Gun-howitzer

Gun-howitzer (also referred to as gun howitzer) is a type of artillery weapon that is intended to fulfill both the role of ordinary cannon or field gun, and that of a howitzer. It is thus able to convey both direct and indirect fire.
To be able to serve as a howitzer, gun-howitzers are typically built to achieve at least 60° to 70° of elevation. For effective direct fire, the gun-howitzers typically employ a fairly long barrel, usually not shorter than 30 calibres. Its ammunition also has a high muzzle velocity and often large calibre (usually of 120 mm calibre and larger).
History.
Historically the first gun-howitzer was the French "canon obusier" of 19th century. The smooth-bore Canon obusier de 12 was a versatile weapon that quickly replaced both ordinary cannons and howitzers in French service, and became one of the basic types of artillery used by both sides of the American Civil War. Owing to their versality, gun-howitzers gained prominence in the period leading to World War II as a more flexible weapon than ordinary howitzers and were adopted by armies of both the Allies (for instance the Soviet ML-20 152 mm M1937 and British (88 mm) Ordnance QF 25-pounder) and the Axis (German 10.5 cm leFH 18).
Modern example of gun-howitzer is Gun-howitzer M84 NORA.
The howitzer was widely used in the American Civil War, the Franco-Prussian War (of 1870), the First World War, and the Second World War, being used as cannons to support discretion. Over the years the Howitzer was modified and in most of its models only the shape of the gun changed, being the case that it would be used as a field support for the infantry, for sieges or for massive bombardment of strategic points.


Ray Pennington

Ramon Daniel Pennington (December 22, 1933October 7, 2020) was an American country music singer, songwriter, and record producer. He is known for writing the song "I'm a Ramblin' Man", and for founding the independent Step One Records label.
Career.
Pennington first performed in a western swing band called the Western Rhythm Boys, which performed in Ohio. In 1958, he signed with King Records and released "Three Hearts in a Tangle" under the name Ray Starr. However, Pennington was dissatisfied with the recording, so he asked that it be withdrawn as a single. Pennington then took up record producer and artists and repertoire jobs at the label, including a production credit on Hawkshaw Hawkins' final album, "Lonesome 7-7203", one of the first country albums to feature both black and white session musicians. He also produced for The Stanley Brothers and Reno and Smiley, also playing drums for the latter.
Roy Drusky covered "Three Hearts in a Tangle", taking his rendition to number 2 on the country charts in 1961. Pennington continued to perform in both the Western Rhythm Boys and another band called the Starliners. He also worked at a record store and released a rhythm and blues single called "I Have to Laugh to Keep from Crying", also under the name Ray Starr.
Pennington moved to Nashville, Tennessee, in 1964, where he worked at Pamper Music, producing for Tex Williams and Kenny Price, who recorded two of Pennington's songs: "Walking on New Grass" and "Happy Tracks". Pennington signed to Capitol Records in 1966 as a recording artist, charting three songs (including the number 29 "I'm a Ramblin' Man") before leaving. He moved to Monument Records in 1969, where he charted five more times, but soon left that label to work at RCA Records. While at RCA, Waylon Jennings covered "I'm a Ramblin' Man" and took it to number 1, as Pennington continued to work as a producer for RCA artists such as Billy Walker and Norma Jean. Pennington charted his last solo single, "She Wanted a Little Bit More", on MRC Records in 1978. He later founded the duo Bluestone with Jerry McBee, and charted "Haven't I Loved You Somewhere Before".
In 1984, Pennington co-founded Step One Records with Mel Holt. Ray Price was the first act signed to the label, and fiddler Clinton Gregory charted three Top 30 hits while on Step One. Western Flyer, Celinda Pink and The Geezinslaws were also among the label's roster.
While on Step One, Pennington recorded multiple albums with the Swing Shift Band, co-founded with steel guitarist Buddy Emmons. This band charted with "Turn Me Loose and Let Me Swing" in 1988. Step One closed in 1998.
Death.
Pennington died on October 7, 2020, at his home in Hendersonville, Tennessee. He was 86, and died after entering a garage that had caught fire. His wife, Mama Charlotte, was able to escape unharmed.


STV Rifles

The STV, short for Súng trường Tấn công, Việt Nam" (translated: Assault Rifles, Vietnam)" is a family of assault rifles made in Vietnam. They are all produced at the Z111 Factory. Currently, all of the rifles are chambered in 7.62x39mm.
As of 2021, the STV-215 and the STV-380 are the standard issued rifles for the People's Army of Vietnam.
History.
In 2014, the People's Army of Vietnam adopted the IWI Galil ACE 31/32 as the standard issue rifle. This includes a license to manufacture them locally at the Z111 Factory. The factory immediately began modifying the IWI Galil ACE to better suit the local terrain and climate, and also including more Kalashnikov parts. This was done to improve familiarity and smoothen the transition from older AK-47 and AKM assault rifles, which were used by Vietnamese soldiers.
The modification process was a fusion of the STL-1A and the Galil ACE, this resulted in a prototype rifle named the GK1 and the GK3. Although since then, not much information has been released about the prototypes. It is very likely the current STV rifles were a result of further development and modifications of the GK1 and GK3 prototypes.
In 2019, the Z111 Factory revealed two new rifles. Designated the STV-215 and the STV-380, the number at the end would indicate the length of the barrels. These two new rifles would be replacing the IWI Galil ACE 31/32 as the standard issued rifle for the People's Army of Vietnam.
In 2020, two new variants of the STV rifles were revealed. These rifles were designated as the STV-410 and the STV-416. Compared to the previous two variants, the new ones would adopt more AK parts into the guns. Currently, the STV-215 and STV-380 remain as the standard issued rifles.
Design.
Overall, all of the variants are generally similar and are mainly built off of the IWI Galil ACE's milled receiver. They are all chambered in 7.62x39mm and can use any standard AK-47/AKM magazines.
The rifles all have the charging handle located on the right side, which is the same for all IWI Galil ACEs manufactured in Vietnam. However, the selective-fire mechanism uses a traditional AK-based mechanism. The handguards and pistol grips are made of polymer and all of the rifles have a folding stock. A bird-cage muzzle brake is included on all rifles.
As the handguards and receiver include a picatinny rail on top, attachments can be mounted on such as Telescopic sights, Red Dot sights, or Holographic sights. The rear sight is located at the rear of the gun. The only exception being the STV-416, which does not include any picatinny rails.
The STV-215 and STV-380 have an additional picatinny rail located on the bottom of the handguard, commonly used for a foregrip/bipod, laser, or flashlight attachment. The pistol grip for these two are built-in to the body of the rifle. The folding stock is similar to the FN FAL PARA and includes a rubber recoil pad. These two variants also share the front-sight and gas block similar to the ones found on the IWI Galil ACEs.
The STV-410 and STV-416 both lack a picatinny rail on the bottom of the handguard. Instead, they include a mount for an underbarrel grenade launcher. They also have a slightly different mag well and trigger rim that resembles the style of the AK. The pistol grip for these two variants are also independent of the body and are also based on the AK. These two variants use a folding Polymer AK stock instead of the FN FAL styled stocks used by the STV-215 and STV-380. The front-sight and gas block on these two variants are different from each other.
Variants.
STV-215.
The STV-215 is the carbine version of the STV-380. It is used alongside the STV-380 as one of the standard issued rifles for the People's Army of Vietnam. It is similar to the STV-380 in all aspects, except the barrel length being 215mm.
STV-380.
The STV-380 is one of the standard issued assault rifles for the People's Army of Vietnam. It's barrel length is 380mm. It has a foldable stock similar to the FN FAL PARA.
STV-410.
The STV-410 is an assault rifle with a barrel length is 410mm. The build of the rifle overall resembles an AK-15. The handguard's picatinny rail is slightly extended to cover the entirety of the handguard. The front sight and gas block are also similar to the ones found on the AK-12/15.
STV-416.
The STV-416 is an assault rifle, which resembles an AK-103. The rifle is the only variant that does not include any picatinny rails. Instead, it includes a side-mount for sights and a mount on the handguard for a grenade launcher. The rear-sight is moved up to the rear of the handguard. The front-sight and gas block are similar to the ones found AK-103.


