Naval ram

A ram was a weapon fitted to varied types of ships, dating back to antiquity. The weapon comprised an underwater prolongation of the bow of the ship to form an armoured beak, usually between 2 and 4 meters (6–12 ft) in length. This would be driven into the hull of an enemy ship to puncture, sink or disable the ship.
Ancient rams.
The ram was a naval weapon in the Greek/Roman antiquity and was used in such naval battles as Salamis and Actium. Naval warfare in the Mediterranean rarely used sails, and the use of rams specifically required oarsmen rather than sails in order to maneuver with accuracy and speed, and particularly to reverse the movement of a ramming ship to disentangle it from its sinking victim, lest it be pulled down when its victim sank. The Athenians were especially known for their diekplous and periplous tactics that disabled enemy ships with speed and ramming techniques.
Rams were first recorded in use at the battle of Alalia in 535 BC. There is evidence available to suggest that it existed much earlier, probably even before the 8th century BC. They appear first on stylized images found on Greek pottery and jewelry and on Assyrian reliefs and paintings. The ram most likely evolved from cutwaters, structures designed to support the keel-stem joint and allow for greater speed and dynamism in the water.
Many other historical vessels were used as rams, such as the Korean Turtle ship.
The Athlit ram.
The Athlit ram, found in 1980 off the coast of Israel near Atlit, is an example of an ancient ram. Carbon 14 dating of timber remnants date it to between 530 BC and 270 BC.
Rams were thought to be one of the main weapons of war galleys after c. 700 BC, and the Athlit ram's construction implies advanced technology that was developed over a long period of time. Heavy timbers were shaped and attached to the hull, and then the bronze ram was created to fit around the timbers for added strength. The evidence for this lies in the remnants of timbers found inside the Athlit ram when it was discovered. The blunt edge of the ram and the patterned protrusion were intended to break open the seams of the target ship while at the same time dispersing the force of impact on the attacking ship to prevent the ram from twisting off and damaging the attacking ship. It was also less likely to become stuck in the hull of its target.
The Athlit ram consists of a single bronze casting weighing . It is long with a maximum width of and a maximum height of . The bronze that makes up the shell is a high-quality alloy containing 9.78% tin with traces of lead and other elements. The shell was cast as a single piece to perfectly fit the timbers it protects. The casting of an object as large as the Athlit ram was a complicated operation at the time, and would have been a considerable expense in the construction of a war galley.
The ram comprises three sections – the driving centre, the bottom plate, and the cowl. The driving centre is long and wide. This is the area of the ram that makes contact with enemy vessels in battle. The front wall of the head of the ram has the thickest layer of casting at for extra protection during battle. The surface of the ram was decorated with several symbols. On both sides, there is an eagle head, a helmet, and an eight-point star. These symbols are similar in dimension, but contain many inconsistencies with each other, suggesting they were made from the same mold. The ram has a handle depicting a tri-form thunderbolt. It is attached with mortise and tenon joints and strengthened with oak pegs. The wales and the ramming timber are designed to interlock for extra strength. The bottom of the ram features a mortise cut into the ramming timber to fit the most forward end of the keel which was formed into a thick and long tenon.
Decline.
A key element in the design and construction of a ramming vessel is the ability to stop its forward progress and reverse course, the better to allow the rammed ship to sink without her crew boarding the ramming vessel. As navies became more dependent on sailing ships, which do neither well, rams were generally discarded, particularly as gunpowder increased the range at which ships could effectively attack one another. Only a few instances of non-accidental ramming are recorded from the Age of Sail.
Steam rams.
With the development of steam propulsion, the speed, power and maneuverability it allowed again enabled the use of the ship's hull, which could be clad in iron, as an offensive weapon. As early as 1840, the French admiral Nicolas Hippolyte Labrousse proposed building a ram steamship, and by 1860, Dupuy de Lôme had designed an ironclad with a ram. The quick success of CSS "Virginia"'s ramming attack on at the Battle of Hampton Roads in 1862 attracted much attention and caused many navies to re-think the ram. The first coastal battleship, France's "Taureau", was built in 1863, for the purpose of attacking warships at anchor or in narrow straits, and was armed with a ram. Many ironclad ships were designed specifically to ram opponents; in ships of this type, the armour belt was extended forward to brace both sides of the ram to increase structural integrity. Several wooden steamships were purpose-built as rams, or converted from existing commercial vessels, such as .
The theory behind the revival of the weapon derived from the fact that, in the period around 1860, armour held superiority over the ship-mounted cannon. It was believed that an armoured warship could not be seriously damaged by the naval artillery in existence at the time, even at close range. To achieve a decisive result in a naval engagement, therefore, alternative methods of action were believed to be necessary. As it followed, from the same belief, that a ship armed with a ram could not be seriously damaged by the gunfire of its intended victim, the ram became, for a brief period, the main armament of many battleships. It was observed that the guns placed on the "Taureau" were there "with the sole function of preparing the way for the ram."
During the American Civil War, both Union and Confederate forces employed ram ships. In 1862, Charles Ellet, Jr. was deployed directly by the Secretary of War, Edwin M. Stanton, to build the United States Ram Fleet, a fleet of ram ships to counter the Confederate River Defense Fleet controlling the Mississippi River. Ellet purchased nine steam powered paddle boats and retrofit them for service as ram ships. The ram ships played an important part in the Union victory during the First Battle of Memphis and helped the Union forces wrest control of the Mississippi River from the Confederate forces.
The frequent use of ramming as a tactic in the Battle of Lissa and, to a lesser extent, at the Battle of Iquique also led to many late 19th-century naval designers equipping their warships with ram bows. This only really aggravated a number of incidents of ships being sunk by their squadron-mates in accidental collisions as ramming never featured as a viable battle tactic again. The fixation on ramming may also have inhibited the development of gunnery.
Toward the end of the 19th century, the breech-loading cannon could effectively hit enemy ships at several thousand yards range, and the ineffectiveness in battle of the ram became clear; ships were no longer fitted with them. Battleships and cruisers instead had inverted bows which superficially resembled rams. These were not, however, reinforced, and were fitted in order to improve ship speed by increasing the waterline length. They also served to decrease the length of forecastle that was exposed to muzzle flash when the guns were fired directly ahead.
No other ironclad was ever sunk by wartime ramming by an enemy ship, although the ram was regarded by all major navies for some 30 years as primary battleship armament. A number of ships were, however, rammed in peacetime by ships of their own navy. The most serious of these same-navy collisions in terms of loss of life was the collision between and , which took place in the Mediterranean in 1893. However, that death toll was dwarfed by the 562 deaths (plus two rescuers) ensuing from the sinking of the passenger liner , which accidentally collided with the ram bow of the anchored in 1891.
Twentieth century.
During both world wars, there were several occasions when surfaced submarines were rammed and sunk by surface ships. If successful, such an attack could cut the submarine in two, such as the 1914 sinking of by . The only battleship-over-submarine victory in history occurred during World War I, when the battleship rammed and sank U-boat "U-29". Submarines were strongly built to resist water pressure at depth, so the ramming ship could be badly damaged by the attack. This happened to , which foundered in 1918, after sinking the U-boat . In March 1943, the destroyer was badly damaged after ramming the . She was sunk by another U-boat the next day as she sat helpless, without working engines.
Ramming attacks during the Second World War included the ramming of by . The U-boat was not critically damaged and there followed a small-arms battle between the vessels as they were locked together and the U-boat was too close for "Borie" to bring her main guns to bear. The submarine eventually sank but "Borie" was too badly damaged by the ramming to be salvaged, so she was abandoned and deliberately sunk by Allied forces.
Other submarines sunk by ramming included , , , the Italian submarines "Tembien" and "Cobalto", the and the Royal Navy submarine . The herself rammed and sank Soviet submarine ShCh-305 on 5 November 1942.
As ramming was the only weapon available to unarmed merchant ships, there were occasions when they attempted to ram U-boats. The British Admiralty in the First World War expected that some merchant captains might try to ram U-boats as much as twice the size of their own vessel and capable of much greater speed, if the situation favoured such a tactic. In 1915, attempted, but failed, to ram . Her captain, Charles Fryatt, was captured by the Germans a year later. He was court-martialled and executed as they considered his act to be that of a franc-tireur. The French steamer "Molière" sank the U-boat in 1917. An old British paddle steamer, SS Mona's Queen, rammed and sank a U-boat in February 1917. In May 1918 SM "UC-78" was sunk by the steamer "Queen Alexandra", and rammed and sank .
During World War II, was struck by the British tanker SS "Ensis". The submarine survived the ramming but had to return to port for repair. The Italian merchant ship "Antonietta Costa" rammed and sank submarine HMS "Rainbow" while on a convoy from Bari to Durazzo. Accidental ramming can also occur during wartime, such as in October 1942 when, during escort duty, the light cruiser was accidentally sliced in half and sunk by the significantly heavier (15x) ocean liner , with the loss of 337 men.
On August 2, 1943, IJN Destroyer "Amagiri" rammed and sank a smaller, faster, and more maneuverable, USN PT boat commanded by LtJG John F. Kennedy.
Explosive motor boats which usually detonated after ramming their target were employed by the Italian and the Japanese navies in WWII. Italian type MTM boats rammed and crippled the cruiser HMS "York" and a Norwegian tanker at Suda Bay in 1941, while Shinyo suicide boats sank a number of US amphibious craft in the Pacific Theatre of operations in 1945.
Late in the century, ramming by major warships became the tactic of choice during the Cod Wars conflict between the Icelandic Coast Guard and the Royal Navy. At least 15 British frigates, five Icelandic patrol boats and one British supply ship were damaged by ramming between 1975 and 1976.
Towing tests of warships found that a below-water ram reduced resistance through the water, which led to the development of a non-reinforced bulbous bow where rams were formerly fitted.
Torpedo ram.
The torpedo ram is a hybrid torpedo boat combining a ram with torpedo tubes. Incorporating design elements from the cruiser and the monitor, it was intended to provide a small and inexpensive weapon systems for coastal defence and other littoral combat.
Like monitors, torpedo rams operated with very little freeboard, sometimes with only inches of hull rising above the water, exposing only their funnels and turrets to direct enemy fire. They were equipped with torpedoes and guns in turrets. Early designs incorporated a spar torpedo that could be extended from the bow and detonated by ramming a target. Later designs used tube-launched self-propelled torpedoes, but retained the concept of ramming, resulting in designs like , which had five torpedo tubes, two each port and starboard and one mounted in the centre of her reinforced ram bow.
Civilian use.
Rams have also been used on civilian vessels. The Seattle fireboat "Duwamish", built in 1909, was designed to ram burning wooden vessels, as a last resort.
In fiction.
In H.G.Wells' novel "The War of the Worlds", the 'ironclad ram' HMS "Thunder Child" destroys at least two Martian fighting machines before it is sunk.


