.
Around 1908, he toured with Guy Brother's Minstrel Show, and helped form a vaudeville act "Weston, Fields and Carroll".
His first hit as a songwriter was "On the Mississippi" (1912), which he wrote the music for with Harry Carroll and Ballard MacDonald supplied the lyrics. In 1914 he wrote the lyrics to "Aba Daba Honeymoon", which was revived for the 1950 M.G.M. film "Two Weeks With Love" and thus got a renewed popularity which brought Fields large royalty incomes during his last two years.
From 1914 onward, he recorded with many bands and for many labels and had a varied career in the recording industry. In 1918, he was popular for his performance of his "Hunting the Hun" war song. His 1919 recordings with bandleader Ford Dabney may be the very first recordings of a white singer backed by a black band. For a period Fields also formed a vocal trio with brothers Jack and Irving Kaufman, billing themselves as "The Three Kaufields". Fields also often appeared on records under pseudonyms, for example as "Mr X." on Grey Gull Records and related labels. In 1926 he recorded with Oreste Migliaccio & His Queensland Orchestra. His last records were made in the early 1940s.
Among Field's most prolific partnerships was the one with band leader and pianist Fred Hall, with whom Fields made plenty of records and co-wrote several songs, often with comic titles like "The Shoes We Have Left Are All Right", "You're My Little Rhapsody in Blue", and "I Can't Sleep in the Movies Anymore". Hall and Fields also broadcast together as Rex Cole's Mountaineers.
Retiring to Florida in 1946 he also worked in radio on WKAT Miami.
He suffered a stroke early in 1953 and was killed in a fire at Littlefield Nursing Home in Largo, Florida a little later the same year.