Cathedral Candle Company

Cathedral Candle Company is a family-owned and operated candle manufacturer in Syracuse, New York. Founded by Jacob Steigerwald in 1897, the company is now in its fourth generation of Steigerwald family management and is one of the leading suppliers of church candles in the U.S.
History.
German candle maker Jacob Steigerwald came to the United States in 1880 when he was recruited by the Baumer Candle Company to work as a supervisor for their Syracuse factory. After sixteen years, Baumer merged with another Syracuse candlemaker to expand their business into the residential market, so Steigerwald decided to found his own company focused exclusively on church candles. Cathedral Candle Company opened at 510 Kirkpatrick Street in 1897, where it still maintains its sole manufacturing operation today.
Products.
Cathedral Candle Company makes candles for Christian churches, including the Catholic, Protestant, and Orthodox denominations. Their product line includes paschal candles, votive candles, altar candles, advent candles, sacramental candles, and sanctuary lights.
Usage and recognition.
Cathedral Candles have been used by bishops, cardinals, and popes, including Benedict XVI during his 2008 visit to the United States. In 2006, then United States Senator Hillary Clinton described Cathedral Candle Company as “a great example of a tradition of commitment to local roots, the local economy and the local community.”


.40-72 Winchester

The .40-72 Winchester, also known as .40-72 WCF is a centerfire straight-walled rifle cartridge designed for black powder rather than smokeless powder. It was introduced in 1895 for the Winchester 1895 lever-action rifle.
Description and performance.
The original Winchester factory load consisted of a bullet at or a bullet at .
With the introduction of superior cartridges designed for smokeless powder, the .40-72 Winchester became obsolete and was soon dropped from production. Production of loaded cartridges by Winchester ceased in 1936.
Besides the Winchester 1895 lever-action, the .40-72 Winchester was chambered in the Winchester 1885 single-shot rifle.


Gaha

Bashorun"Gaha (or Gaa) was a notable nobleman and leader of the military in the old Oyo Empire during the 16th century.
He held the post during the reigns of 4 consecutive imperial Alaafins, and was instrumental to the military conquests during their time. Renowned for his juju prowess, he deposed or was responsible for the death of 3 of these Alaafins before being subdued by Alaafin Abiodun (who ruled c. 1770–1789) via trickery and betrayal by his generals.
He was said to have been burnt to death so that he would not return to life. Upon his death, his children fled Oyo for places like Egbado (now Yewa), Badagry, Coutonou and Dahomey, mainly locations where their late father had contacts.


Acoustic hailing device

An acoustic hailing device (AHD) is a specialized loudspeaker that emits high-power sound waves for communicating at a distance. AHDs vary in design, output, and usability.
Overview.
Acoustic hailing devices are acoustic devices capable of outputting highly intelligible sound at very high volumes. The distance at which acoustic hailing can be effective varies based on several factors including the sound level, directionality, and frequency of the acoustic source, the sensitivity and directionality of the receiver, and the transmission channel environment. The sound level diminishes or attenuates with distance. Consequently, as a general rule, higher source levels have greater range.
Acoustic hailing devices can come in two forms;
History.
Origin.
The term "acoustic hailing device" came into common use following the suicide attack on the while it was at port in Yemen in 2000. Following this attack, the United States Navy established a requirement for an acoustic hailing device. The intent of this AHD was to provide the Navy with a means to establish the intent of an approaching vessel at a distance such that defensive measures could be taken should the vessel not heed a warning. One unique aspect of this requirement was that the sound needed to be focused so that it could be clearly directed at the approaching vessel.
Present.
Since their inception with the introduction of the Long Range Acoustic Device (LRAD) in 2002, acoustic hailing devices have grown into a variety of applications. AHD uses include checkpoints, crowd control, maritime shipping, mass notification, early warning systems, critical infrastructure protection, military applications and wildlife protection and control. Acoustic hailing devices are now fielded all over the world by various commercial, law enforcement, and military groups.
Characteristics and measurements.
Acoustic hailing devices differentiate from conventional speaker systems in three key ways. Those include volume, clarity, and directionality. Various AHD manufacturers use different methods to measure their products, but a common standard has emerged for each.
Volume.
Since sound attenuates at a set rate, extremely high outputs are required to cover the vast distances needed. Acoustic hailing devices have an output of 135 decibels (dB) or greater.
The acoustic level of the source is commonly expressed in terms of Sound Pressure Level or SPL. SPL is a logarithmic measure of the rms sound pressure of a sound relative to a reference value. It is measured in decibels (dB) above a standard reference level. For reference, at a distance of 1 meter, a normal talking voice is approximately 50 dB and a jet engine at 30 meters is 150 dB.
Clarity.
A principal weakness of common speaker systems and bullhorns are their clarity. Their horns and cones create sound that is distorted or out of phase. This results in the common “Charlie Brown” effect, where the message is muffled and misunderstood. AHDs create sound that is in phase. Because of this, sound emitted from acoustic hailing devices is intelligible at distance.
Clarity is difficult to measure, since it is a subjective reference. However, different scales have been created to compare devices. A common measurement is the Speech Transmission Index (STI). STI ratings range from 0–1.0, with 1.0 being perfect clarity.
Focus.
AHDs are lastly characterized by directionality. To ensure messages are broadcast to the target, AHDs shape sound into a 30–60° audio beam. This shaping is accomplished through the design of the transducers as well as various reflective horns.
The focus of an AHD is typically measured at the frequency of peak directionality. This is typically in the 1–2 kHz range. Not all frequencies of sound are able to be directed equally. Lower frequencies in the bass range are difficult to form. As such, their directionality may be a 40 degree radius or more depending on the design of the AHD.
Use as non-lethal weapons.
Acoustic hailing devices have the potential to be used as non-lethal weapons. The human ear can typically stand a sound pressure level of 120 dB before feeling pain. AHDs are capable of 135 dB or more of acoustic energy. The OSHA states that any sound pressure level over 90 dB requires hearing protection. As volume increases so does the chance of hearing loss. The effective non-lethal range of an AHD depends on the total acoustic output of the unit. Typically, this range is 50 meters or less.