Gahendra Rifle

The Gahendra Rifle is a .577/450 Martini–Henry breech loading military rifle manufactured by gunsmiths of the Nepal Army under the direction of General Gehendra Shamsher JBR in the early 1880s. The design is a modified version of the 1869 Westley Richards patented design.


List of Spanish military equipment of World War II

This is a list of Spanish military equipment of World War II
This is lists of Spanish military equipment of World War II. While Spain was neutral during the Second World War they had axis sympathies due to Nazi Germany and Fascist Italy helping them win the civil war. These lists will not deal with equipment of Spanish volunteers fighting in the Wehrmacht.


Fred Rochelle

Fred Rochelle (c. 1885 – May 29, 1901) was an African-American teenager from Bartow, Florida, who was lynched and burned to death on May 29, 1901, following the alleged rape and murder of a white woman, Rena Smith Taggart, the previous day. He was said to have been seen near where Taggart's body was found. Newspapers misreported the 16-year-old boy as "35 years of age". A mob of over 100 men as well as bloodhounds from Mulberry and Pebble was assembled to search for him but a local paper mentioned a possible lynching before any evidence was recovered or he was charged.
Rochelle was captured two days later by two black men, who evaded the mob and turned Rochelle over to the Sheriff of Polk County in Lakeland, Florida. Ten minutes later, Rochelle was turned over to a mob. The mob took Rochelle back to Bartow. A special train was arranged from Lakeland so that a large crowd of spectators could attend a "barbecue" in Bartow where Rochelle was to be the "chief actor." He was taken to the site of the Taggart murder, where he was chained to a barrel and doused with quantities of kerosene. At 6:00 PM the match was struck. He was burned alive for 15 minutes, and the crowd dispersed by 8:30 that evening.
Legacy.
Ossian Sweet, an African-American doctor in Detroit who was tried for defending his house from a mob in 1925, testified at his trial that he had witnessed Rochelle being lynched as a five-year-old child in Bartow.


Stray bullet

A stray bullet is a bullet that, after being fired from a gun, hits an unintended target. Such a shooting accident may occur due to missing a target when hunting or sport-shooting, as a result of accidental/negligent discharges, or during crossfire or celebratory gunfire.
In the Philippines, incidents involving the stray bullet (Filipino: "Ligaw na Bala") rose during the New Year revelry. The Philippine National Police was reportedly recorded 52 stray bullet incidents during the monitoring between December 16, 2015 and January 5, 2016, of which 42 victims were injured.


R. Kalidas

R. Kalidas was a politician in Tamil Nadu, India. He was State vice-president of the Hindu Makkal Katchi.
Death.
R. Kalidas was murdered in Madurai on June 21, 2005. According to police sources he was hacked to death by two men in broad daylight. He was 55 years old. Police sources indicated that they suspected 'fundamentalists' as the culprits of the murder.


Long range shooting

Long range shooting is a collective term for shooting disciplines where the distance to target is significant enough that shooter has to put effort into calculating various ballistic factors, especially in regards to the deviating effects of gravity and wind. While shooting at shorter or "point-blank" ranges, a shooter only has to slightly adjust the sights to compensate for limited bullet drop at most, but when the range is extended, wind drift will be the first factor affecting precision to the extent that it must be taken into serious account. Some would argue that long range shooting starts where assessment of wind, distance and various atmospheric conditions are equally important for the results as pure shooting skills - meaning that even if one conducts a technically perfect shot, the shooter will miss the target because of incorrect calculations, forgetting to take some elements into consideration, or merely due to unpredictable downrange conditions. It is widely accepted within interdisciplinary circles that for a standard rifle firing full-powered cartridges (e.g. .308 Winchester), "long range" means the target is more than away, while "extreme long range" is generally accepted as when the target distance is more than away from the shooter.
There are several competitive match circuits that typically consist of targets at long range. Benchrest shooting events are often between 100 and 900 meters (≈ 100 to ≈ 1000 yards), F-Class is typically the same with 300 to 900 meters (≈ 300 to ≈ 1000 yards). A growing form of interdisciplinary shooting, becoming known as Practical Precision, places targets at virtually any distance from 100 to 1800 meters and the scoring is hit/ miss on steel targets of various sizes and from various positions (standing, kneeling, prone). This type of match is quickly becoming more popular than F-Class.
Few complete resources exist for teaching the art of shooting long ranges, but there are some dedicated resources and organizations with education as primary goal.
Defining "long range".
The distances normally considered to be "long range" is weather- and caliber-dependent, and long range may be defined as stretching the distance which the firearm and ammunition is capable of making consistent hits. Generally some may claim that for the .22 LR cartridge any distances over 100 meters (109 yards) is considered long range. For centerfire intermediate rifle calibers, some might say that everything over 300 to 400 m is considered long range, while some may claim that long range "starts" at 500 m. At the longer ranges the bullets will have a longer flight time, and on days with good lighting and weather conditions one can even see a brief trail of wake behind a supersonic bullet, known as a bullet trace, due to turbulences creating visible refractive disturbances in the air. A bullet trace should not be confused with a vapor trail, which is sometimes observed when firing under rare conditions due to changes in air pressure around the bullet. While the bullet trace is usually only observable directly from behind the shooter, a vapor trail from a bullet is observable from any direction. Some believe you really get "the feel" of long range shooting when you have time to see the bullet fly towards the target, and then dive below or swing past, just when you were sure you would hit it. Weather conditions may also affect what is considered long range for a given firearm configuration. For instance a professional shooter may be able to repeatably hit a given size target, i.e. a 100 mm ring, at 1000 meters (0.1 mil target difficulty) in low and predictable wind, while the same 100 mm target may be near impossible to hit in heavy and varying wind at 200 meters (0.5 mil target difficulty).
A spotting scope is often used to observe hits and provide sight corrections, and can aid in seeing bullet trace. Bullet trace can often easily be seen in humid weather, but also on cool and sunny days. There are several possible explanations of the phenomenon. The main cause is probably contrails which appear around the bullet due to pressure changes as the bullet travels through the air, thereby causing a short change in the light refraction of the air. In order for the shooter to see their own bullet trace, the bullet trajectory must be within the field of view of their scope sight. In practice this often means the shooter has to dial down the magnification somewhat (i.e. to 10× magnification).
Calculation of trajectory.
To succeed at long range shooting, one must have good shooting skill fundamentals, a rifle with good precision and as consistent ammunition as possible (mainly to achieve a consistent muzzle velocity). In addition, a variety of external factors must be taken into account with regard to ballistics calculation, including:
etc.
All these parameters can also be used at shorter distances, but the effect they pose is so small that they generally can be disregarded. At short distances the accuracy of the shooter, rifle and ammunition will often mask the very small effect these factors will have.
Wind estimation.
For long range shooting it is important to compensate for the wind by observing the wind's strength and direction, and then adjust the sights accordingly by rules of thumb. Wind force can be estimated by feeling the wind at the shooting position and seeing signs of it in the terrain. After for instance guessing the wind strength in meters per second (m/s), this wind value can be transferred to a sight correction in number of clicks. This rule of thumb applies to winds that come 90 degree from the side (full value), however winds coming from an angle must be taken into account by applying less sight adjustment.
Competitions.
There are many different long range disciplines, competing both at known (KD) and unknown distances (UKD), individually or in teams (shooter and spotter). In UKD competitions the marksman must also judge the distances, for example by comparing a known size target with angular mil hashmarks inside their scope (called "milling") to calculate the distance. Sometimes a laser rangefinder may also be used, if permitted.
T-Class.
T-Class shooting, founded in 2014, is a sport mainly focused on competitions with precision rifle systems for various short, medium and long range distances, which may either be known or unknown. Headquarters reside in Bulgaria, and for the purpose of promotion of the sport internationally the organization offers a ruleset which regulates the design and management of competitions.
Competitions consist of several stages, and the competitors have to move between different parts of the stage under a time limitation, quickly assume stable or unstable shooting positions, and use theoretical background to successfully make precise long range shots. The main idea behind T-Class is to create realistic long range shooting competitions which are open to civilian sport shooters, police and military forces. A large emphasis is placed on safe firearm handling. Competitions can be held as either individual or two-person teamwork challenges.
Competitions are divided into six major disciplines:
Each target in every exercise is measured in milliradians (mrad) which takes into account its size and distance. There are also no-shoot targets which if struck incur penalties. The mrad system allows the usage of virtually all kinds of shooting targets, like paper, steel or clay targets, golf balls, soda cans, etc. Scoring is made with points attributed to the angular measurements of the target according to pre-defined tables. For some stages of Module 2 and 3, the so-called hit factor is applied (the score on the targets divided by the time used on that stage).
The scoring is calculated by adding results from all the module's stages. The competitor with highest summarized result is awarded with 100 percent. The scoring for the other competitors is made proportionally in relation to the highest summarized score, with calculation up to two decimal places. The calculated sum in percentage from all the three Modules assembles the Match ranking and demonstrates the winner.
Precision Rifle Competition.
Precision Rifle Competitions is a relatively new long range competition format which seeks to find a balance between speed and precision, often involving movement and shooting from unusual positions with a time limit, at both known and unknown distances.
The competition seeks to find a balance between speed and precision at long range shooting. Shooting distances can vary from between 10 and 1,000 meters/ yards, and therefore the competitor must know the ballistics of his firearm very well. A competition usually consists of several courses of fire, and requires some physical activity since the shooter has a time limit to move between the various courses of fire. Each course usually has a set maximum time (par time), and the shooter is awarded points according to how many targets he manages to hit during that time. Both cardboard and steel targets are used, and the targets presented are usually relatively small. In the PRS-series for instance, the targets are usually between 0.3-0.9 MIL (3–9 cm at 100 m, approximately 1-3 MOA).
F-Class.
F-Class is a rapidly growing long range shooting discipline internationally governed by the International Confederation of Fullbore Rifle Associations. F-Class carry many similarities to traditional high power rifle, except that it is only fired at distances between 300 and 1200 yards (or meters), and the targets are half the size of regular targets. They compete in two categories:
Sight magnification.
The ideal scope sight magnification for different types of long range shooting depends on application, scope quality and user preference. Different applications may have different shooting distances, light conditions, target sizes and target contrast against the background. Ideally scope magnification should be high enough while still being comfortable and safe to use.
Pros of high scope magnification are:
Cons of high scope magnification are:
Mirage is a light distortion caused by temperature differences between the air and ground making it difficult to get a clear sight picture of the target. Mirage becomes more apparent the higher the magnification, but at what magnification mirage starts to become an issue depends on weather conditions.


