USS Lead Superfund Site

USS Lead Superfund Site
The U.S. Smelting and Lead Refinery Inc. commonly known as USS Lead, is a superfund site located in East Chicago, which is located in northwest Indiana. The site includes part of the former USS Lead facility along with nearby commercial, municipal, and residential areas. Originally the site was used as a lead ore refinery with the surrounding businesses at the time performing similar operations The primary contaminants of concern for this area are lead and arsenic. The site is currently undergoing testing and remediation. This Superfund site is broken down into two Operable Units. The first, OU1, has been divided into three zones, these being public housing complex and residential properties. OU2 includes soil at the former USS Lead facility, as well as groundwater in and around the site.
Location.
The site includes part of the former USS Lead facility along with nearby commercial, municipal, and residential areas. The site is made up of two areas called "operable units" (OU). Operable units are broken down based on how the land was used, in this case OU1 is residential and OU2 was industrial. OU1, is a 322-acre residential area that has East Chicago Avenue on the north, East 151st Street on the south, the Indiana Harbor Canal on the west and Parrish Avenue on the east. OU2 is the former USS Lead facility on 151st Street.
At this time the EPA has not begun remediation on OU2, but has come to an agreement with the company to perform a remedial investigation and feasibility study.
Products.
The USS Lead site began as a facility that processed and refined metals and chemicals, including lead and arsenic which are now the primary contaminants of concern for the area. Then the site was converted to a secondary smelter; where the facility began recovering lead from scrap metal and automotive batteries. The site had been owned by other similar companies prior to this that performed the same type of industrial work.
Types of contaminants.
There are two primary contaminants on the site, those contaminants are lead and arsenic. These contaminants are widespread across the area and are found in the soil and groundwater. Exposure to these can cause a series of health related issues, especially in children due to their size and that they are still developing.
Hazards.
Arsenic: Arsenic affects numerous organs and systems including- Skin, nervous system, respiratory system, cardiovascular system, liver, kidney, bladder and prostate, immune system, endocrine system, developmental processes, and even death.
Lead: Chronic lead exposure can result in- increased blood pressure, decreased fertility, cataracts, nerve disorders, muscle and joint pain, memory or concentration problems, and developmental disorders in children.
Remediation efforts.
The remediation starts with taking sample of the soil and ground water, from there workers will dig up and remove contaminated soil, about 2-feet deep, and replace it with clean soil, including 6 inches of topsoil. Then they will put sod on the clean soil. The soil will then be taken to a licensed landfill for proper disposal. The sites will then be monitored for additional hazards. All work will be done at no cost to the homeowner.
The current status of the remediation is still underway, due to the size and other limitations such as weather it is unknown when the site will be completely remediated.


Whitworth rifle

The Whitworth rifle was an English-made percussion rifle used in the latter half of the 19th century. A single-shot muzzleloader with excellent long-range accuracy for its era, especially when used with a telescopic sight, the Whitworth rifle was widely regarded as the world's first sniper rifle.
The Whitworth rifle saw extensive use with the Confederate sharpshooters in the American Civil War, claiming the lives of several Union generals, including John Sedgwick, one of the highest-ranking Union officers killed during the Civil War, shot on May 9, 1864, at Spotsylvania. On October, 2017, a surviving example of a Confederate Whitworth rifle was auctioned with a hammer price of $161,000.
The Whitworth rifle was considered to be the very best rifle of its time in terms of accuracy, when compared to other British, French, American rifles, or those produced elsewhere.
History.
The Whitworth rifle was designed by Sir Joseph Whitworth, a prominent British engineer and entrepreneur. Whitworth had experimented with cannons using polygonal rifling instead of traditional rifled barrels, which was patented in 1854. The hexagonal polygonal rifling meant that the projectile did not have to bite into grooves as was done with conventional rifling. In 1856, that concept was demonstrated in a series of experiments using brass howitzers.
Whitworth believed that the same type of system could be used to create a more accurate rifle to replace the Pattern 1853 Enfield, which had shown some weaknesses during the recent Crimean War. Trials were held in 1857 to compare Whitworth's design against the Enfield. The Whitworth rifle outperformed the Enfield at a rate of about three to one in the trials, which tested the accuracy and range of both weapons. Notably, the Whitworth rifle was able to hit the target at a range of , whereas the Enfield was only able to hit the same target at a range of .
While the trials were generally a success for the Whitworth rifle, the British government ultimately rejected the design because the Whitworth's barrel was much more prone to fouling than the Enfield, and the Whitworth rifle also cost approximately four times as much to manufacture. The Whitworth Rifle Company was able to sell the weapon to the French army, and also to the Confederacy during the American Civil War.
Design and features.
While the barrel design of the Whitworth rifle was innovative, the rest of the rifle was similar to other rifles and rifle-muskets used at the time. The rifle was muzzle loaded, and used a percussion lock firing mechanism. The lock mechanism was very similar to that used on the Enfield rifle-musket.
Whitworth chose to use a longer and more slender bullet than was common at the time, which resulted in a bore diameter of caliber, significantly smaller than the Enfield's caliber bore. Whitworth's bullets were more stable at longer ranges than the shorter and larger diameter bullets found in other rifles of the time. Whitworth also engineered the barrel with a 1-in- twist, quite a bit tighter than the 1-in- of the 1853 Enfield, or the later 1856/1858 variants with five-groove barrels and a 1-in- twist. The extra spin the tighter twist imparted to the projectile further stabilized the bullet in flight.
The Whitworth rifle weighed . Other long-range rifles of the period tended to have much larger and heavier barrels, which made them too heavy for standard infantry use.
When being used by sharpshooters, Whitworth rifles were usually rested against a tree or log to increase their accuracy. Some sharpshooters carried their own forked rests for the rifle, so that a suitable rest was always available.
Use.
In 1860, the British National Rifle Association held its first annual meeting at Wimbledon. Queen Victoria fired the first shot from a Whitworth rifle on a machine rest at , and struck the bull's-eye from its center.
Britain was officially neutral during the American Civil War, but private arms manufacturers were not required to remain neutral. The Whitworth Rifle Company, for example, sold the rifle to the Confederacy. The Confederate soldiers that used these rifles were referred to as Whitworth Sharpshooters. They accompanied regular infantrymen, and were usually used to eliminate Union artillery gun crews.
The Whitworth was held responsible for at least two deaths of high-ranking officers. On September 19, 1863, at the Battle of Chickamauga, an unnamed Confederate sharpshooter mortally wounded Union General William Lytle, who was leading a charge at the time.
Later in the war, on May 9, 1864, during the Battle of Spotsylvania Courthouse, according to popular accounts, Union General John Sedgwick was chiding some of his troops for lying down in a ditch to avoid Confederate sharpshooters at a range of around . Shots from Confederate Whitworth rifles, easily identifiable due to the shrill whistling noises their hexagonal bullets made in flight, caused members of his staff and nearby artillerymen to duck for cover. Sedgwick strode around in the open and was quoted as saying, "What? Men dodging this way for single bullets? What will you do when they open fire along the whole line? I am ashamed of you. They couldn't hit an elephant at this distance." Although chastened, his men continued to flinch and he repeated, "I'm ashamed of you, dodging that way. They couldn't hit an elephant at this distance." Just seconds later he fell forward with a bullet hole below his left eye. At least five Confederate soldiers claimed that they had fired the fatal shot.
The Whitworth rifle with a hexagonal bore and rapid regular twist, when it was tested by the Union's Ordnance Committee, along with the
was admitted to have surpassed all the others for accuracy at long ranges. No less than 1,000 rounds were fired from each rifle without cleaning. But as it required "...very peculiar long cartridges, it was thought these would be inconvenient for army purposes."
Variants.
Whitworth rifles were made with barrel lengths of , giving the weapon an overall length of respectively. The barrel was attached to the stock using two or three barrel bands, depending on the barrel's length.
Two types of bullets were used in the Whitworth rifle: hexagonal and cylindrical. The cylindrical bullets had to be made out of soft pure lead, with a small hollow in the base. Under the influence of the explosion of of fine rifle powder, the bullet would upset into the hexagonal bore. Recovered bullets were found to be as hexagonal as those which had been factory-made to a hexagonal shape. The hexagonal-form bullet did not need to expand to properly grip the barrel, and therefore could be made out of a harder lead alloy.
The sights used on Whitworth rifles varied. Some used Enfield type flip-up sights that were graduated to in increments. Others used a sliding blade sight with an adjustment for windage. Some had simple fixed front sights, while others used a post and globe front sight. A small number of Whitworth rifles were equipped with a four power telescopic sight, designed by Colonel Davidson which, unlike modern rifle scopes, was attached to the left side of the weapon instead of the top. While the telescopic sight was very advanced for its time, it had a reputation for leaving the user with a black eye due to the rifle's fairly substantial recoil.
The typical Confederate rifle in the U.S. Civil war had a barrel length of , open sights with the front blade being adjustable for windage, and a stock which extended to within a short distance of the muzzle, giving the rifle a snub-nosed appearance.
Modern use.
Modern reproductions of Whitworth rifles were manufactured by Parker-Hale and Euroarms. Italian manufacturer Davide Pedersoli began the production of the rifles in September 2015. They are used by Civil War re-enactors and those who have an interest in 19th century firearms, but the Civil War military variants were all "two-band" with barrels, while, , the reproduction rifles are all the longer-barreled, "three-band", civilian versions of the famed rifle. Many riflemen enjoy using them in target shooting competition at ranges up to .