2003 Bam earthquake

The 2003 Bam earthquake struck the Kerman province of southeastern Iran at 01:56 UTC (5:26 AM Iran Standard Time) on December 26. The shock had a moment magnitude of 6.6 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of IX ("Violent"). The earthquake was particularly destructive in Bam, with the death toll amounting to at least 26,271 people and injuring up to 30,000. The effects of the earthquake were exacerbated by the use of mud brick as the standard construction medium; many of the area's structures did not comply with earthquake regulations set in 1989.
Following the earthquake the U.S. offered direct humanitarian assistance to Iran and in return the state promised to comply with an agreement with the International Atomic Energy Agency which supports greater monitoring of its nuclear interests. In total a reported 44 countries sent in personnel to assist in relief operations and 60 countries offered assistance.
Following the earthquake, the Iranian government seriously considered moving the capital of Tehran in fear of an earthquake occurring there. The earthquake had a psychological impact on many of the victims for years afterwards. A new institutional framework in Iran was established to address problems of urban planning and to reconstruct the city of Bam in compliance with strict seismic regulations. This process marked a turning point, as government ministers and international organizations collaborated under this framework with local engineers and local people to organize the systematic rebuilding of the city.
Background.
City of Bam.
Before the earthquake, Bam had a population of roughly 97,000. It is one of the most popular tourism areas of Iran, one of its most popular attractions being its 2000-year-old mud-brick Bam Citadel. During the Safavid dynasty (1501–1736) Bam was a large trading hub due to its location on the Silk Road. It gradually declined in significance after the Afghans invaded in 1722, serving as an army camp until its abandonment in 1932. The city became a tourist attraction in 1953, when restoration of Bam's Old Quarter began.
Iranian earthquake education.
There is little earthquake education in Iran although the International Institute of Earthquake Engineering and Seismology established a Public Education Department in 1990 to improve "the safety, preventing, and preparedness culture against the earthquake among all groups of the society". In October 2003, Bahram Akasheh, professor of geophysics at Tehran University, called the effects of public ignorance about earthquakes "poisonous".
Tectonics.
Iran suffers from frequent earthquakes, with minor quakes occurring almost daily. This earthquake occurred as a result of stresses generated by movement of one tectonic plate, the Arabian plate, moving northward against another, the Eurasian plate, at approximately per year. The Earth's crust deforms in response to the plate motion in a broad zone spanning the width of Iran and extending north into Turkmenistan. Earthquakes occur as the result of reverse faulting and strike-slip faulting in the zone of deformation.
The preliminary analysis of the pattern of seismic-waves radiating from December 26, 2003 earthquake was consistent with the earthquake having been caused by right-lateral strike-slip motion on a north-south oriented fault. The earthquake occurred in a region within which major north-south, right-lateral, strike-slip faults had been previously mapped, and the epicenter is near the previously mapped, north-south oriented Bam Fault. However, field investigations will be necessary to find if the earthquake occurred on the Bam Fault or on another. The Bam earthquake is south of the destructive earthquakes of June 11, 1981 (magnitude 6.6, approximately 3,000 deaths) and July 28, 1981 (magnitude 7.3, approximately 1,500 deaths). These earthquakes were caused by a combination of reverse-motion and strike-slip motion on the north-south oriented Gowk fault.
The rupture length of the earthquake was estimated to be around 24 kilometers. More than half of the quake was produced from its southern segment of approximately , where the slip reached a maximum of up to resulting in a large stress drop of at least 6 MPa. Optical remote sensing data shows that the Bam fault is not a single fault but consists of a 4–5 km wide fault system with the main branch running between the cities of Bam and Baravat. The fault ruptured by the Bam earthquake is believed to stretch the along northwest branch of this fault system from Bam southward. Based on these results, scientists suggest that the Bam earthquake ruptured a hidden fault and that in this process an unusually strong asperity was involved, causing the widespread devastation of the tremor.
Damage and casualties.
The quake occurred at 01:56 UTC (5:26 AM Iran Standard Time) on December 26, 2003. Its epicenter was roughly southwest of the ancient city of Bam. Maximum intensities were at Bam and Baravat, with the most damage concentrated within the radius around the city.
At least 26,271 people were killed and 30,000 injured. In terms of human loss the quake was the worst to occur in Iranian history. The BBC reported that a large number of victims were crushed while sleeping. Eleven-thousand students were killed and 1/5 of the 5,400 local teaching staff were also. This caused a significant problem for the local education system.
Up to ninety percent of buildings and infrastructure in the Bam area were either damaged or destroyed, with 70% of houses being completely destroyed, plus 70–90% of Bam's residential areas. This left an estimated 100,000 homeless. Not a single house was standing in Baravat. An important regional center during the 16th and 17th centuries, Bam contained many buildings that were not constructed to survive such ruptures. Many houses in Bam were homemade, and its owners did not use skilled labor or proper building materials to resist earthquakes in the construction. These were often built in the traditional mud-brick style. Mohsen Aboutorabi, professor of architecture at the University of Central England, demonstrated the lack of good building materials by banging two bricks together in Bam, resulting in cracking. On the other hand, Iranian regulations laid down in the 1989 Iran seismic code were better enforced in high rise buildings and skyscrapers.
One reason for the large number of casualties was that when the walls began to fall down, the heavy roofs would collapse, leaving few air pockets in them. The dust and lack of oxygen contributed to the suffocation of survivors. The Iranian government promised to prosecute anyone who violated building regulations, even setting up a special unit to deal with the issue.
A study of 210 victims showed that on average, each person had spent 1.9 hours under destroyed buildings. Among the victims, approximately 19 had compartment syndrome, 32 contracted impaired renal function, and fractures among their bones were common. As a result of these fractures neural injuries were also common.
The Bam Citadel was considered one of the best surviving mud citadels before the quake. Most of it was destroyed, including a large square tower.
Electricity and water supplies were cut by the earthquake. At least 29 serious aftershocks struck Bam following the main shock.
A large number of schools were affected by the tremor. An estimated 1,200 teachers and 10,000 students were killed. Ali Zang-Abadi, head of education in Bam, described the state of pupils and teachers as "badly need[ing] psychological help because they are morally devastated". Around January 5, teachers were being registered to resume educating.
Response.
Iran–United States relations.
Relations between the United States and Iran thawed due to the earthquake. U.S.-Iranian relations had been tense during the early years of the George W. Bush. presidency, having reached a low after the "axis of evil" speech given by President George W. Bush. However, following the earthquake, White House spokesman Scott McClellan spoke on behalf of President Bush: "Our thoughts and prayers are with those who were injured and with the families of those who were killed."
The U.S. offered direct humanitarian assistance to Iran which was initially rejected but accepted later. On December 30 an 81-member emergency response team was deployed to Iran via U.S. military aircraft which consisted of search and rescue squads, aid coordinators, and medical support resulting in the first U.S. military airplanes to land in Iran for more than 20 years. Sanctions were temporarily relieved to help the rescue effort.
In return, Iran promised to comply with an agreement with the International Atomic Energy Agency which supported better monitoring of its nuclear interests. This led U.S. Secretary of State Colin Powell to suggest direct talks with Iran in the future, however, he also said that the U.S. was still concerned about other Iranian issues such as the prospect of terrorism and the country's support of Hamas.
Reaction to the help and rescue from the U.S. was mixed. It was well received by physicians and civilians at the scene, however, in contrast to this support, IRNA, the state-controlled radio in Iran, accused the United States of illegal interference in internal matters. Khatami, while not criticizing U.S. aid, had expressed regret about the politicization of this event. Interior Minister Abdolvahed Mousavi Lari accepted U.S. assistance but rejected Israeli assistance due to the political tensions between the two countries and Iran's lack of recognition of the state of Israel.
Relief.
Bam was described as "literally a rubble pile" by the U.S. relief coordinator, Bill Garvelink. Iranian President Mohammad Khatami called the earthquake a "national tragedy" and urged all Iranians to help its victims. The disaster brought in prompt pledges of aid, resulting in President Khatami's statement that the "spirit of humanity and kindness is alive." The Supreme Leader Ayatollah Ali Khamenei visited the damaged areas on December 29, urging all Iranians and international organizations to help in anyway possible.
On January 8, the International Federation of the Red Cross and the U.N. launched an international appeal for relief together at a conference in Bam, appealing for $42 million and $31.3 million respectively. In response a reported 44 countries sent in personnel to assist in operations and 60 countries had offered assistance in the aftermath of the earthquake. By January 15, the U.N. World Food Program (WFP) had distributed approximately 100,000 rations of food. The United Nations sent experts to coordinate the relief effort. The Red Crescent set up tents to house survivors.
The People's Republic of China was one of the first countries to supply aid. Upon hearing of the quake, it immediately sent a 43-member rescue squad. In total, its government donated 15 million yuan (US$1.81 million). Many individuals and companies also donated money and/or supplies.
The 81-member emergency response team worked with an 11-member Fairfax County USAR Task Force (VA-TF1), 57 member International Medical/Surgical Response Team (IMSuRT), and a 6-member Management Support Team (MST) from the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA). USAID and OFDA sent in five airlifts of supplies for relief, including 1,146 tents, 4,448 kitchen sets, approximately 12,500 blankets, and 430 rolls of plastic sheeting amounting to a cost of $543,605. The U.S. Department of Defense (DOD) sent in seven C-130s with approximately 68 tonnes of medical supplies and 2,000 blankets also assisting in relief.
From December 31 to January 4, the IMSuRT field hospital treated 727 patients, including surgeries and post-trauma cases of shock. The IMSuRT hospital closed on January 5, and from then on the International Federation of the Red Cross (IFRC) field hospital took the responsibility, reporting 550 outpatients per day on January 13. That day, the IFRC announced that the Iranian Red Crescent Society (IRCS) had sent in 75 volunteers, organized in 11 teams to treat earthquake survivors for shock and to provide psychological support.
During the nights following the earthquake, the temperatures would drop to "bitterly cold" extremes, effectively killing some survivors. Many of these individuals were living in unheated tents among the rubble which forced the coordinators to move thousands of families to heated camps on the outskirts of Bam. Unfortunately, this action was met with some resistance and resulted in many residents to stay in place. The Iranian government was, conversely, criticized for not doing enough supplying of tents. Those that owned motorized vehicles were met with jammed traffic going both ways through Bam. Survivors loaded their belongings to move elsewhere while relief supplies, volunteers, and relatives were arriving. In some areas, looters stole food from warehouses and local markets, causing the police force to react to stop further destabilization of the rescue efforts.
On December 29, a baby girl named Nassin was discovered alive under the rubble in her deceased mother's arms. "China Daily" called it "a rare moment of joy amid the devastation of Iran's worst earthquake for years." Around this time, relief operations had begun to shift from finding survivors to caring for them. Rescue workers began to slow their efforts, although three individuals were discovered alive shortly after. Water and electricity were restored to most parts of the city by then as well.
One of the most notable rescues was that of 97-year-old Sharbānou Māzandarānī (شهربانو مازندرانی in Persian), who was trapped in her home for eight days until she was rescued unhurt on January 3. Rescue workers took three hours to dig her out after sniffer dogs found her. Renewed media interest came to Bam on January 8, when a man was pulled out of the rubble alive. The chances of finding more living survivors following this were reportedly very slim.
An Iranian navy helicopter crashed southwest of Bam on December 28 after making a delivery of tents and blankets. It was headed toward Bandar Abbas as it went down for unknown reasons. On deck were two pilots and a third person, none of whom survived. The helicopter was one of more than 500 who delivered aid to the Bam region.
Aftermath.
After the earthquake, the Iranian government considered moving the state capital from Tehran to another location for fear of a crippling event similar to what had just befallen Bam. Tehran lies on a major fault which scientists have predicted may suffer from a devastating earthquake similar to that of Bam in the near future. The most cited example for the new capital was Isfahan, a city in central Iran that had previously served as capital until it was moved to Tehran in 1788.
The year 2003 was later declared to be the deadliest earthquake year globally since 1990, primarily due to the Bam earthquake which contributed almost 75% of the Earth's earthquake fatalities for that year.
Reconstruction.
Planning.
In January 2004, the United Nations estimated that a reconstruction of Bam would cost between US$700 million and $1 billion. It called on the international community to provide money for this endeavor. The Iranian government had announced over state television that it had earmarked roughly $410 million for this reconstruction.
Given the failure of the mud brick buildings and lack of compliance with the 1989 Iranian seismic code, the reconstruction in Bam paid special attention to using earthquake durable materials. Dr. Hamid Eskander who was in charge of the Bam reconstruction effort said "There will be no more mud bricks in Bam. The new design will have to take into account proper seismic design techniques and parameters. When you go with the old-style buildings and old-style engineering you're looking for trouble so we're going to change it now." Horst Indorf, a representative for permanent shelter issues from ASB, a German non-government organization, frowned on the use of iron structures in the city given its movement during an earthquake, saying "The best architecture for this area is clay brick (with nets) but this means 80 to 90 cm thick walls and a very good insulated roof".
The Iranian Government established the Guiding Office for the Recovery of Bam (GO), consisting of a panel of 11 members, with the Minister of Housing and Urban Development as the chairman. The G.O. played a key role in the reconstruction progress by appointing consulting architects to plan, analyze and review possible strategies in the urban redesign for enhanced earthquake resistance in the future. The general community affected by the earthquake were given the liberty to actively participate in the planning, design and construction process, with householders often contributing in the reconstruction by selecting their own designs and cooperating with the architects and contractors to ensure a desirable and effective redevelopment.
Also established was the Council of Architecture and Urban Development (CAUD), a council of eight prominent professionals including HF members, architects, engineers, and businessman. CAUD played a role in the governance and finance of the reconstruction by ensuring that new structures complied with guidelines and by regulating bank loans and credit for the newly built structures. The council inaugurated the Bam Sustainable Reconstruction Manifesto, a further committee of experts in reconstruction to ensure the planning and building was conducted in coordination with the seismic code but also to retain the sense of urban identity of Bam during these efforts.
The United Nations Human Settlements Programme, UN-HABITAT, launched a project to address the issue of earthquake-resistant structures on March 1, 2004 in Bam. The UN worked together with the government councils and the community to overlook the reconstruction process which also involved the Islamic Revolutionary Housing Foundation. The UN Habitat project was scheduled to last six months and was estimated to cost $400,000.
Problems of redevelopment.
While the established councils and efforts at collaborative planning were set up during the reconstruction phase, it has been considerably more difficult for the many stakeholders in the building to gain consensus on architectural decision making, given diverse and often conflicting interests. In reality actual collaboration was more limited than initially foreseen, and international support and involvement in relation to actual reconstruction was low. In addition to this, the reconstruction plan has been markedly slow to implement. It took a considerable amount of time for the planning company to prepare the city's new overall urban plan, and two years after the disaster was still not adopted and authorised for implementation by the councils involved. This was largely due to a conflict of interest between them and the contractors and the differing architectural demands of people at a local level. Consequently, the actual reconstruction was initiated without acknowledgment to the overall urban strategic master plan, resulting in the discarding of many of the original proposals and scope for collaboration. Notably the city reconstruction planners have had serious difficulties in regards to the planning of the streets and their width, which has seen them purchase over 1200 properties to facilitate and help shape the infrastructural redevelopment process. One of the factors that the re-developers failed to take into account was therefore social factors such as vulnerability, resulting in a slow rebuilding process.
Successes and benefits of redevelopment.
Although the reconstruction process was prolonged and planning was often difficult to coordinate and approve, the post-earthquake reconstruction of Bam is considered by the stakeholders in the process to be of monumental importance and influence in the future for the way in which reconstruction programs in the country operate. During the reconstruction of Bam, the engineers significantly raised the standards of building and the obligations of the 1989 Seismic building code were closely followed.
Economically, the redevelopment of Bam following the earthquake provided the city with considerable opportunities for growth, and culturally, despite the extensive damage caused by the earthquake, has seen many continuities and even an advancement in these traditions. Notably the redesign and rebuilding of the city greatly improved the irrigation system and its quality, crucial to the date industry in Bam. During the reconstruction process, the improvement of the irrigation system beyond its original state increased the quality and quantity of production, and the rapidity of the process prevented the collapse of date production following the earthquake. The growth of the date industry since the earthquake in Bam has seen the expansion of the palm orchards, and an increase in investment and employment.
Medical impact.
Psychologically, the earthquake had a profound impact on its victims and not just in the immediate aftermath. As a result of the quake, two hospitals in Bam collapsed leaving the remaining hospitals to be overcrowded. Emergency centers were set up to care for the injured, though many centers did not have enough room to do so. Of all of Bam's health workers, half were killed in the rupture. The World Health Organization (WHO) appealed for $4 million in medical relief. One of the priorities in this operation was to help mental health patients, many of whom were traumatized over the experience. A situation report released by the U.N. Disaster Assessment Coordination Team noted a rise in post-traumatic stress disorder and depression.
Another effect of the rupture on the medical community was the disruption of drug trafficking. Before the earthquake in Bam, roughly 20% of the population over 15 was addicted. Syringes with opium were supplied to drug addicts in the aftermath.
The Iranian Red Crescent Society (IRCS), who had begun a planned six month recuperation programme in the aftermath, were still present in Bam a year later. In September 2004, the treatment of mental disorders associated with the disaster was still at a high level, with one counselling centre in Bam receiving 129 new Post Traumatic Stress Disorder patients in that month. In December 2004, Mohammed Mukhier, head of delegation for the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies in Iran said about the situation, “Twelve months later, signs of the devastation are still evident, not just in the collapsed buildings but in peoples’ minds. Integrating psychological support into the relief effort right from the beginning of a sudden-onset disaster is a model that could be used more widely. Our experience in Iran can be used in response to future disasters elsewhere, and we should take care to provide that support both to the victims and to rescue workers."
The psychological programme assessed 20,000 people, 9,300 of which were identified as needing mental support, with more than 5,600 people going through individual or group counseling as a result. The Iranian Red Crescent Society received support from the Red Cross societies of Denmark, Iceland, and Italy but the main source of funding was provided by ECHO, the humanitarian office of the European Union. The programme not only provided conventional medical therapy, but also provided affected people with leisure facilities such as painting, sewing and computer classes as a treatment.
Although the permanent hospital in Bam was rebuilt, the temporary hospital is stored in preparation for a future emergency response to as disaster, not only in Iran but in the regional area. In response to the earthquake, the International Federation of the Red Cross mobilized international funds and resources to assist the Iranian Red Crescent in vastly improving its environmental disaster response strategies which has seen the construction of an urban health center and ten schools with a formal training programme for its relief officers, and a road rescue station, completed in late 2005.
Rise of illicit drugs and fall-off working people of Bam.
After the earthquake, survivors began using opium on a large scale which was easily accessible due to Bam's location on a trade route for drugs coming from Afghanistan and Pakistan. By 2006, over 50% of men and roughly 15% of women were addicted with the youngest addict allegedly being 11 years of age. Construction workers have historically been large injectors, and the rise in addiction may have been attributed to this group passing needles on to the public. An anonymous UNICEF worker claimed that drugs were slowing reconstruction and lessening motivation.
Films based on the earthquake.
"Colors of Memory", released in 2008, tells the story of a surgeon who returns home to Bam after living in Germany for 33 years. Dr. Parsa arrives in Tehran to perform a complex operation, where he notices a family friend named "Quanati" who urges him to come back to his hometown of Bam for assistance. The film was praised by Canadian Online Explorer as "both celebratory and heartbreaking" and urged Iranians "to bring tissues."
"Voices of Bam", released in 2006, is a Dutch-made documentary film about the incident.