Naval Weapons Station Yorktown

Naval Weapons Station Yorktown is a United States Navy base in York County, James City County, and Newport News in the Hampton Roads region of Virginia. It provided a weapons and ammunition storage and loading facility for ships of the United States Atlantic Fleet, and more recently, for those from the Fleet Forces Command.
Location.
The Naval Weapons Station (NWS) Complex (including Cheatham Annex) is 20.7 square miles (54 km2) in area, roughly 1/5 of the total land area of York County, in which most of it lies; a small portion is within James City County.
The station is bounded on the northwest by the Naval Supply Center Cheatham Annex, the Virginia Emergency Fuel Farm, and land owned by the Department of the Interior; on the northeast by almost of the York River and the Colonial National Historical Park; on the southwest by Route 143 and I-64; and on the southeast by Route 238 and the community of Lackey.
The station borders the cities of Newport News and Williamsburg. It shares almost of the York River shoreline (about half of York County's York River shoreline and wetlands) with the National Park Service.
The large Camp Peary, which also has much York River frontage on the northern side of the Virginia Peninsula, is adjacent to the Naval Station.
History.
The site of NWS Yorktown is rich in colonial era (1607–1776) history, as well as that of the American Civil War (1861–1865). The station is located on the York River, in an area that was an early settlement of English colonists in Virginia. They displaced the Algonquian-speaking Kiskiack and other American Indian tribes of the Powhatan Confederacy, who historically inhabited the area.
The oldest structure at the Yorktown Naval Weapons Station is the brick "Kiskiack (Lee House)", built as a private residence in the late 17th century by English immigrant Henry Lee or his near descendants. At that time, the owner of the farm likely cultivated tobacco for export. It is listed on the National Register of Historic Places and the Virginia Landmarks Register. Descendants of the Lee family owned the property until its acquisition in 1918 by the federal government for the Navy Mine Depot.
The colonial infantry of the American Revolutionary War and forces of the Civil War slogged along the Old Williamsburg Road that today runs through the station.
Around 1914, the DuPont Company acquired a site on the banks of the York River and built a dynamite plant, which came to be known as Penniman. Before DuPont production started, the Navy acquired the site in August 1918 by presidential proclamation in response to the outbreak of World War I in Europe. This eventually developed as the largest naval installation in the world.
The Navy acquired the property to establish the Navy Mine Depot, Yorktown at this site. The Navy planned to lay the North Sea Mine Barrage to protect commercial shipping and required an Atlantic Seaboard plant to support the effort. Here the mines would be stored, assembled, loaded, tested and issued to the Service. A related station was required for the training of personnel to adjust and operate the mines. The Navy selected the DuPont site, about of area near Yorktown, Virginia, as the best location on the East Coast for its mine activities. The Bureau of Ordnance of the Navy Department assumed possession one month later.
Yorktown was near the Navy Operating Base at Hampton Roads, the Norfolk Navy Yard, and the Fuel Bases of the Fifth Naval District. It had excellent transportation access, with the main lines of the Chesapeake and Ohio Railroad forming one of the boundaries of the Depot, and five miles (8 km) of waterfront on the navigable York River. Ocean-going vessels of largest dimension and deepest draft could navigate there.
To make way for the new Mine Depot, the government acquired by eminent domain the property of many landowners along the former Yorktown-Williamsburg Road in nearby Lackey, Virginia. Both landowners and tenants in this area were primarily African American. (Since the late 19th century, this area had been locally known as "the Reservation".) Assisted by self-educated farmer John Tack Roberts (born ca. 1860), many of the displaced residents of Lackey negotiated better financial compensation for their properties. Many relocated to the community of Grove in nearby James City County. Another small community, also named Lackey, was later developed along the Yorktown Road a few miles away.
As many as 10,000 personnel worked at the Naval facility during World War I. Many workers lived in the town of Penniman. After World War I and the Navy's shift away from mines, this community also vanished as workers moved away. Halstead's Point, another community of workers on the station, also declined and disappeared. It was located near the present main gate off State Route 143.
Current use.
Over the years, the growth and expansion of the Navy's technical requirements and responsibilities have been reflected by corresponding developments at the station to support the Atlantic Fleet and CFFC.
As part of the Navy’s Mid-Atlantic installation consolidation, Cheatham Annex, formerly an annex of the Fleet Industrial Supply Center, Norfolk, was incorporated with the station on October 1, 1998. This area of land, located in the Jamestown, Williamsburg, and Yorktown area known as the Historic Triangle of Colonial Virginia, was acquired by the Navy on June 21, 1943. Cheatham Annex includes the former site of the "lost town" of Penniman, Virginia.
Naval Weapons Station Yorktown hosts 25 tenant commands which include the Navy Munitions Command, the Naval Ophthalmic Support and Training Activity, the Marine Corps Second Fleet Antiterrorism Security Team, NAVSUP Fleet Logistics Center Norfolk detachment, Navy Expeditionary Medical Support Command, Navy Expeditionary Logistics Support Group, Riverine Squadron THREE, Maritime Civil Affairs Squadron TWO, and 19 Storefronts.
The station and tenant commands work together to provide ordnance logistics, technical, supply and related services to Fleet Forces Command and its ships. Today the station is a hub of activity. As one of the Navy's "explosive corridors" to the sea, supply, amphibious and combatant ships may be seen arriving and departing the station's two piers.


John Burrows

John Burrows (October 30, 1913 – April 27, 1987) was an American professional baseball pitcher. He played in Major League Baseball (MLB) from 1943 to 1944 for the Philadelphia Athletics and Chicago Cubs.
Burrows died in an accidental house fire at his home on Weppler Road near Coal Run, Ohio. His ashes are interred in Round Bottom Cemetery, on Ohio 60 between Beverly and Coal Run.


T. Henry Howlett

T. Henry Howlett was a member of the Michigan House of Representatives from Gregory, Michigan who was one of six members of the state House killed in the Kerns Hotel fire in Lansing on December 11, 1934. Also killed were representatives Charles D. Parker, Vern Voorhees, John W. Goodwine, Don E. Sias, and D. Knox Hanna, along with state senator John Leidlein. The men were in Lansing for a special session of the Michigan legislature.


