Coast Artillery fire control system

In the U.S. Army Coast Artillery Corps, the term fire control system was used to refer to the personnel, facilities, technology and procedures that were used to observe designated targets, estimate their positions, calculate firing data for guns directed to hit those targets, and assess the effectiveness of such fire, making corrections where necessary.
Fire control instruments.
The Coast Artillery's early fire control instruments supported optical rangefinding and position finding, either horizontal base or vertical base, with both systems usually present for each fort. Early horizontal base rangefinding required two azimuth (a.k.a. bearing or deflection) instruments, preferably widely separated, and a communications system to transmit data to a plotting room and then to the guns. The instruments were often in bunkers called base end stations, as they defined the endpoints of a baseline. A base end station might be a two-story structure with a plotting room or other instruments or facilities on the lower level. By the 1920s coincidence range finders, self-contained horizontal base instruments, were in use along with the other methods. Though these could be used quickly, these had baselines of only a few feet, reducing their accuracy and maximum effective range.
Vertical base rangefinding used a single depression position finder (DPF) mounted as high as possible above the water level; these were derived from similar British devices and adopted beginning in 1896. Along with the target's azimuth, they measured the vertical angle from the instrument to the target; with the instrument's height above water known, this determined the target's range. The need to be progressively higher above water as gun ranges increased was a severely limiting factor for the DPF, and they were usually supplemented by horizontal base systems. As gun ranges continued to increase, in the 1920s additional horizontal and vertical base systems were installed, in tall fire control towers at some locations, including the Harbor Defenses of Portsmouth (New Hampshire) and the Harbor Defenses of the Delaware.
By World War II, radar had become a better method of determining a target's position. However, in the bombardment of Fort Stevens by a Japanese submarine on 21 June 1942, the only time a coastal defense installation in the contiguous United States was attacked, the fort's commander used a DPF to determine that the submarine was out of range, and thus did not return fire.
Plotting rooms.
Plotting rooms were used by the Coast Artillery Corps to house a team of soldiers who were engaged in controlling fire for the guns of a coastal artillery battery. Plotting rooms were in use from about 1895 through the end of WWII, at which point the U.S. Coast Artillery was disbanded. In some newer Coast Artillery batteries during World War II, these rooms were called Plotting, Switchboard, and Radio (PSR) rooms, and were often (but not always) integrated with the bunkers at the battery that were also used for ammunition storage, electrical generators, and other support functions. For 16-inch guns, the PSR bunker was some distance from the gun battery bunker, to avoid the shock of firing interfering with the plotting room equipment.
A plotting room was connected by telephone lines (and sometimes by radio) to base end stations that observed the locations of enemy ships and sent data to plotting room soldiers who used equipment such as plotting boards to calculate where the guns should be pointed and when they should be fired. Telephone lines also ran from the plotting room to the guns and were used to relay firing data. Other devices, like "range correction boards" or "deflection boards", were used in the plotting room to calculate corrected firing data (described below) or to adjust range and azimuth after spotters in remote observing stations observed where prior shots had fallen.
Plotting rooms were sometimes made of concrete and buried below ground (for protection) or were located in the reinforced concrete casemates of coast artillery batteries. Plotting rooms were also located in free-standing structures, either low towers or one- or two-story wood and plaster buildings, which might house facilities for several batteries near each other in barracks-like structures. These multiple-battery installations might also have sleeping quarters and latrine facilities nearby. Sometimes plotting rooms were located hundreds of yards from the batteries they controlled. They often sat on top of nearby hills or ridge lines.
Gun data computers were electro-mechanical computers were introduced into the Coast Artillery in the 1940s, particularly in the new 100- and 200-series 16-inch and 6-inch gun batteries that became operational during that period. Some of these computers received data directly from communicators that were connected to observation instruments in fire control stations or from Coast Artillery radar equipment.
Basic fire control procedure.
In brief, the fire control system in use from about 1900 through WW2 involved observers, often situated in base end stations or other fire control towers, using optical instruments (like azimuth telescopes or depression position finders) to measure bearings and/or ranges to targets (usually moving ships). Both horizontal and vertical base rangefinding systems were used. These observations were communicated to personnel in battery plotting rooms, who used a mechanical device called a plotting board to indicate the target's observed location on a map of the area. The red "1" on the diagram at right indicates this first stage of the fire control process.
Once several positions had been plotted for the target (blue circles on Figure 1 at left), plotting board operators estimated the position of the target at the instant a salvo, fired by the battery, was expected to land. This position was called the "set forward point" (green square in Figure 1), since it involved "setting forward" the target's expected position (assuming continued forward travel at the same speed and in the same direction) during two intervals of time: (1) the "dead time" between the time the observation had been made and the time the guns were actually fired at that target plus (2) the "time of flight"--the time the projectile spent in the air before hitting the target. The set forward point was expressed in terms of firing data: a range (in yards) and an azimuth (a compass heading in degrees) at which the gun(s) should be pointed by the gun crews in order to hit the target.
Before these firing data were sent to the guns, however, they were corrected for a variety of "non-standard conditions", like temperature (which affected the explosive power of the powder charge) or wind strength and direction (which affected the flight of the projectile). The red "2" in the diagram at right indicates this stage in the fire control process. Special devices, like the "deflection board" (for corrections in azimuth) or the "range correction board" (for corrections in range) were used to produce corrected firing data (described below).
The final stage (the red "3" in the diagram at right) had to do with using feedback from the battery's observers, who spotted the fall of the projectiles (over or under range, left or right in azimuth, or on target) and telephoned their data to the plotting room so that the aim of the guns could be corrected for future salvos.
Fire control timing.
Fire control in the Coast Artillery involved a sequence of steps that was carried out over and over again while a target was being tracked and fired upon. First, observers sighted on the target and sent their observations to the plotting room. Next, plotters calculated the target's position and probable future movement, as well as adjustments to range and azimuth (direction). Then firing data were sent to the batteries and used by gun crews to point their guns. The guns were fired. Finally, spotters might spot the fall of the projectiles, sending this information back to the plotting room for use in correcting fire. After this, observers would sight on the (new) position of the target, beginning another cycle. The time period between sequential sightings by the observers was called the "observing interval". It was typically set at 20 seconds for controlling batteries of guns larger than 3-inch caliber.
Not only did everyone in the fire control system have to stay in synch (for example, knowing which one of a series of sets of fire control data they were working with at any given time) but certain functions (notably the making of target sightings by the observers and the firing of the guns by the gun crews) had to be carried out at precise intervals if the accuracy of the system was to be maintained.
To enable all battery personnel to stay in synch, a "time interval bell" (or buzzer) would be rung in every observation or spotting station serving the battery, in the plotting room, and at each gun, using bells or buzzers wired together with a centrally located master clock. Five seconds before the start of the next cycle, the bell would ring. After a one-second delay, it would ring again. And after another one-second gap the bell would ring a third time, and on this third ring the observations were made again and/or the guns were fired.
A well-trained battery could observe, plot, adjust, and transmit the firing data to its guns, which could then be loaded and laid, all before the next 20-second bell, at which point the guns would be fired. If for some reason the firing data were not received in time by the guns, or if a hold-up or a misfire occurred, then firing happened at the end of the following interval. In such a case, the command "Relay!" (re-lay) was given at the guns.
Corrected firing data.
Corrected firing data was a term used in the Coast Artillery Corps for fire control purposes circa 1890–1945. It refers to firing data (range and azimuth (a.k.a. bearing or deflection) to the target) that had been corrected for various "non-standard conditions". In Coast Artillery parlance, the term "correction" usually referred to changes in estimated range or deflection (direction) that were made prior to firing. The term "adjustment" usually referred to changes that were made after a shot had been fired and were used to modify the aim of the gun(s) for the next shot. Adjustments were usually made by observing and plotting the fall (splashes) of the shells fired and reporting by how much they were left or right in azimuth or over or under in range.
Factors influencing corrections.
Corrections could be made for the following factors:
The uncorrected firing data, to which such corrections were applied, were those derived, for instance, from using a plotting board to track the position of an observed target (e.g., a ship) and the range and azimuth to that target from the guns of a battery.
Implementing corrections.
Meteorological data.
Several of the common corrections depended on meteorological data. For this reason, each Coast Artillery fort or fire command maintained its own meteorological station which transmitted an hourly meteorological message to the entire command whenever firing was anticipated. This message included a series of five- and seven-digit data blocks that reported on the temperature at a given altitude, followed by the wind speed, direction, and ballistic density of the air at each of 11 different altitude bands, running from the surface up through . The higher altitude readings were needed for firings of the coast defense mortars, which sent their shells on very high trajectories.
Once data were available on wind speed and direction, a circular slide rule-like device called a "wind component indicator" (see image below) was used to figure out the components of the wind that affected either the range or the deflection (in azimuth) of the shells fired. This device yielded index numbers that were either fed to the plotting room and used to correct readings on a plotting board, were used as input to a "deflection board" (see below) or were telephoned to the batteries and used by gun crews to make offsets directly on the range wheels or sights of the guns themselves.
Using the Range Correction and Deflection Boards.
The range correction board is pictured below. This was a tabletop device that resembled a 1940s-vintage wide-carriage mechanical adding machine, without the operating arm on the side. It was used to figure out the individual corrections that might be required for factors #1 through #7 above and to cumulate these. The result from the range correction board was fed to a slide rule-like device called a "percentage corrector" to obtain the corrections (if any) to be sent to the gun/s. The range correction board made use of a paper chart that was rolled onto its working surface and offered non-standard curves from which corrections could be read off. This chart had to be specific to the combination of gun, power charge, and projectile in use at the time. Values for the individual factors (#1 through #7 above) had to be obtained by plotting room personnel from battery officers or from the hourly meteorological message. Since precise measurements of muzzle velocity (factor #1) often could not be made, estimates were used, based upon the size of the powder charge being fired and the characteristics of the individual gun being used.
Also pictured below is the "deflection board", used to correct for any of the factors #6 through #9 above. The Model 1905 board is shown in the two images below. This device had a movable T-square and also a movable brass frame (or platen), both of which could be slid back and forth independently across three scales that ran across its base. The protractor-like portion of the platen carried a "multiplying scale", which was sometimes used if the battery had missed the chance to fire at the proper interval and was forced to wait until the next interval. Also affixed to the base of the board was a truncated arc (the "wind arc and scale"), at the left side of the board, which was used to set up the board for the wind speed and direction reported in the meteorological message (see above).
Proper alignment and rotation of the inter-related scales and arms enabled corrections to be read off the three different scales that ran horizontally across the bottom of the board (the travel scale, the deflection scale, and the azimuth correction scale). Even then, however, the use of the device was complicated, since it yielded reference numbers that had to be fed back to the operators of the plotting board before being fed to the guns.
Like many other pieces of Coast Artillery fire control equipment, the deflection board was a mechanical analog computer that used methods of similar triangles to solve the problems of correcting fire for wind speed and direction, drift of the projectile, and angular travel of the target during the observing interval.