Service rifle

A service rifle (or standard-issue rifle) is a rifle a military issues to regular infantry. In modern militaries, this is typically a versatile and rugged battle rifle, assault rifle, or carbine suitable for use in nearly all environments. Most armies also have service pistols or sidearms to accompany their service rifles.
History.
Firearms with rifled barrels existed long before the 19th century but did not become widely used before the end of the American Civil War. Thus, rifles in the early 19th century were for specialist marksmen only, whilst ordinary infantry were issued less accurate smoothbore muskets which had a higher rate of fire, with bore diameters as high as 19 mm (0.75 inch). Early "service rifles" of the 1840s, such as the Prussian Dreyse needle gun (1841) and the Swiss Infanteriegewehr Modell 1842, were technically still muskets.
Ordnance rifles were introduced in the 1860s, with the French Chassepot (1866) and the Swiss Peabody "Gewehr Modell" 1867. In the United States, the Springfield Model 1873 was the first breech-loading rifle adopted by the United States War Department for manufacture and widespread issue to U.S. troops.
The development of "Poudre B" smokeless powder in 1884, introduced with the French Lebel Model 1886 rifle, spelt the end of gunpowder warfare and led to a jump in small arms development. By the beginning of World War I, all of the world's major powers had adopted repeating bolt action rifles such as the British Lee–Enfield, the German Gewehr 98, and the Russian Mosin–Nagant.
During the Second World War, the United States adopted the M1 Garand, first brought into service in 1936. Despite advancements in rifle technology, the United States was the only country to adopt a semi-automatic rifle as their service rifle. While other countries did develop semi-automatic rifles, these were used in limited numbers. For comparison, Germany produced 402,000 Gewehr 43 rifles, compared to 14,000,000 of the Karabiner 98k (a shortened variant of the Gewehr 98). However, it was during the war that Germany also produced the StG 44, an assault rifle, capable of controllable fully automatic fire from a 30 round magazine. After the war, the StG 44 was of particular interest to the Soviet Union, whose AK-47 was derived heavily from the German design. In the 1970s, the United States developed the M16 rifle, cementing the applicability of assault rifles.


Solomon Mujuru

Solomon Mujuru (born Solomon Tapfumaneyi Mutusva; 5 May 1945 – 15 August 2011), also known by his nom-de-guerre, Rex Nhongo, was a Zimbabwean military officer and politician who led Robert Mugabe's guerrilla forces during the Rhodesian Bush War. He was from the Zezuru clan. In post-independence Zimbabwe, he went on to become army chief before leaving government service in 1995. After leaving his post in the Zimbabwe National Army, he got into politics becoming Member of Parliament for Chikomba on a Zanu PF ticket. He was generally regarded as one of the most feared men in Zimbabwe. His wife, Joice Mujuru, became Vice-President of Zimbabwe in 2004.
Biography.
Early life.
He was born Solomon Tapfumaneyi Mutusva Mujuru in Enkeldoorn, Southern Rhodesia. He was raised in colonial Rhodesia's Chikomba region. Mujuru took an interest in politics at an early age. He was first arrested for his activism while a student at Zimuto High School and later joined the youth league of the Zimbabwe African People's Union (ZAPU). He was detained again by the Rhodesian authorities in 1966 and sentenced to two years' imprisonment. Upon his release, Mujuru fled to Lusaka, Zambia, where he was recruited for guerrilla training in the Soviet Union.
Rhodesian Bush War.
During the Zimbabwe War of Liberation Mujuru, with Josiah Tongogara, led the Zimbabwe African National Liberation Army (ZANLA) while Robert Mugabe was in jail for 10 years (from 1964 to 1974). Mugabe, along with Edgar Tekere, subsequently slipped into Mozambique after their release, with assistance from chief Rekayi Tangwena, where Mujuru petitioned the insurgents to accept Mugabe as their leader.
In 1976, Mujuru was appointed military chief of the Patriotic Front, a theoretical amalgamation of ZAPU and Mugabe's Zimbabwe African National Union (ZANU). From 1976 to 1979, he supervised operational planning, infiltration, and the movement of ZANLA cadres inside Rhodesia. In 1980, the ZANLA commander was instrumental in demobilising former guerrillas in assembly points monitored by Commonwealth forces.
Post-Independence.
Promoted to general in the new Zimbabwe National Army, Mujuru oversaw ZANLA's integration into the Zimbabwe Defence Forces. He was appointed chief of the army following the resignation of Lieutenant-General Peter Walls, and retired in 1992 to go into business. As a civilian, he became influential in the Zimbabwe National Liberation War Veterans Association, lobbying for increased veterans' welfare and a prominent stake in the land reform programme.
Politics.
It was generally thought that Mujuru had a tremendous amount of influence on who would lead ZANU-PF and the country. He was the only person believed to have had the stature to challenge Mugabe during party meetings. Newspaper reports claimed Mujuru had been under house arrest and 24-hour surveillance between 2007 and 2008 for his role in attempting to oust Mugabe. However, he remained an influential member of the ruling ZANU-PF politburo and central committees. Mujuru and his wife were among the ZANU-PF party members subject to personal sanctions imposed by the United States.
Business and Black Economic Empowerment.
Mujuru was a successful businessman and commercial farmer, who both advocated and benefitted from indigenisation and black economic empowerment in Zimbabwe. He had diverse business ventures, which included mining, agriculture, transport, tourism and investment in the construction industry. In the mid-1990s Mujuru clashed with Emmerson Mnangagwa, long considered Mugabe's favoured heir, when Solomon bid to buy into the multibillion-dollar Zimasco, a chrome mining and smelting concern in Zimbabwe's Midlands Province.
Farming.
Popular speculation is that Mujuru owned anywhere between six and sixteen farms, including Alamein Farm, seized from Guy Watson-Smith during the fast-track land reform in 2001. His seizure of Alamein Farm was at the time ruled illegal by the Supreme Court of Zimbabwe.
Mujuru farmed with tobacco, maize and game at Alamein Farm. Farm workers also produced their own tobacco on land allocated to them.
Death.
Solomon Mujuru died in a fire in the early hours of the night of 15 August 2011, at the homestead of Alamein Farm, in circumstances that many commentators suggest were suspicious.
He had stopped at the Beatrice Hotel, 60 km south-west of Harare, where he had drunk and chatted with patrons; he was having an early night before a long journey the next day. A maid and guard at the farm testified they heard gunshots two hours before flames were seen at his farmhouse. Mujuru had left groceries and his cell phone in his car, something he had never done before. The general had taken 40 minutes to drive from the hotel to his farm, a journey of 10 minutes. The lone policeman was asleep at the time, and after he awoke, he had no airtime, and the radio was broken. When the firetruck arrived it had no water.
An inquiry was opened. The coroner investigating Mujuru's death concluded he had died of smoke inhalation, but Mujuru's family lacks confidence in the coroner's findings. They plan to petition for approval to exhume Mujuru's remains and have them independently examined by a doctor of their own choice. Mujuru's remains are located at Heroes Acre, a memorial in Zimbabwe.