Wurtsmith Air Force Base

Wurtsmith Air Force Base is a decommissioned United States Air Force base in Iosco County, Michigan. It operated from 1923 until decommissioned in 1993.
During the Cold War, it was one of three Strategic Air Command (SAC) bases in Michigan with the B-52 bomber, the others (Kincheloe, Sawyer) were in the Upper Peninsula. The base was named in honor of Major General Paul Wurtsmith, commander of SAC's Eighth Air Force, who was killed when his North American B-25 Mitchell bomber crashed on Cold Mountain near Asheville, North Carolina, on September 13, 1946.
PFAS Contamination.
The Michigan Department of Environment, Great Lakes, and Energy (EGLE) became aware of PFAS concentrations in groundwater in March 2010 when EGLE staff performed sampling at a former fire training area on the base. Air Force has completed the PFAS Preliminary Assessment, Site Inspection, and is currently planning the Remedial Investigation under the Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act. Air Force has performed three removal actions and is currently planning two interim remedial actions to address PFAS.


Williamsburg Soap and Candle Factory

The Williamsburg Soap and Candle Company, known to millions as just the "candle factory", was located in the Norge section of James City County, Virginia, and first opened in 1965. It was located near the Williamsburg Pottery Factory and was a local icon and popular tourist attraction on the road to Williamsburg. It was founded by John Barnett, Sr., who moved a barn from a nearby farm and made it the first building of a complex which contained the manufacturing plant, numerous shops, and a restaurant. The factory was famous for making quality soap and candles.
At one time, the Williamsburg Candle Soap and Candle Co. was a major supplier of candles around the world both under their label as well as private label candles for companies such as Estee Lauder, Pottery Barn and others. They were known for their fine quality candles that were dripless and clean burning. All of its candles were made at the on-site manufacturing plant, and all of the candle-making equipment were designed and built by its owners and employees. Customers could view the products being made through a glass window in the store; and were allowed to dip their own candles.
Williamsburg Soap and Candle Company suffered greatly from the drop in tourism after 9/11/01 and from the pressure of cheap Chinese imports. These and other factors ultimately led to its closure in 2005. The company assets were sold at auction. Much of their equipment was purchased by Buyacandle.com. The land was sold to a local developer. The Candle Factory Restaurant remained, and renamed itself the Candle Light Restaurant. A few new stores moved into the vacant factory store fronts but never prospered. The restaurant, along with most of the shops, were forced to close because the space was bought by a large store of a pharmaceutical chain in 2008.
In 2011, the entire right side of the complex was demolished to make room for the new building. The left side of the complex, which includes the original barn, remain. The Candle Light Restaurant reopened in mid-2011 on the remaining side but went out of business in late 2013.


Spanish cruiser Vizcaya

Vizcaya was an armored cruiser of the Spanish Navy that fought at the Battle of Santiago de Cuba during the Spanish–American War.
Technical characteristics.
"Vizcaya" was built at Bilbao, Spain. She was laid down in 1889, launched on 8 July 1891, and completed in 1893. She had two funnels and was fast and well armed. Her main armament was mounted on the center line in single barbettes fore and aft. Her armor was poor: her guns had only lightly armored hoods, her guns were mounted in the open on the upper deck, her armor belt was thin and protected only two-thirds of her length, and she had a high, unprotected freeboard that took much damage during the Battle of Santiago de Cuba. Like other nineteenth-century warships, she was heavily furnished and decorated with wood, which the Spanish failed to remove prior to combat and which would feed fires during the battle.
Operational history.
"Vizcaya" was visiting New York City on a friendly visit to reciprocate for the visit of battleship to Havana, Cuba, when "Maine" exploded and sank at Havana on 15 February 1898. "Vizcaya" then steamed to Havana, where she rendezvoused with her sister ship . Ordered back across the Atlantic as war approached, both ships was assigned to the Spanish Navy's 1st Squadron, which was concentrating at São Vicente in Portugal's Cape Verde Islands under Vice Admiral Pascual Cervera y Topete. They arrived at São Vicente on 19 April 1898. It was noted that "Vizcaya" badly needed drydocking because of a badly fouled bottom, her 5.5-inch guns had defective breech mechanisms and had been supplied with defective ammunition, and the fleet had a shortage of stokers.
The Spanish–American War began while "Vizcaya" was at São Vicente. Ordered by neutral Portugal in accordance with international law to leave São Vicente within 24 hours of the declaration of war, "Vizcaya" and the rest of Cervera's squadron departed on 29 April 1898, bound for San Juan, Puerto Rico. Cervera's ships reached French-owned Martinique in the Lesser Antilles on 10 May 1898. While "Vizcaya" and the other large ships loitered in international waters, two Spanish destroyers went into Fort-de-France to ask for coal. France was neutral and would not supply coal, so the Spanish squadron departed on 12 May 1898 for Dutch-owned Curaçao, where Cervera expected to meet a collier. Cervera arrived at Willemstad on 14 May, but the Netherlands also was neutral, and strictly enforced its neutrality by allowing only "Vizcaya" and her sister ship to enter port and permitting them to load only 600 tons of coal. On 15 May, Cervera's ships departed, no longer bound for San Juan, which by now was under a U.S. Navy blockade, but for as-yet unblockaded Santiago de Cuba on the southeastern coast of Cuba, arriving there on 19 May 1898. Cervera hoped to refit his ships there before he could be trapped. His squadron was still in the harbor of Santiago de Cuba when an American squadron arrived on 27 May 1898 and began a blockade which would drag on for 37 days.
Some action occurred during the blockade. On 3 June 1898, the U.S. Navy steamed the collier into the entrance channel to the harbor, hoping to scuttle her so as to block the channel and trap the Spanish ships inside. Spanish shore batteries already had disabled "Merrimac" when she drifted up the channel to a point where the Spanish ships could fire on her as well. "Vizcaya", the unprotected cruiser , and the destroyer all opened fire, and "Merrimac" quickly sank in a position that did not block the entrance. "Vizcaya" hit the bridge of "Merrimac" with several 5.5-inch rounds.
The blockade wore on, with "Vizcaya" and the others enduring occasional American naval bombardments of the harbor. "Vizcaya" still had two 5.5-inch guns out of commission, 80 percent of the 5.5-inch ammunition was defective, and nothing could be done under the circumstances about her terribly fouled bottom. Some of her men joined others from the fleet in a Naval Brigade to fight against a U.S. Army overland drive toward Santiago de Cuba.
By the beginning of July 1898, that drive threatened to capture Santiago de Cuba, and Cervera decided that his squadron's only hope was to try to escape into the open sea by running the blockade. The decision was made on 1 July 1898, with the break-out set for 3 July 1898. The crew of "Vizcaya" spent 2 July 1898 returning from Naval Brigade service and preparing for action. "Vizcaya" was to be the second ship in line during the escape, following Cervera's flagship "Infanta Maria Teresa"; while "Infanta Maria Teresa" was sacrificed by attacking the fastest American ship, the armored cruiser , "Vizcaya" and the others were to put on all the speed they could and run westward for the open sea.
At about 0845 hours on 3 July 1898, the Spanish ships got underway. The U.S. squadron sighted the Spanish ships in the channel at about 0935, and the Battle of Santiago de Cuba began.
While their squadron mates turned to starboard and put on steam for a run to the west behind them, "Vizcaya" followed "Infanta Maria Teresa" closely as she charged "Brooklyn" as if to ram. When "Brooklyn" turned away to the east, "Vizcaya" and "Infanta Maria Teresa" turned west, brushing past the last obstacle in their path, the armed yacht .
"Vizcaya" now found herself back in the line-ahead formation the squadron had formed when it left its anchorage, in second place behind "Infanta Maria Teresa" and ahead of armored cruiser and "Almirante Oquendo". At 1035, the sinking "Infanta Maria Teresa" was driven ashore with heavy damage and fires, and "Almirante Oquendo" soon suffered the same fate, running aground nearly abreast of "Vizcaya". Further inshore, the two Spanish destroyers also succumbed. By 1050, "Vizcaya" and "Cristóbal Colón" were the only Spanish ships left.
"Brooklyn" now focused on "Vizcaya", closing to a range of and pounding "Vizcaya" with numerous and shell hits, while battleships , , , and also scored hits. "Vizcaya" managed to score two 5.5-inch hits on "Brooklyn", killing the lone American sailor who died in the battle. But at about 1100, "Brooklyn" scored two 8-inch hits on "Vizcaya"; one detonated a torpedo in her forward tube and blew a large part of her bow off, and the other knocked down her bridge and set her decorative woodwork and wooden furnishings on fire. When the fire began to cause ready ammunition for the secondary battery to explode, the end was clearly at hand for "Vizcaya". At 1106, she turned toward the shore, struck her battle ensign, and ran herself up on the beach.
Some of her sailors made it ashore, although they had to beware of Cuban insurgents, who began to shoot the survivors of the wrecked Spanish ships. Others were rescued by American sailors who brought small boats alongside the wrecks to take off survivors. One of those rescued was the commanding officer of "Vizcaya", Captain Don Antonio Eulate, who, when brought aboard "Iowa", looked at the burning wreck of his ship, raised his hand in salute, and called out ""Adios, Vizcaya!" Immediately, as if on cue, the cruiser's forward magazines exploded.
Postwar, a U.S. Navy survey team evaluating Spanish wrecks for their potential for being raised and put in American service concluded that "Vizcaya" was beyond salvage.
Commemoration.
Two of "Vizcaya"s 140-mm (5.5-inch) naval guns were salvaged from her wreck and is on permanent display at the United States Naval Academy in Annapolis, Maryland.
Another of "Vizcaya"s 140-mm guns is in Grant Park in Galena, Illinois, and one is at Historic Fort Wayne in Detroit Michigan.