Francis E. Warren Air Force Base

Francis E. Warren Air Force Base is a United States Air Force (AFB) base located approximately west of Cheyenne, Wyoming. It is one of three strategic-missile bases in the U.S. It was named in honor of Francis E. Warren in 1930. Warren AFB is home of the 90th Missile Wing (90 MW), assigned to the Twentieth Air Force, Air Force Global Strike Command. The 90 MW operates the LGM-30G Minuteman III ICBM. It is also the home of Twentieth Air Force, which commands all U.S. Air Force ICBMs.
Warren AFB is the oldest continuously active military installation within the Air Force, established in 1867 by the United States Army as Fort David Allen Russell. The facility came under control of the United States Army Air Forces on 1 June 1947, and then of the United States Air Force (USAF) on 18 September 1947.
The 90th Missile Wing is commanded by Colonel Peter Bonetti. Twentieth Air Force, co-located at Warren AFB, has been under the command of Major General Fred B. Stoss since January 2018. Warren AFB is a census-designated place and had a resident population of 3,072 at the 2010 census.
History.
The history of the base dates back to the Railroad Act of 1862, when President Abraham Lincoln and Congress set plans for the transcontinental railroad. The plans included a military installation on the eastern slope of the Rocky Mountains in the Wyoming Territory, to protect Union Pacific Railroad workers from "hostile Indians". From these pioneer origins, the base evolved from a frontier infantry and cavalry post into the largest, most modern strategic missile facility in the U.S. Warren AFB is named in honor of Wyoming's first United States Senator, Francis Emroy Warren (1844–1929), who was awarded the Medal of Honor at age 19 during the American Civil War.
United States Army.
Fort Russell 1867–1927.
On 4 July 1867, the Union Pacific Railroad established its mountain region headquarters at Crow Creek Crossing, later known as Cheyenne. A few weeks later, the U.S. Cavalry moved from temporary headquarters in Cheyenne to a point west and established Fort D. A. Russell. Thus, 1867 was the beginning of a city and a fort, and both have grown together over the years.
Detachments of the 30th Infantry formed the first garrison, under the command of Colonel John D. Stevenson. For a brief time the troops lived in tents, but during the winter of 1867–68 they moved into wood-frame quarters. The dwellings were set in the shape of a diamond, instead of a rectangle, to protect against harsh winter winds that howled across the then treeless high plains. The diamond opened to the east and measured 800 by . The entrance to the original fort was at a point next to the present day Chapel 1. The first troops stationed here lived the rough frontier life, which meant coping with the rigors of the weather in winter and "coping with Indians" in spring and summer.
In 1876, troops from Fort Russell participated in the Great Sioux Indian Wars, the same in which Lieutenant Colonel George Armstrong Custer's forces were defeated.
In 1884, Fort Russell was made a permanent post, because of its strategic location. In 1885, the War Department ordered the post be rebuilt to serve eight infantry companies. The Army built 27 red brick buildings for $100,000 to replace the older wood frame structures, and planted thousands of trees. Many of the early brick buildings were stables that housed nearly 20,000 horses and mules. From 1885 to 1930, more than 220 brick buildings were erected; most of them remain in use today. The last expansion of the base took place in the early 20th century when large barracks along Randall Avenue were constructed. The base maintains the historic exterior of each building with interior modifications for today's living and working environment.
In 1866, Congress formed four black regiments: the 9th and 10th Cavalry and 24th and 25th Infantry. The 25th Infantry was the only unit that didn't serve at Fort D. A. Russell. Black soldiers were called "Buffalo Soldiers," a title originating from Native Americans who likened the soldiers to the spiritual buffalo.
In 1898, the Spanish–American War renewed importance to the post. Soon after President McKinley sent a message to Congress, the 8th Infantry left Fort D. A. Russell for Cuba. Later that year, the Wyoming National Guard mustered into service at the post and departed for duty in the Philippines. In the Battle of Manila (1898), the Guard was the first battalion to reach the walls of the city and to raise the flag. In 1901, troops from Fort Russell returned to the Philippines to put down an insurrection for independence during the Philippine–American War laying ground for the occupation. They returned with a Queen Mary Tudor cannon forged in 1557 and two of the three Balangiga bells, which had been used by insurrectionists as a signal to launch an ambush on American troops. The bells were returned to the Philippines in 2018. The seven-foot cannon, the only one of its kind in America is on display near the base flagpole.
In 1906, Secretary of War William Howard Taft recommended Fort Russell expand to a brigade-size post. By 1910, the construction of red brick quarters, two-story barracks, offices and stables had tripled the area of the post. During this era, artillery units were assigned there, and the facility increased in size to accommodate troop training with the latest 20th century weapons. From 1913 to 1916, during the Mexican Revolution, post artillery units were stationed along the border to prevent the struggle from coming onto American soil. During World War I, the post served as a mobilization point and training facility for field artillery and cavalry groups. As World War I began, Fort Russell had become one of the largest military posts in the United States.
What stands as quarters No. 2 today was, in 1885, the post commander's home. By tradition, the post commander always occupied the largest house on post. Hence, the commander moved into quarters No. 8 when it was built in 1903. Quarters No. 2 was then assigned to the family of Captain John "Black Jack" Pershing, who later led American forces in Europe during World War I. Pershing married U.S. Senator Francis E. Warren's daughter, but she preferred staying with her father when her husband was on campaign. Pershing would be promoted four ranks from his permanent rank of captain to brigadier general within two years of his marriage, the Senate's approval of his nomination by President Theodore Roosevelt aided by his father-in-law's influence.
Fort Warren, 1930–1945.
In 1927, the last cavalry units left the installation, ending 60 years of cavalry history at Fort Russell. President Hoover issued a proclamation in 1930 which renamed the post "Fort Francis E. Warren," to honor Wyoming's territorial and first state governor. Warren, who received the Medal of Honor for heroism during the Civil War at the age of 19, was a U.S. Senator for 37 years, dying in office in November 1929 at the age of 85. Other well-known figures stationed here include General Billy Mitchell (the "Father of the Air Force"), General Mark Clark (World War II General in Europe), General Benjamin O. Davis, Sr. (first black general), Dr. Walter Reed and singer Sammy Davis, Jr.. Entertainer Chris LeDoux grew up at Warren AFB.
During World War II, Fort Warren was the training center for up to 20,000 of the Quartermaster Corps. More than 280 wooden buildings were constructed without insulation and interior walls to temporarily house the increased number of troops. In the harsh Wyoming winter, waking up in these barracks often meant shaking snow from one's blanket before heading for the just-as-cold communal showers. A prisoner of war camp was also constructed at that time.
United States Air Force.
At the end of World War II, city officials in Spokane, Washington, had tried to acquire joint use of facilities at Geiger Field, Spokane which Air Training Command (ATC) had used as its Aviation Engineer Training Center. The Army Air Forces were opposed to sharing facilities with civilian authorities, so its headquarters directed ATC to transfer the training mission from Geiger Field to Fort Warren in Wyoming, and training stopped on 15 May 1947.
Air Training Command, 1947–1958.
On 1 June 1947 Air Training Command assumed jurisdiction of Fort Warren, the 463d Air Force Base Unit was activated to manage the support facilities, and the 3450th Technical Training Wing was activated for conducting training. Training began on 7 July 1947. In September 1947, Fort Warren, along with other Army Air Force facilities, was transferred into the newly established United States Air Force.
In March 1949, HQ ATC was directed to re-program, as a part of an overall restructuring to a 48-group Air Force. The statement of trained personnel requirements gave priority to radio, radar, armament, and aircraft maintenance training programs. ATC needed to find additional space for these courses. Air Force announced on 17 January (1949?) that all aviation engineering courses at Fort Warren, with the exception of "powerman", would transfer to the Army's Engineer School at Fort Belvoir, Virginia. The "fixed wire courses" at Scott AFB went to Fort Warren, so that Scott had room to expand its radio mechanic school.
On 7 October 1949, Fort Francis E. Warren became Francis E. Warren AFB. As a result of the Korean War, Air Training Command had to process thousands of volunteer reservists; between late July and the end of October 1950, about 20,000 reservists were brought on active duty, most of which was done at Warren AFB.
In 1957, in response to budget reductions, Air Training Command formed a base utilization board to examine all its facilities, looking at existing and future training requirements. That board concluded that two bases could be released —Francis E. Warren and Scott AFB, Illinois. Warren AFB had a number of strikes against it, including poor weather conditions limiting training to seven months of the year, lack of a flying field, and many inadequate buildings. In 1958, Air Training Command received permission from Headquarters USAF to phase out its training programs at Warren AFB.
Effective 1 February 1958, the base transferred from Air Training Command to Strategic Air Command. Training continued until 24 March 1959, and on 1 May ATC discontinued its 3450th Technical Training Group.
Strategic Air Command, 1958–2005.
The 389th Air Base Group was established on 1 February 1958 to take control of the former ATC facilities as part of the transfer to Strategic Air Command (SAC). The provisional 4320th Strategic Missile Wing was established that date with responsibility for 24 Atlas missile sites under SAC. Although not the first designated missile wing, Warren became the first "fully operational" ICBM base in the Air Force.
706th/389th Strategic Missile Wing Atlas D and E missiles, 1958–1965.
The project design for the above-ground SM-65D Atlas ICBM launch and control facilities at "Site A" was to be completed by mid-May 1958 and construction finished in November 1959. Design revisions delayed the project several months. Construction began at a location northwest of Cheyenne in late 1958 for the facilities of the recently activated 706th Strategic Missile Wing, which would control the ICBMs. On 15 September 1959, the first Atlas D missile to deploy away from Vandenberg AFB, California, went to the 564th Strategic Missile Squadron stationed at the Warren I complex. A month later, Warren AFB became the recipient of the first air-transported Atlas missile. In the presence of General Power, the Commander in Chief of SAC, the first Atlas D complex was turned over to the 564th SMS and declared operational on 9 August 1960.
As work proceeded at the Warren I complex, the Army Corps of Engineers contracted for "Warren II" with three sites with three Atlas-D launchers at each in February 1959. The Warren II site was ready in the summer of 1960. The 565th Strategic Missile Squadron, activated on 1 December 1959, operated the nine launchers.
The Warren III site, designed for nine SM-65E Atlas missiles would be scattered over a area at single "coffin" launch sites. The term "coffin" was used because the missile laid on its side underground with the coffin roof at ground level. This configuration offered limited protection for the launcher. On 1 October 1960, the 549th Strategic Missile Squadron became the last Atlas-E SMS to be activated. The 549th SMS was re-designated 566th SMS on 1 July 1961. That same date the parent 706th Strategic Missile Wing stood down. Command responsibilities at Warren AFB were assumed by the recently activated 389th Strategic Missile Wing.
In May 1964, as the 565th and 565th SMS Atlas-D missiles were being phased out, the 389th Strategic Missile Wing received SAC's last operational readiness inspection for this system. In September 1964, SAC inactivated the 564th SMS. During March 1965, the 566th SMS Atlas-E's would also be deactivated, completing the phaseout of the Atlas Missile at Warren.
90th Missile Wing Minuteman I, 1963–1974.
The departure of the Atlas squadrons did not mark the end of F.E. Warren's role in the ICBM program. On 15 October 1962, Morrison-Knudsen and Associates won the contract to construct 200 LGM-30A Minuteman I missile silos over an area of Wyoming, Nebraska, and Colorado, located north and east of the base. On 1 July 1963, the Air Force activated the 90th Strategic Missile Wing. Over the next year, four component strategic missile squadrons activated with the 400th SMS became the last Minuteman I "B" unit to stand up on 1 July 1964. In November 1972, SAC initiated the "Minuteman Integrated Improvement Program". The program entailed silo hardening and upgrading command data buffers in the launcher control facilities, which allowed for quicker missile re-targeting and a new version of the Minuteman missiles. After conversion to the LGM-30G Minuteman III, the last Minuteman IB model went off alert status in September 1974.
LGM-118 Peacekeeper missiles, 1982–2005.
Minuteman III's occupied the silos from 1974–1986. On 22 November 1982, President Ronald Reagan stated his decision in a statement for Congress, to deploy the MX missile dubbed "Peacekeeper" (later designated LGM-118 Peacekeeper) to superhardened silos located at Warren AFB. Capable of carrying up to 10 independently targeted nuclear warheads, the "Peacekeeper" was intended to strengthen the ground-based strategic policy of the U.S. The initial plan was to deploy 100 "Peacekeepers" in silos of the 400th and 319th Strategic Missile Squadrons. In July 1984, construction began for "Peacekeeper" support facilities at Warren AFB. From 1986 through 1988, 50 "Peacekeepers" would be backfitted into the silos occupied by Minuteman III's from 1974–1986 of the 400th Strategic Missile Squadron. During that time contamination was documented to propose the base to be listed as a superfund site on 7/14/1989.