Water Warfare (video game)

Water Warfare ( in Japan) is a first-person shooter video game by Hudson Soft for WiiWare. It is the second game in the genre to be released by Hudson Soft for WiiWare (after "Onslaught").
Involving combat with water guns, Hudson has described the family friendly game as a "first-person soaker", which holds up Hudson's core design philosophy that prohibits explicit violence between people playing a game.
Gameplay.
Along with replacing firearms with water guns of several types (such as water firing machine guns, sniper rifles and rocket launchers), the game also replaces grenades with water balloons, armor with raincoats, and health bars with wet T-shirts, with health regenerated as the shirt dries in the sun or by the player picking up a towel. The water guns are refilled via drinking fountains situated around each level, with the game featuring 8 maps set amongst nature parks, beaches, playgrounds and a Venetian city.
The game features split-screen multiplayer for 2 players and online multiplayer for up to 8 players. Six multiplayer modes are featured including Battle Royale (survival), Deathmatch, Treasure Chest (capture the flag), a team-based Assault mode and Point Rally (race). The game also features a 38 mission long single player campaign, a spectator mode and bots to play against.
Like other Wii games in the genre, "Water Warfare" uses the pointer function of the Wii Remote to aim and the Nunchuk to move. The game also supports the Wii Zapper and Classic Controller. Unlike other Wii games, the maps change at random every game. For example, a slide that is on a hill in one game would be somewhere else in another.
Reception.
IGN's Daemon Hatfield thought the game was "visually ancient" but still fun, though conversely editor Matt Casamassina stated he thought the game was "a laughably bad, dated, shoddily executed FPS". Wiiloveit.com, on the other hand, had high praises for it, describing it as "a fantastic download for Wii owners, whether young or old".