Climate change in the Middle East and North Africa

Climate change in the Middle East and North Africa (MENA) refers to changes in the climate of the MENA region and the subsequent response, adaption and mitigation strategies of countries in the region. In 2018, the MENA region emitted 3.2 billion tonnes of carbon dioxide and produced 8.7% of global greenhouse gas emissions (GHG) despite making up only 6% of the global population. These emissions are mostly from the energy sector, an integral component of many Middle Eastern and North African economies due to the extensive oil and natural gas reserves that are found within the region.
Recognised by the United Nations, The World Bank and the World Health Organisation as one of the greatest global challenges in the 21st century, climate change is currently having an unprecedented effect upon the Earth's natural systems. Sharp global temperature and sea level changes, shifting precipitation patterns and increased frequency of extreme weather events are some of the main impacts of climate change as identified by the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC). The MENA region is especially vulnerable to such impacts due to its arid and semi-arid environment, facing climatic challenges such as low rainfall, high temperatures and dry soil. The climatic conditions that foster such challenges for MENA are projected by the IPCC to worsen throughout the 21st century. If greenhouse gas emissions are not significantly reduced, part of the MENA region risks becoming uninhabitable before the year 2100.
Climate change is expected to put significant strain on already scarce water and agricultural resources within the MENA region, threatening the national security and political stability of all included countries. This has prompted some MENA countries to engage with the issue of climate change on an international level through environmental accords such as the Paris Agreement. Policy is also being established on a national level amongst MENA countries, with a focus on the development of renewable energies.
Greenhouse gas emissions.
As of January 2021, the UNICEF website groups the following set of 20 countries as belonging to the MENA region: 'Algeria, Bahrain, Djibouti, Egypt, Iran (Islamic Republic of), Iraq, Jordan, Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Morocco, Oman, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, State of Palestine, Sudan, Syrian Arab Republic, Tunisia, United Arab Emirates, Yemen.' Others include Israel as well.
Greenhouse gas emissions produced by humans have been identified by the IPCC and the vast majority of climate scientists as the primary driver of climate change. In the past three decades the MENA region has more than tripled its greenhouse gas emissions and is currently emitting above the global average per person, with most of the top ten countries by carbon dioxide emissions per person being found in the Middle East. These high emissions levels can be primarily attributed to Saudi Arabia and Iran, which are the 9th and 7th largest emitters of CO2 in the world, accounting for 40% the regions emissions in 2018. MENA countries heavily rely on fossil fuels for the generation of electricity, sourcing 97% of their energy from oil, natural gas, and coal (in Turkey). Fossil fuel extraction, production and exportation is also a significant component of many economies within the MENA region, which possesses 60% of the world oil reserves and 45% of known natural gas reserves. Reducing gas flaring would help.
The failure of the Iranian subsidy reform plan during the 2010s left Iran as the world's largest subsidiser of fossil fuel in 2018. But, unlike other countries which successfully removed subsidies by acting gradually, at the end of the decade the government attempted to suddenly reduce gasoline subsidies, sparking riots.
Impacts on the natural environment.
Temperature and weather changes.
Heat extremes.
The IPCC project average global temperatures to rise more than 1.5 degrees by the end of the 21st century. MENA has been identified as a hotspot for future temperature changes due to its arid environmental conditions. Whilst projected rates of warming during winter months are low, the region is expected to experience extreme temperature increases during summer. Temperature rises are expected to be further amplified by reductions in rainfall and the associated depletion of soil moisture, limiting evaporative cooling. As a result, heat extremes are expected to increase significantly in both frequency and intensity across the MENA region. According to studies published by the Max Planck Institute for Chemistry, the number of very hot days in the region has doubled between the 1970s and the time when the report was published (2016). The study further projects that heatwaves will occur for 80 days of the year by 2050 and 118 days of the year by 2100. Combined with increased sandstorms associated with longer drought periods, predicted temperature rises would make large parts of the region uninhabitable.
The average maximum temperature during the hottest days of the past 30 years has been 43 degrees Celsius. Dutch atmospheric chemist Johannes Lelieveld has projected that temperature maximum's could reach almost 50 degrees Celsius under current climate scenarios established by the IPCC. Johannes Lelieveld further projects that average summer temperatures are expected to increase by up to 7% across the MENA region, and up to 10% in highly urbanised areas. Extreme heat has been identified as a serious threat to human health, heightening an individuals' susceptibility to exhaustion, heart attack and mortality. Climate scientist Ali Ahmadalipour has projected heat-related mortality rates within the MENA region to be up to 20 times higher than current rates by the end of the century.
Water resources.
The Middle East and North Africa currently faces extreme water scarcity, with twelve out of the 17 most water stressed countries in the world deriving from the region. The World Bank defines an area as being water stressed when per person water supplies fall below 1,700 cubic metres per year. The water supply across the MENA region is averaged at 1274 cubic metres per capita, with some countries having access to only 50 cubic metres per person. The agricultural sector within the MENA region is heavily dependent on irrigation systems due to its arid climate, with 85% of fresh water resources being utilised for agricultural purposes. The IPCC indicate that the global distribution of rainfall is currently shifting in response to increasing greenhouse gas emissions, with increases in high latitude and mid-latitude wet region and decreases in equatorial dry regions such as the MENA. These shifting precipitation patterns have already placed significant strain on MENA agriculture, with the frequency and severity of droughts rising significantly in the past decade.
A recent NASA study suggests that the 1998-2012 drought in the Middle East was the worst to occur in the past 900 years. Climate scientist Colin Kelley suggests that climate change was a significant contributor to the increased severity of the most recent drought in the region. He claims that such drought is 3 times more likely to occur due to human influence on climate and the drought have contributed to the beginning of the Syrian civil war. Along with environmental impacts, increasing drought periods affect agricultural incomes, diminishes public health and weakens political stability in the MENA region. Syria experienced its most severe drought on record from 2007 to 2010, where restricted water supply degraded agricultural resources and increased economic pressures. American environmental scientist Peter Gleick also asserts that heightened social vulnerability and conflict over scare water supplies during this period catalysed the onset of the Syrian war.
However, in 2017 a study lead by sociologist and political ecologist Jan Selby has discredited these claims, reporting that there is no solid evidence that climate change is associated with the drought, the same about the impact of the drought on the conflict in Syria. In 2019 Konstantin Ash
and Nick Obradovich published research indicating that extreme drought was one of the leading factors in the creation of the Syrian war.
Increasing water insecurity as a result of climate change is set to exacerbate existing food insecurities in the countries affected. A study published by the World Food Porgramme has predicted a decline in crop yields by 30% in 2050 as a result of increasing droughts. North African countries are highly vulnerable to reduced precipitation as 88% of the regions crops possess no irrigation, relying on consistent rainfall. The consequences of these reduced harvests strongly impact rural regions and communities that rely heavily on agriculture as a source of income.
Sea level rise.
Alexandria is one of the most vulnerable cities to sea level rise.
Across the MENA region, 60 million people inhabited coastal areas in 2010, a population that has been predicted by the World Bank to grow to 100 million by 2030. As a result, the population of the MENA region is expected to be significantly impacted by sea level rise occurring due to climate change. One consequence of rising sea levels is the loss of coastal wetlands, a natural resource responsible for ecosystem services such as storm buffering, water quality maintenance and carbon sequestration. A study conducted by the World Bank predicts that the MENA region would lose over 90% of its coastal and freshwater wetlands if a one-metre sea level rise were to occur.
In North Africa, Egypt is expected to be most affected by changes in sea level. A third of the Nile Delta and large parts of Alexandria, Egypt's second largest city, lie below the mean global sea level. These areas have been drained for agricultural purposes and undergone urban development, where inundation and flooding is prevented by sea walls and dams. However, failures occurring in these structures, storm surges and extreme weather events could lead to the inundation of these areas in the future if sea levels continue to rise. Agricultural areas in Egypt are particularly at risk, where a one-metre rise in sea level would submerge 12-15% of the nations total agricultural land. This is estimated to displace 6.7 million people in Egypt and affect millions more who rely on agriculture for income. A more moderate 50 cm increase in sea level has been projected to displace 2 million people and generate US$35 billion of damages.
Mitigation and adaptation.
The severe impacts of climate change on the region, made climate change mitigation and adaptation an important issue in it. Regional cooperation is considered as one of the main conditions for effective mitigation and adaptation
Renewable energies.
The MENA region possesses high potential for developing renewable energy technologies due to the high levels of wind and sunshine that are associated with its climate. The International Renewable Energy Agency (IRENA) has identified over half of all land in GCC states as being suitable for the deployment of solar and wind technologies. IRENA has also identified North African countries as having greater potential for wind and solar energy generation than all other regions of the continent. Sourcing energy from renewable technologies instead of fossil fuels could significantly reduce energy related GHG emissions, which presently account for 85% of total emissions within the MENA region. Renewable energy generation also involves significantly less water usage than processes associated with fossil fuel extraction and its conversion into usable energy, possessing the potential to improve water quality and availability within the region. Renewable energy presently accounts for 1% of the total primary energy supply across the MENA region.
At the 2016 UN Climate Change Conference in Marrakech, Morocco (COP22), Morocco, Tunisia, Yemen, Lebanon and the State of Palestine, along with 43 other countries, committed to deriving all energy from renewable resources by 2050.
Ouarzazate Solar Power Station.
The Ouarzazate Solar Power Station is a solar power complex located in the Drâa-Tafilalet region of Morocco, and is currently the largest concentrated solar power plant in the world. The complex consists of four separate power plants that utilise concentrated solar power and photovoltaic solar technology. The project, costing US$2.67 billion, is expected to provide 1.1 million Moroccans with clean energy and reduce the country's carbon emissions by 700,000 tonnes every year. The total energy capacity of the solar plant is expected to reach 2000 Megawatts by the end of 2020.
Policies and legislation.
Paris Agreement.
Eleven countries from the MENA region attended the 21st Conference of the Parties of the UNFCCC where countries negotiated the Paris Agreement, an agreement with the United Nations concerning greenhouse gas emissions mitigation. Eritrea, Iran, Iraq, Libya, South Sudan, Turkey and Yemen are the only countries in the world which have never ratified the agreement. Morocco has set its nationally determined contribution to a 17%-42% reduction in emissions and has set a target of having 52% of renewable energy in its total installed electricity production capacity by 2050. The share of renewable energy reached 28% in 2018 and is currently recognised by the United Nations as being on track to achieving its renewable energy targets. The UAE, despite ratifying the agreement, have set no reduction in emissions in their nationally determined contribution. The United Nations have identified their NDC target as "critically insufficient".
MENA Climate Action Plan.
In 2016 the World Bank put forth the MENA Climate Action Plan, a series of financial commitments centered around the redistribution of finance to the MENA region. The World Bank deemed the plans core focus to be ensuring food and water security, increasing resilience to climate change impacts and improving investment in renewable energy source. One of the Action Plan's major commitments was to allocate 18-30% of MENA finance towards climate related initiatives, which currently stands a $1.5 billion annually. The World Bank have also outlined a significant increase in funding directed towards adaptation initiatives such as water conservation and recycling, introduction of desalination facilities and investment into carbon sequestration technologies.
By country.
Iran.
Iran was estimated to emit 700 megatonnes of CO2 in 2019, about 8 and a half tonnes per person, which was 1.85% of the world total. Over 5 megatons of methane was emitted in 2020, which was over 7% of the world total.
Much of Iran's territory suffers from overgrazing, desertification and/or deforestation. Industrial and urban wastewater runoff has contaminated rivers, coastal and underground waters. Wetlands and bodies of fresh water increasingly are being destroyed as industry and agriculture expand, and oil and chemical spills have harmed aquatic life in the Persian Gulf and the Caspian Sea. Iran contends that the international rush to develop oil and gas reserves in the Caspian Sea presents that region with a new set of environmental threats. Although a Department of Environment has existed since 1971, Iran has not yet developed a policy of sustainable development because short-term economic goals have taken precedence.
Israel.