In 2002, President George W. Bush set a plan in motion to reduce the country's missile forces from 6,000 to between 1,700 and 2,200. Russian president Vladimir Putin agreed to follow a similar plan, signing the Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty. As part of this reduction, the "Peacekeeper" missiles were taken off alert and inactivated beginning in 2002 until 16 September 2005. Squadrons were inactivated on 19 September 2005.
Twentieth Air Force, 1991–present.
The end of the Cold War and combat during Operation Desert Storm in 1991 resulted in significant changes to the organizational structure of the U.S. Air Force.
On 1 September 1991, Twentieth Air Force was reactivated by Strategic Air Command (SAC) and became responsible for all land-based Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles. On 1 June 1992, Warren transitioned from the inactivating SAC to newly established Air Combat Command, and on 1 July 1993 to the Air Force Space Command. This realignment was designed to take advantage of the similarities between missile launch and space launch operations. The 90th Strategic Missile Wing was also renamed the 90th Missile Wing. The wing became the 90th Space Wing on 1 October 1997.
With the ratification of the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty I, the U.S. had until December 2001 to reduce its nuclear arsenal. As a result, the 90th Missile Wing reduced the fleet from three 'reentry vehicles' permissible to a single reentry vehicle configuration. On 6 August 2001, all 150 Minuteman IIIs had been converted to a single reentry vehicle. Warren missile fields currently maintain 150 Minuteman III missiles, split evenly between the 319th, 320th, and 321st Missile Squadrons.
The 2005 Base Realignment and Closure commission (BRAC) did not recommend making any significant change to the base's current operations.
On 1 July 2008, the 90th Space Wing was re-designated the 90th Missile Wing, per the order of outgoing Air Force Chief of Staff General T. Michael Moseley as a way of refocusing the unit on the nuclear surety mission after the 2007 United States Air Force nuclear weapons incident. The 90th Missile Wing was selected as the first missile base to upgrade Minuteman III launch control centers with the Rapid Execution And Combat Targeting modification. Existing LCC's had not been upgraded significantly since the early 1960s. REACT replaced the command and control consoles with a single, integrated, computer-processing console. Improvements in automation allow combat crews to more rapidly process message traffic and carry out execution orders.
On 1 December 2009 Twentieth Air Force was placed alongside all other U.S. ICBM and bombers with similar missions under a single command, the Air Force Global Strike Command, headquartered at Barksdale AFB, Louisiana.
On 23 October 2010, communications between the base and 50 missiles were partially disrupted for a short time due to a hardware failure.
The Air Force has begun construction of a new underground nuclear weapons storage and handling facility at F.E. Warren Air Force Base in Cheyenne, Wyoming.
The new Weapons Storage and Maintenance Facility (WSMF; sometimes called Weapons Generation Facility), which will replace the current Weapons Storage Area (WSA), will be a 90,000-square-foot reinforced concrete and earth-covered facility with supporting surface structures.
The Air Force says the new facility “will provide a safer and more secure facility for the storage of U. S. Air Force (USAF) assets,” a reference to W78/Mk12A and W87/Mk21 warheads for the Minuteman III ICBMs deployed in Warren AFB’s 150 missile silos. In the future, if Congress agrees to fund it, the new W87-1 warhead will replace the W78.
The $144 million contract was awarded to Fluor Corporation by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers in 2018.
Construction of the underground storage facility at F.E. Warren AFB follows the completion in 2012 of a massive underground nuclear weapons storage facility at the Strategic Weapons Facility Pacific (SWFPAC) next to the Kitsap Naval Submarine Base. Underground storage facilities are also planned at other bases.
Challenge of maintenance, upgrade.
Aging equipment such as analog phone lines or computer systems that still use floppy discs have become a subject of media attention; Former missileers alerted the US television program "60 Minutes", which aired a segment about Warren AFB on 27 April 2014. The USAF plans to spend $19 million on improvements of Warren AFB missile silos and launch control centers in 2014, and is asking for over $600 million in 2015. The Congressional Budget Office has estimated a cost of $355 billion to upgrade the triad of the U.S. nuclear weapons systems including ICBMs, submarines and bombers.
The base is recorded on the list of Superfund sites in Wyoming because of contaminated land on the site.
Intercontinental ballistic missile facilities.
Due to the remoteness of the locations where they were constructed in the late 1950s and early 1960s, the Warren Atlas sites have not been redeveloped since their closure in 1965. The 564th SMS A/B Warren I site is completely abandoned. The public road "Atlas Road" ends at a fence with a "No Trespassing" sign about 2 or from the actual site, and the road past the gate appears to be well cracked and vegetation is growing out of the unmaintained surface. The site itself, which is in private ownership, when viewed from aerial images looks as if it has been abandoned for decades, The above ground launchers and support structures left as they were when inactivated nearly 50 years ago. Roofs of some structures still exist, others do not. The access roads are very deteriorated as well, with large areas of vegetation growing though the cracks in the surface.
The other Atlas-D sites for the 565th SMS are all intact, sites A and C appear to be unused although both are in private hands. Site B has large numbers of abandoned vehicles on it, although again, all of the facilities appear to be still intact. The Atlas-E sites appear to be intact, all in private hands, and other than being overgrown, appear to have been left to the elements and time since 1965.
Since their closure in the early 2000s (decade), the Peacekeeper Missile Alert Facilities all have been turned over to the GSA for disposition. All appear to be intact and in government hands. The locked gates and fences surround abandoned buildings which appear in good condition. The 50 launch silos (Launch Facilities) have all been imploded, then graded. Other than a road leading to the former site, most of which are still fenced and are still government owned, nothing more than natural vegetation is there in aerial imagery.
Role and operations.
LGM-30G Minuteman III operations.
The 90th Missile Wing was activated 1 July 1963, with the original designation as 90th Strategic Missile Wing. It was the nation's first operational Intercontinental Ballistic Missile base with the 1958 introduction of the SM-65D Atlas missile. Today, the 90th MW operates 150 LGM-30G Minuteman III ICBMs on full, constant alert.
The 90 MW is organized into four groups:
90th Operations Group.
The 90th Operations Group consists of more than 550 operators, facility managers, and support personnel, three missile squadrons, an operations support squadron, a helicopter squadron and a standardization and evaluation element. Each tactical missile squadron is responsible for five missile alert facilities and 50 Minuteman III ICBMs. The units of the 90th Operations Group include the 319th Missile Squadron, 320th Missile Squadron, 321st Missile Squadron and 90th Operations Support Squadron.
90th Maintenance Group.
The 90th Maintenance Group provides Minuteman III ICBMs along with command and control systems required to launch those missiles. The group maintains 150 missiles and associated launch facilities, as well as 15 launch control facilities spread between a three-state, 9,600 square-mile complex.
90th Mission Support Group.
The 90th Mission Support Group provides combat support to the 90th Missile Wing. The 1,000 men and women of the group provide civil engineering, transportation and logistics, communications, contracting, and personnel and services support.
90th Security Forces Group.
The 90th Security Forces Group provides continuous security for the 90th Missile Wing. The mission of the 90 SFG includes the protection of F. E. Warren AFB, 15 Missile Alert Facilities (MAFs) and 150 Minuteman III Intercontinental Ballistic Missiles (ICBMs) on constant 24-hour alert throughout a 9,600 square-mile area spanning three states. The 90th SFG also sustains a combat-ready force deployable worldwide in support of wartime and peacetime taskings. The 90th Security Forces Group comprises five squadrons: 790th Security Forces Squadron, 90th Ground Combat Training Squadron, 90th Missile Security Forces Squadron, 90th Security Forces Squadron, 90th Security Support Squadron.
The 790th Missile Security Forces Squadron provides security for convoys and missile maintenance operations. The 90th Ground Combat Training Squadron is located in Guernsey, Wyo., and provides security, pre-deployment, and antiterrorism/force protection training for USAF personnel. The 90th Missile Security Forces Squadron provides security for 15 missile alert facilities and 150 launch facilities. The 90th Security Forces Squadron provides installation and weapons storage area security; police services; pass and registration functions; and reports and analysis duties. The 90th Security Support Squadron provides command and control for the missile field and access control for all missile field forces as well as all security forces training and equipment support.
Tenant units.
The 153rd Command and Control Squadron (Wyoming Air National Guard) provides command, control, communications, computers and intelligence to the commander of the United States Northern Command.
The 582nd Helicopter Group Headquarters includes the 37th Helicopter Squadron has dual responsibilities to Air Force Global Strike Command and United States Strategic Command. As the missile "Numbered Air Force" for AFGSC, 20th Air Force is responsible for maintaining and operating the Air Force's ICBM force. Designated as STRATCOM's Task Force 214, 20th Air Force provides ICBMs to the president.
Airfield facilities.
Unlike most Air Force Bases, Warren AFB has no paved runway for fixed-wing aircraft. The only conventional airfield ever located at F. E. Warren AFB was a single dirt strip. This field, never used by modern-day pilots, was made famous by World War I ace Captain Eddie Rickenbacker who crashed his plane on the field and survived. The airfield was used in 1919 by the "Western Flying Circus", led by then-Major Carl "Tooey" Spaatz. The base maintains two active 100 ft × 100 ft helipads, utilized by Air Force UH-1N Twin Huey helicopters of the 37th Helicopter Squadron to conduct tactical presence and response missions. The base additionally maintains a pair of small turf STOL runways south of the helipads as a training area.
Based units.
Flying and notable non-flying units based at Francis E. Warren Air Force Base.
Units marked GSU are Geographically Separate Units, which although based at Warren, are subordinate to a parent unit based at another location.
United States Air Force.
Air Force Global Strike Command (AFGSC)
Air National Guard (ANG)
Geography.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the base has a total area of 5.0 square miles (13.1 km2), of which, 5.0 square miles (12.9 km2) of it is land and 0.04 square miles (0.1 km2) of it is water. The total area is 0.79% water.
Environmental contamination.
Due to extensive soil and groundwater contamination, the Warren AFB has been a superfund site listed on the National Priorities List (NPL) since 21 February 1990. Trichloroethylene (TCE) used to degrease equipment was found in groundwater in the West Cheyenne area from Belvoir Ranch to about 10 miles to the east of the site during the 1990s, as on numerous other military installations. As of 2014, the DOD has spent $15.8 million on the preliminary phase of the West Cheyenne Superfund Site over the past decade, installing monitoring wells, containing and passively treating water, and a feasibility study on installing "interceptor wells". A Restoration Advisory Board is established. The extent of the underground TCE plume is unknown; data analysis due to be completed 2015 will inform about its size. The Army Corps of Engineers, who built the ICBM launch site in the 1950s, has been involved in investigation and clean up since 1989; the project manager for the Corps estimated in 2014 "it will likely be a more than 100- or 200-year effort to actually remove the chemicals from the groundwater". Atlas missile site No. 3 was acquired in the late '70s and used as a car salvage yard. It was not until 2001 when the Corps began investigating Cheyenne missile sites for TCE contamination, that a "1.5-mile-long contamination plume at the site, [was found] and interest in the property evaporated. The clean up is expected to cost $175 million." In 2015, the Corps stated that it wants to collect more data before recommending a remedy.
Demographics.
At the 2010 census base population had shrunk by more than 25% to 3,072. At the census of 2000, there had been 4,440 people, 639 households, and 631 families residing on the base. The population density was 888.3 people per square mile (342.9/km2). There were 735 housing units at an average density of 147.0/sq mi (56.8/km2). The racial makeup of the base was 79.6% White, 9.4% African American, 0.5% Native American, 2.2% Asian, 0.3% Pacific Islander, 4.4% from other races, and 3.6% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 8.8% of the population. There were 639 households, 82% of which had children under the age of 18 living with them, 92.2% were married couples living together, 4.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 1.1% were made up of individuals. The average household size was 3.59 and the average family size was 3.58.
On the base the population was spread out, with 23.0% under the age of 18, 26.7% from 18 to 24, 48.4% from 25 to 44, and 1.8% from 45 to 64. The median age was 25 years. For every 100 females, there were 201.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 259.4 males.
The median income for a household on the base was $32,589, and the median income for a family was $32,946. Males had a median income of $25,247 versus $20,819 for females. The per capita income for the base was $18,426. About 2.2% of families and 2.4% of the population were below the poverty line, including 2.6% of those under the age of 18.