Metallic silhouette shooting

Metallic silhouette shooting is a group of target shooting disciplines that involves shooting at steel targets representing game animals at varying distances, seeking to knock the metal target over. Metallic silhouette is shot with large bore rifles fired freehand without support out to 500 meters, and with large bore handguns from the prone position with only body support out to 200 meters. Competitions are also held with airguns and black-powder firearms. A related genre is shot with bow and arrow, the metal targets being replaced with cardboard or foam. The targets used are rams, turkeys, pigs, and chickens, which are cut to different scales and set at certain distances from the shooter depending on the specific discipline.
History.
Metallic silhouette is descended from an old Mexican sport, dating back to the early 1900s, where live game animals were staked out at varying distances as targets. By 1948, metal cutouts of the animals were used instead of live animals, birthing "siluetas metalicas". The first metallic silhouette match was held in Mexico City. Because of the sport's Mexican roots, in the United States the silhouettes are often referred to by terms from several varieties of American Spanish, namely "gallina" (chicken), "jabali" (pig), "guajalote" (turkey), and "borrego" (ram).
The first silhouette range constructed in the United States was in 1967 at Nogales, Arizona. Growth was steady until 1973 when the NRA became involved in the sport. By the mid-1980s it was the fastest growing gun sport in the United States. It is a sport that appeals to hunters, plinkers, and serious target shooters without the financial barriers of some other competitive shooting sports. Jim Carmichel called it the "common ground on which to unite".
Governing bodies.
The International Metallic Silhouette Shooting Union (IMSSU) is the international federation controlling metallic silhouette competitions for both rifle and pistol. As of 2020 IMSSU has 26 member regions.
North America.
There are also two major US-based bodies; the National Rifle Association covers all types of silhouette shooting in the United States, and the International Handgun Metallic Silhouette Association (IHMSA) covers only silhouette pistol shooting. There are some minor differences between the international IMSSU rules and those of the NRA and IHMSA, but it is generally possible to compete in all with the same equipment. NRA is the U.S. representative of IMSSU.
Silhouette shooting is growing in popularity in Canada. The Silhouette Rifle Association of Canada (SRAC) is the governing body for silhouette rifle shooting in Canada, and sanctions the Canadian National Rifle Silhouette Championships hosted each year by one of the participating provincial silhouette associations. The Canadian Championship adhers to the U.S. NRA silhouette competition ruleset.
Europe.
The "European Metallic Silhouette Shooting Association" (AETSM) (French name "Association Européenne de Tir sur Silhouettes Métalliques") is the European regional body in IMSSU. AETSM was founded in 1989, and was a founding member of IMSSU in 1992 where it was incorporated into the organization. As of 2020, 17 European countries are represented by AETSM.
Course of fire.
Targets are set up in groups of five of each kind, with a silhouette's width between targets, laid out at the required distances for the given match. Each group of targets must be shot left to right; if a target is missed then the next shot is taken at the next target. Any target hit out of order is considered a miss. Targets are engaged in order of distance: chickens, pigs, turkeys, rams. The target must be knocked down or pushed off the target stand in order to score a hit; even a shot ricocheting off the ground in front of the target will count if it takes down the correct target. Shooters are allowed to have a spotter with them, who watches where the shots land and advises the shooter on corrections to make.
All disciplines require a minimum of 10 shots at each type of target, for a minimum of 40 shots per match; normal matches are 40, 60, 80, or 120 shots. To score a hit, the target must be knocked off its stand, so each cartridge used must provide sufficient momentum to knock the heavy metal targets over. Scores are recorded as the number of hits per rounds fired, so 30 hits with 40 shots is a score of 30x40=1200.
A tie can be broken in one of two ways: a sudden death shoot-off, used at all national and large regional competitions and for the overall match winner. Master Class and AAA shooters shoot at turkeys, AA Class shoot at rams, A Class shoot at chickens and B Class shoot at pigs. To save time and effort, a reverse animal count can also be used (number of hits on hardest animal to easiest), with whoever hits the most turkeys being the winner. If a tie still exists, whoever hit the most rams is the winner. This continues to chickens and finally pigs.
For IHMSA competition, tie scores are broken by either reverse animal count, or by shootoffs, as determined by the match director, however, for state, regional and international championships, shootoffs are used to determine the winners in all categories and classes. For reverse animal count, scores are compared starting at rams; the shooter with the most rams is the winner. This procedure is used sequentially down through turkeys, pigs and chickens. If a tie still exists, a shootoff is used to determine the winner. Shootoffs are in banks of five targets and can be any type or size, placed at any distance out to the maximum ram distance for the competition. Shooting strings continue until all ties are broken. Sudden death shootoffs are not allowed.
Positions.
Rifle silhouette shooters generally shoot from an unsupported standing position, though black-powder rifles may use shooting sticks in some competitions.
Handgunners may be required to shoot from an unsupported standing position (two hands may be used), or from a "freestyle" position. Freestyle includes some unusual positions, such as the Creedmore position, which is shot lying on the back, legs bent and feet flat on the ground, with the pistol resting on the shooter's right leg. In a freestyle position the pistol may only contact the shooter's body, no rests may be used (not even, in the case of the Creedmore position, the top of a boot).
There are informal matches for special classes, like cowboy rifles and pistols and vintage military surplus rifles.
All rifle shooting is done standing, with the firearm unsupported. The exception to this is black-powder rifles; the ranges are the same as large-bore rifles, but only chickens must be shot unsupported; all other targets may be shot from any position, including crossed sticks, a bench may not be used. Pistol shooting, unless in a designated standing event, can be shot from any unsupported position. Like the any-position pistol shooters, standing pistol shooters adopt odd positions in their quest for the most stable possible shooting position. Standing pistol is the most difficult discipline; no one has yet shot a perfect 40x40. Standing big-bore any-sight pistol matches are often tied with perfect scores, and decided by a tiebreaker.
Target layouts.
To allow shooting at ranges which may not have space for a full target layout, NRA rules allow the use of reduced scale pigs, turkeys and rams placed at the same distance as chickens. The scale is reduced proportional to the change in distance, so the targets will cover the same angular distance as they would if set up at full range. Reduced scale matches fired at paper targets are also popular for informal competitions, especially for Internet-based matches where the shooters may reside in different countries. These are generally fired with rimfires or airguns.
Targets for large-bore use are thick hardened steel; small bore targets are steel, and airgun targets are steel, although some aluminum targets are produced.
Ranges are measured in meters only. The exception is the new IHMSA air pistol discipline, which is in yards only.
Handgun categories.
Both bolt action and break action pistols are common in metallic silhouette shooting, as well as revolvers. Pistols usually either have a center grip or rear grip, and which is favored depends on shooting position and personal preference. Examples of pistols used for metallic silhouette shooting are the Remington XP-100, Thompson/Center Contender, Savage Striker and Tanfoglio Thor.
Metallic silhouette handguns most often have iron sights, although there are some national divisions where scope sights are used. Handgun scopes are usually rifle scopes with normal eye relief (especially for the standing position), but sometimes extended eye relief (EER) scopes are used (also called "scout" sights), especially when used for a lying position.
All long range handgun metallic silhouette events are fired with targets at the distances 50, 100, 150 and 200 meters.
International handgun categories.
The four international fullbore handgun divisions sanctioned by IMSSU are: Unlimited, Production, Standing, and Revolver.
IMSSU also has smallbore variations of the fullbore classes which follow the same rules, except that the only cartridges permitted are .22 Short, .22 Long or .22 Long Rifle, that the target distances are halved, and that diopter sights are permitted in standing smallbore.
U.S. national handgun categories.
As of 2020 most competitions in the U.S. are shot under NRA or IHMSA competition rules instead of using the international IMSSU rules, except for World Championships which are held according to IMSSU rules. The NRA rules lies closer to IMSSU, since NRA is the U.S. representative of IMSSU through the United States Metallic Silhouette Association (USMSA). The National Rifle Association of America (NRA) has a total of 7 categories, which can be divided into 3 Conventional categories and 4 Unlimited categories. IHMSA has a total of 8 categories, which can be divided into 3 Production categories and 5 Unlimited categories. The NRA Conventional and IHMSA Production categories are very similar, and the same can be said for the NRA Unlimited and IHMSA Unlimited categories. There are some minor differences and overlaps between the different three different competition rulesets, with the most important outlined below.
In the NRA Conventional and IHMSA Production the handgun must be a stock, unmodified and readily available factory gun with a maximum barrel length of . As a rule of thumb, bolt action pistols are not permitted in NRA Conventional, which excludes bolt action pistols and therefore makes revolver and break action pistols competitive. Bolt action pistols are however permitted in IHMSA Production, except in IHMSA Production Revolver which is restricted to revolers. Other differences between the classes are listed in the table below:
The NRA Unlimited and IHMSA Unlimited classes permit any gun type (including bolt guns) with a maximum barrel length of . Differences between the classes are listed in the table below:
Rifle divisions.
Metallic silhouette rifles most often have scope sights.
International divisions.
Anschutz is the manufacturer which totally dominates the smallbore silhouette rifle field. At the 2007 NRA Smallbore Rifle Silhouette National Championship 71% of all of the standard rifles were Anschutz rifles, 67% of the hunter rifles were Anschutz rifles.
U.S National divisions.
Competitions in the United States are held by the United States Metallic Silhouette Association (USMSA), which follow NRA rules in the U.S. and IMSSU rules in World Championships.
Cartridges.
Rifle silhouette cartridges.
NRA rules for high power (silhouette and hunter) permit rifles in caliber 6 mm or larger, provided no belted cartridges or magnums are allowed. Common calibers can be thought of as in the deer hunting, target shooting and bench rest range. .243 Winchester, 6mm Remington, 6mm BR, .260 Remington, 6.5mm Creedmoor, 6.5×55mm, 6.5x47, 6.5 TCU, .270 Winchester, 7mm-08 Remington, 7mm BR Remington, 7mm TCU, 7x57mm, .30 TC, .308 Winchester, and .30-06 Springfield. The limiting factor is the balance between amount of recoil and the ability to retain enough energy to knock the rams over at 500 meters.
Handgun silhouette cartridges.
Handgun cartridges aim to find a balance between comfortable recoil and being able to knock down the ram targets at 200 meters.
Some common cartridges in Production are .357 Maximum, .300 Blackout, 7mm TCU, 7mm BR, .44 Magnum, .30-30 Winchester and .30 Herret, while some common cartridges in Unlimited are 6mm BR, 7mm BR, 6mm TCU, 6,5mm TCU, 7mm TCU, 6×45 mm Rem and 6.5 mm Grendel.
Other equipment.
Ear protection and eye protection is mandatory. Spotting scopes and binoculars are commonly used. Gloves are only used for extra warmth when conditions require.
Many shooters prefer to have their own personal timer to show a countdown of the remaining time of a shooting period. To aid in sight adjustment, many use a notebook or other aid to show an overview of relevant ballistics. Any tools needed for sight adjustment should be brought along. Elbow pads are commonly used to reduce impact to the elbows against the ground and recoil. A leg garther is often used to store ammunition, and a blast shield (also called leg shield) is normally used, especially for revolver shooters due to the blast from the revolver cylinder. A carrier box or shooting box can be of great help for convenient transporting of the firearm from station to station on the range.
Clothing such as commercial-type trap and skeet vests (sleeveless) and shotgun shooting shirts are permitted as well as clothing normally suitable for existing climatic temperatures. Shooting coats, unnecessarily heavy clothing, or anything that would provide artificial support such as clothing having excess padding or stiffening material or which restricts or supports the body in the shooting position may not be worn. In black powder cartridge rifle competitions only period costumes are permitted.