Troy Museum

The Troy Museum ( or "Truva Müzesi") is an archaeological museum located close to the archaeological site of the ancient city of Troy, in northwestern Turkey. Opened in 2018, it exhibits in seven sections of a contemporary architectural building the historical artefacts from Troy and some other ancient cities around and on nearby islands. The museum director is Ali Atmaca.
Museum building.
Troy Museum is situated about east of the archaeological site of the city of Troy at Tevfikiye village, in the Ezine district in Çanakkale Province, northwestern Turkey.
The design contest for the museum building was won by Yalın Mimarlık in 2011. Mimarlık designed the building in a contemporary plain architectural style. Construction began in 2013, came to a stop in 2015, and resumed again in 2017.
The cube-shaped building with four floors in square plan is clad in rust-colored weathering steel to give the impression that it was excavated from the archaeological site. The building's height is equivalent to the depth of the excavation at the archaeological site of Troy. The exhibition areas cover of the total indoor area. The exhibition areas of are enclosed by workplaces, storages, and conference rooms. The basement is reserved for service functions. Entrance to the museum is by a -wide ramp leading to an underground gate.
The total cost of the building came to 45 million (approx. $8 million). The museum was opened on 10 October 2018, the "Year of Troy" as declared in Turkey.
Exhibitions.
The niches on the walls of the entrance ramp contain gravestones, large-sized statues, scenes and mural-sized photographs from the various levels of the excavation in Troy. At the entrance, information about the archaeological science, archaeological dating methods and terms like
the conservation and restoration of cultural heritage, tumulus and the prehistoric periods of the Neolithic, Chalcolithic, Bronze Age and Iron Age are explained to the visitor for orientation purposes. The museum also features visual graphical designs, dioramas and interactive displays.
The museum contains seven sections. The ground floor is reserved for artefacts from the Troad region, today Biga Peninsula. These are archaeological remains from the ancient cities of Assos (Behramkale), Tenedos (Bozcaada), Parium, Alexandria Troas (Eski Stambul), Smintheion, Lampsacus (near Lapseki), Thymbra, Tavolia and Imbros (Gökçeada). On display are about 2,000 pieces from the museum's collection of around 40,000 diverse artefacts, which were transferred from the Çanakkale Archaeological Museum, İstanbul Archaeology Museums and the Museum of Anatolian Civilizations. Transfer of Troy coins from the İzmir Archaeological Museum was requested. The exhibits include tear catchers, glass and terracotta perfume bottles, figurines, gold pieces, necklaces and bracelets, coins, ornaments, bone objects and tools, metal containers, terracotta potteries, weapons, axes and cutters, milestones, inscriptions, altars, sarcophagi, sculptures and many other special pieces from the area's 5,000-year old history. Among the notable pieces are the 1994-excavated Polyxena sarcophagus and the 2012-discovered statue of Greek god Triton. Stone artefacts, columns, steles, and column capitals are exhibited in the museum yard.


Seitengewehr 42

The Seitengewehr 42, "Seitengewehr Modell 42" or SG 42 was developed in 1942 by the Wilhelm Gustloff Werke and manufactured by Carl Eickhorn in Solingen. The Gustloff Company and its chief designer, Carl Barnitzke, got German patent 766198 in October 1942 for an "Armeemesser" (Army knife) according to its description. The SG 42 was intended to supplement and later replace the original S84/98 III bayonet of the Karabiner 98k service rifle. The "Seitengewehr 42" was designed as a multi tool combat knife, but could also be mounted as a bayonet on the Karabiner 98k. The S84/98 III bayonet itself was a proven design, but there was a shortage of utility knives in the German military, which were usually procured privately.
After consistently positive reception of several hundred pieces in the 1943 troops trails, the production was approved by Adolf Hitler, but this should take place because of the cost of a conversion of production until after the war. In 1944, an order for 10,000 pieces was issued by the "Heereswaffenamt" (Army Weapons Office), the production was started, but due to the end of the war, only a small number was delivered. SG 42's were manufactured by Waffenfabrik Carl Eickhorn in Solingen and toolkits by Robert Klaas of Solingen.
Technical specifications.
The SG 42 were largely made from stamped sheet metal parts. The handle scales and sheath are inexpensive and quickly produced, molded phenolic resin parts. The blade length was , the total length was ( with sheath). The blade had a fuller.
A detachable toolkit was contained in the handle that could be used for rifle maintenance and other tasks. The toolkit included a screwdriver, small knife, awl and a corkscrew. The protective bracket of the handle served as a cartridge case extractor.
Analogous to the development of this knife bayonet after WW II, a worldwide development of the bayonet as a mere cutting and stabbing weapon to the plantable utility knife (saw, wire cutter) started.
The Sudanese bayonet for the post WW II ArmaLite AR-10 battle rifle was an adaptation of the SG 42 with only slight alterations.


.45-70

The .45-70 rifle cartridge, also known as .45-70 Government, was developed at the U.S. Army's Springfield Armory for use in the Springfield Model 1873, which is known to collectors as the "Trapdoor Springfield." The new cartridge was a replacement for the stop-gap .50-70 Government cartridge, which had been adopted in 1866, one year after the end of the American Civil War.
Nomenclature.
The new cartridge was completely identified as the ".45-70-405", but was also referred to as the ".45 Government" cartridge in commercial catalogs. The nomenclature of the time was based on three properties of the cartridge:
The minimum acceptable accuracy of the .45-70 from the 1873 Springfield was approximately at , however, the heavy, slow-moving bullet had a "rainbow" trajectory, the bullet dropping multiple yards (meters) at ranges greater than a few hundred yards (meters). A skilled shooter, firing at known range, could consistently hit targets that were 6 × at —the Army standard target. It was a skill valuable mainly in mass or volley fire, since accurate aimed fire on a man-sized target was effective only to about .
After the Sandy Hook tests of 1879, a new variation of the .45-70 cartridge was produced: the .45-70-500, which fired a heavier, 500 grain, (32.5 g) bullet. The heavier bullet produced significantly superior ballistics, and could reach ranges of 3,350 yards (3,120 m), which were beyond the maximum range of the .45-70-405. While the effective range of the .45-70 on individual targets was limited to about 1,000 yards (915 m) with either load, the heavier bullet produced lethal injuries at . At those ranges, the bullets struck point-first at a roughly 30 degree angle, penetrating three 1-inch (2.5 cm) thick oak boards, and then travelled to a depth of eight inches (20 cm) into the sand of the beach. It was hoped the longer range of the .45-70-500 would allow effective volley fire at ranges beyond those normally expected of infantry fire.
Bullet diameter.
While the nominal bore diameter was , the groove diameter was actually closer to . As was standard practice with many early commercially-produced U.S. cartridges, specially-constructed bullets were often "paper patched", or wrapped in a couple of layers of thin paper. This patch served to seal the bore and keep the soft lead bullet from coming in contact with the bore, preventing leading (see internal ballistics). Like the cloth or paper patches used in muzzle-loading firearms, the paper patch fell off soon after the bullet left the bore. Paper-patched bullets were made of soft lead, in diameter. When wrapped in two layers of thin cotton paper, this produced a final size of to match the bore. Paper patched bullets are still available, and some black-powder shooters still "roll their own" paper-patched bullets for hunting and competitive shooting. Arsenal loadings for the .45-70-405 and .45-70-500 government cartridges generally used groove diameter grease groove bullets of diameter.
History.
The predecessor to the .45-70 was the .50-70-450 cartridge, adopted in 1866 and used until 1873 in a variety of rifles, many of them were percussion rifled muskets converted to trapdoor action breechloaders. The conversion consisted of milling out the rear of the barrel for the tilting breechblock, and placing a .50 caliber "liner" barrel inside the .58 caliber barrel. The .50-70 was popular among hunters, as the bullet was larger than the .44 caliber and also hit harder (see terminal ballistics), but the military decided as early as 1866 that a .45 caliber bullet would provide increased range, penetration and accuracy. The .50-70 was nevertheless adopted as a temporary solution until a significantly improved rifle and cartridge could be developed.
The result of the quest for a more accurate, flatter shooting .45 caliber cartridge and firearm was the Springfield Trapdoor rifle. Like the .50-70, the .45-70 used a copper center-fire case design. A reduced power loading was also adopted for use in the Trapdoor carbine. This had a 55 grain (3.6 g) powder charge.
Also issued was the .45-70 "Forager" round, which contained a thin wooden bullet filled with birdshot, intended for hunting small game to supplement the soldiers' rations. This round in effect made the .45-70 rifle into a 49 gauge shotgun.
The .45-caliber Springfield underwent a number of modifications over the years, the principal one being a strengthened breech starting in 1884. A new, 500 grain (32 g) bullet was adopted in that year for use in the stronger arm. The M1873 and M1884 Springfield rifles were the principal small arms of the U.S. Army until 1893.
The .45-70 round was also used in several Gatling gun models from 1873 until it was superseded by the .30 Army round beginning with the M1893 Gatling gun. Some .45-70 Gatling guns were used on U.S. Navy warships launched in the 1880s and 1890s.
The Navy used the .45-70 caliber in several rifles: the M1873 and M1884 Springfield, the Model 1879 Lee Magazine Navy contract rifle, and the Remington-Lee, the last two being magazine-fed turnbolt repeating rifles. The Marine Corps used the M1873 and M1884 Springfield in .45-70 until 1897, when supplies of the new M1895 Lee Navy rifle in 6mm Lee Navy, adopted two years before by the Navy, were finally made available.
Realizing that single-shot black-powder rifles were rapidly becoming obsolete, the U.S. Army adopted the Norwegian-designed .30 Army caliber as the Springfield Model 1892 in 1893. However, the .45-70 continued in service with the National Guard, Navy, and Marine Corps until 1897. The .45-70 was last used in quantity during the Spanish–American War, and was not completely purged from the inventory until well into the 20th century. Many surplus rifles were given to reservation Indians as subsistence hunting rifles and now carry Indian markings.
The .45-70 cartridge is still used by the U.S. military today, in the form of the "cartridge, caliber .45, line throwing, M32," a blank cartridge which is used in a number of models of line throwing guns used by the Navy and Coast Guard. Early models of these line throwing guns were made from modified Trapdoor and Sharps rifles, while later models are built on break-open single-shot rifle actions.
Sporting use.
As is usual with military ammunition, the .45-70 was an immediate hit among sportsmen, and the .45-70 has survived to the present day. Today, the traditional 405-grain (26.2 g) load is considered adequate for any North American big game within its range limitations, including the great bears, and it does not destroy edible meat on smaller animals such as deer due to the bullet's low velocity. It is very good for big-game hunting in brush or heavy timber where the range is usually short. The .45-70, when loaded with the proper bullets at appropriate velocities, has been used to hunt the African "big-five." The .45-70 has been loaded and used to hunt everything from birds to elephants and the cartridge is still undergoing new development work.
The trajectory of the bullets is very steep, which makes for a very short point-blank range. This was not a significant problem at the time of introduction, as the .45-70 was a fairly flat-shooting cartridge for its time. Shooters of these early cartridges had to be keen judges of distance, wind and trajectory to make long shots; the Sharps rifle, in larger calibers such as .50-110, was used at ranges of . Most modern shooters use much higher velocity cartridges, relying on the long point-blank range, and rarely using telescopic sights' elevation adjustments, calibrated iron sights, or hold-overs. Sights found on early cartridge hunting rifles were quite sophisticated, with a long sighting radius, wide range of elevation, and vernier adjustments to allow precise calibration of the sights for a given range. Even the military "creedmoor"-type rifle sights were calibrated and designed to handle extended ranges, flipping up to provide several degrees of elevation adjustment if needed. The .45-70 is a popular choice for black-powder cartridge shooting events, and replicas of most of the early rifles, including Trapdoor, Sharps, and Remington single-shot rifles, are often available.
The .45-70 is a long-range caliber, and accurate use requires knowledge of windage and elevation by minute of angle and a sense for estimating distance in these calculations. The .45-70 retains great popularity among American hunters, and is still offered by several commercial ammunition manufacturers. Even when loaded with modern smokeless powders, pressures are usually kept low for safety in antique rifles and their replicas. Various modern sporting rifles are chambered for the .45-70, and some of these benefit from judicious handloading of homemade ammunition with markedly higher pressure and ballistic performance. Others, which reproduce the original designs still take the original load, but are not strong enough for anything with higher pressures. In a rifle such as the Siamese Mauser (commonly converted to fire .45-70 due to it being the only Mauser 98 derivative designed to feed rimmed cartridges, and the limited availability of ammunition for its original 8×50mmR chambering) or a Ruger No. 1 single-shot rifle, it can be handloaded to deliver good performance even on big African game. The .45-70 has also been used in double rifles since the development of the Colt 1878 rifle and the more modern replicas, like the Kodiak Mark IV.
In addition to its traditional use in rifles, Thompson Center Arms has offered a .45-70 barrel in both pistol and rifle lengths for their "Contender" single-shot pistol, one of the most potent calibers offered in the Contender frame. Even the shortest barrel, 14 inches, is capable of producing well over 2,500 ft·lbf (2,700 J) of energy, double the power of most .44 Magnum loadings, and a Taylor KO Factor as high as 40 with some loads. Recent .45-70 barrels are available with efficient muzzle brakes that significantly reduce muzzle rise and also help attenuate the recoil. The Magnum Research BFR is a heavier gun at approximately 4.5 pounds, helping it have much more manageable recoil.
Only with the recent introduction of ultra-magnum revolver cartridges, such as the .500 S&W Magnum, have production handguns begun to eclipse the .45-70 Contender in the field of big-game-capable handguns.