According to the Ministry of Environmental Protection of Israel: "While Israel is a relatively small contributor to climate change due to its size and population, it is sensitive to the potential impacts of the phenomenon, due to its location. Thus, it is making an effort to reduce greenhouse gas emissions while simultaneously doing whatever possible to reduce the expected damage that will result if climate change is not halted."
The impacts of climate change are already felt in Israel. The temperature rose by 1.4 degrees between 1950 and 2017. The number of hot days increased and the number of hot days decreased. Precipitation rates have fallen. The trends are projected to continue. By the year 2050, in the coastal area the number of days with maximal temperature above 30 degrees, per year, is projected to increase by 20 in the scenario with climate change mitigation and by 40 in "business as usual" scenario.
Israel ratified the Paris Agreement in 2016. The country is part of 3 initiatives on mitigation and adaptation and 16 other actions taken by non governmental organisations.
According to Israel's Intended nationally determined contribution the main mitigation target is to reduce per capita greenhouse gas emissions to 8.8 tCO2e by 2025 and to 7.7 tCO2e by 2030. Total emissions should be 81.65 MtCO2e in 2030. In the business as usual scenario the emissions would be 105.5 MtCO2e by 2030 or 10.0 tCO2e per capita. To reach it, the government of Israel wants to reduce the consumption of electricity by 17% relative to the business as usual scenario, produce 17% of electricity from renewables and shift 20% of transportation from cars to public transport by 2030.
In an effort to comply with GHG emission reductions, Israel formed a committee with the goal of evaluating the country's potential to reduce emissions by the year 2030. Their findings have confirmed that Israel's power sector generates approximately half of the country's total GHG emissions. The second largest offender is the transport sector, which produces approximately 19% of total emissions.


Super Soaker 50

The Super Soaker 50 was the first Super Soaker water gun, introduced in 1991. It was one of the first pressurized water guns ever made, outselling all of the motorized blasters that had previously dominated the market. Another air pressurized water gun, the Cosmic Liquidator, was made in the late 1970s but it never was popular.
History.
In the early 1980s, a rocket scientist named Lonnie Johnson was working on a heat pump system, and was testing it in his bathroom. A powerful stream shot from his prototype, and he immediately realized that this could make a great water gun. Lonnie Johnson spent the next eight years trying to sell his idea. Eventually, Johnson sold the idea to Larami Toys, and they released the Power Drencher. The Power Drencher wasn't very popular at first, but popularity grew significantly when they renamed it the Super Soaker 50. The name was changed due to copyright issues. Since then, there have been hundreds of other Super Soaker models. These include 10th and 20th anniversary Super Soaker 50s.


.17 PMC/Aguila

The .17 PMC/Aguila or .17 High Standard is a rimfire cartridge formed by necking down the .22 Long Rifle casing to accept a .172" diameter bullet. This cartridge was developed in 2003 by firearms maker High Standard and ammunition maker Aguila and introduced in 2004. The introduction was ill-timed, however, coming in the middle of the introduction of two major new .17 Rimfires from Hornady, which took over the .17 caliber rimfire market.
The .17 Aguila can be shot in a rifle that is chambered for .17 HM2.


Colt MARS

The MARS (Mini Assault Rifle System) was an experimental, scaled-down variant of the M16 rifle tested by Colt as a personal defense weapon (PDW) around 1997. It was chambered for the experimental 5.56×30mm MARS cartridge. The 5.56×30mm cartridge fired a 55-grain projectile at . The rifle was patented in 1998 (US patent no. 5,827,992).