Andrews Air Force Base

Andrews Air Force Base (Andrews AFB, AAFB) is the airfield portion of Joint Base Andrews, which is under the jurisdiction of the United States Air Force. In 2009, Andrews Air Force Base merged with Naval Air Facility Washington to form Joint Base Andrews. Andrews, located near Morningside, Maryland in suburban Washington, D.C., is the home base of two Boeing VC-25A aircraft with the call sign Air Force One when the president is on board, that serve the President of the United States, and the President is typically flown in and out of Andrews when travelling from Washington, D.C. by plane.
The host unit at Andrews is the 316th Wing, assigned to the Air Force District of Washington. It is responsible for maintaining emergency reaction rotary-wing airlift and other National Capital Region contingency response capabilities critical to national security and for organizing, training, equipping and deploying combat-ready forces for Air and Space Expeditionary Forces (AEFs). The 316th Wing also provides installation security, services and airfield management to support the President, Vice President, other U.S. senior leaders and more than 50 tenant organizations and federal agencies.
The 316th Wing provides security, personnel, contracting, finance and infrastructure support for 5 Wings, 3 Headquarters, more than 80 tenant organizations, 148 geographically separated units, 6,500 Airmen in the Pentagon, as well as 60,000 Airmen and families in the national capital region and around the world. The 316th Wing supports contingency operations in the capital of the United States with immediate response rotary-assets. It also provides security for the world's highest visibility flight line and is responsible for ceremonial support with the United States Air Force Band, Honor Guard and Air Force Arlington Chaplaincy.
The wing commander is Colonel Tyler R. Schaff, and the command chief master sergeant is Chief Master Sergeant Thomas C. Daniels.
For statistical purposes the base is delineated as a census-designated place by the U.S. Census Bureau. As of the 2010 census, the resident population was 2,973.
History.
Union American Civil War troops used a country church near Camp Springs, Maryland for sleeping quarters (now named Chapel Two) and on 25 August 1941, President Roosevelt directed use of the land for an airfield.
Camp Springs Air Base.
Camp Springs Air Base was designated on 5 September 1942, and construction began on 16 September 1942. The Maryland World War II Army Airfield of the 1st Air Force was "designated a sub-base of Headquarters, Baltimore AAFld, late Nov 1942"—the 901st Quartermaster Company (Construction) became the base operating unit on 14 December 1942. Camp Springs Army Air Base opened on 2 May 1943, and the airfield became operational 2 May 1943 when the first Republic P-47 Thunderbolts arrived. after the 367th Fighter Squadron was stationed at Camp Springs on 21 April 1943. On 6 June 1943 the Camp Springs headquarters gained command of 4 sub-bases: Baltimore AAFld, Dover Army Airfield, Millville Army Airfield, and Philadelphia Municipal Airport became sub-bases of Camp Springs AAB.
The airfield had runways by 1944 when the 90th Fighter Control Squadron was formed (28 March 1944), and the last Camp Springs combat units (e.g., 535th Fighter Escort Squadron) departed for World War II combat on 10 April 1944. Camp Springs was expanded to become the initial headquarters of Continental Air Forces (CONAF) (activated 12 December 1944)—the 161st AAF Base Unit (CONAF) became the "Andrews Field" operating unit on 16 April 1945.
Andrews Field.
Andrews Field was named on 7 February 1945 in honor of Lt Gen. Frank Andrews and in 1946, Andrews was a sub-base of Bolling Field (3 January 1946 – 20 November 1946). Strategic Air Command headquarters transferred from Bolling Field to Andrews. The command of CONAF's Radar Bomb Scoring detachments (e.g., at Dallas Love Field) transferred to Andrews on 17 March 1946 when the "263 AAF BU" was assigned (transferred 23 February 1948) to Carswell AFB).
Andrews was transferred from the Army to the Air Force in 1947, and it was a Headquarters Command installation from 1947 through 1952 and again after 1957. Headquarters Military Air Transport Service controlled the base during the interim period. The year 1947 marked the arrival of the first permanently assigned jet-powered aircraft, the F-80 Shooting Star, at Andrews. The long-lived and versatile training version of the F-80, the T-33, still played an important role in proficiency flying programs at Andrews more than 30 years later.
Andrews Air Force Base.
Andrews Air Force Base was designated on 24 June 1948, and in June 1950, Andrews rapidly became involved in combat readiness training for B-25 Mitchell medium bomber crews. Combat readiness training and proficiency flying for military pilots assigned non-flying duties in the Washington area have remained two key elements in the local mission since the establishment of the base. HQ Air Research and Development Command (later, Air Force Systems Command) moved to Andrews from Baltimore, 24 June 1958. With the construction of new facilities beginning in 1959, Andrews had become by early 1962 the primary USAF flight installation serving the Washington, DC, area with the closing of the runway at Bolling AFB.
Andrews' air defense role was strengthened in the 1950s with the latest in fighter-interceptor hardware appearing on the flight line. F-94 Starfires, F-102 Delta Daggers and finally, F-106 Delta Darts formed the backbone of the three fighter interceptor squadrons which operated from the base until 1963.
In the late 1950s Andrews began an annual open house and air show on base. This event later evolved into the Department of Defense Joint Services Open House, an annual event that now brings more than 700,000 visitors to the base every year. The open house is held every year over Armed Forces Day weekend.
In the years since 1959, Andrews' flight operations and importance have increased greatly. In 1961, the last of the Military Air Transport Service's flying units at Washington National Airport transferred to Andrews. This was followed a year later by the transfer to Andrews of all fixed-wing flying activities from Bolling Air Force Base. Andrews has become firmly established as the main port of entry for foreign military and government officials en route to Washington and the United States. In July 1961, the official presidential aircraft was stationed here, known as "Air Force One" when the president is on board. Before 1961, the presidential airplane had been kept at Washington National Airport and Bolling AFB.
In 1963, the Naval Air Facility (NAF), originally established at the former NAS Anacostia in 1919, moved to Andrews. The NAF handles Naval VIP flight operations. The Marine Corps detachment that flies the FA-18 Hornet is located here.
In a major reorganization, Headquarters Command, U.S. Air Force, was disbanded 1 July 1976, restructured under the Military Airlift Command as the 76th Airlift Division and transferred its headquarters from Bolling AFB to Andrews. The 76th remained the parent unit of the Andrews host command, redesignated as the 1st Air Base Wing.
In October 1977, the 76th Airlift Division became the 76th Military Airlift Wing. The 1st Air Base Wing was redesignated the 76th Air Base Group, and the 89th Military Airlift Wing became the 89th Military Airlift Group. The 76th MAW remained the parent unit at Andrews. On 15 December 1980, the 76th Airlift Division was reestablished, the 76th Air Base Group became the 1776th Air Base Wing and the 89th Military Airlift Group became the 89th Military Airlift Wing. On 1 October 1985, the 76th Airlift Division was inactivated as the result of activation of the Headquarters Air Force District of Washington at Bolling AFB. The 1776th Air Base Wing was designated the "host wing" for Andrews AFB and assumed base support responsibilities.
During Operation Desert Storm, Andrews handled 16,540 patients in makeshift hospital facilities located in the base tennis center.
On 12 July 1991, the 89th Military Airlift Wing was redesignated as the 89th Airlift Wing and assumed duties as the host wing at Andrews AFB. Support functions previously performed by the 1776th Air Base Wing now fall under the 89th and the 1776th was inactivated. With the consolidation of the two wings, the newly formed 89th Airlift Wing is one of the largest wings in Air Mobility Command with a work force approaching 9,000 people.
Known as "The President's Wing," the 89th Airlift Wing continues to contribute to Andrews' rich history as the elite Air Mobility Command wing for transporting VIPs around the world. Not only does Andrews provide service for America's senior officials, but also kings, queens, presidents, prime ministers, popes, and local and foreign military leaders make Andrews AFB their first stop in the United States.
On 5 January 2005 the Air Force reactivated the Air Force District of Washington (AFDW) as the single Air Force voice for planning and implementing Air Force and joint solutions within the National Capital Region (NCR). This event brought with it significant changes at Andrews. On 12 May 2006, the 89th Medical Group at Andrews and the 11th Medical Group, Bolling Air Force Base, Washington, D.C. combined into the 79th Medical Wing where it established its headquarters at Andrews. In June 2006, the 316th Wing stood up under the command of AFDW as the new host unit for Andrews Air Force Base and its nearly 50 tenant units to include organizations from the U.S. Army, the Air Force Reserve Command, Air National Guard, Navy Reserve, Marine Corps Reserve and the Civil Air Patrol. The activation of the 316th prompted the transfer of the 1st Helicopter Squadron from the 89th Airlift Wing to the 316th Operations Group. In May 2007 the AFDW, as well as the 844th Communications Group, transferred from Bolling AFB to Andrews AFB.
Merger.
In May 2005, several recommendations relating to Andrews AFB were made by the Base Realignment and Closure (BRAC) Commission. The most significant was to realign Naval Air Facility (NAF) Washington, by relocating it's installation management functions to Andrews AFB, thereby establishing Joint Base Andrews-Naval Air Facility Washington.
BRAC also recommended relocating several offices of the Secretary of the Air Force to Andrews from leased office space in Arlington, Virginia, thereby reducing reliance on leased floor space and increasing the security for those activities by locating them within a military installation.
Other changes included the relocation of the Air Force Office of Special Investigations (AFOSI) headquarters from Andrews to Marine Corps Base Quantico, Virginia, and the relocation of the Air Force Flight Standards Agency (AFFSA) and its two C-21A to Will Rogers Air National Guard Base, Oklahoma.The merger with NAF Washington was effective from 1 October 2009, when the joint base was established, with the US Air Force being the lead organization providing management and support services for both installations.
Although sharing parallel runways, NAF Washington was originally considered a separate air installation and maintained a separate Navy/Marine Corps–unique FAA airfield identifier of NSF and an ICAO airfield identifier of KNSF. Prior to merging, these separate airfield identifiers were discontinued on 29 March 2009 and all flight operations in and out of NAF Washington now use the Andrews AFB airfield identifiers of ADW and KADW as appropriate.
On 1 October 2010; the Air Force completed the merge of the 11th Wing and the 316th. The 11th Wing became the host base organization for Joint Base Andrews.
Joint Base Andrews.
The base is widely known for serving as the home base of two Boeing VC-25 aircraft which have the call sign Air Force One while the President of the United States is on board.
The host at Andrews is the 11th Wing (11 WG), assigned to the Air Force District of Washington. The 11 WG is responsible for maintaining emergency reaction rotary-wing airlift and other National Capital Region contingency response capabilities critical to national security, and for organizing, training, equipping and deploying combat-ready forces for Air and Space Expeditionary Forces (AEFs).
See Joint Base Andrews for a list of units and aircraft now based at the installation.
Geography.
Andrews Air Force Base is located at (38.803490, −76.871508), a few miles southeast of Washington, D.C. near the town of Morningside in Prince George's County, Maryland. It is delineated as a census-designated place by the United States Census Bureau. The CDP has a total area of , of which is land and , or 0.51%, is water.
There are two runways on the base; the western runway is in length, and the eastern runway is in length. The minor third runway between them at the top of the picture (above the cross-base roadway) is now closed, and the small T-shaped runway at the bottom right of the opening picture was closed and demolished by 2008.
Demographics.
As of the census of 2000, there were 7,925 people, 1,932 households, and 1,864 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 1,158.9 people per square mile (447.3/km). There were 2,133 housing units at an average density of 311.9 sq mi (120.4/km). The racial makeup of the base was 65.3% White, 22.8% African American, 0.6% Native American, 3.2% Asian, 0.1% Pacific Islander, 3.7% from other races, and 4.4% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 8.7% of the population.
There were 1,932 households, out of which 75.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 86.1% were married couples living together, 7.3% had a female householder with no husband present, and 3.5% were non-families. 3.2% of all households were made up of individuals, none of whom was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.39 and the average family size was 3.44.
In the CDP, the population was spread out, with 35.0% under the age of 18, 16.3% from 18 to 24, 44.9% from 25 to 44, 3.6% from 45 to 64, and 0.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 24 years. For every 100 females, there were 119.7 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 126.0 males.
The median income for a household in the base was $44,310, and the median income for a family was $42,866. Males had a median income of $27,070 versus $27,308 for females. The per capita income for the base was $16,520. About 2.6% of families and 2.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including of the total population, 2.8% of those under the age of 18 and none of those 65 and older.
Motor sports.
On 2 May 1954, sports car races were held at the base, using a 4.3-mile (6.9 km) circuit made up of runways and other access roads.
External links.
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Huckleberry Ridge Tuff

The Huckleberry Ridge Tuff is a tuff formation created by the Huckleberry Ridge eruption that formed the Island Park Caldera that lies partially in Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming and stretches westward into Idaho into a region known as Island Park. This eruption of of material is thought to be the largest known eruption in the Yellowstone Hotspot's history. This eruption, 2.1 million years ago, is the third most recent large caldera forming eruption from the Yellowstone hotspot. It was followed by the Mesa Falls Tuff and the Lava Creek Tuff eruptions.