RPG-7

The RPG-7 () is a portable, reusable, unguided, shoulder-launched, anti-tank rocket-propelled grenade launcher. It—along with its predecessor, the RPG-2—were designed by the Soviet Union; it is now manufactured by the Russian company Bazalt. The weapon has the GRAU index (Russian armed forces index) 6G3.
The ruggedness, simplicity, low cost, and effectiveness of the RPG-7 has made it the most widely used anti-armor weapon in the world. Currently around 40 countries use the weapon, and it is manufactured in several variants by nine countries. It is popular with irregular and guerrilla forces. The RPG has been used in almost all conflicts across all continents since the mid-1960s from the Vietnam War to the ongoing Syrian Civil War.
Widely produced, the most commonly seen major variations are the RPG-7D (десантник – "desantnik" – paratrooper) model, which can be broken into two parts for easier carrying; and the lighter Chinese Type 69 RPG. DIO of Iran manufactures RPG-7s with olive green handguards, H&K pistol grips, and a Commando variant.
The RPG-7 was first delivered to the Soviet Army in 1961 and deployed at squad level. It replaced the RPG-2, having clearly out-performed the intermediate RPG-4 design during testing. The current model produced by the Russian Federation is the RPG-7V2, capable of firing standard and dual high explosive anti-tank (HEAT) rounds, high explosive/fragmentation, and thermobaric warheads (see below), with a UP-7V sighting device fitted (used in tandem with the standard 2.7× PGO-7 optical sight) to allow the use of extended range ammunition. The RPG-7D3 is the equivalent paratrooper model. Both the RPG-7V2 and RPG-7D3 were adopted by the Russian Ground Forces in 2001.
Description.
The launcher is reloadable and based around a steel tube, 40 millimetres in diameter, 95.3 centimetres long, and weighing 7 kilograms. The middle of the tube is wood wrapped to protect the user from heat and the end is flared. Sighting is usually optical with a back-up iron sight, and passive infra-red and night sights are also available. The launchers designated RPG-7N1 and RPG-7DN1 can thus mount the multi-purpose night vision scope 1PN51 and the launchers designated RPG-7N2 and RPG-7DN2 can mount the multi-purpose night vision scope 1PN58.
As with similar weapons, the grenade protrudes from the launch tubes. It is 40–105 millimetres in diameter and weighs between 2.0 and 4.5 kilograms. It is launched by a gunpowder booster charge, giving it an initial speed of 115 metres per second, and creating a cloud of light grey-blue smoke that can give away the position of the shooter. The rocket motor ignites after 10 metres and sustains flight out to 500 metres at a maximum velocity of 295 metres per second. The grenade is stabilized by two sets of fins that deploy in-flight: one large set on the stabilizer pipe to maintain direction and a smaller rear set to induce rotation. The grenade can fly up to 1,100 metres; the fuze sets the maximum range, usually 920 metres.
Propulsion system.
According to the United States Army Training and Doctrine Command (TRADOC) Bulletin 3u (1977) "Soviet RPG-7 Antitank Grenade Launcher—Capabilities and Countermeasures", the RPG-7 munition has two sections: a "booster" section and a "warhead and sustainer motor" section. These must be assembled into the ready-to-use grenade. The booster consists of a "small strip powder charge" that serves to propel the grenade out of the launcher; the sustainer motor then ignites and propels the grenade for the next few seconds, giving it a top speed of . The TRADOC bulletin provides anecdotal commentary that the RPG-7 has been fired from within buildings, which agrees with the two-stage design. It is stated that only a 2-metre standoff to a rear obstruction is needed for use inside rooms or fortifications. The fins not only provide drag stabilization, but are designed to impart a slow rotation to the grenade.
Due to the configuration of the RPG-7 sustainer/warhead section, it responds counter-intuitively to crosswinds. A crosswind will tend to exert pressure on the stabilizing fins, causing the projectile to turn into the wind ("see Weathervane effect"). While the rocket motor is still burning, this will cause the flight path to curve into the wind. The TRADOC bulletin explains aiming difficulties for more distant moving targets in crosswinds at some length. Similar to a recoilless rifle the RPG-7 has no noticeable recoil, the only effect during firing being that of the sudden lightness of the launcher as the rocket leaves the tube.
Airtronic RPG-7.
In 2009, the American company Airtronic USA unveiled a modernized version of the weapon called the RPG-7USA. The launcher is fitted with updated features including a MIL-STD-1913 Quad Rail System for mounting combat optics, flip-up back up iron sights, aiming lasers/illuminators, tactical lights, and vertical foregips, as well as an M4 carbine-style pistol grip and telescoping stock. Compared to the RPG-7V2, the American launcher, named by the company the Precision Shoulder-fired Rocket Launcher (PSRL-1), is slightly lighter at 14 lb (6.35 kg) unloaded without optics and is made of 4140/4150 ordnance-grade steel for a longer 1,000-round lifespan that can separate into two pieces for compact carry. The PSRL-1 uses EOTech sights with a new sighting system that combines an illuminated reticule for use in low light situations, and is able to be fitted with magnifying optical sights for long-range firing enabling 90% hit probability at 800 metres, twice the distance of other RPGs; rate of fire is 3–4 rounds per minute. It is reportedly accurate at ranges from 900–1,200 m, and guided rockets could extend range to 2,000 metres. The weapon was a program of record in U.S. Special Operations Command by 2015, and the PSRL-1 was to enter production by mid-2016. Airtronic has also developed the more advanced GS-777/PSRL-2 model made of high-strength polymer that reduces weight to 7.77 lb (3.5 kg) and further improves durability and life cycle.
Ammunition.
The RPG-7 can fire a variety of warheads for anti-armor (HEAT, PG-Protivotankovaya Granata) or anti-personnel (HE, OG-Oskolochnaya Granata) purposes, usually fitting with an impact (PIBD) and a 4.5 second fuze. Armor penetration is warhead dependent and ranges from 30 to 60 centimetres of RHA; one warhead, the PG-7VR, is a 'tandem charge' device, used to defeat reactive armor with a single shot.
Current production ammunition for the RPG-7V2 consists of four main types:
Other warhead variants include:
Specifications.
Manufacturer specifications for the RPG-7V1.
Hit probabilities.
A 1976 U.S. Army evaluation of the weapon gave the hit probabilities on a wide, tall panel moving sideways at . This probability decreases when firing in a crosswind due to the unusual behaviour of the round; in an (3 m/s) wind, the gunner cannot expect to get a first-round hit more than 50% of the time beyond 180 m.
History of use.
Accurate firing is difficult at ranges over 200 metres. During the Soviet–Afghan War, the mujahideen tended to use the weapon at ranges of less than 80 metres.
The RPG-7 was used by the Provisional Irish Republican Army in Northern Ireland from 1969 to 2005, most notably in Lurgan, County Armagh, where it was used against British Army observation posts and the towering military base at Kitchen Hill in the town. The IRA also used them in Catholic areas of West Belfast against British Army armoured personnel carriers and Army forward operating bases (FOB). Beechmount Avenue in Belfast became known as "RPG Avenue" after attacks on British troops.
In Mogadishu, Somalia, RPG-7s were used to down two U.S. Army Black Hawk helicopters in 1993.