Tobyhanna Army Depot

Tobyhanna Army Depot, is a logistics center for the United States Department of Defense (DoD), specializing in electronic systems. It is located in Coolbaugh Township, Monroe County, near Tobyhanna, Pennsylvania. Established February 1, 1953, as Tobyhanna Signal Depot, today it is a facility for the repair, upgrade and integration of Command, Control, Computer, Communications, Intelligence, Surveillance and Reconnaissance (C4ISR) systems for all branches of the Armed Forces.
Current activities.
The depot's mission is total sustainment, including design, manufacture, repair and overhaul, of hundreds of electronic systems. They include satellite terminals, radio and radar systems, telephones, electro-optics, night vision and anti-intrusion devices, airborne surveillance equipment, navigational instruments, electronic warfare, and guidance and control systems for tactical missiles.
The U.S. Army has designated Tobyhanna as its Center of Industrial and Technical Excellence for C4ISR and Electronics, Avionics, and Missile Guidance and Control. The Air Force has designated Tobyhanna as its "Technical Source of Repair for command, control, communications and intelligence systems".
Tobyhanna has gained new missions and workload in each of the five rounds of Defense Base Realignment and Closure (BRAC) between 1988 and 2005.
The depot also is the largest employer in northeastern Pennsylvania, with more than 5,000 personnel working at the installation. The depot's regional economic impact approaches $2 billion annually. The depot also operates 30 Forward Repair Activities at major U.S. installations and overseas, including in Southwest Asia.
In 2005, President George W. Bush delivered his Veterans Day address at Tobyhanna Army Depot, commending the installation as a "facility that has provided critical services for our armed forces" and applauded the depot workers as men and women who have been "carrying out dangerous missions with bravery and skill". In 2006, the depot earned the Shingo Prize for Excellence in Manufacturing as well as the 2006 Best Manufacturing Practices Award of Excellence.
In late 2016, it was reported that the depot now uses an anechoic chamber to test radars by simulating signals and targets. The initial cost of the chamber was recouped in around eight months because the systems did not have to be shipped to the Yuma Proving Ground.
History.
From 1900–1936, Tobyhanna Lake, and nearby lakes at Gouldsboro and Klondike, were sites of ice collection and storage, producing up to 150 boxcar loads per day between them that was shipped as far as Florida.
In 1912, Tobyhanna had a railway station, telegraph, and post office. At that time the U.S. Army had no artillery training range east of Wisconsin, and Major Charles P. Summerall, commander of the 3rd Field Artillery at Fort Myer, Virginia chose the site as a suitable training range. After leasing land for $300 in 1912 and 1913, Summerall persuaded Congress to authorize the purchase of 18,000 acres (73 km²) for $50,000; eventually the military reservation was expanded to 22,000 acres (89 km²) "(according to the Tobyhanna Army Depot)" or 26,000 acres (105 km²) "(according to Pennsylvania DCNR)".
The land was used as a tank and ambulance corps training center from 1914–1918, for artillery training from 1918–1931 and 1937–1941, and to house Civilian Conservation Corps enrollees 1931–1937.
During World War II, initial plans for use of the site as a training site for anti-aircraft artillery were dropped, due to the long range of more modern weapons—some shells strayed onto private land, and "the "Scranton Times" reported that crews could only fire one or two shells during each pass of a target, and guns were limited to a 65-degree firing arc". Subsequently, the camp became the base of an all-black segregated ambulance corps, and a military hospital (19 single-story structures) was constructed in expectation of casualties from the invasion of Japan. At the end of World War II the military reservation became one of 138 sites around the United States holding German prisoners of war (a maximum of 300 POWs), and was used for storage of gliders used in the D-Day invasion. From 1946 to 1948 it was used by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. In April 1949, most of the military reservation was returned to Pennsylvania, and converted into Game Land 127, Gouldsboro State Park, and Tobyhanna State Park, while 1,400 acres (5.7 km²), after briefly being transferred to Pennsylvania, were reacquired by the Army Signal Corps in 1951 as the Tobyhanna Army Depot. This site was selected as having access to East Coast shipping and manufacturers while being outside of possible nuclear blast radii surrounding New York City and Scranton. At that time, the decline of anthracite coal mining in the region had led to the unemployment of 35,000 workers in the region, and the new Depot received 600 job applications a day two years in advance of its opening. Tobyhanna is Northeastern Pennsylvania's largest employer.
Contracts.
On September 29, 2020, Senate Builders & Construction Managers Inc. was contracted to upgrade and renovate Building 1E at the Depot.


Seattle Fault

The Seattle Fault is a zone of multiple shallow east–west thrust faults that cross the Puget Sound Lowland and through Seattle (in the U.S. state of Washington) in the vicinity of Interstate Highway 90. The Seattle Fault was first recognized as a significant seismic hazard in 1992, when a set of reports showed that about 1,100 years ago it was the scene of a major earthquake of about magnitude 7 – an event that entered Native American oral legend. Extensive research has since shown the Seattle Fault to be part of a regional system of faults.
Notable earthquake.
First suspected from mapping of gravitational anomalies in 1965 and an uplifted marine terrace at Restoration Point (foreground in picture above), the Seattle Fault's existence and likely hazard were definitively established by a set of five reports published in "Science" in 1992. These reports looked at the timing of abrupt uplift and subsidence around Restoration Point and Alki Point (distant right side of picture), tsunami deposits on Puget Sound, turbidity in lake paleosediments, rock avalanches, and multiple landslides around Lake Washington, and determined that all these happened about 1100 years ago (between 900 and 930 CE), and most likely due to an earthquake of magnitude 7 or greater on the Seattle Fault.
Although the 900–930 CE earthquake was over a thousand years ago, local native legends have preserved an association of a powerful supernatural spirit – a'yahos, noted for shaking, rushes of water, and landsliding – with five locales along the trace of the Seattle Fault, including a "spirit boulder" called Psai-Yah-hus near the Fauntleroy ferry dock in West Seattle.
Geology.
The Seattle Fault is the structural boundary where 50–60 million years old (early Tertiary) basalt of the Crescent Formation on the south has been uplifted – the Seattle Uplift – and is tipping into the Seattle Basin, where the Tertiary bedrock is buried under at least of relatively softer, lighter sedimentary strata of the younger Blakeley and Blakely Harbor formations. This has resulted in a wide zone of complex faulting, with three or more main south-dipping thrust faults. Most of the faulting is "blind" (not reaching the surface), and generally difficult to locate because of heavy vegetation or development. Three principal strands have been identified, their location determined by high-resolution seismic reflection and aeromagnetic surveys. The northernmost strand lies nearly along Interstate 90 and then under Lake Sammamish. The central section of the fault zone – where it crosses the apparent location of the Olympic–Wallowa Lineament – shows marked variation in the location of the strands and of the underlying structure, but the nature and significance of this is not understood.
The fault extends for approximately 70 km (43 miles) from near Fall City on the east, where it appears to be terminated by the South Whidbey Island Fault, to Hood Canal on the west (not shown on the map). However, boundaries defining the western termination zone is currently unclear (see Puget Sound faults#Question of western termination). It is the northern edge of the Seattle Uplift, of which the Tacoma Fault is the southern edge. One model has the Seattle and Tacoma faults converging at depth to form a wedge, which is being popped up by approximately north–south oriented compression that ultimately derives from plate tectonics. Another model (see diagram) interprets the Seattle Uplift as a sheet of rock that is being forced up a ramp. Subsequent work suggests that the structure of the Seattle Fault may vary from east to west, with both models being applicable in different sections. A later model has part of the north-thrusting sheet forming a wedge between the sedimentary formations of the Seattle Basin and the underlying bedrock.
The Seattle Fault is believed to date from about 40 million years ago (late Eocene). This is about the time that the strike-slip movement on the north-striking Straight Creek Fault to the east ceased, due to the intrusions of plutons. It appears that when the Straight Creek Fault became stuck the north–south compressive force that it had accommodated by strike-slip motion was transferred to the crust of the Puget Lowland, which subsequently folded and faulted, and the various blocks jammed over one another.
Other scarps associated with the Seattle fault have been identified by LIDAR-based mapping; trenching has generally shown the faulting to be more complex than was first realized. Many of the details of the Seattle Fault, including recurrence rate, remain to be resolved. A study of sediments in Lake Washington found evidence of seven large (M > 7) earthquakes in the last 3500 years.
Surface scarps due to faulting are rarely observed in this area (due to topography, vegetation, and urbanization); a rare exception can be seen at Mee Kwa Mooks Park south of Alki Point. This is the site of the "West Seattle Fault"; the prominent rise there is due to uplift on the north side of the fault.
Hazard.
The Seattle Fault (and the related Tacoma Fault) is not the only source of earthquake hazard in the Puget Lowland. Other faults in the near surface continental crust, such as the South Whidbey Island Fault (near Everett), and the yet to be studied Olympia Fault (near Olympia), though historically quiescent, are suspected of generating earthquakes of around magnitude 7. Others, such as the 2001 Nisqually earthquake, originate about below Puget Sound in the Benioff zone of the subducting Juan de Fuca Plate; being so deep their energy is dissipated. And there are the infrequent but very powerful great subduction events, such as the magnitude 9 1700 Cascadia earthquake, where the entire Cascadia subduction zone, from Cape Mendocino to Vancouver Island, slips.
But the Seattle and Tacoma faults are probably the most serious earthquake threat to the populous Seattle–Tacoma area. A 2002 study of bridge vulnerability estimated that a magnitude 7 earthquake on the Seattle Fault would damage approximately 80 bridges in the Seattle–Tacoma area, whereas a magnitude 9 subduction event would damage only around 87 bridges in all of Western Washington. The same study also found that with failure of just six bridges (the minimum damage for a Benioff M 6.5 event) there could be at least $3 billion lost in business revenue alone. Subsequent retrofitting by the Washington Department of Transportation and the City of Seattle would likely reduce damage to key bridges. But there is concern that such an earthquake on the Seattle Fault would devastate unreinforced masonry (URM) buildings, of which the City of Seattle is estimated to have around a thousand, concentrated in Capitol Hill, Pioneer Square, and the International District.
Other recent work indicates that the Seattle Fault can generate two types of earthquakes; both pose "considerable hazard" to the Seattle metropolitan region. The A.D. 900–930 earthquake is believed to be the only instance in the past 7,000 years of the type that causes a regional uplift. The other type is more localized and shallower (and therefore more damaging); at least four such events are believed to have occurred in the past 3,000 years on the west end of the fault. (The history of the central and eastern segments is not known.)
Calculations based on fault length and paleoseismological studies show that the Seattle Fault can generate a very damaging magnitude 7.0 earthquake. In addition to extensive damage to unreinforced structures and structures built on fill (such as much of Seattle's Pioneer Square area, the industrial area, and the waterfront), computer modeling has shown that such earthquakes could cause a tsunami of about high on Elliott Bay. The modeling shows that such a tsunami would also inundate the industrial areas on Commencement Bay 30 miles south (Tacoma) and low-lying areas on the Puyallup River delta. There is also concern that a severe or prolonged event could cause failure of the Duwamish or Puyallup River deltas, where the main port facilities for Seattle and Tacoma are located (Harbor Island and Commencement Bay).