Cased telescoped ammunition


Barbara Hepworth

Dame Jocelyn Barbara Hepworth (10 January 1903 – 20 May 1975) was an English artist and sculptor. Her work exemplifies Modernism and in particular modern sculpture. Along with artists such as Ben Nicholson and Naum Gabo, Hepworth was a leading figure in the colony of artists who resided in St Ives during the First and Second World Wars.
Biography.
Early life.
Jocelyn Barbara Hepworth was born on 10 January 1903 in Wakefield, West Riding of Yorkshire, the eldest child of Gertrude and Herbert Hepworth. Her father was a civil engineer for the West Riding County Council, who in 1921 advanced to the role of County Surveyor. Hepworth attended Wakefield Girls' High School, where she was awarded music prizes at the age of 12 and won a scholarship to study at the Leeds School of Art from 1920. It was there that she met her fellow Yorkshireman, Henry Moore. They became friends and established a friendly rivalry that lasted professionally for many years.
Despite the difficulties of attempting to gain a position in what was a male-dominated environment, Hepworth successfully won a county scholarship to attend the Royal College of Art (RCA) in London and studied there from 1921 until she was awarded the diploma of the Royal College of Art in 1924.
Early career.
Following her studies at the RCA, Hepworth travelled to Florence, Italy, in 1924 on a West Riding Travel Scholarship. Hepworth was also the runner-up for the Prix-de-Rome, which the sculptor John Skeaping won. After travelling with him to Siena and Rome, Hepworth married Skeaping on 13 May 1925 in Florence. In Italy, Hepworth learned how to carve marble from sculptor Giovanni Ardini. Hepworth and Skeaping returned to London in 1926, where they exhibited their works together from their flat. Their son Paul was born in London in 1929. In 1931, Hepworth met and fell in love with abstract painter Ben Nicholson; however, both were still married at the time. At Hepworth's request, she and Skeaping were divorced that year.
Her early work was highly interested in abstraction and art movements on the continent. In 1931, Hepworth was the first to sculpt the pierced figures that are characteristic of both her own work and, later, that of Henry Moore. They would lead in the path to modernism in sculpture. In 1933, Hepworth travelled with Nicholson to France, where they visited the studios of Jean Arp, Pablo Picasso, and Constantin Brâncuși. Hepworth later became involved with the Paris-based art movement, Abstraction-Création. In 1933, Hepworth co-founded the Unit One art movement with Nicholson and Paul Nash, the critic Herbert Read, and the architect Wells Coates. The movement sought to unite Surrealism and abstraction in British art.
Hepworth also helped raise awareness of continental artists amongst the British public. In 1937, she designed the layout for "", a 300-page book that surveyed Constructivist artists and that was published in London and edited by Nicholson, Naum Gabo, and Leslie Martin.
Hepworth, with Nicholson, gave birth to triplets in 1934: Rachel, Sarah, and Simon. Hepworth, atypically, found a way to both take care of her children and continue producing her art. "A woman artist", she argued, "is not deprived by cooking and having children, nor by nursing children with measles (even in triplicate) – one is in fact nourished by this rich life, provided one always does some work each day; even a single half hour, so that the images grow in one's mind." Hepworth married Nicholson on 17 November 1938 at Hampstead Register Office in north London, following his divorce from his wife Winifred. Rachel and Simon also became artists.
St Ives.
Hepworth, Nicholson and their children went to live in Cornwall at the outbreak of the Second World War in 1939.
Hepworth lived in Trewyn Studios in St Ives from 1949 until her death in 1975. She said that "Finding Trewyn Studio was sort of magic. Here was a studio, a yard, and garden where I could work in open air and space." St Ives had become a refuge for many artists during the war. On 8 February 1949, Hepworth and Nicholson co-founded the Penwith Society of Arts at the Castle Inn; 19 artists were founding members, including Peter Lanyon and Bernard Leach.
Hepworth was also a skilled draughtsperson. After her daughter Sarah was hospitalised in 1944, she struck up a close friendship with the surgeon Norman Capener. At Capener's invitation, she was invited to view surgical procedures and, between 1947 and 1949, she produced nearly 80 drawings of operating rooms in chalk, ink, and pencil. Hepworth was fascinated by the similarities between surgeons and artists, stating: "There is, it seems to me, a close affinity between the work and approach of both physicians and surgeons, and painters and sculptors."
In 1950, works by Hepworth were exhibited in the British Pavilion at the XXV Venice Biennale alongside works by Matthew Smith and John Constable. The 1950 Biennale was the last time that contemporary British artists were exhibited alongside artists from the past. Two early public commissions, "Contrapunctal Forms" and "Turning Forms", were exhibited at the Festival of Britain in 1951.
During this period, Hepworth and Nicholson divorced (1951). Hepworth moved away from working only in stone or wood and began to work with bronze and clay. Hepworth often used her garden in St Ives, which she designed with her friend the composer Priaulx Rainier, to view her large-scale bronzes.
Death of son Paul.
Her eldest son Paul was killed on 13 February 1953 in a plane crash while serving with the Royal Air Force in Thailand. A memorial to him, "Madonna and Child", is in the parish church of St Ives.
Exhausted, in part from her son's death, Hepworth travelled to Greece with her friend Margaret Gardiner in August 1954. They visited Athens, Delphi and many of the Aegean Islands.
When Hepworth returned to St Ives from Greece in August 1954 she found that Gardiner had sent her a large shipment of Nigerian guarea hardwood. Although she received only a single tree trunk, Hepworth noted that the shipment from Nigeria to the Tilbury docks came in at 17 tons. Between 1954 and 1956 Hepworth sculpted six pieces out of guarea wood, many of which were inspired by her trip to Greece, such as "Corinthos" (1954) and "Curved Form (Delphi)" (1955).
Ambivalent burden of international reputation.
It was also during this decade that Hepworth became preoccupied with the idea of establishing a market base for her work in the United States. Initially she hoped to follow Henry Moore's successful sale of artwork via Curt Valentin of Bucholz Gallery in New York. Negotiations with Valentin did result in a number of American sales. But despite the sales, and despite interventions by Hepworth's friends, Valentin rebuffed repeated requests to hold any substantial stock of her work. It was not until 1955, after the Martha Jackson Gallery had offered Hepworth the opportunity to exhibit in their space alongside works by William Scott and Francis Bacon, that Hepworth formalised gallery representation in the new world.
Hepworth's difficulties in establishing a stable gallery relationship in the United States have been attributed to many factors, including the artist's own diffidence regarding personal promotion of her work. When Martha Jackson failed to arrange the solo American exhibition of sculptures and drawings that Hepworth demanded, Hepworth moved, in 1957, to Galerie Chalette, run by Arthur and Madeleine Lejwa, known for their close relationship with Jean Arp, and dedication to close relationships with their artists. The Lejwas came through with the solo exhibition Hepworth craved. Hepworth came to New York for the opening (her first visit to the city), but made minimal contact with the press and left as soon as possible. "Have seen all the press", she wrote, "pulled faces at the camera and generally done my best!" Three years later, having secured the Dag Hammarskjöld Memorial Commission ("Single Form," 1964), she left both Chalette and Gimpel Fils, her long-time home agent, for the larger Marlborough Fine Art and Marlborough-Gerson. "Pulled between personal loyalties and professional aspirations", Hepworth chose to forfeit the personal relationships.
Late career.
Hepworth greatly increased her studio space in 1960 when she purchased the Palais de Danse, a former cinema and dance hall, that was situated across the street from Trewyn. She used this new space to work on large-scale commissions.
She also experimented with lithography in her late career, and produced two lithographic suites with the Curwen Gallery and its director Stanley Jones, one in 1969 and one in 1971. The latter was entitled "The Aegean Suite" (1971) and was inspired by Hepworth's trip to Greece in 1954 with Margaret Gardiner. The artist also produced a set of lithographs entitled "Opposing Forms" (1970) with Marlborough Fine Art in London.
Barbara Hepworth died in an accidental fire at her Trewyn studios on 20 May 1975 at the age of 72.
Galleries and locations exhibiting her work.
Two museums are named after Hepworth and have significant collections of her work: the Barbara Hepworth Museum in St Ives, Cornwall, and The Hepworth Wakefield in West Yorkshire.
Her work also may be seen at:
Famous sculptures.
In 1951 Hepworth was commissioned by the Arts Council to create a piece for the Festival of Britain. The resulting work featured two Irish limestone figures entitled, "Contrapuntal Forms" (1950), which was displayed on London's South Bank; it was later donated to the New Town of Harlow and displayed in Glebelands, where it remains. To complete the large-scale piece Hepworth hired her first assistants, Terry Frost, Denis Mitchell, and John Wells.
From 1949 onwards she worked with assistants, 16 in all. One of her most prestigious works is "Single Form", which was made in memory of her friend and collector of her works, the former Secretary General Dag Hammarskjöld, and which stands in the plaza of the United Nations building in New York City. It was commissioned by Jacob Blaustein, a former United States delegate to the U.N., in 1961 following Hammarskjöld's death in a plane crash.
On 20 December 2011, her 1969 sculpture "Two Forms" was stolen, from its plinth in Dulwich Park, South London. Suspicions are that the theft was by scrap metal thieves. The piece, which had been in the park since 1970, was insured for £500,000, a spokesman for Southwark Council said.
One of the editions of six of her 1964 bronze sculpture, "Rock Form (Porthcurno)", was removed from the Mander Centre in Wolverhampton in the spring of 2014 by its owners, the Royal Bank of Scotland and Dalancey Estates. Its sudden disappearance led to questions in Parliament in September 2014. Paul Uppal, Member of Parliament for Wolverhampton South West said: "When the "Rock Form" was donated by the Mander family, it was done so in the belief it would be enjoyed and cherished by the people of Wolverhampton for generations... It belongs to, and should be enjoyed by, the City of Wolverhampton." The sculpture has since been loaned to the city by RBS and can be seen in Wolverhampton City Art Gallery.
Recognition.
Hepworth was awarded the Grand Prix at the 1959 São Paulo Art Biennial. She also was awarded the Freedom of St Ives in 1968 as an acknowledgment of her significant contributions to the town. She was awarded honorary degrees from the universities of Birmingham (1960), Leeds (1961), Exeter (1966), Oxford (1968), London (1970) and Manchester (1971).
She was appointed CBE in 1958 and DBE in 1965. In 1973 she was elected an honorary member of the American Academy of Arts and Letters. Following her death, her studio and home in St Ives became the Barbara Hepworth Museum, which came under control of the Tate in 1980.
In 2011 The Hepworth Wakefield opened in Hepworth's hometown of Wakefield, England. The Museum was designed by the architect David Chipperfield.
In January 2015 it was announced that Tate Britain was to stage the first big London show of Hepworth's work since 1968. It would bring together more than 70 of her works, including the major abstract carvings and bronzes for which she is best known. It would also include unseen photographs from the Hepworth archive, held by the Tate, including a self-photogram created in the 1930s and experimental photographic collages.
On 25 August 2020, Google honoured Hepworth with a Google Doodle. A Historic England blue plaque was unveiled in honour of Hepworth and first husband John Skeaping at 24 St Ann’s Terrace, St John’s Wood, London on 30 October 2020. The couple lived there in 1927.
List of selected works.
Marble portrait heads dating from London, ca. 1927, of Barbara Hepworth by John Skeaping, and of Skeaping by Hepworth, are documented by photograph in the Skeaping Retrospective catalogue, but are both believed to be lost.