Fort Ord

Fort Ord is a former United States Army post on Monterey Bay of the Pacific Ocean coast in California, which closed in 1994 due to Base Realignment and Closure (BRAC) action. Most of the fort's land now makes up the Fort Ord National Monument, managed by the United States Bureau of Land Management as part of the National Conservation Lands, while a small portion remains an active military installation under Army control designated as the Ord Military Community.
Before construction and official designation as a fort in 1940, the land was used as a maneuver area and field-artillery target range during 1917. Fort Ord was considered one of the most attractive locations of any U.S. Army post, because of its proximity to the beach and California weather. The 7th Infantry Division was its main garrison for many years. When Fort Ord was converted to civilian use, space was set aside for the first nature reserve in the United States created for conservation of an insect, the endangered Smith's blue butterfly. Additional endangered species are found on Fort Ord, including Contra Costa goldfields and the threatened California tiger salamander.
While much of the old military buildings and infrastructure remain abandoned, many structures have been torn down for anticipated development. California State University, Monterey Bay (CSUMB) and the Fort Ord Dunes State Park, along with some subdivisions, the Veterans Transition Center, a commercial strip mall, a tandem skydiving drop zone, military facilities and a nature preserve occupy the area today.
On April 20, 2012, President Barack Obama signed a proclamation designating a portion of the former post as the Fort Ord National Monument. In his proclamation, the President stated that, "The protection of the Fort Ord area will maintain its historical and cultural significance, attract tourists and recreationalists from near and far, and enhance its unique natural resources, for the enjoyment of all Americans."
History.
After the American entry into World War I, land was purchased just north of the city of Monterey along Monterey Bay for use as an artillery training field for the United States Army by the U.S. Department of War. The area was known as the Gigling Reservation, U.S. Field Artillery Area, Presidio of Monterey and Gigling Field Artillery Range. Although military development and construction was just beginning, the War only lasted for another year and a half until the armistice in November 11, 1918.
Despite a great demobilization of the U.S. Armed Forces during the inter-war years of the 1920s and 1930s, by 1933, the artillery field became Camp Ord, named in honor of Union Army Maj. Gen. Edward Otho Cresap Ord, (1818–1883). Primarily, horse cavalry units trained on the camp until the military began to mechanize and train mobile combat units such as tanks, armored personnel carriers and movable artillery.
By 1940, the 23-year-old Camp Ord was expanded to , with the realization that the two-year-old conflict of World War II could soon cross the Atlantic Ocean to involve America. In August 1940, it was re-designated Fort Ord and the 7th Infantry Division was reactivated, becoming the first major unit to occupy the post. Sub camp were built around the Fort to support the new training of Troop, Camp Clayton. Camp Clayton was built near CA Highway 1, the South Dakota National Guard 147th Artillery were the first unit to train at the new camp.
In 1941, Camp Ord became Fort Ord. But soon the first threat came from the west as the Imperial Japanese Navy struck the island of Oahu, Hawaii at Pearl Harbor near Honolulu in a sneak air attack, Sunday, December 7, 1941. In a few days the other Axis powers of dictators Adolf Hitler's Nazi Germany, along with Fascist Italy of Benito Mussolini, declared and spread their war in Europe against Great Britain and France and the Low Countries to the U.S.
With the end of the war with the surrenders of Germany in May and Japan in September 1945, the soon onset of a Cold War against the Soviet Union continued for the next forty some years to the early 1990s. In 1947, Fort Ord became the home of the 4th Replacement Training Center. During the 1950s and 1960s, Fort Ord was a staging area for units departing for war in the Korean War and later peacetime/occupation duty in Japan, South Korea and the Philippines and Thailand. Then, when Southeast Asia became a war zone with Vietnam (and later involving, by the 1970s, Cambodia and Laos), the United States had, at one time, 50,000 troops on the installation. The 194th Armored Brigade was activated there under Combat Development Command in 1957, but departed for Fort Knox in Kentucky in 1960.
Between 1952 and 1954 the Del E. Webb Construction Company was hired to construct some 42 new permanent buildings to make Fort Ord a permanent Army post. The total cost of construction was more than $20,000,000. The first buildings completed were dormitories followed by a guard house and stockade. Additional buildings constructed as part of the plan were an administrative headquarters building, quartermaster warehouses, and an improved water storage system. There were a total of 31 dormitory buildings that could house 7,000 men.
In 1957, land on the eastern side of the post was used to create the Laguna Seca Raceway which served to replace the Pebble Beach road racing course that ceased operations for safety reasons in that same year.
The post continued as a center for instruction of basic and advanced infantrymen until 1976, when the training area was deactivated and Fort Ord again became the home of the 7th Infantry Division, following their return from South Korea after twenty-five years on the DMZ ("demilitarized zone").
On July 14, 1989, the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) proposed placement of Fort Ord on the National Priorities List (NPL). The site contained leaking underground petroleum storage tanks, a landfill that was primarily used to dispose of residential waste and small amounts of commercial waste generated by the base, a former fire drill area, motor pool maintenance areas, small dump sites, small arms target ranges, an firing range, and other limited areas that posed threats from unexploded ordnance. NPL status was finalized on February 21, 1990.
The final basic training classes were held in 1976.
In 1991, the decision to close Fort Ord was made. The "Base Realignment and Closure" ("BRAC") legislation considering the post-Cold War era was passed by the Congress under 41st President George H. W. Bush.
In 1994, Fort Ord was officially closed. The Fort was the largest U.S. military base to be closed at the time.
Closing the Fort, 1994.
The Base Realignment and Closure Commission of 1991 recommended closing the post and moving the units stationed at Fort Ord to Fort Lewis, Washington. On May 2, 1992, Army elements from Fort Ord along with Marines from Marine Corps Base Camp Pendleton participated in quelling the 1992 Los Angeles riots. In 1994, Fort Ord was finally closed. Most of the land was returned to the State of California for further public use and became the home of CSUMB. The remainder was given to University of California, Santa Cruz to be developed into the "UC MBEST" (Monterey Bay Education, Science and Technology) Center. The MBEST Center is a regional economic development effort focused on developing collaborative research-business opportunities in the Monterey Bay region.
Fort Ord Reuse Authority (FORA).
The Fort Ord Reuse Authority (FORA) is responsible for the oversight of Monterey Bay area economic recovery from the closure of and reuse planning of the former Fort Ord. The military base was located on the California coastline near the Monterey Peninsula, consisting of of land. FORA implements this legislatively mandated mission by overseeing replacement land use; assuring compliance with adopted measures; removing physical barriers to reuse; financing and constructing major components of the required infrastructure and basewide demands; and protecting identified environmental reserves. FORA exercises its planning, financing, and monitoring responsibilities under state law authority to meet these objectives in the best interest of the northern Monterey Bay community.
FORA is small multi-governmental body, composed of elected officials at the local, state, and federal levels, as well as representatives from the United States Armed Forces and educational bodies such as CSUMB at the primary, secondary, and university levels. Voting members are made up of representatives from the cities of Carmel-by-the-Sea, Del Rey Oaks, Marina, Sand City, Monterey, Pacific Grove, Salinas, and Seaside as well as two representatives from the County of Monterey Ex-officio members are composed of representatives from the Monterey Peninsula Community College District, the Monterey Peninsula Unified School District, California's 17th congressional district, California's 15th State Senate district, California's 27th State Assembly district, the United States Army, the Chancellor of the California State University, the President of the University of California, the Monterey County Water Resources Agency, and the Transportation Agency of Monterey County.
This legislatively mandated mission is directed by FORA's 1997 Fort Ord Base Reuse Plan (Reuse Plan). In 2012, FORA performed a comprehensive Reuse Plan Reassessment to assess remaining work.
Ongoing environmental cleanup efforts.
The Army's Fort Ord cleanup project.
The Army's environmental cleanup of the former Fort Ord has been underway since the base was closed and is separated into two programs — the Soil and Groundwater Contamination Cleanup Program, and the Munitions and Explosives of Concern (MEC) Program. A Federal Facility Agreement was signed by the Army, EPA, California Department of Toxic Substances Control and the California Regional Water Quality Control Board Central Coast Region in 1990. Additionally, the Army provides oversight on FORA's cleanup program, called the Environmental Services Cooperative Agreement (see below).
FORA's privatized cleanup project.
In May 2007, the Fort Ord Reuse Authority voluntarily entered into an Administrative Order on Consent with EPA and the California Department of Toxic Substances Control (DTSC) for the cleanup of of Fort Ord land. The Army and EPA provide the necessary oversight on the project, referred to as FORA's Environmental Services Cooperative Agreement (ESCA). Under this privatized cleanup scheme, FORA received these properties through early transfer and is responsible for the cleanup of these specific areas of Fort Ord. The Administrative Order on Consent requires FORA to clean up the parcels to an extent that would protect human health and environment.
Present-day Fort Ord.
Fort Ord's former military golf courses, Bayonet and Black Horse, are, as of January 16, 1997, public golf courses. They have hosted PGA golf events and were recently renovated.
California State University, Monterey Bay.
California State University, Monterey Bay opened on the Fort's former ground shortly after Fort Ord's closing in 1994 as part of 42nd President Bill Clinton's "peace dividends" program. The University has currently enrolled more than 7,500 students. The Leon Panetta Institute (named for the former U.S. Representative and Secretary of Defense) is located on its campus. Schoonover, Frederick and Frederick II are housing developments located in the former Fort Ord created for students and families who are associated with CSUMB, Monterey Peninsula Unified School District and local school districts. All three parks are accessible off of Abrams Drive.
Veterans Transition Center.
The Veterans Transition Center (VTC) is located on the site of the former Fort Ord. Since its inception it has served 4,155 single veterans and 351 veterans with families. the center is looking to expand by adding more housing units and a non-profit store (to be run by partner company, Vocational Rehabilitation Specialists Inc.) with the express purpose of employing as many veterans as possible.
Fort Ord Dunes State Park and National Monument.
In 2009, a coastal strip overlooking Monterey Bay became California's newest state park, Fort Ord Dunes State Park. At the end of Gigling Road, where the DOD Building is located, is one of many entrances to the Fort Ord National Monument; the land underwent comprehensive remediation that involved an extensive munitions clean-up. There are more than of recreational trails available. They are used by the trail communities on foot, on bicycles, and on horseback. All open trails are available to all non-motorized trail user groups. A small number of trails are fenced along their edges because of possible unexploded ordnance.
On January 13, 2012, United States Secretary of the Interior Ken Salazar visited Fort Ord, addressed a crowd of 200 supporters and announced that he was proposing to President Obama that Fort Ord be elevated to National Monument status. On April 20, 2012, Barack Obama signed a Presidential Proclamation establishing Fort Ord National Monument.
Fort Ord National Monument refers to that land on the former Fort Ord that is administered by the Bureau of Land Management and is open to the general public. The BLM currently manages 7,200 acres and will manage 14,650 acres after the U.S. Army finishes environmental restoration on the remaining parcel.
As of May 2018, Fort Ord National Monument has extended its trail system to add bypass and spur trails to popular areas.
Remaining military presence.
A small portion of the former Fort Ord still remains under U.S. Army control, originally called the Presidio of Monterey (POM) Annex. It is now called the Ord Military Community (described below).
The military is still present at Fort Ord, in the form of several California Army National Guard units, facilities administered by the Presidio of Monterey, the Defense Manpower Data Center, and the continued operation of the base Army and Air Force Exchange Service PX and a Commissary catering to the active duty military stationed in the Monterey area as well as reservists, national guardsmen, and military retirees who chose to settle in the area and are entitled to shop at such facilities. Management of the military housing has been outsourced to private firms, but the homes are still occupied by personnel stationed at the Presidio of Monterey, the Naval Postgraduate School and retired military members.
Development.
The nearby city of Marina is developing a large parcel of land from the former Fort Ord within its city limits, building more than 1,000 new homes. A large commercial strip mall along Highway 1 at the former 12th Street Gate entrance to Fort Ord opened in late 2007, and houses popular retail stores. The City of Marina is planning a 13-mile recreation trail to run through Fort Ord to the Fort Ord National Monument, the Salinas River, and through Fort Ord Dunes State Park.
As of December 2014, some of the land for a proposed development project (Monterey Downs) will not be officially clear of unexploded ordnance until at least late 2017.
Miscellaneous.
World War II Warhorse Hospital.
The Fort Ord Station Veterinary Hospital at the Marina Equestrian Center Park in Marina was placed on the National Register of Historic Places in 2014, by the Friends of the Fort Ord Warhorse. This is the first such designation on Fort Ord. The history is detailed at. The Fort Ord SVH was built for the Army Veterinary Corps as an equine veterinary hospital in 1941 to serve the 1400 horses of the 76th Field Artillery Regiment, cavalry, and quartermaster mule-train units. This is the only remaining example of a major World War II-construction medical facility for warhorses. Twelve of the original twenty-one World War II stables for the horses and mules were about 200 yards away, on Fourth Avenue and Gen Jim Moore Boulevard, but were demolished by CSUMB in 2011.