Moukahla

The Moukahla or "moukalla," also known as the Kabyle musket was a type of musket widely used in North Africa, produced by many tribes, clans and nations.
Mechanism.
Lock.
Two systems of gunlock prevailed in the Moukahla, one, which derived from Dutch and English types of snaphance lock, usually with a thicker lockplate. Half cock was provided by a dog catch behind the cock. At full cock, the sear passing through the lockplate engaged the heel of the cock. The other mechanism was the so-called Arab toe-lock, a form of miquelet lock, closely allied to the "agujeta" lock (which required a back or dog catch for half cock) and the Italian "romanlock". The term miquelet is used today to describe a particular type of snaplock. The miquelet lock, in all varieties, was common for several centuries in the countries surrounding the Mediterranean, particularly in Spain, Italy, the Balkans, and Ottoman domains including the coastal states of North Africa. The type of musket would be described as a Kabyle snaphance or a Kabyle miquelet.
Other parts.
The caliber of musket ball fired was large, usually in the .67 range. These guns were very long, around 6 feet. The plain barrel alone is 44 to 52 inches in length. The barrel was retained in the stock by about twelve iron, brass, or silver bands (capucines). When silver was used, it was often done in the niello form. These muskets may have all metal work engraved and locks may be covered in sheet silver. The stock and trumpet-shaped butt is typically enhanced by engraved silver shapes inlaid with coral or ivory. Even the exposed parts of the wooden ramrod is encased with silver.
Issues.
Issues in the weapon were noted. Although when it was first made, its range was impressive thanks to its long barrel, by the 19th century its range became completely average, and by the 20th century it was completely outdated and short-ranged. It caused a lot of smoke when fired which only cleared after a long time. The majority of these guns did not have bayonets, although organized units such as the Odjak of Algiers, the Odjak of Tunis, and to a certain extent the Black Guard of Morocco did have bayonets equipped.
Origin and usage.
These muskets were produced across the Maghreb region, in modern Morocco, Algeria, and Tunisia, where they were the most widespread type of guns. They were so widespread in fact, that every musket was called a moukahla, and european handbooks called translated the english word "gun" as moukahla. They were locally produced.
Significance.
The Moukahla played a major role in Maghrebi wars up until the early 20th century. It was the most used, and produced musket in the armies of the Kingdom of Morocco, and the Deylik of Algiers.


Bridge River eruption


Arizona Commemorative Air Force Museum

The Arizona Commemorative Air Force Museum, a.k.a. Airbase Arizona Aircraft Museum, was established in 1978, in Falcon Field in Mesa, Arizona. It is the 10th unit of the Commemorative Air Force and the home of one of the largest Commemorative Air Force units in the world. On exhibit are World War II artifacts, helicopters and classic American and foreign combat planes, many of which are the last remaining warbirds of their kinds.
Brief history.
The Arizona Commemorative Air Force Museum can trace its history to September 6, 1961, when the Commemorative Air Force was founded. The non-profit organization was chartered as a nonprofit Texas corporation in Dallas. Its mission was, and still is, to restore and preserve World War II-era combat aircraft. The idea of establishing the organization came about when in 1957, Lloyd Nolen and a small group of ex-service pilots from the Rio Grande Valley in Texas invested their money towards the purchase of a P-51 Mustang.
Aircraft enthusiasts in Arizona became interested in establishing a branch of the Commemorative Air Force in their home state. After months of searching, Falcon Field was chosen as the new site for the Arizona Commemorative Air Force Museum. Falcon Field was established before World War II when Hollywood producer Leland Hayward and pilot John H. "Jack" Connelly founded Southwest Airways with the funding from Henry Fonda, Fred Astaire, Ginger Rogers, James Stewart and Hoagy Carmichael. In 1977, a small group broke ground at Falcon Field and in 1978, the museum was officially opened to the public. The Arizona Wing became the 10th unit of the Commemorative Air Force.
The museum is situated inside an old World War II hangar built in 1941. In front of the museum's entrance is one of four propellers which were once installed on a B-29 Super Fortress. Also on display on the front lawn of the building is a 3-inch Mark 33 deck gun. The deck gun was originally mounted on the USS "Guam" for aircraft defense. It had the ability to fire 50 rounds a minute. There is a "Walk of Honor" located in front of the museum. The Walk of Honor is a tribute which recognizes the contributions made by Arizonans to the field of military aviation. Inductees are honored for their achievement with the installation of a special bronze plaque at the Museum.
The majority of the aircraft and exhibits are located inside the hangar while some in flying condition, are located outside on the airfield. The hangar also houses the museum's gift shop. Some of the aircraft date back to 1917, however, most of the aircraft are from World War II. On display in the museum are some modern post-World War II jet fighters. Also on display are military helicopters. Next door to the museum hangar is the Mechanics Hangar where some of the aircraft are repaired and restored. The museum is the home of one of the largest Commemorative Air Force units in the world. Also, on display are various artifacts related to the history of the warbirds, such as jackets worn by the pilots in World War II.