Brennender Berg

The Brennender Berg ("Burning Mountain") is a natural monument located in a deep and narrow gorge between Dudweiler and Sulzbach in Saarland, Germany. It is a smouldering coal seam fire that ignited in 1668 and continues to burn today.
History.
The exact cause of the fire is unknown today but it was probably a case of spontaneous combustion caused by pressure and decomposition as a result of unplanned coal mining. According to tradition, a shepherd lit a fire at a tree stump which propagated down through the roots to the coal seam. An unsuccessful attempt was made to fight the fire with water. It does not burn with an open flame but instead glows. Originally this glow could be seen through cracks in the rock and there was a considerable build-up of smoke. The fire began to weaken by the end of the 18th century. Depending on the weather, smoke is visible and in at least one of the rock crevices an outflow of warm air can be detected.
Tourism.
The Brennender Berg is one of the region's places of interest. It is a popular destination for excursions and school trips. A convenient starting point is the parking lot of the Dudweiler cemetery at the end of Neuweiler Straße. Johann Wolfgang von Goethe also visited the Brennender Berg in 1770 and a commemorative plaque records the event. He later reminisced about this visit as follows:


Yankee Candle

The Yankee Candle Company (referred to simply as Yankee Candle) is an American manufacturer and retailer of scented candles, candleholders, accessories, and dinnerware. Its products are sold by thousands of gift shops nationwide, through catalogs, and online, and in nearly 50 countries around the world. The company operates just over 300 small-box format stores, located in malls across 43 U.S. states and Ontario, and is the largest candle manufacturer in the United States. The company is headquartered in South Deerfield, Massachusetts.
The Jarden Corporation agreed to buy Yankee Candle for $1.75 billion in the fall of 2013. In 2015, Newell Rubbermaid announced that it would acquire Jarden for over $15 billion of cash and stock.
History.
Yankee Candle Company was started in South Hadley, Massachusetts when Michael Kittredge, originally from Holyoke, Massachusetts, created his first scented candle, "Christmas 1969", from melted crayons as a gift for his mother. Neighbors began expressing interest in buying his creations, and Kittredge began producing them in larger quantities. The company itself was founded with help from Donald MacIver and Susan Obremski, who were high school friends with Kittredge. MacIver helped fund the start-up business with earnings from his part-time job. Candle production grew considerably after Obremski's father devised a "heated room", which enabled cost-saving liquid wax deliveries at the first factory site in Holyoke. Obremski's invention of a turntable taper wheel allowed production to double, while at the same time decreasing the need for more labor hours. In 1975, she managed the first Yankee Candle Shop located where the Village Commons in South Hadley now stands.
The company slowly expanded and moved to South Deerfield in 1983.
After a cancer scare in 1993, Kittredge started handing the company over to a friend and employee. In 1998, he sold the company to New York-based private equity company Forstmann Little for $500 million. Forstmann took the company public in 1999, and in 2001, hired Craig Rydin as a CEO. Rydin launched a major advertising campaign and the line was picked up by mass retailers Linens-N-Things and Bed, Bath and Beyond, pushing sales to their highest levels yet. Kittredge remained the company's chairman emeritus.
During the summer of 2006, Yankee Candle purchased Illuminations, a Petaluma, California-based, multi-channel retailer of high quality candles and home accessories. Although the two companies were similar, the names were separated, with Illuminations being aimed at a different demographic. The Illuminations brand and web store were phased out in early 2009.
On February 6, 2007, the company was acquired by the private equity group of Madison Dearborn Partners LLC for approximately $1.6 billion.
The founder, Michael Kittredge, in a return to high quality manufacturing created Kringle Candle, with his son Michael (Mike).
In October 2012 Yankee Candle Europe launched their Consumer Direct website offering their products direct to consumers.
In 2013, Jarden acquired Yankee Candle. A further merger in 2016 saw Jarden purchased by Newell Rubbermaid and combined into the new company Newell Brands.
In 2017 Newell Brands acquired Smith Mountain Industries, makers of the Woodwick brand of candles. Woodwick candles are now a premium brand sold by Yankee Candle. The candles have a wooden wick that crackles when burned, and use a blend of paraffin and soy wax to reduce spatter and residue.
Flagship store.
Yankee Candle's flagship store, which opened in 1982, is located in South Deerfield, Massachusetts. It features all available Yankee Candles as well as kitchen and home accessories, New England crafts, gifts and collectibles, a toy shop, picnic grounds, and a "Bavarian Christmas Village" filled with decorated Christmas trees and a toy train that runs through to Santa's Workshop, where animated elves and an 'assembly line' for wooden vehicles surround Santa Claus's desk. Visitors can dip their own candles in a specially equipped area, make wax molds of their hands, or create their own unique candle. There is also a candle making museum and a Hillside Pizza cafe on site.
A second flagship store was opened in Williamsburg, Virginia, in 2005. At , it is about 1/3 the size of the South Deerfield store.. The Williamsburg store is in the process of closing as of April 2021.
Outlet stores.
Yankee Candle has a total of 55 outlet stores in the United States.
Products.
Yankee Candle Company markets an array of products, including candles of various scents and sizes, scented wax tarts, candle accessories, votive candles (samplers), votive candle holders, tart warmers, jar toppers (for use with the Housewarmer line of candles), reed diffusers, Electric Home Fragrance units (scented wall plug-ins), car scents, room sprays, Good Air products, and more. They also periodically release a range of limited edition candles such as 'Chocolate Layer Cake'.