Letterkenny Army Depot

Letterkenny Army Depot (originally Letterkenny Ordnance Depot), the Center of Industrial and Technical Excellence (CITE) for Air Defense and Tactical Missile Systems, was established in 1942. The Depot is under the command structure of the U.S. Army Aviation and Missile Command (AMCOM). The facilities at Letterkenny are used to conduct maintenance, modification, storage, and demilitarization operations on tactical missiles and ammunition.
Located primarily in Letterkenny Township and extending into Greene Township and Hamilton Township, all in Franklin County, Pennsylvania, just northwest of the borough of Chambersburg, the Depot consists of nearly 18,000 acres (71 km²). It is the largest employer in Franklin County, Pennsylvania, and adds over one-quarter of a billion dollars annually to the region's economy.
Letterkenny has unique tactical missile repair capabilities repairing a variety of Department of Defense (DoD) missile systems, including the MIM-104 PATRIOT missile and its ground support and radar equipment. More recently, Letterkenny expanded its product line to include designation of the CITE for Power Generation for the Army, the overhaul of tactical wheeled vehicles (HMMWVs), material handling equipment (7.5-ton cranes), and Mobile Kitchen Trailers. In 2007, during the Iraq conflict, Letterkenny began building new Mine Resistant Ambush Protected (MRAP) armored vehicles in partnership with BAE Systems, and in 2010 was designated the Joint Depot Source of Repair (JDSOR) for Route Clearance Vehicles for the DoD.
History.
1940s − 1960s.
In 1941, Letterkenny was chosen by the U.S. Department of War to be one of twelve new ordnance depots. On December 18, 1941, the Secretary of War, Henry L. Stimson, issued the directive to acquire 21,000 acres (85 km²) at Letterkenny for a depot. The mission would be to reduce the surplus of forthcoming material and to store and ship ammunition, trucks, parts, and other supplies. In 1942, the government obtained the James Finley House for use as the Commanding Officer's Residence, making it one of the largest depots of its kind.
The first shipment of ammunition arrived by train in late 1942, and more than three million tons of supplies were moved during World War II. After the war, an enormous amount of ammunition was returned from overseas, some of which was unserviceable and had to be destroyed. During the Korean War, with improved capabilities, Letterkenny took on the task and shifted to a wartime pace, increasing their workforce to 6,500 by adding as many as 50 new employees each day during their growth's peak. With new technologies in electronics and guided missile maintenance in the 1950s, the Depot saw a further increased workload. Newly trained employees began working on Project Nike missile components in 1953.
On July 1, 1954, Letterkenny Ordnance Depot became a permanent military installation. It was renamed Letterkenny Army Depot in August 1962 under the U.S. Army Materiel Command (AMC), and with the war in Vietnam, Letterkenny's missions again increased with greater materiel being funneled through the Depot. Its maintenance division became one of the largest activities, with 1,400 workers reconditioning artillery, combat vehicles, and guided missiles. Automation was also introduced at this time along with the update of several facilities. Soon after, in 1964, the 28th Ordnance Detachment moved from Fort Meade, Maryland, to Letterkenny, adding to their capabilities the disposal of explosive ordnance items including bombs, shells, rockets, and guided missiles. They also assisted police in the disposal of explosives and war souvenirs.
1970s − 1990s.
In the 1970s, command of Savanna Army Depot Activity, Illinois, fell under Letterkenny, and the U.S. Army Depot System Command (DESCOM) was established and headquartered there. DESCOM, a two-star command and major subordinate element of AMC, remained at the Depot until 1995. In 1974, Letterkenny's capabilities further expanded to include maintenance for the Air Tow Missile as well as long-term storage of war reserve stock packaged petroleum, oil and lubricants, and various chemicals and acids. By the late 1970s, the Depot was one of five installations in the United States to activate the Automated Multi-Media Exchange (AMME), leading to more effective communication service. Letterkenny was at that point the largest installation in Pennsylvania, with more than 5,400 workers.
During the 1980s and early 1990s, the Depot further evolved with the construction of new facilities and the establishment of modernization projects. Its mission was then threefold: supply, maintenance, and ammunition. The Depot's efforts with the Paladin (M109 howitzer), PATRIOT, and HAWK led to Letterkenny's designation as a Center for Technical Excellence. Their capabilities were again expanded, this time to include the AIM-7 Sparrow and the improved AIM-9 Sidewinder.
With the downsizing, reorganization, and realignments of the DoD and the consolidation of tactical missile, Letterkenny was selected in 1990 to serve as the sole processing and storage location for all weapons captured during that year's invasion of Panama in Operation Just Cause. Two years later, the Depot was selected to be the center of all Tactical Missile Systems in the Army, Navy, Air Force and Marines. This involved support components from 21 new missile systems. Letterkenny's efforts for this mission gained it the reputation as "the well renowned depot for air defense and missile maintenance". That same year, the Depot's supply mission was relocated to New Cumberland, Pennsylvania under the Defense Logistics Agency; however, by 2001, a smaller Directorate of Supply and Transportation was reestablished at Letterkenny.
In 1994, Letterkenny partnered with United Defense, Limited Partnership (UDLP) to produce the Paladin and completed 950 within five years. Following the Cold War, the U.S. government established the 1995 Base Realignment and Closure Commission (BRAC), which relocated Letterkenny's artillery mission to Anniston Army Depot. BRAC also ordered nearly 1,500 acres to be returned to the community. As of 2014, five of seven land transfer phases with seven-eighths of the acreage have been completed.
In late 1999, the Depot transitioned from U.S. Army Industrial Operations Command (IOC) to U.S. Army Aviation and Missile Command.
2000s.
In 2001, Letterkenny was recognized as the Center of Industrial and Technical Excellence (CITE) for Air Defense and Tactical Missile Ground Support Equipment, and the CITE for Mobile Electric Power Generation Equipment in 2005.
Following the terrorist attacks of September 11, 2001, Letterkenny supported the Global War on Terrorism by retrofitting Ground Mobility Vehicles (GMVs), resetting AN/TWQ-1 Avengers and High-Mobility Multipurpose Wheeled Vehicles (HMMWVs), and recapping PATRIOT Missiles."
Using Lean manufacturing concepts, Letterkenny transformed its 318,000 sq.ft. vehicle building into a flexible manufacturing floor. Each work bay was fitted with identical capabilities in order to meet the challenges of chemical and biological threats. Soon after, the Depot began private sector partnerships to "collaboratively share advantageous skill sets and unique capabilities."
In 2005, Letterkenny was recognized with the silver Shingo Prize for Excellence in Manufacturing for the PATRIOT Missile Launcher. This prize, which was the first for an Army depot, led to the first of eight Shingo awards the Depot would receive. Others were awarded based on work in areas including: "HMMWVs, Generators, Biological Integrated Detection Systems (BIDS), PATRIOT Systems, and Aviation Ground Power Units (AGPU)." That same year, BRAC named Letterkenny as First in Military Value for Tactical Wheeled Vehicles.
Efforts during the 2000s focused largely on the following: cranes, generators, HMMWVs, the PATRIOT Recapitalization program, medium mine protected vehicles (MMPV), and mine resistant ambush protected (MRAP) systems.
2010s.
The Theater Readiness Maintenance Directorate, in partnership with private industry, produced the first missile at the newly constructed Theater Readiness Maintenance Facility. Lockheed Martin and Precision Fires Rocket and Missile System (PFRMS) partnered with LEAD to enhance High Mobility Artillery Rocket System (HIMARS) production. This included the Special Test Equipment, Special Tooling, tools, training, testing and, ultimately, LEAD's demonstration of capabilities required to repair various M270A1 and HIMARS Fire Control System and HIMARS launcher components.
The production of Route Clearance Vehicles (RCV) emerged as a primary focus of the Depot's workload. LEAD, in 2010, was named the Joint Depot Source of Repair Decision on the RCV. The Services jointly agreed that Depot Maintenance will be accomplished organically for the RCV: Buffalo/MPCV, Vehicle Mounted Mine Detection System (VMMD) also known as the "Husky," RG-31 Medium Mine -Protected Vehicle (MMPV), Joint EOD Rapid Response Vehicle (JERRV) and Medium Mine-Protected Vehicle (MMPV) Panther at LEAD.
In December 2010, Letterkenny completed the last of over 20,000 recapped HMMWVs. With the program completed, LEAD converted its primary assembly line of HMMWVs to accommodate Reset of PATRIOT Prime Movers. with a workload encompassing s, Trailers, Heavy Expanded Mobility Tactical Trucks (HEMTT's), 900 Series 5 Ton Trucks, Family of Medium Tactical Vehicles (FMTV) and 860 Trailers.
In 2012 Letterkenny was recognized as a CITE for RCV and PATRIOT Missile Recertification.
The First Article Testing for the New Build AGPU was completed in February 2012.
Explosion.
On 19 July 2018 two civilian employees were killed and two were injured when an explosion occurred at the depot.
Environmental contamination.
In the 1960s, environmental hazards became a concern. Air pollution abatement began in 1969 and all coal burning heating systems had been converted to fuel oil by 1972. In 1983, the groundwater beneath the Letterkenny Army Depot's southeast area was found to be contaminated with volatile organic compounds (VOC). In 1984, at least six major areas of VOC contamination and/or elevated levels of metals were found, particularly three industrial waste lagoons which had contributed to the contamination to the groundwater. The contaminated groundwater plume migrated off-site and discharged to springs up to two miles to the east and south downstream and to off-post water wells. The Army supplied residents with bottled water after residential well sampling showed the presence of VOC.
On October 15, 1984, the site was proposed to the National Priorities List of the most serious uncontrolled or abandoned hazardous waste sites requiring long term clean up, and it was added to the list on July 22, 1987. That year, 38 residences and businesses were connected to the local water supply, and in 1992 three additional residences were added.
In 1989, following an agreement with the United States Environmental Protection Agency and the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection, the Depot installed a "pump and treat" system which remains in use to treat contaminated groundwater in the installation's northeast industrial area.
Much of the pollution is from degreasers stored or disposed of in landfills, trenches, burn pits, or spilled from storage during the 1950s and 1960s, including chlorinated organic solvents, blast media, paints, petroleum products, metals, and cleaning agents.
The Depot was recognized by the Secretary of the Army for Environmental Restoration in 2002, Environmental Quality in 2006, and Environmental Sustainability in 2009.
Environmental cleanup, for which the Army has spent about $30 million as of 2014, has slowed the return of the land ordered by BRAC in 1995. Letterkenny has a Restoration Advisory Board of government and community representatives which meets to discuss clean up and future property transfer.