7.5 FK

The 7.5 FK or the 7.5 FK BRNO (designated as the 7.5 FK by the C.I.P.) is a bottlenecked rimless centerfire automatic pistol cartridge developed by the Czech firearms and ammunition manufacturer FK Brno Engineering s.r.o. It is reported that the cartridge has recently been adopted by some law enforcement agencies and militaries engaged in ongoing conflicts by their special operations units. The cartridge is known for its long-range accuracy and high incapacitation capability when compared to other automatic pistol cartridges.
History.
Developed between 2009 and 2014 for the specific purpose of providing high capacity automatic pistols the ability to engage combatant targets at a range of between 75-150 meters while retaining more kinetic energy at that range than what a 9mm NATO cartridge can generate at the muzzle/point blank range.
Due to the length of the cartridge, relatively high energy, and a pressure that the cartridge generates, no modern existing, high-capacity automatic pistol design existed that can accommodate the new caliber so FK BRNO developed a specialized platform to accommodate and use this caliber.
Initially it was chambered in the all-steel FK Field Pistol which has a unique patented recoil attenuating system but subsequently FK BRNO developed a polymer version of that that design designated as the FK PSD. This recoil attenuating system allows the powerful 7.5 FK cartridge to be fired with high level controllability and accuracy.
Cartridge dimensions.
The 7.5 FK has 1.50 cm3 (23.21 grain of H2O) cartridge case capacity.
Americans would define the shoulder angle at alpha/2 = 30 degrees. The common rifling twist for this cartridge is 270mm (1 in 10.62” inch), 6 grooves, Ø lands = 7.5 mm, Ø grooves = 7.77mm, land width = 3.75 mm, and the primer type is small pistol.
Contrary to some published information, this cartridge is not based on a necked down 10mm auto case, and hand loaders cannot and should not attempt to make a 7.5 case from a 10mm auto case, as the case is longer, thicker, and operates at significantly higher pressure. Therefore, necking down and stretching the 10mm auto would create much thinner walls at the critical shoulder/neck area and can potentially be very dangerous to the user.
According to C.I.P rulings, the 7.5 FK case can handle up to 350 MPa (50,763 psi) piezo pressure. In C.I.P regulated countries every pistol cartridge combo has to be proofed at 130% of this maximum C.I.P pressure to certify for sale to consumers.
Conversions.
No current pistol caliber and no current automatic pistol design other than the products of FK BRNO can be converted to the 7.5 FK cartridge due to the longer cartridge length and higher operating pressure renders conversion not possible. However, the opposite is possible, and done by the PSD variant. A conversion barrel allows for the use of 10mm auto and .40 smith and Wesson ammunition or a conversion of the barrel, recoil spring, and magazine can fire 9x19mm.
Characteristics.
The goal of the 7.5 FK project was to create a cartridge with a level of performance that could exceed that of the highly effective 125 grain (8.1 g) JHP 357 magnum load and at least as effective terminally as the 7.62 x 39 Russian or 5.56 NATO cartridges when fired from short barrel (20- 25.2 cm or 8-10 inches) in AK/AR type platforms, and to provide it in a package small enough to fit a standard-size military automatic pistol platform. Another goal was to have a flat trajectory and to be accurate enough to engage targets at 75-150 meters which is the most common engagement distance in modern combat situations and therefore to be considered as a second weapon as opposed to a secondary weapon which is what most military pistols using standard NATO and other automatic pistol calibers are considered.
Measurements of standard 7.5 cartridges loaded with 95 grain (6.16 g) showed a muzzle velocity of 2000fps (610m/s) out of a 5.3-inch barrel equal to 4-inch of free bore (13.46 cm equal to 10 cm free bore) and a muzzle energy of 845ft ft/lbs (1146 jouls) which is almost 50% higher than the venerable 357 magnum 125 grain JHP when using quality high pressure ammunition where the measured muzzle velocity is 1450 fps (442 m/s) and muzzle energy of 584 ft/lbs (799 jouls) when fired from a 4-inch barrel, so essentially from the same barrel length as the 7.5 FK.
More importantly the 7.5 FK cartridge achieves this performance without compromising the sectional density of the projectile which is critical for the penetrating depth and incapacitating capability. The 95 grain 7.5 FK cartridge has a sectional density of 0.150 while the 101 grain 7.5 FK cartridge has a sectional density of 0.160. In comparison the 357 magnum 125 cartridge has a sectional density of 0.140. The higher sectional density allows the 7.5 FK projectile to retain higher velocity and lower trajectory at longer ranges, while having significantly deeper penetration especially since it has 40% more velocity. It is interesting to note that the measured velocity and energy of the 95 grain load 7.5 FK cartridge at the minimum design engagement distance of 75 meters is 1650 fps (503 m/s) and 577 ft/lbs (783 joules) respectively. Which is essentially almost the same as what the 125 grain JHP 357 magnum generates at the muzzle / point black range from the same barrel length.
Performance.
The table below shows common performance parameters for several common automatic pistol calibers using kinetic energy as the main form of power comparison, using premium high-end ammunition using a 5-inch barrel.
The concept of using kinetic energy tables as a measuring method for incapacitating power has been used for almost a century but has been disputed for almost as long by various different authorities, scholars, and writers as it does not take into account the projectile construction and design which may affect terminal performance significantly. It also does not take into account penetration capability which is highly influence by projectile material, design, and sectional density. Several theories have been published that claim better prediction of incapacitating power than kinetic energy such as Tylor KO index, Hatchers theory, Lethality index, Bekker knock out formula, and Hornady HITS among others. FK BRNO has published their own alternative method which they claim is more efficient and more accurate predictor of incapacitating power which they call Dynamic Shock Index (DSI). They have also published a video showing the 7.5 cartridge being used to hunt large boars where they claim that the terminal ballistics efficiency shown in the video is due to the high DSI of these loads.
Dynamic Shock Index.
The DSI concept takes into account meplat diameter (meplat=frontal flat area of a projectile), the sectional density of the projectile and several velocity parameters. The mass of the projectile is not taken into account directly thought it is used in order to calculate the sectional density.
The following is the formula for the Dynamic Shock Index as published by FK BRNO:
"DSI = meplat diameter x impact velocity – (1500-impact velocity) x sectional density"
The following are examples of how some powerful versions with very high meplat diameter of popular ammunition calibers score using muzzle velocity for illustrative purposes (as opposed to impact velocity) in comparison with the 7.5 FK.
Available loads.
F9: All copper monolithic wide meplat flat nose. This bullet is designed to create a wide and very deep permanent wound channel in addition to a very high dynamic shock effect. Accurate and effective for defence and medium game hunting up to 300 lbs to 100 yards, and dangerous game up to 500 lbs to 50 yards.
S95: Jacketed Hollow point made by Sierra bullets exclusively for FKB, it is designed to explode and shatter on impact. This bullet makes huge, but shallower wound channels than the other versions. Accurate and effective for defence and medium game hunting up to 100 lbs at 100 yards.
F5: All copper, monolithic nose discarding hollow point. The nose is designed to break off on impact, leaving a jagged 7mm meplat to create a large deep penetrating wound channel and a High Terminal Effect. Accurate and effective for defence and medium game hunting up to 200 lbs to 100 yards.