David Wylie (author)

David Wylie (born November 30, 1929) is the author of the book, "City, Save Thyself! - Nuclear Terror and the Urban Ballot" (Trueblood Publishing, 2009). He is also a practicing attorney in Boston, Massachusetts.
Wylie served as an officer in the United States Coast Guard at the Houston Port Security Station. Later, he worked on several political campaigns, once as an advance man in a presidential run. He went on to become a dedicated public servant himself, serving the City of Cambridge, Massachusetts for fourteen years, first on the Cambridge School Committee and eventually on City Council. As a city councilor, Wylie brought to light the inadequacy of the evacuation plan recommended by the Commonwealth of Massachusetts should Cambridge become a target of nuclear attack. This resulted in hearings on the topic and eventually the publication of a pamphlet titled "Cambridge and nuclear weapons: Is there a place to hide?" The pamphlet was so well received by the citizens of Cambridge that communities across the state and country requested copies and a reprint was ordered. Wylie was also instrumental in the establishment of the Cambridge Peace Commission through a city ordinance. His book is the product of these experiences plus decades of research and advocacy on the topics of nuclear disarmament, citizen activism, and global democracy. Wylie also maintains a blog called Idea Ransacker at http://thewylieblog.blogspot.com which he updates regularly with relevant news and commentary. He is also a regular contributor to Massachusetts newspapers, including the Cambridge Chronicle
In his book, Wylie calls on the citizenry to act locally to build the global democracy needed to keep international peace. He recognizes the fact that the nuclear threat is difficult to make personal because most people feel that they are unable to effect change individually. According to Wylie though, tremendous power lies in our cities and towns; the trick is being heard. He offers a fresh and unique strategy to accomplish this: the establishment of a global congress of representatives from the world's major cities. The book was a finalist in the 2010 Next Generation Indie Book Awards in the categories of Current Events and Social Change.
"Wylie offers a powerful message: If you want to fix America, begin at the local level, but think globally and in the process revive our democracy." - "Former US Senator Bill Bradley"
Wylie holds a BA from the University of Chicago, an MA from Boston University, and an LLB from Georgetown Law School.


Norfolk Naval Shipyard

The Norfolk Naval Shipyard, often called the Norfolk Navy Yard and abbreviated as NNSY, is a U.S. Navy facility in Portsmouth, Virginia, for building, remodeling and repairing the Navy's ships. It is the oldest and largest industrial facility that belongs to the U.S. Navy as well as the most comprehensive. Located on the Elizabeth River, the yard is just a short distance upriver from its mouth at Hampton Roads.
It was established as Gosport Shipyard in 1767. Destroyed during the American Revolutionary War, it was rebuilt and became home to the first operational drydock in the United States in the 1830s. Changing hands during the American Civil War, it served the Confederate States Navy until it was again destroyed in 1862, when it was given its current name. The shipyard was again rebuilt, and has continued operation through the present day.
History.
British control.
The Gosport Shipyard was founded on November 1, 1767 by Andrew Sprowle on the western shore of the Elizabeth River in Norfolk County in the Virginia Colony. This shipyard became a prosperous naval and merchant facility for the British Crown. In 1775, at the beginning of the American Revolution, Sprowle stayed loyal to the Crown and fled Virginia, which confiscated all of his properties, including the shipyard. In 1779, while the newly formed Commonwealth of Virginia was operating the shipyard, it was burned by British troops.
American control.
In 1794, United States Congress passed "An Act to Provide a Naval Armament," allowing the Federal Government to lease the Gosport Shipyard from Virginia. In 1799 the keel of , one of the first six frigates authorized by Congress, was laid, making her the first ship built in Gosport for the U.S. Navy.
The federal government purchased the shipyard from Virginia in 1801 for $12,000. This tract of land measured and now makes up the northeastern corner of the current shipyard. In 1827, construction began on the first of what would be the first two dry docks in the United States. The first one was completed three weeks ahead of similar projects in both Boston, Massachusetts and South America, making it the first functional dry dock in the Americas. Dry Dock One, as it is referred to today, is still operational and is listed as historical landmark in Portsmouth, Virginia. Officer's Quarters A, B, and C were built about 1837. Additional land on the eastern side of the Elizabeth River was purchased in 1845.
The shipyard and neighboring towns suffered from a severe yellow fever epidemic in 1855, which killed about a quarter of the population, including James Chisholm, whose account was published shortly after his death in the epidemic.
Enslaved labor.
Enslaved labor was extensively utilized in the Norfolk Navy Yard from its foundation until the Civil War. Some idea of the human scale can be found in this excerpt from a letter of Commodore Lewis Warrington dated 12 October 1831 to the Board of Navy Commissioners (BNC). Warrington's letter to the BNC was in response to various petitions by white workers to curtail or end enslaved labor on the Dry Dock. His letter attempts both to reassure the BNC in light of the recent Nat Turner Rebellion which occurred on 22 August 1831 and to serve as a reply to the Dry Dock's stonemasons who had quit their positions and accused the project chief engineer, Loammi Baldwin Jr., of the unfair hiring of enslaved labor in their stead.
There are about two hundred and forty six blacks employed in the Yard and Dock altogether; of whom one hundred and thirty six are in the former and one hundred ten in the latter – We shall in the Course of this day or tomorrow discharge twenty which will leave but one hundred and twenty six on our roll – The evil of employing blacks, if it be one, is in a fair and rapid course of diminution, as our whole number, after the timber now in the water is stowed, will not exceed sixty; and those employed at the Dock will be discharged from time to time, as their services can be dispensed with – when it is finished, there will be no occasion for the employment of any.
Despite such promises, enslaved labor continued, and, as of October 1832, Baldwin reported of the 261 men employed on the Dry Dock, 78 of whom, were enslaved black laborers or 30% of the Dry Dock workforce. Opposition to enslaved labor was never able to effectively challenge the status quo and suggestions or recommendations to end the practice met fierce resistance. One such effort in 1839, was countered by a petition signed by 34 shipyard slaveholders, pleading with the Secretary of the Navy to continue it less they suffer economic harm. Their successful petition was endorsed by Commodore Lewis Warrington. Warrington noted: "I beg leave to state, that no slave employed in this yard, is owned by a commissioned officer, but that many are owned by the Master Mechanicks & workmen of the yard". He added; “I beg leave to state, that no slave is allowed to perform any mechanical work in the yard, all such being necessarily reserved for the whites; this keeping up the proper distinction between the white men & slave”. In 1846 Commodore Jesse Wilkerson felt the need to confirm the continuation of slave hiring to the Secretary of the Navy George Bancroft, “that a majority of them [blacks] are negro slaves, and that a large portion of those employed in the Ordinary for many years, have been of that description, but by what authority I am unable to say as nothing can be found in the records of my office on the subject – These men have been examined by the Surgeon of the Yard and regularly Shipped [enlisted] for twelve months"
 George Teamoh (1818–1883) as a young enslaved laborer and ship caulker worked at Norfolk Navy Yard in the 1830s and 1840s and later wrote of this unrequited labor: "The government had patronized, and given encouragement to slavery to a greater extent than the great majority of the country has been aware. It had in its service hundreds if not thousands of slaves employed on government works." As late "as 1848 almost one third of the 300 workers at the Gosport (Norfolk) navy yard were hired slaves."
American Civil War.
In 1861, Virginia joined the Confederate States of America. Fearing that the Confederacy would take control of the facility, the shipyard commander Charles Stewart McCauley ordered the burning of the shipyard. The Confederate forces did, in fact, take over the shipyard, and did so without armed conflict through an elaborate ruse orchestrated by civilian railroad builder William Mahone (then President of the Norfolk and Petersburg Railroad and soon to become a famous Confederate officer). He bluffed the Federal troops into abandoning the shipyard in Portsmouth by running a single passenger train into Norfolk with great noise and whistle-blowing, then much more quietly, sending it back west, and then returning the same train again, creating the illusion of large numbers of arriving troops to the Federals listening in Portsmouth across the Elizabeth River (and just barely out of sight). The capture of the shipyard allowed a tremendous amount of war material to fall into Confederate hands. 1,195 heavy guns were taken for the defense of the Confederacy, and employed in many areas from Hampton Roads all the way to Fort Donelson Tennessee, Port Hudson, and Fort de Russy, Louisiana. The Union forces withdrew to Fort Monroe across Hampton Roads, which was the only land in the area which remained under Union control.
In early 1862, the Confederate ironclad warship was rebuilt using the burned-out hulk of . In the haste to abandon the shipyard, "Merrimack" had only been destroyed above the waterline, and an innovative armored superstructure was built upon the remaining portion. "Virginia", which was still called "Merrimack" by Union forces and in many historical accounts, sank , , and engaged the Union ironclad in the famous Battle of Hampton Roads during the Union blockade of Hampton Roads. The Confederates burned the shipyard again when they left in May 1862.
Following its recapture of Norfolk and Portsmouth (and the shipyard) by the Union forces, the name of the shipyard was changed to Norfolk after the county in which it was located, outside the city limits of Portsmouth at the time. This choice of name was probably to minimize any confusion with the pre-existing Portsmouth Naval Shipyard in Kittery, Maine near Portsmouth, New Hampshire.
Modern shipyard.
From the Reconstruction Era until 1917, the shipyard was used both for ship repair and construction and for ship stationing; the current major naval base for the region, Naval Station Norfolk, did not yet exist. As such, the then Norfolk Navy Yard served as the official Homeport for ships stationed in the Hampton Roads region.
No major expansion occurred at the facility until World War I when it was expanded to accommodate 11,000 employees and their families. The shipyard was again expanded in World War II, doubling its physical size, and greatly expanding its productive capacity. During its peak, from 1940 to 1945, 43,000 personnel were employed and 6,850 vessels were repaired.
After World War II, the shipyard shifted from being a ship construction facility to an overhaul and repair facility. Work on the , was suspended in 1950. Its last two ships, and her sister ship, , wooden minesweepers, were christened on March 28, 1953 during the Korean War.
Currently, the shipyard is composed of several noncontiguous areas totaling . Norfolk Naval Shipyard provides repair and modernization services for every type of ship that the U.S. Navy has in service, which includes amphibious vessels, submarines, guided-missile cruisers, and supercarriers, although in recent years the shipyard has primarily focused on nuclear ships and nuclear support ships. The Norfolk yard is one of the few facilities on the East Coast capable of dry docking nuclear aircraft carriers. Another facility capable of drydocking such carriers is Huntington Ingalls Industries (HII), located on the other side of Hampton Roads in Newport News, which is the only U.S. shipyard that currently builds and refuels nuclear aircraft carriers.
Museum.
Outside the facility on the nearby Old Town Portsmouth waterfront is the Portsmouth Naval Shipyard Museum, which features displays and artifacts from its history.