Pete Barnum

Robert "Pete" Barnum (January 17, 1902June 29, 1929) was an American football fullback. After playing college football for the West Virginia Mountaineers, he spent one season with the Columbus Tigers of the National Football League (NFL) in 1926. He eventually became a puddler for Bethlehem Steel Company, and died in a steel working accident in 1929.
College career.
After graduating from Parkersburg High School, where he received the nickname "king of scholastic football players", Barnum attended West Virginia University.
With the Mountaineers football team, Barnum played fullback and punter during his first season in 1923; in 1929, Max E. Hannum of "The Pittsburgh Press" described Barnum as "a valuable man in the combination that he couldn't be blasted out of the lineup." He was ineligible to play in 1924 for academic reasons before returning to the team in 1925. During West Virginia's lone loss in 1925 to Pittsburgh, Barnum recorded 103 rushing yards and a touchdown, with Hannum writing he "made himself a nuisance from the standpoint of the Panther supporters."
Professional career.
Upon completing his college career, Barnum received contracts from the Columbus Tigers and Pottsville Maroons. Although the Maroons provided an enticing offer, he chose to sign with Columbus for the 1926 NFL season. He began the year as the Tigers' left halfback.
In the second game of the season, a 14–2 victory over the Canton Bulldogs, Barnum intercepted a Canton pass in his own end zone and returned it 103 yards for a touchdown. The score, which the "Green Bay Press-Gazette" described as "one for the books", is the longest interception return for a touchdown by a rookie in NFL history.
The Tigers finished the season 1–6, with Barnum playing in all but one game, and folded after the season.
Later life and death.
After ending his NFL career, Barnum moved to Maryland and accepted a position at Bethlehem Steel as a puddler. He was one of six individuals selected by the company for its college graduate training program. In addition to his puddling duties, Barnum played for the company's works team Bethlehem Grays. Described as the "outstanding back of the (Maryland football) league" by "The Evening Sun", Barnum recorded an 80-yard touchdown in the 1928 season finale.
On June 21, 1929, Barnum was working at Bethlehem's Sparrows Point plant when he stumbled and fell into a vat of molten metal, where he held onto a ledge inside until he could be extracted by his coworkers. He suffered severe burns from his feet up to his neck, along with burns to his chest, left arm and hand. Barnum was transported to Maryland General Hospital, where initial reports claimed he was "winning his fight for life" and doctors expressed optimism for his recovery. However, he died from his injuries on June 25; he was 27 years old.
Barnum was survived by his younger brother Len Barnum. Like his brother, Len would also play in the NFL, winning the 1938 NFL championship with the New York Giants.


Corrosive substance

A corrosive substance is one that will damage or destroy other substances with which it comes into contact by means of a chemical reaction.
Etymology.
The word "corrosive" is derived from the Latin verb "corrodere", which means "to gnaw", indicating how these substances seem to "gnaw" their way through flesh or other materials.
Chemical terms.
The word corrosive refers to any chemical that will dissolve the structure of an object. They can be acids, oxidizers, or bases. When they come in contact with a surface, the surface deteriorates. The deterioration can happen in minutes, e.g. concentrated hydrochloric acid spilled on skin; or slowly over days or years, e.g. the rusting of iron in a bridge.
Sometimes the word caustic is used as a synonym for "corrosive" when referring to the effect on living tissues.
At low concentrations, a corrosive substance is called an irritant, and its effect on living tissue is called irritation. At high concentrations, a corrosive substance causes a chemical burn, a distinct type of tissue damage. Corrosives are different from poisons in that corrosives are immediately dangerous to the tissues they contact, whereas poisons may have systemic toxic effects that require time to become evident. Colloquially, corrosives may be called "poisons" but the concepts are technically distinct. However, there is nothing which precludes a corrosive from being a poison; there are substances that are both corrosives and poisons.
Corrosion of non-living surfaces such as metals is a distinct process. For example, a water-air electrochemical cell corrodes iron to rust, corrodes copper to patina, and corrodes copper, silver, and other metals to tarnish.
In the international system of symbolic chemical labels, both rapid corrosion of metals and chemical corrosion of skin qualify for the corrosive symbol.
Effects on living tissue.
Common corrosives are either strong acids, strong bases, or concentrated solutions of certain weak acids or weak bases. They can exist as any state of matter, including liquids, solids, gases, mists or vapors.
Their action on living tissue (e.g. skin, flesh and cornea) is mainly based on acid-base reactions of amide hydrolysis, ester hydrolysis and protein denaturation. Proteins (chemically composed of amide bonds) are destroyed via amide hydrolysis while lipids (which have ester bonds) are decomposed by ester hydrolysis. These reactions lead to chemical burns and are the mechanism of the destruction posed by corrosives.
Some corrosives possess other chemical properties which may extend their corrosive effects on living tissue. For example, sulfuric acid (H2SO4) at a high concentration is also a strong dehydrating agent, capable of dehydrating carbohydrates and liberating extra heat. This results in secondary thermal burns in addition to the chemical burns and may speed up its decomposing reactions on the contact surface. Some corrosives, such as nitric acid and concentrated sulfuric acid, are strong oxidizing agents as well, which significantly contributes to the extra damage caused. Hydrofluoric acid does not necessarily cause noticeable damage upon contact, but produces tissue damage and toxicity after being painlessly absorbed. Zinc chloride solutions are capable of destroying cellulose and corroding through paper and silk since the zinc cations in the solutions specifically attack hydroxyl groups, acting as a Lewis acid. This effect is not restricted to acids; so strong a base as calcium oxide, which has a strong affinity for water (forming calcium hydroxide, itself a strong and corrosive base), also releases heat capable of contributing thermal burns as well as delivering the corrosive effects of a strong alkali to moist flesh.
In addition, some corrosive chemicals, mostly acids such as hydrochloric acid and nitric acid, are volatile and can emit corrosive mists upon contact with air. Inhalation can damage the respiratory tract.
Corrosive substances are most hazardous to eyesight. A drop of a corrosive may cause blindness within 2–10 seconds through opacification or direct destruction of the cornea.
Ingestion of corrosives can induce severe consequences, including serious damage of the gastrointestinal tract, which can lead to vomiting, severe stomach aches, and death.
Common types.
Common corrosive chemicals are classified into:
Personal protective equipment.
Use of personal protective equipment, including items such as protective gloves, protective aprons, acid suits, safety goggles, a face shield, or safety shoes, is normally recommended when handling corrosive substances. Users should consult a safety data sheet for the specific recommendation for the corrosive substance of interest. The material of construction of the personal protective equipment is of critical importance as well. For example, although rubber gloves and rubber aprons may be made out of a chemically resistant elastomer such as nitrile rubber, neoprene, or butyl rubber, each of these materials has different resistance to different corrosives and they should not be substituted for each other.
Uses.
Some corrosive chemicals are valued for various uses, the most common of which is in household cleaning agents. For example, most drain cleaners contain either acids or alkalis due to their capabilities of dissolving greases, proteins or mineral deposits such as limescale inside water pipes.
In chemical uses, high chemical reactivity is often desirable, as the rates of chemical reactions depend on the activity (effective concentration) of the reactive species. For instance, catalytic sulfuric acid is used in the alkylation process in an oil refinery: the activity of carbocations, the reactive intermediate, is higher with stronger acidity, and thus the reaction proceeds faster. Once used, corrosives are most often recycled or neutralized. However, there have been environmental problems with untreated corrosive effluents or accidental discharges.