Gas-checks in British RML heavy guns

Gas-checks were attachments to ammunition that revolutionised the performance of RML heavy guns. The first generation of RML heavy guns began entering service in about 1865. They all had Woolwich rifling and relied on studs on the projectiles for rotation. Gas-checks were first introduced in 1878 or soon after. They significantly reduced wear on the guns while also increasing their range and accuracy. Before long, studless ammunition was being manufactured for these guns, using gas-checks for projectile rotation. Gas-checks also facilitated a switch to the second generation of RML guns which used polygroove rifling and only supported studless ammunition.
Introduction.
The first RML heavy guns were introduced into British service in about 1865. By 1878, 11 models of Woolwich rifled guns had been introduced, ranging from 7 inches to 12.5 inches. Unfortunately, Woolwich rifling had a major defect, namely, that hot powder gas escaping around the ammunition ("Windage") caused excessive barrel erosion, especially in the rifling grooves. Extensive research was performed in the early 1870s to find a solution, and by 1878 two types of gas-checks had been designed. Both gas-checks were made of copper with a little added zinc. They were, in effect, shallow cups of about the same diameter as the ammunition that were attached to the base of the ammunition. When the gun was fired, the powder gas pressure forced the sides of the cup into the rifling grooves, creating a gas seal. It was immediately found that gas-checks also increased the range of guns, and provided greater accuracy. It was also realised that gas-checks were capable of rotating the ammunition, removing the need for studs. This facilitated the use of polygroove rifling, which used a lot of shallow grooves, in place of the Woolwich system which used only a few deeper grooves. Polygroove rifling was less detrimental to the strength of the guns. Also, studless ammunition was stronger and flew more accurately than studded ammunition. Shell strength was particularly important for armour-piercing ammunition.
Attached Gas-Checks.
Attached gas-checks were used with the existing studded ammunition of Woolwich rifled guns. Their basic design was the same across all sizes of guns, the key difference being their diameter. The gas-check was attached to the base of the projectile by a screw-in plug which required a minor modification to each projectile. A few projectiles were unsuitable for modification, and were scrapped.
Fig 1 shows the base of a 9-inch studded Palliser shell with attached gas-check Mk I. The gas-check consists of a wavy disc with a circular collar of the same diameter as the projectile around its edge. On firing, the intense powder gas pressure flattened the disc against the base of the projectile, increasing the disc’s overall diameter, and forcing the collar against and into the rifling, forming a gas seal. The Mk I gas-check performed well for the faster burning R.L.G. powder with which it was initially tested, but was found to seal the grooves too slowly with slower burning powders such as P and P2, resulting in scoring of the bottoms of grooves. As a result, the Mk I gas-check was superseded by the Mk II gas-check by 1881. Fig 2 shows a 9-inch studded common shell with a Mk II gas-check. The Mk II gas-check was virtually identical to the Mk I, the main difference being that the collar had projections that fitted into the grooves on loading and resulted in faster gas sealing on firing.
Automatic Gas-Checks.
Automatic gas-checks were used with studless ammunition in both Woolwich and polygroove rifled guns. They were otherwise known as “Rotating Gas-Checks” or “EOC Gas-Checks”. They were called “automatic” because they could be loaded into the barrel separately from the projectile, and automatically became firmly attached to the projectile on firing. They were called rotating gas-checks because they were able to rotate the projectile, enabling the use of studless projectiles. They were called EOC gas-checks, because they were developed by the Armstrong company which owned EOC.
Automatic gas-checks were designed to be inserted into the barrel separately from, and before, the projectile, so that the gas-check would become located on the base of the projectile, but not attached to it, during ramming. On firing it became firmly attached to the projectile, and remained firmly attached all the way to the target. As an alternative to loading the gas-check separately, it was also sometimes permissible to pre-attach the gas-check to the projectile before loading.
Fig 3 shows the base of a 10-inch studless common shell Mk I with automatic gas-check in place but not attached i.e. as it would be in the gun after ramming but before firing. The centre of the base of the projectile has a circular flat-topped protrusion with undercut sides. The outside of the base is curved and covered with two circular grooves and 47 tapered radial ridges. The collar has 7 projections corresponding to the rifling grooves. On firing, the powder gas pressure forces the copper gas-check into the undercut in the side of the protrusion, the two circular grooves, and the 47 gaps between the tapered radial ridges, permanently attaching the gas-check to the shell. The gas pressure also forces the collar outwards against the rifling, creating a gas seal. The radial ridges prevent rotation of the gas-check on the base of the projectile, forcing the projectile to rotate.
Fig 4 shows a 10-inch studless Palliser shell Mk II with automatic gas-check. The gas-check is the same as the one in Fig 3. However, in contrast to Fig 3, the protrusion on the base of the shell in Fig 4 is not part of the shell, but is instead a wrought iron disc attached to the shell by the screw plug. Initially, all studless shells 9 - 17.72 inches, including Palliser shells, were made in one piece as in Fig 3. These shells were identified as Mark I. However, it was found that casting Palliser shells in brittle metal in one piece was extremely difficult, especially for smaller calibres, and that the protrusions were liable to chipping during handling. As a result, later Palliser shells 9 - 12.5 inches were made in two pieces as in Fig 4, and identified as Mark II. The separate protrusions were made from wrought iron, cast steel or malleable cast iron.
Some Woolwich groove guns had 2 marks of automatic gas-checks. The changes to Mark I mainly involved shaving metal off parts of the projections to make them bend more precisely and rapidly into the Woolwich grooves, sealing the grooves faster.
In general, all marks of a particular gun shared the same studless ammunition. Also, the studless ammunition for a particular gun used the same automatic gas-check, except for 9 inch and 10 inch guns which had some marks with Woolwich rifling, and others with polygroove. In these cases there was one automatic gas-check for all Woolwich marks, and a different automatic gas-check for all polygroove marks. The 8 inch 46 cwt and 70 cwt howitzers shared the same studless ammunition, but required different automatic gas-checks for their Woolwich and polygroove rifling respectively.
Gallery.
Wiki Images
Images 2–8 show the range of ammunition for the RML 12.5 inch gun in 1885. This range is typical of the ammunition in use with Woolwich-grooved guns of 9 inches or larger after the mid-1880s. These guns no longer fired studded ammunition without gas-checks. Instead there were two sets of ammunition available, namely: older studded ammunition with attached gas-checks Mk II, and newer studless ammunition with automatic gas-checks. Case ammunition was neither studded nor required gas-checks.
External Links to Images
1. Photos of a used 9 inch automatic gas-check recovered from the sea. http://fortlytton.org.au/?page_id=294
2. Photos of four gas-checks. http://www.victorianforts.co.uk/art/check.htm
3. Photo of 17.72 inch automatic gas-check http://www.bbc.co.uk/ahistoryoftheworld/objects/_GozUMNFTpem-NJXZpFgAQ
Summary Table.
The table summarises the types of projectiles in service with RML heavy guns in 1902, (and probably, by the late 1880s for the guns existing at that time). All polygroove guns exclusively fired studless projectiles with automatic gas-checks. All Woolwich groove guns except 7 inch guns, fired both studded and studless projectiles. The studded projectiles had attached gas-checks while the studless projectiles had automatic gas-checks. The 8 inch gun only fired one studless projectile, a studless pointed common shell. The 7 inch guns fired exclusively studded projectiles without gas-checks.