Jamdhar Katari

The Jamdhar-Katari is the traditional dagger of the Hindu Kush strains in Afghanistan.
History.
The Jamdhar-Katari was developed approximately in the 17th century in the area of the Hindu Kush.
Description.
The Jamdhar-Katari has a wedge-shaped, double-edged blade of about 25 cm in length, with a total length of about 35 cm. Shortly after the parry the blade runs along narrow, then something bulbous get through to the top. Some of the site (top) is reinforced in order to be strong enough armor and chainmail to pierce. The parry is remarkably wide (about 15 cm). The knob has the same width. Blade, parry, grip and pommel are made of one piece and have no handles.


Cimeter

A cimeter or scimitar is a large, curved butcher's knife, with a blade typically 8-14" (20-35 cm) long. It is used primarily for cutting large pieces of meat into retail cuts such as steaks. These knives are available with and without "Granton edge". According to Webstaurant Store, a major supplier to the food industry, "Granton edge knives feature hollowed out sections running along both sides of the blade. When slicing meat, the grooves fill with fat and juices, which permits less contact between the meat and blade. Granton edge knives are often preferred when slicing thin portions of poultry, roasts, or ham."
Etymology.
'Cimeter' is a formerly common variant spelling of 'scimitar', a kind of curved sword. The spelling 'cimeter' has become standard for the knife. In The Book of Mormon, the term "cimeter" is used often to describe a weapon of war.


Tooele Army Depot

Tooele Army Depot (TEAD) is a United States Army post in Tooele County, Utah. It serves as a storage site for war reserve and training ammunition. The depot stores, issues, receives, renovates, modifies, maintains and demilitarizes conventional munitions. The depot also serves as the National Inventory Control Point for ammunition peculiar equipment, developing, fabricating,
modifying, storing and distributing such equipment to all services and other customers worldwide. TEAD provides base support to Deseret Chemical Depot.
Tooele Army Depot originally opened in 1942 during the early phase of U.S. involvement in World War II. The workforce at the post is now primarily composed of civilians. A full colonel serves as the commander. As of July 2020, Colonel Steven M. Dowgielewicz is the depot's commander.
Capabilities.
Capabilities of the depot include: engineering; explosives performance testing; logistical support; machining, fabrication, assembly, repair; robotics; non-destructive testing; demilitarization; laser cutting; and Slurry Emulsion Manufacturing Facility.
History.
Built in 1942, TEAD was originally called the Tooele Ordnance Depot and was a storage depot for war supplies. In 1988, TEAD acquired the general supply storage mission from Pueblo Army Depot. In 1955 Tooele Army Depot took over the rail equipment repair shop at Hill Air Force Base near Roy, Utah; and the site operated as a satellite of TEAD until 1994. In BRAC 1993, it lost its troop support mission, maintenance and storage missions. TEAD retained its ammunition logistics support function.
Facilities.
TEAD is housed on with 1,093 buildings, 902 igloos and storage capacity of .
BRAC 2005.
TEAD will gain the ammunition storage function from Sierra Army Depot, which will be realigning due to Base Realignment and Closure 2005.
Environment.
TEAD was placed on the Environmental Protection Agency’s National Priority List (Superfund) in 1990.
In 2009, the Tooele Army Depot was awarded the 31st Annual Secretary of the Army Energy and Water Management Award and the 2009 Federal Energy and Water Management Award. This was based on conservation efforts which saved TEAD more than $60,000 and nearly 100 million gallons of water per year.