Steyr IWS 2000

The Steyr IWS 2000 is an Austrian single-shot bolt-action anti-materiel rifle produced by Steyr Mannlicher. IWS stands for Infantry Weapon System. Like many of today's anti-tank rifles, and indeed also tank guns, it is actually a smoothbore weapon and not a true rifle. This can help accelerate projectiles and increase ballistic effectiveness, but the lack of rifling imparting inertial stability requires the projectile to have stabilizing fins. It fires a 15.2×169 mm armor-piercing fin-stabilized discarding-sabot round (207 mm long), and is the first man-portable rifle to use this type of ammunition.
The first variant of the weapon was the proposed AMR 5075 (AMR standing for anti-materiel rifle). It was to fire the same type of ammunition as the IWS 2000 and to use a 5-round detachable box magazine. However, that version did not pass the proposal stage.
Mechanism.
The weapon is based on a long recoil mechanism. This mechanism, usually found in shotguns, helps manage the heavy recoil forces of the 15.2 mm Steyr APFSDS round due to its damping effect that allows for force distribution over a longer period of time. Another unusual feature of this weapon is the movement of the barrel. After firing, the barrel recoils into a shock-absorbing hydro-pneumatic sleeve much like those found on a LG 1 Mark II 105 mm Howitzer. The IWS 2000 also uses a multi-baffle muzzle brake to distribute muzzle energy and further reduce recoil, similar to that used on the D-30 2A18M 122 mm towed howitzer. The entire rifle body is made up of a combination of high-tension plastics and superlight polymers to increase manageability and cut down on weight. The smoothbore barrel is easily detached and packed away for increased mobility. The APFSDS round is inserted from the side of the weapon, much like with usual single-shot rifles.
Ammunition.
The projectile is a 15.2 mm fin-stabilized discarding-sabot type with armor-piercing capability which the IWS 2000 was specifically designed to fire only. It contains a dart-shaped penetrator of either tungsten carbide or depleted uranium, capable of piercing 40 mm of rolled homogeneous armor at a range of 1,000 m, and causing secondary fragmentation. The cartridge consists of a plastic case, a steel head, and a plastic sabot shell around the penetrator.


Leopard security vehicle

The Leopard Security Vehicle is an unusual land-mine protected APC used by the Rhodesian Government and civilian population during the 1964-1979 Rhodesian Bush War. It offered basic but necessary protection against mine attack through the use of a V-hull.
Design.
The Leopard was designed in 1974 by Ernest Konschel. It pre-dates and is similar in concept to the South African Buffel, but is smaller, and carried a driver on the front right, 2 passengers behind on the right, and three on the left. All passengers were on bench seats fixed to the hull facing in. It is powered by a Volkswagen Type 1 engine located in an un-armoured enclosure at the rear, behind the rear axle.
The vehicle is notable for its highly unusual shape, all facets of which are intended to counter the effect of land mine blasts.
This vehicle is considered the first monocoque mine proof vehicle produced. The example shown, from the Imperial War Museum North in Manchester, UK, was built in 1978-9 according to the attached label, making this the Mk6 variant.
Production history.
The Leopard was produced in Rhodesia from 1975 to 1979 by Willowvale Motor Industries Ltd., and possibly in South-West Africa (Namibia), from a design by and under the supervision of Ernest Konschel. He was a Rhodesian engineer and farmer who also designed the Pookie mine detecting vehicle. Some 700–750 Leopards are recorded as being produced with only 3 complete examples surviving.
The Leopard was primarily intended for use as a vehicle to provide cost-effective protection to the civilian population, which was particularly susceptible to the devastating effects of land-mine warfare. Mine-proof vehicles were not readily available due to the severe economic sanctions imposed on Rhodesia at the time.
Modified versions, particularly those with a double door on the rear, were produced for the Rhodesian Security Forces, though this vehicle never found particular favour with these armed formations. The surviving vehicles on display are fundamentally designed and were sold for civilian use.
This vehicle predates the South African 'Buffel' by several years. Many Rhodesian-designed vehicles were shipped to South Africa for trial and 'reverse engineering', giving rise to the first generation of South African monocoque mine proof vehicles.
The Leopard suffered from a number of practical problems, which included overheating of the VW 1600cc, Dual port, Type 2, Air-cooled engine; a lack of power to traverse difficult terrain and escape ambush situations; and the unintended parting of the front or rear sub-assemblies from the hull while traversing difficult terrain. The Rhodesian Police, BSAP, particularly did not favour the vehicle and preferred various other mine resisting vehicles such as the Cougar (also designed by Konschel) and locally produced armored Land Rovers.
The pictures of the IWM Leopard show a lack of two essential pieces of protection equipment: a sturdy wire mesh curved to fit to the top of the roll bars which acted as an anti-grenade screen preventing these entering the hull and the canvas roof which stretched over the screen to further help as an anti-grenade measure and keep out rain. This vehicle has been repainted at some time in an incorrect colour.
Operators.
Primarily civilian, but utilized by many civilian and paramilitary branches of the Rhodesian government. The vehicle did not find favour with the Rhodesian Army.
Surviving examples were later passed on to the Zimbabwean security forces at independence.


Knorr Beeswax Candles

Knorr Beeswax Candles is a beeswax candle maker dating to the 1900s and Ferdinand Knorr who opened the business in 1928. His son Henry took over in 1957 and grandson Steven took over in 1982. The candles are sold in 33 colors.


Weapons of World War I


Clifton Young

Robert Howard Young (September 15, 1917 – September 10, 1951) professionally known as Clifton Young, was an American film actor.
Early years.
Young was the son of Mr. and Mrs. Edward A. Young. His father started him in vaudeville when he was 5 years old. When he was 7, he began acting in "Our Gang" comedies.
Career.
Young played "Bonedust" in nineteen "Our Gang" films from 1925 to 1931, his most notable film being "School's Out". As an adult, to avoid confusion with established star Robert Young, he took his mother's maiden name, Clifton (Eva Clifton) as his screen name.
Young became a contract player at Warner Bros., landing small parts in a number of 1940s film noir and western films. Notable credits include "Nora Prentiss", "Pursued", "Possessed", "Dark Passage", and "Blood on the Moon".
While at Warners, Young was featured prominently in the Joe McDoakes comedy shorts. He played a variety of roles: a craven mobster in "So You Want to Be a Detective", a department-store clerk in "So You're Going on Vacation", and memorably as "Homer," Joe's brash, know-it-all office colleague in several McDoakes reels.
One of Young's last films was the Roy Rogers western "Trail of Robin Hood", in which he played a sneering villain.
Death.
Young died on September 10, 1951, in a hotel fire that started when he fell asleep while smoking.