Riot shotgun

A riot shotgun is a shotgun designed or modified for use as a primarily defensive weapon, by the use of a short barrel and sometimes a larger magazine capacity than shotguns marketed for hunting. The riot shotgun is used by military personnel for guard duty and was at one time used for riot control, and is commonly used as a door breaching and patrol weapon by law enforcement personnel, as well as a home defense weapon by civilians. Guns of this type are often labeled as breaching shotguns, tactical shotguns or special-purpose shotguns to denote the larger scope of their use; however, these are largely marketing terms.
Characteristics.
The primary characteristic of a riot shotgun is a "short" barrel (generally 14 to 20" long; 18" is the shortest length available to civilians in the U.S. that is not subject to additional federal ATF regulation) which makes the shotgun more compact and easier to handle, easier to stow inside a police vehicle, and more suitable for quick aiming at (close) stationary targets. Generally they have an open (cylinder-bore) choke, to permit the shot to spread quickly and to allow use with other types of projectiles, and they may be equipped with bead, rifle, or ghost-ring sights. Riot guns are most often pump-action due to this design's lower cost and higher reliability, although in recent years a number of semi-automatic shotguns designed primarily for defensive use have become available and are used by military, law enforcement and civilians alike.
Most riot guns are chambered in 12-gauge and can handle either 2.75" (70 mm) "standard-length" or 3" (76 mm) "magnum-length" cartridges. Most non-shotshell loads, such as less lethal ammunition like bean bags, are made only in 12-gauge. However, 20-gauge and .410 shotguns in riot gun configuration are available. Smaller bores are popular for home defense, as the reduced power and recoil make them more suitable for less experienced shooters who may be more recoil-sensitive.
While most hunting shotguns hold between 2 and 5 shells (often 3 shells, to comply with U.S. regulations for migratory bird hunting), riot shotguns can have a magazine tube as long as the barrel, allowing for 6 to 10 shells to be loaded depending on the model, barrel length, and type of shells loaded. Standard capacity magazine tubes are also used on riot shotguns. For example, the popular Remington 870 Police model riot shotgun often ships and is used with the stock 4 round magazine tube by Law Enforcement personnel.
Configurations of grips and stocks for riot shotguns vary widely, but often feature reinforced plastic "furniture" instead of the wood common on hunting firearms. Wood was used for riot gun stocks in the past, and sometimes still is. As compared to hunting shotguns, riot guns more often feature pistol grips, with or without a shoulder stock. Without a shoulder stock (or with a folding stock), a riot shotgun becomes more compact and thus is able to be brought to bear more rapidly in very close quarters. With the stock, the pistol grip facilitates control of the weapon and provides a more ergonomic grip when the shotgun is fired from the shoulder. Foregrips, or forends, also vary, often with the inclusion of a pistol-grip fore-end (further increasing control and absorbing recoil), and/or the addition of an accessory rail or other mounting point for a tactical light.
The multiple projectile ability of a shotgun greatly increases the probability of a hit on an assailant, and the multiple projectiles increase the likelihood of a disabling hit. Though many sizes and configurations of shotshell are used by police, among the most common is the 12-gauge 2-inch (70 mm) 00 ("double-aught") buckshot shell, which consists of 8 or 9 .33 caliber (8.5 mm) round lead balls, each of which is similar in size and velocity to a 9mm/.38 caliber handgun bullet (which actually have a diameter of .354-.357"). This shot spreads out to a greater or lesser degree depending on the barrel choke, and can be effective at ranges as far as 75 yards (70 m). Also popular is the #4 buckshot load, which sacrifices individual pellet size (each pellet is about .24 caliber) for greater numbers (usually 21 pellets per shell) and is very effective at most indoor ranges (<50 feet), where the shot has less distance in which to scatter and thus hits the target in a relatively localized pattern. "Deer slugs" (1 oz rifled slugs) provide a powerful, accurate shot with minimal spread, but more risk of overpenetration. "Hybrid" loads combining different sizes of shot, or a slug and shot, are available but less common. These cartridges generally advertise a compromise or "best of both worlds" between the power of slugs or buckshot and the spread of smaller pellets.
The delivery of the large number of projectiles simultaneously makes the shotgun the most effective short range weapon commonly used, with a hit probability 45% greater than a submachine gun, and twice as great as an assault rifle. The ability to use shotgun slugs extends the range and penetration capability of the shotgun. Police officers in the US commonly secure a shotgun in their vehicles, for use when armed resistance is expected or at any time greater firepower than the officer's sidearm is needed.
Riot vs. combat shotguns.
The difference between the riot shotgun and the combat shotgun is blurry, and may be more a matter of application than design. A combat shotgun would be used in military combat situations as a primarily offensive weapon, where a riot shotgun would be used in law enforcement or civilian situations as a primarily defensive weapon. Common additions to a combat shotgun would be provision for attaching a bayonet, and the addition of a ventilated heat shield over the barrel (though this heat shield is a common addition to riot shotguns as well) designed to prevent the operator's fingers from being burned by a barrel heated by multiple shots, and thus to allow the operator to secure a full grip on the weapon while using the attached bayonet, even when the barrel is far too hot to touch (otherwise, there is little reason to enshroud the barrel and hinder the cooling airflow). One or both of these features can be seen on many military long-arms, including the 1903 Springfield, the SMLE, M1 Garand, and Mauser rifles, to name some of the more obvious types. The U.S. Army specifications for shotguns require a metal trigger guard for durability, which reduces the number of "special purpose" models used by police that would also be suitable for the military (the Mossberg 590A1 and Benelli M1014 are the standard-issue pump and semi-auto shotguns currently in service; the standard Mossberg 500 and 590 models, and most variants of the Remington 870, have plastic trigger groups).
Riot shotguns are also more limited in range than combat shotguns by the nature of their use. A combat shotgun is considered effective out to 75 yards (70 m) because on average at least 1 pellet of a 9 pellet 00 buckshot load will hit a human sized target at that range. This is enough to degrade the combat effectiveness of an enemy soldier, but it is not enough to reliably disable an assailant in a defensive situation. For that, there must be multiple hits to the target, enough that one or more pellets will hit a vital region. Generally this is well under 27 yards (25 meters) with a cylinder bore barrel. Beyond this range, slugs and good iron sights are recommended, extending the range to over 109 yards (100 meters).
Less lethal alternatives.
The latter part of the 20th century saw a new role for the riot shotgun, with the advent of a wide variety of less lethal ammunition for police use. These vary from the early "bean bag" shooting flexible baton rounds, rubber bullets and other impact munitions, to tear gas and, released in October 2009, a 12 gauge electroshock weapon from TASER International. Using the shotgun as the delivery system allows the officers to quickly choose a lethal or a less lethal weapon, so responding officers can adapt to changing situations. An officer in a standoff can quickly eject a chambered buckshot cartridge and replace it with a less-lethal cartridge such as a bean bag, and is not required to unload the magazine as with most rifles or handguns. Alternatively, one officer can be equipped with less lethal munitions, while others, equipped with buckshot, can provide a backup in case the less lethal rounds fail to stop the target.
Entry and breaching shotguns.
The entry shotgun or breaching shotgun is a role that can be filled by a standard riot shotgun, or one further modified for these purposes. They may have an extremely short barrel (14" or less) and often only a pistol grip rather than a buttstock, or a folding or collapsing buttstock if it is provided with one. In addition, the barrel often has a muzzle brake, used to disperse hot gases rearward, in order to reduce recoil. This type of shotgun is often used to fire special breaching rounds which are designed to disable or destroy door latches while limiting overpenetration of the projectiles used beyond the door. Since these shotguns would in some areas be classified as short barreled shotguns, they are often highly restricted under gun control laws and generally only used by police and military, except in some regions such as the USA.
Usage.
In 2006, during anti-corruption protests in Budapest (Hungary) some people were hit on the head by shotgun-fired bean bag rounds. At least 3 of them have been blinded. One man committed suicide in 2013 because he could not live with the blindness. In addition, many people suffered minor injuries (nose and finger fractures, hemorrhagic bruises), and a few needed permanent psychological help because of the shock.
Pellet shotguns have been used in Bahrain, Egypt and Tunisia for breaking up protests. Since 2010, in the Indian state of Jammu Kashmir, police forces have used pellet shotguns (known locally as pellet guns or pump action guns) as a 'non-lethal' defensive crowd control measure against violent, stone pelting mobs in the region. The usage of pellet shotguns in Jammu and Kashmir has been widely criticised.
In the United States of America, the use of shotguns by police officers is in decline. Many agencies have adopted patrol rifles for increased precision and better range when compared to shotguns. However, many agencies retain the shotguns for use by newer officers and for less-lethal munitions.


Ampulomet

The Ampulomet (, also rendered "Ampulomyot", "ampulla mortar", etc., lit. "ampule/vial thrower" cf. миномёт) was an expedient anti-tank weapon which launched a 125 mm incendiary projectile made of spherical glass. This weapon was introduced in 1941 and used (to a limited degree) by the Red Army in World War II, but by 1942 was largely obsolete.
Design.
 The weapon consisted of an unrifled tube with a crude breach mounted on a Y shaped pedestal which pivoted on trunnions to provide elevation. Two breech mounted inverted horns were provided for traverse/elevation and a simple inclinometer for targeting and range calculation. A black powder charge was inserted into the breech and fired by a percussion cap to propel the AZh-2 glass ampule. The ampules were filled with an incendiary mixture known as KS. KS was a mixture of 80% phosphorus and 20% sulfur which ignited when exposed to air. The burning mixture created a bright flame, thick white smoke and would burn for up to three minutes at temperatures between . The burning liquid would seep through vision slots or engine grilles on a tank and ignite ammunition or fuel as well as choke and blind the crew.
See also.
Northover Projector — A similar British weapon used by the Home Guard during World War II


MR-C

The Modular Rifle - Caseless (MR-C), is a mock-up of an assault rifle that was intended to be manufactured and sold to the United States military as a next-generation infantry weapon firing next-generation ammunition. It has not been developed—even in prototype form—and the weapon was never lined-up for the OICW competition or in follow-up rifle competitions held by the US military. On the Crye Associates website, the product is specifically labeled as a "modular caseless carbine mock-up". Most information circulating on the rifle is derived from the video game ", and should not be taken as fact.
Designed by Crye Associates, the concept is shown to utilize a bullpup design with an all-sides rail interface system. By most accounts the real world version would be chambered for 6.8mm caliber in 45- or 50-round magazines, unlike its video game counterpart that is chambered in 5mm, 4.6×30mm, and 5.56×25mm according to " and "Tom Clancy's Ghost Recon Advanced Warfighter 2". The rifle is projected to have a cyclic rate of 800 rounds per minute. It is also shown to have a special 40 mm grenade launcher attachment known as the AGL. The AGL in the game, however, is a modified version of the real world Enhanced Grenade Launcher Module designed for the FN SCAR rifles. In most of the pictures, the gun is seen painted in Crye Precision's Multicam pattern.