Rascal (artillery)

The Rascal Light Self-Propelled Howitzer is a lightweight mobile artillery system developed by Soltam Ltd, Israel.
The Rascal represents an entirely new design of SP gun. The objective of designing the Rascal was to make a gun light enough to not be restricted to the capacity of rural bridges, and so it could be air-lifted.
The vehicle is not based on any existing tank. The hull has a raised drivers compartment at the left front, the engine being behind the driver, and a central compartment for the commander and two gunners.
The 155mm (6.1 in) howitzer is installed on a platform at the rear of the vehicle and is power-operated. The gun may be either 39 or 52 calibers in length.
The Rascal Light carries 40 rounds of ammunition on board. These shells are stored in racks alongside the gun and cartridges in an Armour-protected compartment in the hull.


Benelli Vinci

The Benelli Vinci is a semi-automatic shotgun manufactured and sold by Benelli Armi SpA. It uses an inertia-driven system of operation, and contains recoil-reducing features. It also features a modular design consisting of the barrel/receiver module (containing the operating system, barrel, and bolt), the trigger group/forearm module (containing the trigger assembly, safety, shell carrier and magazine), and the buttstock. The shotgun was named after Leonardo da Vinci. It is Benelli's first shotgun to feature an in-line inertia-driven operating system. It is intended primarily for hunting, rather than combat or self-defense; the M3 and M4 shotguns are Benelli's primary contenders in the tactical shotgun market. The Vinci is capable of firing 2.75 or 3 inch shells, while the “Super Vinci” model is capable of firing 3.5 inch shells as well.


Russian battleship Borodino

Borodino () was the lead ship of her class of five pre-dreadnought battleships built for the Imperial Russian Navy in the first decade of the twentieth century. Completed after the beginning of the Russo-Japanese War in 1904, "Borodino" was assigned to the Second Pacific Squadron that was sent to the Far East a few months after her completion to break the Japanese blockade of Port Arthur. The Japanese captured the port while the squadron was in transit and their destination was changed to Vladivostok. The ship was sunk during the Battle of Tsushima in May 1905 due to explosions set off by a Japanese shell hitting a magazine. There was only a single survivor from her crew of 855 officers and enlisted men.
Description.
The "Borodino"-class ships were based on the design of the French-built , modified to suit Russian equipment and building practices. They were built under the 1898 program "for the needs of the Far East" of concentrating ten battleships in the Pacific. The ships were long at the waterline and long overall, with a beam of and a draft of , more than designed. "Borodino" displaced at normal load, over more than her designed displacement of . The "Borodino" class were designed for a crew of 28 officers and 754 enlisted men, although they usually carried 826–846 crewmen in service.
The ships were powered by a pair of vertical triple-expansion steam engines, each driving one shaft, using steam generated by 20 Belleville boilers. The engines were rated at and designed to reach a top speed of . They produced, however, only on "Borodino"s builder's sea trials on 23 August 1904 and gave an average speed of . The ships could carry enough coal to give them a range of at a speed of .
The main battery of the "Borodino"s consisted of four Pattern 1895 guns were mounted in two twin-gun turrets, one each fore and aft of the superstructure. Their secondary armament of twelve Pattern 1892 guns were mounted in six twin-gun turrets carried on the upper deck. Defense against torpedo boats was provided by a suite of smaller guns. The twenty Pattern 1892 guns carried were mounted in casemates in the sides of the hull. The ships also mounted twenty Hotchkiss guns in the superstructure. The ships were fitted with four torpedo tubes, one each above water in the bow and in the stern, and a submerged tube on each broadside.
The waterline armor belt of the "Borodino" class consisted of Krupp armor thick. The armor of their gun turrets had a maximum thickness of and their decks ranged from in thickness. The armored lower deck of "Borodino" and her sister curved downwards to their double bottom and formed an anti-torpedo bulkhead.
Service.
Construction began on "Borodino", named after the 1812 Battle of Borodino, on 26 May 1899 at the New Admiralty Shipyard in Saint Petersburg. The ship was laid down on 23 May 1900 in the presence of Tsar Nicholas II, and launched on 8 September 1901. She was completed in August 1904 at the cost of 14,573,000 rubles.
On 15 October 1904, "Borodino" set sail for Port Arthur from Libau along with the other vessels of the Second Pacific Squadron, under the overall command of Vice Admiral Zinovy Rozhestvensky. Rozhestvensky led his squadron, including "Borodino", down the Atlantic coast of Africa, rounding the Cape of Good Hope, and reached the island of Nosy Be off the north-west coast of French Madagascar on 9 January 1905 where they remained for two months while Rozhestvensky finalized his coaling arrangements. Two crewmen aboard the battleship died from the heat on 30 December. During this time, Rozhestvensky learned of the capture of Port Arthur and changed his destination to Vladivostok, the only other port controlled by the Russians in the Far East. The squadron sailed for Camranh Bay, French Indochina, on 16 March and reached it almost a month later to await the obsolete ships of the Third Pacific Squadron, commanded by Rear Admiral Nikolai Nebogatov. The latter ships reached Camranh Bay on 9 May and the combined force sailed for Vladivostok on 14 May. While exact figures are not available for "Borodino", it is probable that the ship was approximately overweight as she and her sisters were overloaded with coal and other supplies; all of which was stored high in the ships and reduced their stability. The extra weight also submerged the waterline armor belt and left only about of the upper armor belt above the waterline.
Rozhestvensky decided to take the most direct route to Vladivostok using the Tsushima Strait and was intercepted by the Japanese battlefleet under the command of Admiral Tōgō Heihachirō on 27 May 1905. At the beginning of the battle, "Borodino" was third in line behind Rozhestvensky's flagship, . Very little is known of the ship's actions during the battle as there was only a single survivor from the ship and visibility was poor for most of the battle, but Captain W. C. Pakenham, the Royal Navy's official military observer aboard the Japanese battleship under the Anglo-Japanese Alliance, noted that she was hit badly around 14:30, some 25 minutes after Russian ships opened fire. "Borodino" briefly fell out of her position after that hit, but apparently regained it by 14:50. By this time, she had a serious fire on the central portion of her superstructure.
"Knyaz Suvorov" suffered multiple hits early in the battle, some of which wounded Rozhestvensky and jammed the ship's steering so that she fell out of formation. Around 16:00, "Borodino"s captain, Petr Serebrennikov, now de facto commander of the fleet, turned "Borodino" south and led the Russian fleet out of sight. As Japanese cruisers closed in at around 17:05, he turned the fleet north to avoid them, but encountered the Japanese battleships an hour later. They concentrated their fire on "Borodino" and "Imperator Aleksander III", both of which had lists from earlier damage. Pakenham noted a conspicuous hit on "Borodino" at 18:57 and she was observed to be on fire at 19:04 by observers aboard Tōgō's flagship . Pakenham observed two 12-inch hits on "Borodino" by the battleship at 19:18 that started a massive fire. Ten minutes later, after Tōgō ordered his ships to cease fire and disengage, the battleship fired her already-loaded 12-inch guns before turning away. One of these hit "Borodino" beneath her starboard forward six-inch turret and ignited the ready-use ammunition in the turret. The fire spread and caused a catastrophic detonation in a nearby six-inch magazine. Subsequent detonations of other magazines blew open her hull and the ship quickly capsized and sank. Only one crewman, Seaman First Class Semyon Yushin, survived the explosion from her crew of 855. He was rescued after surviving for twelve hours in the water.