Schofield Barracks

Schofield Barracks is a United States Army installation and census-designated place (CDP) located in the City and County of Honolulu and in the Wahiawa District of the American island of Oahu, Hawaii. Schofield Barracks lies adjacent to the town of Wahiawā, separated from most of it by Lake Wilson (also known as Wahiawā Reservoir). Schofield Barracks is named after Lieutenant General John McAllister Schofield, Commanding General United States Army August 1888 to September 1895. He had been sent to Hawaii in 1872 and had recommended the establishment of a naval base at Pearl Harbor.
Schofield Barracks has an area of on Central Oahu. The post was established in 1908 to provide mobile defense of Pearl Harbor and the entire island. It has been the home of the 25th Infantry Division, known as the Tropic Lightning Division, since 1941 as well as the headquarters for United States Army Hawaii (USARHAW). The population was 16,370 at the 2010 census.
Geography.
Schofield Barracks is located at (21.497650, −158.063248). The Main Gate used to be off Wilikina Drive; however, now only the Foote and Lyman gates located along Kunia Road are used for controlled access. Proceeding north on Wilikina Road (State Rte. 99) leads to intersections with Kaukonahua Road (State Rte. 801) to Waialua and Kamehameha Highway (State Rte. 99) to Haleiwa. East on Wilikina leads to Interstate H-2 and Kamehameha Highway (State Rte.s 80 and 99) to Wahiawā and Mililani Town. Proceeding south on Kunia Road (State Route 750) past Schofield leads to the Kunia Gate on Wheeler, Kunia, and eventually Waipahu.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the post has a total area of 2.8 square miles (7.1 km2), all of it land.
Climate.
Schofield Barracks has a tropical savanna climate. Owing to a higher elevation, Schofield is slightly cooler year round than Honolulu, but is still well within the realms of a tropical climate. Precipitation patterns closely resemble those of mediterranean climates being found in mainland California, but its warm winters prevents the climate from being classified as such.
Demographics.
As of the 2000 census, there were 14,428 people, 2,965 households, and 2,902 families residing in the CDP. The population density was 5,251.5 people per square mile (2,025.7/km2). There were 3,733 housing units at an average density of 1,358.7 per square mile (524.1/km2). The racial makeup of the CDP was 56.4% White, 21.9% African American, 1.1% Native American, 3.9% Asian, 1.7% Pacific Islander, 8.6% from other races, and 6.5% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 16.2% of the population.
There were 2,965 households, out of which 78.0% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 91.5% were married couples living together, 4.8% had a female householder with no husband present, and 2.1% were non-families. 2.0% of all households were made up of individuals, and none had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.55 and the average family size was 3.58.
In the CDP the population was spread out, with 32.1% under the age of 18, 29.8% from 18 to 24, 36.6% from 25 to 44, 1.4% from 45 to 64, and 0.1% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 22 years. For every 100 females, there were 152.3 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 183.6 males.
The median income for a household in the CDP was $33,788, and the median income for a family was $32,970. Males had a median income of $21,112 versus $18,737 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $12,316. About 6.7% of families and 7.2% of the population were below the poverty line, including 8.5% of those under age 18 and none of those age 65 or over.
Post areas.
Main Post.
The Main Post area consists of numerous quadrangle-style barracks and unit command structures, most of which have a letter designation. B and C Quads are the oldest, having been constructed in the 1910s, with D, E, and F quads being built later. Additionally on Main Post are the PX (post exchange), the Commissary, the "Aloha Building", the Library, Bowling Alley, and Uniform Clothing Store. Several sets of barracks have recently been constructed (the first set completed in 1998) adhering to a more stylish apartment-type setup. The Nehelani Club, Old Nehelani Club and Conroy Bowl are in the Main Post area as well.
Housing areas.
Much of the housing on-post has been renovated or rebuilt now that the housing has been privatized. The enlisted housing area lies to the west of Main Post, while the officers' housing lies to the north along Wilikina Drive. Island Palms is the on-post housing company, which is part of Lend Lease, that is responsible for maintaining the units. The average wait time for housing is 2–6 months and up to one year for larger homes.
Area X.
Area X and its environs constitute the bulk of the training areas on Schofield Barracks. Large open areas allow for air assault operations to take off and land. Covered concrete pads can provide shelter for units training in the area who do not wish to deal with sleeping in the field. The range control office as well as numerous semi-automated and other firing ranges are contained within this area as well.
East Range Training Area.
The Air Assault School, Land Navigation Course, and designated training areas are laid out in this area to the east of the Main Post and the Enlisted Housing area. Typically, the bulk of the EIB train up and testing are done in this area.
Kolekole Pass.
Kolekole Road, which passes through the Enlisted Housing Area and West Post Training Area, leads up to a saddle named Kolekole Pass which allows vehicle traffic to flow between Schofield Barracks and Lualualei Naval Magazine as well as being an intermediate destination for physical training runs by soldiers stationed on Schofield Barracks.
A 37-foot, 35-ton steel cross located at Kolekole Pass was dismantled by the Army in 1997 after Hawaii Citizens for the Separation of State and Church filed a federal lawsuit charging the cross, built with public tax dollars in 1962, was a "blatant and obvious violation" of the First Amendment. However, the clause describing separation of church and state is not written in the Constitution.
Education.
Hawaii Department of Education operates two schools in Schofield Barracks CDP: Samuel K. Solomon Elementary School, and Daniel K. Inouye Elementary School.
Solomon Elementary's namesake was a member of the Wolfhounds. The dedication of the original campus was on November 11, 1969 while the dedication of the current facility occurred on November 9, 2019. In the 2016-2017 school year it had 933 students. The Department of Defense’s Office of Economic Adjustment funded the construction of the current campus with a $70,248,901. The State of Hawaii added an additional $20,000,000 to the funding. The current campus has four buildings, with each up to two stories tall, and a capacity of above 800. These buildings have 63 classrooms total.
Inouye Elementary opened in 1959 as Hale Kula Elementary School, and it was given its current name on April 19, 2016.
Sergeant Rodney J. T. Yano Library (Building 560), operated by the United States Army's Family and MWR Programs, is in the area. Hawaii State Public Library System operates nearby civilian public libraries.
25th Infantry Division Memorial.
The 25th Infantry Division Memorial consists of four statues, representing the division's soldiers who served in World War II, Korea, Vietnam, and the War on Terrorism (Afghanistan and Iraq). The first statue was unveiled in June 2005.


Climate emergency declarations in the United Kingdom

Climate emergency declarations have been made by multiple jurisdictions in the United Kingdom, including city, county, and borough councils. Bills to declare a climate emergency have also been introduced in several other jurisdictions.
National.
Several bills have been introduced to the Parliament of the United Kingdom which would declare a climate emergency, but none have passed.
The Climate and Ecological Emergency Bill was tabled as an early day motion on 2 September 2020 and received its first reading the same day.
Local.
England.
London boroughs.
There are thirty three London borough authorities, there are only seven of these London Borough authorities that have not declared a climate emergency. This means that 78% of London Boroughs have declared a climate emergency. The below table contains data of climate emergency declarations that has been obtained through CEDAMIA and edited to include jurisdictions that have not declared a climate emergency.


SOST (bullet type)

SOST (from "Special Operations Science and Technology") is a special type of bullet. This type of ammunition serves as a more lethal and accurate alternative for use in rifles.


Armour-piercing fin-stabilized discarding sabot

Armour-piercing fin-stabilized discarding sabot (APFSDS), long dart penetrator, or simply dart ammunition, is a type of kinetic energy penetrator ammunition used to attack modern vehicle armour. As an armament for main battle tanks, it succeeds Armour-Piercing Discarding Sabot (APDS) ammunition, which is still used in small or medium caliber weapon systems.
Improvements in powerful automotive propulsion and suspension systems following World War II allowed modern main battle tanks to incorporate progressively thicker and heavier armour protection systems, while maintaining considerable maneuverability and speed on the battlefield. As a result, achieving deep armour penetration with gun-fired ammunition required even longer anti-armour projectiles fired at even higher muzzle velocity than could be achieved with stubbier APDS projectiles.
History.
Armour-Piercing Discarding Sabot (APDS) was initially the main design of the kinetic energy (KE) penetrator. The logical progression was to make the shot longer and thinner to concentrate the kinetic energy in a smaller area. However, a long, thin rod is aerodynamically unstable; it tends to tumble in flight and is less accurate. Traditionally, rounds were given stability in flight from the rifling of the gun barrel, which imparts a spin to the round. Up to a certain limit, this is effective, but once the projectile's length is more than six or seven times its diameter, rifling becomes less effective. Adding fins like the fletching of an arrow to the base gives the round stability.
The spin from standard rifling decreases the performance of these rounds (rifling diverts some of the linear kinetic energy to rotational kinetic energy, thus decreasing the round's velocity and impact energy), and very high rotation on a fin-stabilized projectile can dramatically increase aerodynamic drag, further reducing impact velocity. For these reasons, Armour-Piercing Fin-Stabilized Discarding Sabot (APFSDS) projectiles are generally fired from smoothbore guns, a practice that has been taken up for tank guns by China, India, Israel, Italy, Japan, France, Germany, Pakistan, Turkey, Russia, and the United States. Nevertheless, in the early development of APFSDS ammunition, existing rifled barrel cannons were used, (and are still in use), such as the 105 mm M68 cannon mounted on the M60A3 main battle tank or the British 120 mm Royal Ordnance L30 of the Challenger 2 tank. To reduce the spin rate when using a rifled barrel, a "slip obturator", (slip obturation ring), is incorporated that allows the high pressure propellant gasses to seal, yet not transfer the total spin rate of the rifling into the projectile. The projectile still exits the barrel with some residual spinning, but at an acceptably low rate. In addition, some spin rate is beneficial to a fin-stabilized projectile, averaging out aerodynamic imbalances and improving accuracy. Even smooth-bore fired APFSDS projectiles incorporate fins that are slightly canted to provide some spin rate during flight; and very low twist rifled barrels have also been developed for the express purpose of firing APFSDS ammunition.
Another reason for the use of smoothbore, and very low twist rate guns is that the most effective precision shaped charge designs, High-Explosive Anti-Tank (HEAT) munitions, lose armour penetrating performance when rotating too quickly. These deep penetrating shaped charges also require fin stabilization (although less precise and less effective "spin compensated" shaped charges can be designed to function properly in a spin-stabilized projectile).
Design.
KE penetrators for modern tanks are commonly 2–3 cm in diameter, and can approach 80 cm long; as more structurally efficient penetrator-sabot designs are developed, their length tends to increase, in order to defeat even greater line-of-sight armour depth. The concept of armour defeat using a long rod penetrator is a practical application of the phenomenon of hydro-dynamic penetration, (see hydrodynamics).
Fluid penetration.
Despite practical penetrator and target materials not being fluids before impact, at sufficiently high impact velocity even crystalline materials begin to behave in a highly plastic fluid-like manner, so many aspects of hydro-dynamic penetration do apply .
Long rod projectiles penetrate a fluid in the literal sense, based simply on the density of the target armour and the density and length of the penetrator. The penetrator will continue to displace the target to a depth of the penetrator length times the square root of the penetrator to target densities. One observes immediately that longer, denser penetrators will penetrate to deeper depths, and this forms the basis for the development of long-rod anti-armour projectiles.
The important parameters for an effective long-rod penetrator, therefore, are very high density with respect to the target, high hardness to penetrate hard target surfaces, very high toughness (ductility) so the rod does not shatter on impact, and very high strength to survive gun launch accelerations, as well as the variabilities of target impact, such as hitting at an oblique angle and surviving counter-measures such as explosive-reactive armour.
Tungsten and Uranium.
The development of heavy forms of reactive armour (such as the Soviet, later Russian, Kontakt-5), which are designed to shear and deflect long rod penetrators, has prompted the development of more complex kinetic energy penetrator designs, particularly in the newest U.S.-built anti-tank rounds. Nevertheless, although penetrator geometry may adapt to reactive armour counter-measures, the materials of choice for deep-penetrating long rod kinetic energy projectiles remains Tungsten Heavy Alloy (WA) and Depleted Uranium (DU) Alloy. Both materials are very dense, hard, tough, ductile, and very strong; all exceptional qualities suitable to deep armour penetration. Nevertheless, each material exhibits its own unique penetration qualities that may, or may not, be the best choice for any one anti-armour application.
For example, depleted uranium alloy is pyrophoric; the heated fragments of the penetrator ignite after impact in contact with air, setting fire to fuel and / or ammunition in the target vehicle, contributing significantly to behind-armour lethality. Additionally, DU penetrators exhibit significant adiabatic shear band formation. A common misconception is that, during impact, fractures along these bands cause the tip of the penetrator to continuously shed material, maintaining the tip's conical shape, whereas other materials such as unjacketed tungsten tend to deform into a less effective rounded profile, an effect called "mushrooming". Actually, the formation of adiabatic shear bands means that the sides of the "mushroom" tend to break away earlier, leading to a smaller head on impact, though it will still be significantly "mushroomed".
Tests have shown that the hole bored by a DU projectile is of a narrower diameter than for a similar tungsten projectile; and although both materials have nearly the same density, hardness, toughness and strength, due to these differences in their deformation process, depleted uranium tends to out-penetrate an equivalent length of tungsten alloy against steel targets. Nevertheless, the use of depleted uranium, in spite of some superior performance characteristics, is not without political and humanitarian controversy, but remains the material of choice for some countries due to cost considerations and strategic availability compared to tungsten.
Sabot design.
Complicating matters, when foreign deployment of military forces or export sales markets are considered, a sabot designed specifically to launch a DU penetrator cannot simply be used to launch a substitute WA penetrator, even of exactly the same manufactured geometry. The two materials behave significantly different under high pressure, high launch acceleration forces, such that entirely different sabot material geometries, (thicker or thinner in some places, if even possible), are required to maintain in-bore structural integrity.
Typical velocities of APFSDS rounds vary between manufacturers and muzzle length/types. As a typical example, the American General Dynamics KEW-A1 has a muzzle velocity of 1,740 m/s (5,700 ft/s). This compares to 914 m/s (3,000 ft/s) for a typical rifle (small arms) round. APFSDS rounds generally operate in the range of 1,400 to 1,800 m/s. Above a certain minimum impact velocity necessary to overcome target material strength parameters significantly, penetrator length is more important than impact velocity; as exemplified by the fact that the base model M829 flies nearly 200 meters/sec faster than the newer model M829A3, but is only about one half the length, wholly inadequate for defeating state-of-the-art armour arrays.
Often the greater engineering challenge is designing an efficient sabot to successfully launch extremely long penetrators, now approaching in length. The sabot, necessary to fill the bore of the cannon when firing a long, slender flight projectile, is parasitic weight that subtracts from the potential muzzle velocity of the entire projectile. Maintaining the in-bore structural integrity of such a long flight projectile under accelerations of tens of thousands of g's is not a trivial undertaking, and has brought the design of sabots from employing in the early 1980s readily available low cost, high strength aerospace-grade aluminums, such as 6061 and 6066-T6, to high strength and more expensive 7075-T6 aluminum, maraging steel, and experimental ultra-high strength 7090-T6 aluminum, to the current state-of-the-art and incredibly expensive graphite fiber reinforced plastics, in order to further reduce the parasitic sabot mass, that could be nearly half the launch mass of the entire projectile.
The discarding sabot petals travel at such a high muzzle velocity that, on separation, they may continue for many hundreds of metres at speeds that can be lethal to troops and damaging to light vehicles. For this reason, even in combat, tank gunners have to be aware of danger to nearby troops.
The saboted flechette was the counterpart of APFSDS in rifle ammunition. A rifle for firing flechettes, the Special Purpose Individual Weapon, was under development for the US Army, but the project was abandoned.