Luther Perkins

Luther Monroe Perkins (January 8, 1928 – August 5, 1968) was an American country music guitarist and a member of the Tennessee Three, the backup band for singer Johnny Cash. Perkins was an iconic figure in what would become known as rockabilly music. His creatively simple, sparsely embellished, rhythmic use of Fender Esquire, Jazzmaster and Jaguar guitars is credited for creating Cash's signature "boom-chicka-boom" style.
Early life and musical beginnings.
Perkins was born in Como, Mississippi, the son of a Baptist preacher. He grew up in Como, and taught himself to play rhythm guitar.
Perkins started his career in 1953 as a mechanic at Automobile Sales Company in Memphis. He specialized in electrical systems and radio repairs. Roy Cash, Sr., older brother of Johnny Cash, was service manager at the dealership. At the time, the younger Cash was stationed in Germany with the US Air Force. At Automobile Sales, Perkins met co-workers Marshall Grant and A.W. 'Red' Kernodle. Grant, Kernodle and Perkins began bringing their guitars to work, and would play together when repair business was slow.
When Johnny Cash moved to Memphis after returning from Germany in 1954, Roy Cash introduced him to Grant, Kernodle and Perkins. The four began to get together in the evenings at Perkins' or Grant's home and play songs. It was during this time that they decided to form a band, with Grant acquiring a string bass, Kernodle a six-string steel guitar, and Perkins buying a somewhat-abused Fender Esquire electric guitar from the O.K. Houck Piano Co. in Memphis. The guitar had been modified by a previous owner, and the volume and tone controls did not work.
"Boom-chicka-boom" style.
Since he could not control the volume of the single-pickup instrument, Perkins began the practice of muting the three bass strings (E, A and D) with the heel of his right hand, much in the style of Merle Travis, and scratching a rhythm pattern (as heard on Sun Records recordings prior to 1958). This pattern developed into a more defined, varying 1/8-8/5/8-8 picking (with random syncopation) on later Sun recordings and for the rest of Perkins’ career.
In late 1954, when Cash got an audition with producer Sam Phillips at Sun Records, he brought Perkins, Grant and Kernodle along to back him instrumentally. The experience made Kernodle nervous, and he ended up leaving before the session was over, with Perkins and Grant providing the instrumentation.
Perkins, as a member of the Tennessee Two (later, the Tennessee Three, with the addition of drummer W.S. "Fluke" Holland), toured with Cash and appeared on most of his recordings. He was well known for his laconic, focused demeanor on stage. He was often the target of jokes by Cash, who would make comments such as "Luther's been dead for years, but he just doesn't know it".
Perkins was Cash's lead guitarist on many of the popular Town Hall Party television appearances in the 1950s, often interacting with one another for stage effect and providing the signature "boom-chick-a-boom" background sound that came to define a large part of Johnny Cash's sound. In his 1997 memoir "Cash", the singer recalled, "Keith Richards came to one of our British shows, at a U.S. military base in the early '60s, but he wasn't interested in me; Luther was the one he couldn't wait to watch."
Personal life.
Perkins was married twice. He and his first wife, Bertie, separated while they were living in Southern California in 1959. Perkins had three daughters: Linda, Vickie, and Claudia. He later married Margie Higgins; Margie Higgins' niece Kathy lived with them. Margie Perkins Beaver still appears at Johnny Cash reunion events.
His hobbies were knitting, fishing and guitar.
He was a close friend of singer-songwriter Kris Kristofferson. At the time of his death, he was planning to open his own music publishing company and give Kristofferson his first break.
Perkins’ younger brother, Thomas, was a successful rock ‘n’ roll singer in the 1950s and 1960s, under the name of Thomas Wayne.
In his autobiography, Johnny Cash wrote that Perkins was mildly addicted to amphetamines. They started taking drugs together in the late 1950s.
Perkins' nickname was "L.M", the initials of his first and second name "Luther Monroe". Singer-guitarist Carl Perkins, who was also a member of Cash's touring show, was not related to Luther Perkins.
Death.
During the early morning hours of August 3, 1968, Perkins returned from fishing on Old Hickory Lake to his newly constructed home on Riverwood Drive, Hendersonville, Tennessee. He apparently went to sleep in the living room while holding a lit cigarette. His niece by marriage awoke around 6:00 am to find the living room aflame and Perkins collapsed near the door, almost dead. An emergency crew rushed Perkins to Vanderbilt University Hospital, where he was kept under intensive care until he died two days later.
He is buried near the graves of Johnny Cash and June Carter Cash at Hendersonville Memorial Park in Hendersonville, Tennessee.
Luther Perkins was inducted into the Rockabilly Hall of Fame, as inductee #0230.
In 1980, Perkins's daughters from his first marriage filed suit against Johnny Cash for embezzling funds that were to have provided retirement income for Perkins. This lawsuit was filed coincidentally with actions taken by the other founding Tennessee Three member, Marshall Grant, against Cash for wrongfully firing Grant and embezzlement of Grant's retirement funds. Both lawsuits were eventually settled out-of-court.
"Walk the Line".
In "Walk The Line", the 2005 biopic of Johnny Cash, Perkins is portrayed by Dan John Miller. Perkins's future death is alluded to in the film in a bus scene where Cash (played by Joaquin Phoenix) walks past Perkins. Perkins is depicted as asleep with a lit cigarette in his mouth. Cash removes the cigarette and stubs it out in the ashtray in front of Perkins.


Reinhard Vincent Graf von Hompesch

Reinhard Vincent Graf von Hompesch (1660 – 20 January 1733) was a general of German origin in the service of the United Provinces, and governor firstly of Luxembourg, then Namur and lastly of ’s-Hertogenbosch. His parents were Johann Dietrich II von Hompesch zu Bollheim and Rurich and Anna Louisa von Ketzgen.
Life.
Hompesch was a member of the Protestant Hompesch zu Bollheim und Rurich family, an aristocratic family from the duchies of Juliers and Berg in Westphalia, in the lower-Rhine border region between Germany and the Netherlands. He had many siblings, two of whom also chose a military career.
By 1691 von Hompesch was a major in the Dutch Horse Guards, becoming Colonel of that regiment in 1711. On 6 July 1698, he was appointed to the English court position of Master of the Privy Buckhounds under William III of England. In 1701 he was appointed major general. During the war of the Spanish Succession War he fought at the Battle of Ekeren (1703), and in the following year in the rank of Lieutenant General at the Battle of Blenheim, where he commanded the second line of cavalry. Thereafter Marlborough appointed him and Major General Jacques-Louis, comte de Noyelles en Falais (who had commanded a cavalry brigade at Blenheim) to command of the Trier area. Von Hompesch fortified Trier and occupied Saarbrücken.
In 1704 he became commander of the Grave region. In 1705 and 1706 he commanded the Meuse region. For his services in 1706 he was elevated by Emperor Joseph I to the rank of count. In 1708 he fought at Oudenarde and in 1709 at Malplaquet.
In July 1710 he became governor of Douai after the Allied victory in the siege of the city, which had lasted from April to June. When he covered the repulse of the allies from the neighbouring town of Arleux on 28 July 1711, his forces were thrown back to Douai, but in counterattack opened the way to France for the Allies by occupying an important bridge.
Hompesch was still in command of Douai two years later when the French retook it after a relatively brief siege. Hompesch had insufficient forces to be able to mount a lengthy resistance, while the population, who did not appreciate martial law under a Protestant occupying force, hoped for a rapid end to hostilities. Villars having refused to grant the defeated Governor the honours of war, Hompesch and the entire garrison were taken prisoner on 29 July 1712 and the French captured a large quantity of cannons and ammunition.
In 1713 Hompesch was appointed Governor of Luxembourg, then in 1714 of Namur, and finally of ’s-Hertogenbosch from 1718 until his death in 1733. In 1721 he bought the estate and castle of Stevensweert, where he died in 1733. On 12 April 1723 he was promoted General of Cavalry.
In 1721 he was an extraordinary envoy to the general states in Berlin, where he was awarded the Order of the Black Eagle. Later, in 1725 he undertook a second diplomatic mission, this time for the Dutch government, when he negotiated with Simon Henry Adolph, Count of Lippe-Detmold for the purchase by Holland of the Dutch lordships of Vianen and Ameide - a trade which the heavily indebted duke could not refuse.
Family.
Hompesch had two brothers who chose a military career like him, Adrien Gustave, killed at the siege of Douai in 1710 and Adam Adrien Louis (1678-1733), who also rose to the rank of general, first in the service of Holland and then of Prussia. In addition, one of his descendants, Ferdinand von Hompesch zu Bolheim (1744-1805), was the last Grand Master of the Order of Hospitallers of St. John of Jerusalem.