Parrott rifle

The Parrott rifle was a type of muzzle-loading rifled artillery weapon used extensively in the American Civil War.
Parrott rifle.
The gun was invented by Captain Robert Parker Parrott, a West Point graduate. He was an American soldier and inventor of military ordnance. He resigned from the service in 1836 and became the superintendent of the West Point Foundry in Cold Spring, New York. He created the first Parrott rifle (and corresponding projectile) in 1860 and patented it in 1861.
Parrotts were manufactured with a combination of cast and wrought iron. The cast iron made for an accurate gun, but was brittle enough to suffer fractures. Hence, a large wrought iron reinforcing band was overlaid on the breech to give it additional strength. There were prior cannons designed this way, but the method of securing this band was the innovation that allowed the Parrott to overcome the deficiencies of these earlier models. It was applied to the gun red-hot and then the gun was turned while pouring water down the muzzle, allowing the band to attach uniformly. By the end of the Civil War, both sides were using this type of gun extensively.
Parrott rifles were manufactured in different sizes, from the 10-pounder Parrott rifle up to the rare 300-pounder. In the field, the 10- and 20-pounders were used by both armies. The 20-pounder Parrott rifle was the largest field gun used during the war, with the barrel alone weighing over 1,800 pounds. The smaller size was much more prevalent; it came in two bore sizes: 2.9 inch (74 mm) and 3.0-in (76 mm). Confederate forces used both bore sizes during the war, which added to the complication of supplying the appropriate ammunition to its batteries. Until 1864, Union batteries used only the 2.9-in. The M1863, with a 3-in bore, had firing characteristics similar to the earlier model; it can be recognized by its straight barrel, without muzzle-swell. Its range was up to with a trained crew.
Naval versions of the 20-, 30-, 60-, and 100-pound Parrotts were also used by the Union navy. The 100-pound naval Parrott could achieve a range of 6,900 yards (6,300 meters) at an elevation of 25 degrees, or fire an 80-pound shell 7,810 yards (7,140 m) at 30 degrees elevation.
Although accurate, as well as being cheaper and easier to make than most rifled artillery guns, the Parrott had a poor reputation for safety and they were shunned by many artillerists.
At the end of 1862, Henry J. Hunt attempted to get the Parrott eliminated from the Army of the Potomac's inventory, preferring the 3-inch Ordnance rifle. When the Parrott gun burst in battle, artillerists would chip out the jagged parts and continue firing. In 1889, "The New York Times" called on the Ordnance Bureau of the War Department to discontinue use of the Parrott gun altogether, following a series of mishaps at the West Point training grounds.
Several hundred Parrott gun tubes remain today, many adorning battlefield parks, county courthouses, museums, etc. The gun tubes made by Parrott's foundry are identifiable by the letters WPF (West Point Foundry), along with a date stamp between 1860 and 1889, found on the front face of the gun tube. The first production Parrott gun tube (serial number 1) still exists, and is preserved on a reproduction gun carriage in the center square of Hanover, Pennsylvania, as part of a display commemorating the Battle of Hanover. A list of many of the surviving tubes can be found at the National Register of Surviving Civil War Artillery.
The larger sizes of Parrott rifles (100-pdr and up) were deployed in coast defense from circa 1863 to circa 1900, when they were replaced by Endicott period forts and weapons. Along with Rodman guns, some were deployed shortly after the outbreak of the Spanish–American War in 1898 as a stopgap; it was feared the Spanish fleet would bombard the US East Coast.
The 300-pound solution.
By summer 1863, Union forces became frustrated by the heavily fortified Confederate position at Fort Sumter, and brought to bear the Parrott, along with several smaller cannons. In all, two 80-pounder Whitworths, nine 100-pounder Parrotts, six 200-pounder Parrotts, and a 300-pounder Parrott were deployed. It was widely believed in the north that massive 10-in Parrott would finally break the previously impenetrable walls of the fort, which had become the symbol of stalwart steadfastness for the Confederacy.
The "Washington Republican" described the technical accomplishments of the 10-in Parrott:
Swamp Angel.
One of the most famous Parrott cannons was the Swamp Angel, an gun used by federal Brigadier General Quincy Adams Gillmore to bombard Charleston, South Carolina. It was manned by the 11th Maine Volunteer Infantry Regiment.
On August 21, 1863 Gillmore sent Confederate general P. G. T. Beauregard an ultimatum to abandon heavily fortified positions at Morris Island or the city of Charleston would be shelled. When the positions were not evacuated within a few hours, Gillmore ordered the Parrott rifle to fire on the city. Between August 22 and August 23, the Swamp Angel fired on the city 36 times (the gun burst on the 36th round), using many incendiary shells which caused little damage and few casualties. The battle was made more famous by Herman Melville's poem "The Swamp Angel".
After the war, a damaged Parrott rifle said to be the Swamp Angel was moved to Trenton, New Jersey, where it rests as a memorial today at Cadwalader Park.
Parrott rifles by size.
(*) This time is an educated guess, the time is unknown.
Flight times appear to be extremely inaccurate. Example: 10-in (300-lb) projectile would have to average only 133 ft per second to be in flight for 202 seconds to cover 9,000yds. A more accurate estimate will be in the range of 30 seconds.
See also.
Contemporary rifled artillery


2006 Kuril Islands earthquake

The 2006 Kuril Islands earthquake occurred on November 15 at with a magnitude of 8.3 and a maximum Mercalli intensity of IV ("Light"). This megathrust earthquake was the largest event in the central Kuril Islands since 1915 and generated a small tsunami that affected the northern Japanese coast. The tsunami crossed the Pacific Ocean and damaged the harbor at Crescent City, California. Post-tsunami surveys indicate that the local tsunami in the central Kuril Islands reached runup of or more.
This earthquake is considered a doublet of the 2007 Kuril Islands earthquake that hit the same area on January 13, 2007.
Tsunami.
At about 11:45 UTC, tsunami warnings were issued in Japan for the north coasts of Hokkaidō and Honshū, and a number of towns in this area were very quickly evacuated. Tsunami warnings, advisories and watches were also issued for the coastal areas of Alaska, Hawaii, parts of British Columbia, Washington, Oregon, and California. JMA initially estimated tsunami waves to be as tall as 2 metres when it hit the Japanese northern and eastern coasts, but it turned out to be merely 40 centimetres when it reached Hanasaki Ko, Nemuro, Nemuro, Hokkaidō at 9:29 pm local time. The tsunami also hit the rest of Hokkaidō and Tōhoku Region. The tallest wave recorded in Japan was at Tsubota (坪田), Miyakejima (三宅島) in the Izu Shotō of the Tokyo To, at 84 centimetres. Tsunami also hit as far as Anami in Kagoshima Prefecture and Naha in Okinawa Prefecture, and reached the Hawaiian and California coasts. A 176-centimetre wave in the harbor at Crescent City, California caused an estimated $10 million in damage to the docks there. The United States authorities had issued warnings for the Russian Far East, Japan, Wake Island and Midway Atoll.
The nearfield tsunami struck islands with no current inhabitants. However, geologists and archaeologists had visited these islands the previous summer, and returned in the summers of 2007 and 2008. Because there were two central Kurils tsunamis in the winter of 2006/2007 (see 2007 Kuril Islands earthquake), the specific effects of each tsunami are difficult to determine; evidence is that the 2006 tsunami was the larger on all islands in the Kurils except Matua and parts of Rasshua.
References.
Sources


List of American Indian Wars weapons

This is a list of weapons used in the American Indian Wars.


Mary D. Lowman

Mary D. (McGaha) Lowman (January 27, 1842 – June 12, 1912) was a schoolteacher and the mayor of Oskaloosa, Kansas, in the late 1880s. She was the first woman in Kansas to be elected mayor with a city council composed entirely of women.
Biography.
Mary D. McGaha was born on a farm in Indiana County, Pennsylvania. She became a schoolteacher and in 1866 married a man named George W. Lowman, with whom she had two children. They moved to Kansas and settle in the small town of Oskaloosa, where she became a teacher of recently emancipated black students.
In 1885, she became the city's deputy county clerk and deputy register of deeds. In 1888, the women of Oskaloosa, dissatisfied with poor city management, decided to run an entire slate of women for municipal office. (Although American women did not yet have a national right to vote, Kansas women had been given the right to vote in some municipal elections one year earlier.) The "Oskaloosa Improvement Ticket" won by a two-to-one margin, making Lowman the first woman in Kansas to serve as mayor with a city council composed entirely of women. Newspapers across the country covered the unusual election of an all-women municipal administration. Lowman was elected only a year after Susanna M. Salter became the nation's first woman mayor.
When Lowman and her council took office, the city treasury was empty and the city in debt. Lowman and her 5-member council were re-elected after their first year in office, with two members of the council being replaced by other women. After two years in office, Lowman and her council left the city with a replenished treasury.
Lowman died in 1912 of burns received when her clothing caught fire at a cookstove.


Bullet trap

A bullet trap (or pellet trap when used specifically for air guns) is a device to stop and collect projectiles fired at a shooting range to prevent overpenetrations and stray shots. Bullet traps typically use friction, impact or gradual deceleration to stop bullets.
The bullet trap may also provide means to recycle bullet materials and/or prevent release of toxic heavy metals (such as lead dust from fragmented bullets) from the shooting range. Some bullet traps include a negative-pressure system to filter dust from air within the impact zone and/or capture area.
Deceleration traps.
Deceleration-type bullet traps direct bullets into a helical or circular chamber in which the bullet will slide against the curved chamber wall until it gradually loses velocity from friction and drops to the bottom of the chamber, where it can be later collected. For use with multiple firing positions, the helical chamber often resembles a horizontal pipe, into which bullets are directed by upper and lower steel plates. The upper plate slopes downward and the lower plate slopes upward to a horizontal slot in the side of the helical chamber. Alternatively, some narrow deceleration traps for single firing positions employ vertical plates to direct bullets into a helical deceleration chamber resembling a vertical pipe from which spent bullets drop out the lower end. Lightweight versions suitable for capturing airgun pellets are often used behind electronic scoring systems on ranges configured for ISSF 10 metre airgun events. The plate slopes are shallow (about 18° ) so bullets may be deflected relatively intact rather than disintegrated upon impact. Some deceleration traps use an oil and/or water coating to reduce friction and capture dust.
Impact traps.
Impact-type bullet traps typically use vertical or angled 500 Brinell scale steel plate at least thick for centrefire cartridges. Plate thickness of may be adequate for rimfire ammunition. Sloping plates deflect bullets downward into sand, water or some other capture material; but the plate angle is often steep enough to largely disintegrate the bullet upon initial impact, and bullets are expected to disintegrate upon impacting vertical plates to prevent dangerous backward ricochets. Shooter protection for firing positions within of the impact plate may require an anti-splash curtain of Linatex® or similar self-healing material hung in front of the plate to contain any fragments of “back splash” as well as dust. Rifle bullets may be partially melted by the energy of bullet impact. The spray of molten metal may solidify as dust, and soft lead bullets often leave a smear of lead upon impacting the steel plate. Smeared metal may be converted to additional airborne dust by subsequent bullet impact.
The popularity of vertical plate installations for indoor ranges is largely down to their minimal footprint compared with sand, granular or helical bullet traps and can consume less than of a room’s available length—comprising the thickness of the steel plate, the thickness of the anti-splash curtain and 10 to 11 inches of air gap between. However, sloping steel plates will tend to wear less quickly—particularly on precision target ranges where fixed targets result in fire being concentrated into small areas. In such cases, small sloping plates or sacrificial vertical wear plates may be placed behind the targets as the primary bullet trap, whilst a large vertical plate covers the remainder of the wall as the defence zone to catch errant shots. The small plates can be easily changed as frequently as necessary whilst the main back wall will need little maintenance from occasional scattered fire.
Friction traps.
Friction bullet traps slow and capture the bullet more gently than steel plates. This allows more effective capture of contaminants and reduces the production of dust as well as allowing for the capture of higher energy projectiles which would wear an impact trap too quickly and necessitate uneconomical levels of maintenance. The most common form of friction trap is a berm of granular material such as sand; earth or granulated rubber. In some circumstances a wall of railway ties, intact vehicle tires or blocks of shock-attenuating concrete (SACON) or other proprietary materials may be used. SACON is a fiber-reinforced concrete substituting expanded polystyrene beads for gravel aggregate. For ISSF 50 metre rifle events, individual bullet traps comprising a metal box filled with plastic beads are often used behind the electronic scoring systems used for such events. Such systems require less space than earthen berms whilst being quieter than steel impact or deceleration traps, which can be a significant consideration for urban outdoor range complexes. Individual bullet traps of this nature would typically be backed by a concrete wall to protect from negligent discharges or mechanical failures causing a bullet to miss the target entirely but which is not expected to be struck during the course of normal firing. Intact vehicle tyres are generally only suitable for higher energy projectiles which will easily penetrate their surface. Handgun bullets and shotgun pellets may ricochet back. Granulated rubber (often from shredded tires) is a convenient capture material from which bullets may be separated by gravity during agitation by subsequent bullet impact.


Vendetta knife

A vendetta knife () is a type of dagger associated with the "vendetta", the traditional feuds of Corsica.


Service pistol

A service pistol is any handgun or sidearm issued to military personnel or law enforcement officers. It is also known as a personal weapon or ordnance weapon.
Typically service pistols are revolvers or semi-automatic pistols issued to officers, non-commissioned officers, and rear-echelon support personnel for self defense, though service pistols may also be issued to special forces as a backup for their primary weapons. Pistols are not typically issued to front-line infantry.
Before firearms were commonplace, officers and often NCOs typically carried swords instead.
History.
Prior to the introduction of cartridge-loading firearms, there was little standardization with regards to the handguns carried by military personnel, although it had been important for officers, artillerymen, and other auxiliary troops to have a means of defending themselves, especially as it was not always practical for them to have a full-length rifle or carbine.
Traditionally, soldiers (infantry and cavalry alike) and officers had carried swords for both personal protection and use in combat. The development of firearms in the mid-14th century changed the way battles were fought, and by the late-15th century it was no longer especially practical to close to hand-to-hand combat range to engage one's opponents, owing to the prevalence of pikes and musket-fire (pike and shot) on the battlefield.
Training was also a factor—it took a very long time to train new recruits in the use of longbows and swords—whereas the basic operation of an arquebus could be taught in a comparatively short time. As a result, swords were retained only by officers (who were less likely to be at the front of the pike-and-musket hedge) and by cavalry, for whom early single-shot handguns were of limited use.
The invention of the revolver in 1836 finally made a "service pistol" practical, as prior to this pistols had largely been single-shot weapons usually of no particular standardized pattern.
Although officers traditionally had been obliged to buy their own weapons, non-commissioned officers (NCOs) and other enlisted personnel were generally issued their weapons (which they were then expected to either pay for or return to the quartermaster if they were promoted). Service pistols, on the other hand, were generally issued to officers, NCOs, and others who needed to carry personal weapons as part of their duties. Hence, it was quite common for officers to carry government-issued service pistols in combat.
The first service handguns were revolvers, but the development of semi-automatic pistols (the first practical example being the Mauser C96 "Broomhandle") gradually led to their replacement by semi-automatic handguns, such as the well-known German P08 Luger, the first semi-automatic service pistol to be widely adopted by an industrialised nation.
The British Army was the last major military service to adopt a semi-automatic service pistol as a standard sidearm, phasing out their Webley Mk IV, Enfield No 2 Mk I, and Smith & Wesson Victory revolvers in 1969, after which the Browning Hi-Power became the Army's official service pistol.
Modern issue.
Special operations soldiers often carry a handgun as a secondary weapon to serve in a supplementary capacity to their primary weapon (a rifle, carbine, submachine gun, or shotgun); this practice is not as prevalent among conventional soldiers. Soldiers who do not serve in a direct combat role are often issued a pistol (such as officers, artillery crews, and other rear-echelon personnel), but conventional riflemen are not generally issued a pistol as part of their standard kit. However, drivers are often issued a handgun since while driving, their rifle will be stowed on a rack and thus difficult to make ready quickly in an emergency whereas a handgun is more easily accessible. Service pistols are issued to military police and other soldiers acting in a law enforcement capacity as part of their duties.
The tradition of issuing pistols to officers as a primary weapon is being phased out by many nations. The United States Marine Corps, for example, recently began requiring all enlisted personnel and all officers below the rank of Lieutenant colonel to carry the M4 Carbine as their primary weapon. British officers on combat duty are also normally issued with the standard rifle, but are not required to carry it with them at all times; for example, while operating as support staff the rifle would be stored in the base armory, though this is the same for most support staff.


Arash (sniper rifle)

Arash () is an Iranian semi-automatic anti-material sniper rifle. This weapon is used by Iran and Hezbollah, and is named for the mythical Arash the Archer.
Users.
Iran
Hezbollah
Liwa Assad Allah al-Ghalib fi al-Iraq wa al-Sham
Features.
Specifications.
The Arash sniper rifle is a semi-automatic weapon with rotating bolt and gunpowder gas system has an eight riflings straight back from left to right. It is 180 cm-long weapon, and it is equipped with optical cameras. It is a typically used as a shoulder-fired weapon. The rifle weighs between 18 and 20 kilograms,
and fires 20mm ammunition.
Uses.
This weapon can be used to target hostile helicopters at a range of approximately 2,000 meters.
It also has the ability to be used against ground and armored targets, as well as enemy trenches.


Laurel Run mine fire

The Laurel Run mine fire is an underground mine fire near the communities of Laurel Run and Georgetown, in Luzerne County, Pennsylvania, in the United States. The fire started burning in 1915 at the Red Ash Coal Mine. Attempts to control it lasted from 1915 to 1957 and recommenced in 1966. In the 1960s, the United States government and the Pennsylvania state government became involved in containing the fire. Attempts at stopping the spread of the fire were erroneously declared successful in 1973, but the fire is still burning.
Start of the fire and early history.
The Laurel Run mine fire began on December 6, 1915, in the Red Ash Coal Mine. A miner accidentally left a carbide lamp hanging from a timber support, which caught fire. Because of the lack of a night watchman, the fire went unnoticed for the entire weekend. When it was noticed after work resumed the following week, attempts were made to block off its air supply by pouring sand in the area and filling the openings of the mine with concrete. The mine's owners then stated that the fire was under control.
By 1921, it became evident that the mine fire had persisted and spread. The company operating the mine began placing temporary barriers to stop the spread of the fire so that the rest of the mine could continue to be worked. Mining in the area ended in 1957. At this point attempts to stop the spread of the fire also ceased.
Later history.
Over the years, the Laurel Run site became known as 'the burning mountain' because of smoke vented from a number of fissures leading to the abandoned underground works. In September 1962, a number of residents of the nearby community of Laurel Run were forced to abandon their homes due to subsidence (due to removal of the mine's pillars in the area) and fumes from the mine fire. The pillars were columns of anthracite coal that were left to support the ground above the mine. Legitimate miners would "rob" them through mining when they couldn't otherwise meet their coal quotas, and "outlaw" miners, not affiliated with a given mine, would subsequently rob them as well when the mines were closed. The resulting subsidence at the surface could cause dangerous sink holes. The community at this point became aware of the presence of an uncontrolled mine fire in the area.
In the early 1960s, the then governor of Pennsylvania William Scranton and the congressman Daniel J. Flood arrived at the area of the Laurel Run mine fire and called upon the Appalachian Regional Commission to aid in containing it.
By 1964, local plant life was dying out and residents of Laurel Run were experiencing adverse symptoms such as headaches. In February 1964, high levels of carbon monoxide and carbon dioxide were detected in the area, and mine gases reaching the surface gave off a blue glow at nights. On March 19, 1964, the Defense Materials, Manufacturing and Infrastructure Standing Committee announced a $1,000,000 cleanup project for the Laurel Run area. The state of Pennsylvania contributed $500,000. In 1965, evacuation of Laurel Run began in earnest, led by the Appalachian Regional Commission.
On April 23, 1966, a plan to control the mine fire was put into action. A series of boreholes were dug in the area to determine the scope of the fire. It was found that it had spread under the community of Laurel Run and also to the community of Georgetown. However, in Georgetown, the ground was relatively stable and the fire did not cause problems aboveground. Clay and sand were injected into the boreholes to contain the fire. The containment efforts occupied 800,000 square feet. Amy Randolph of the Pennsylvania Department of Environmental Protection estimated that the efforts would cost $4,000,000. This figure was later revised to $9,000,000. Meanwhile, the United States Department of Housing and Urban Development relocated 850 residents who lived over the mine fire. The area of the fire that was below Georgetown was controlled by blocking off the tunnels in the vicinity, robbing it of the necessary oxygen to continue burning.
In 1973, the containment of the mine fire was stated to be complete, but it continues to burn into the 21st century. The people of Laurel Run were able to gain more governmental support in combating the Laurel Run mine fire than the people of Centralia were in stopping the Centralia mine fire.
In the 21st century.
The Earth Conservancy considered harnessing the geothermal energy of the mine fire.
In 2013, Michael Corgan, a businessman from Wilkes-Barre Township was granted permission to strip mine 40 acres of land on top of the Laurel Run mine fire, on the condition that the strip mining operations remained at least above the fire. Strip mining on top of a mine fire had not previously been done, although Corgan had attempted to start a strip mine in the area in 1992.
The setting of the novel "Whispers from the Ashes" is based on the community of Laurel Run in the early 1960s, when the residents were forced to evacuate.
The Laurel Run mine fire may burn for another century.
Geology.
The geographical setting of the Laurel Run mine fire has been compared to that of the Centralia mine fire. The Laurel Run mine fire was located on the southern spur of the Wilkes-Barre syncline. It is part of the ridge and valley geographical province. The coal beds that are on fire are the Ross bed, the Top Red Ash bed, and the Bottom Red Ash bed. The coal beds dip 10 or 15 degrees to the north. The Llewellyn Formation is situated on top of the Red Ash bed and the Pottsville Conglomerate is situated below it.
Due to the geographical features of the area, the mine fire is only able to spread to the northeast, northwest, and southwest.
In some areas in the vicinity of the fire, the ground has cracked open. However, the surface temperature is not as hot as the Centralia mine fire. The mine fire is to underground and burns at a temperature of around .


Nebelpatrone

The Nebelpatrone or "fog cartridge" in English was a non-lethal smoke grenade that was developed by Germany and used by the Wehrmacht during World War II. The Nebelpatrone was designed to be fired from a "Kampfpistole" flare gun.
Design.
The Nebelpatrone was a rifle grenade that could be fired from the Kampfpistole. The Kampfpistole was a rifled single-shot break action gun and the cartridge was breech loaded. The Kampfpistole was a rifled variant of the earlier Leuchtpistole 34. The projectile could be recognized by "NEBEL. Z." marking on the base of the cartridge case and could be used for target marking or concealment. The Nebelpatrone was similar in appearance and construction to high explosive grenades except that it contained a smoke generator instead of explosives. The projectile consists of a light alloy cartridge case, a percussion cap in the center of the base, propellant, cylindrical light alloy body, smoke compound, powder charge, and nose fuze. The nose fuze is triggered on impact, igniting the powder charge which ignites and ejects the smoke generator from the body of the grenade.


Burning of Dungannon

The Burning of Dungannon took place in June 1602 when Hugh O'Neill, Earl of Tyrone, abandoned and set fire to Dungannon, the traditional capital of the O'Neills. It marked the beginning of the final stage of Tyrone's Rebellion when the Earl became a fugitive, before his sudden reprieve the following year.
Following the defeat of his army at the 1601 Battle of Kinsale, Tyrone retreated into his heartland in County Tyrone, Ulster. Courted by the Crown, many of his allied Gaelic lords now changed sides, which turned much of the local population against him. Tyrone was faced with a three-pronged pincer movement with separate forces under Henry Docwra, Arthur Chichester, and Lord Mountjoy advancing on him from Derry, Carrickfergus, and Dundalk respectively. A major tactic of Tyrone's had been to avoid fighting stand-up battles, preferring to retreat and ambush. He therefore decided to abandon the town and gave orders to torch it.
Soon after his cousin and enemy, Conn MacShane O'Neill, the son of Shane O'Neill, seized the castle and held it against the Earl. Mountjoy then occupied the ruins of Dungannon. Tyrone and what remained of his followers retreated into the Glenconkeyne Woods where he continued to evade capture. Despite his military defeat, Tyrone was restored to royal favour following political developments in London. The resulting Treaty of Mellifont gave Tyrone a full pardon and restored his territories to him. Tyrone then travelled to London to submit to the new King James I. Following the Treaty, the Earl repossessed his lands and began the rebuilding of Dungannon.