Azusa, California

Azusa is a city in the San Gabriel Valley, at the foot of the San Gabriel Mountains in Los Angeles County, California, United States, located 20 miles east of downtown Los Angeles.
The population was 46,361 at the 2010 census, up from 44,712 at the 2000 census. Azusa is located along historic Route 66, which passes through the city on Foothill Boulevard and Alosta Avenue.
Azusa is bordered by the San Gabriel Mountains range to the north, Irwindale to the west, the unincorporated community of Vincent to the southwest, Glendora and the unincorporated community of Citrus to the east, and Covina to the south. The "A" on the San Gabriel Mountains represents the city of Azusa and can be seen within a 30-mile radius.
History.
"Azusa stands for everything from A to Z in the U.S.A." has been a phrase used to promote the city by organisations such as the Chamber of Commerce for many years. The place name "Azusa" dates to the Mexican Alta California era in the 19th century when "Azusa" was used to refer to the San Gabriel Valley and the San Gabriel River. It appears to have been derived from the Tongva place name "Asuksagna".
The area was part of the Tongva peoples' ("Gabrieleño" Indians) homeland since at least 55 BC.
The first Mexican settlement in Azusa was at the Rancho el Susa in 1841, a Mexican land grant from the Alta California Governor Juan Bautista Alvarado to Luis Arenas. In 1844, Arenas sold the rancho's land to Henry Dalton, an English immigrant and wealthy merchant from the Pueblo of Los Angeles, for $7,000. He renamed it Rancho Azusa de Dalton, and had built a winery, distillery, vinegar house, meat smokehouse, and flour mill. Also, a vineyard was planted. Dalton built a house here on a place known as Dalton Hill, near 6th Street and Cerritos Avenue in Azusa.
Dalton was also the owner of the large, adjacent Rancho San Francisquito and Rancho Santa Anita properties. In the end, Dalton owned an unbroken expanse of land from present-day San Dimas to the eastern edge of Pasadena. A portion of Azusa west of the San Gabriel River was within adjacent Rancho Azusa de Duarte.
With the cession of California to the United States following the Mexican–American War, the 1848 Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo provided that the land grants would be honored. As required by the Land Act of 1851, a claim for Rancho San Francisquito was filed with the Public Land Commission in 1852 and confirmed by the Commission in 1853, but rejected by the US District Court in 1855, on the grounds that Henry Dalton was not, at the time of the grant, a citizen of Mexico. The decree was reversed by the US Supreme Court, and the grant was patented to Henry Dalton in 1867.
Azusa was listed in the 1860 census as a township (encompassing the Azusa de Dalton and Azusa de Duarte ranchos) with a population of 363. The 1870 US Census listed the area as the township of Azusa – El Monte Township and 1880 US Census listed the area as the township of San Jose and Azusa. There were a few corrections to cross out the San Jose name on most of the census pages, but this was done sporadically and there remain many index errors in the online census due to these errors.
Dalton had borrowed money from Los Angeles banker Jonathan S. Slauson to fund 24 years of litigation, and had to sign the land over to him in 1880. Slauson laid out the plan for the city in 1887 and the city was officially incorporated in 1898.
The completion of the Los Angeles and San Gabriel Valley Railroad in January 1887, later sold to the Santa Fe railroad, brought new people looking for homes and investment opportunities in Azusa. The Gold Line Foothill light rail line is being built on the old rail right-of-way. Part of this land boom was the short-lived (1887–1905) town of Gladstone, now part of Azusa.
Geography.
The city is located at the entrance to the San Gabriel Canyon, giving the city its nickname "The Canyon City." It is on the east side of the San Gabriel River.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of ; over 99% of it is land.
Azusa is located at .
Azusa has one sister city:
Climate.
This region experiences warm, dry summers, with no average monthly temperatures above . According to the Köppen Climate Classification system, Azusa has a warm-summer Mediterranean climate, abbreviated "Csb" on climate maps.
Demographics.
2010.
The 2010 United States Census reported that Azusa had a population of 46,361. The population density was 4,794.9 people per square mile (1,851.3/km2). The racial makeup of Azusa was 26,715 (57.6%) White (19.3% Non-Hispanic White), 1,499 (3.2%) African American, 562 (1.2%) Native American, 4,054 (8.7%) Asian, 87 (0.2%) Pacific Islander, 11,270 (24.3%) from other races, and 2,174 (4.7%) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 31,328 persons (67.6%).
The Census reported that 43,559 people (94.0% of the population) lived in households, 2,691 (5.8%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 111 (0.2%) were institutionalized.
There were 12,716 households, out of which 5,955 (46.8%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 6,310 (49.6%) were opposite-sex married couples living together, 2,275 (17.9%) had a female householder with no husband present, 1,014 (8.0%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 891 (7.0%) unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 104 (0.8%) same-sex married couples or partnerships. 2,238 households (17.6%) were made up of individuals, and 761 (6.0%) had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.43. There were 9,599 families (75.5% of all households); the average family size was 3.85.
The population was spread out, with 12,407 people (26.8%) under the age of 18, 7,724 people (16.7%) aged 18 to 24, 13,185 people (28.4%) aged 25 to 44, 9,469 people (20.4%) aged 45 to 64, and 3,576 people (7.7%) who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 29.3 years. For every 100 females, there were 96.0 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 92.8 males.
There were 13,386 housing units at an average density of 1,384.4 per square mile (534.5/km2), of which 6,802 (53.5%) were owner-occupied, and 5,914 (46.5%) were occupied by renters. The homeowner vacancy rate was 1.4%; the rental vacancy rate was 6.6%. 22,805 people (49.2% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 20,754 people (44.8%) lived in rental housing units.
During 2009–2013, Azusa had a median household income of $52,001, with 20.1% of the population living below the federal poverty line.
2000.
As of the census of 2000, there were 44,712 people, 12,549 households, and 9,298 families residing in the city. The population density was 5,023.7 inhabitants per square mile (1,939.7/km2). There were 13,013 housing units at an average density of 1,462.1 per square mile (564.5/km2). The racial makeup of the city was 52.35% White, 3.78% Black or African American, 1.31% Native American, 6.14% Asian, 0.17% Pacific Islander, 30.52% from other races, and 5.73% from two or more races. 63.79% of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race.
There were 12,549 households, out of which 43.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 49.7% were married couples living together, 17.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 25.9% were non-families. 18.7% of all households were made up of individuals, and 6.2% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.41 and the average family size was 3.90.
In the city, the population was spread out, with 30.8% under the age of 18, 15.5% from 18 to 24, 31.5% from 25 to 44, 15.3% from 45 to 64, and 6.9% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 27 years. For every 100 females, there were 97.5 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 93.6 males.
The median income for a household in the city was $39,191, and the median income for a family was $40,918. Males had a median income of $30,845 versus $26,565 for females. The per capita income for the city was $13,412. About 15.1% of families and 18.8% of the population were below the poverty line, including 23.9% of those under age 18 and 10.4% of those age 65 or over.
Economy.
According to the City of Azusa's FY 2014-15 Comprehensive Annual Financial Report - Please refer to reference 29 below for link, the top employers in the city are:
Azusa was the former home of the Lucky Lager brewery and its successor, General Brewing. Built in 1949, the facility was purchased and converted to production by Miller Brewery in May 1966. A decade later, Miller relocated its operations to the nearby city of Irwindale and the Azusa facility ceased production in 1980, eventually being demolished.
Superfund site.
Aerojet, the rocket engine manufacturer, had a plant in Azusa from World War II to 2001. In 1980, it was determined that under Aerojet's facility there was TCE water contamination in the groundwater, whose plume was entering the aquifer under the city and of the San Gabriel Valley groundwater basin. The San Gabriel Valley aquifer is very valuable, providing most of the drinking water in the area at a fraction of the cost of water imported by aqueducts. In 1985, the U.S. EPA declared it a Superfund Site.
In 1997, additional chemical contamination, mostly NDMA and ammonium perchlorate, was found in the site's groundwater. Aerojet was named the Responsible Party for the groundwater remediation (cleanup) work and expenses. Aerojet sold the property in 2001 to Northrop Grumman Corporation, but remained the Responsible Party for the pollution.
In a 2002 court decision, Aerojet and seven other San Gabriel Valley groundwater polluters agreed to provide funding to build and operate six water-treatment facilities. One of the main contaminants is perchlorate, a carcinogenic component of rocket fuels produced by Aerojet.
Government and infrastructure.
Azusa's City Council elections were held on a Tuesday after the first Monday in March in odd-numbered years until the 2017 election. Effective with the 2020 California Primary election, it will be held on a Tuesday after the first Monday in March of even-numbered years. The Mayor is elected to a two-year term, City Council members are elected to a four-year term and elected at-large.
In the California State Legislature, Azusa is in , and in .
In the United States House of Representatives, Azusa is in .
The city mayor is Robert Gonzales.
On March 9, 2011, Azusa voters approved an agreement between Azusa Rock, Inc. and the City to address environmental issues associated with hillside mining in the area. The benefits of the proposed agreement has been questioned by several groups.
The Los Angeles County Department of Health Services operates the Monrovia Health Center in Monrovia, serving Azusa.
Education.
Azusa is served by the Azusa Unified School District. Its schools include:
Transportation.
Azusa lies along the Foothill Freeway (I-210) between the San Gabriel River Freeway (I-605) and the Orange Freeway (State Route 57). Azusa Avenue (State Route 39) extends from the Angeles National Forest starting at San Gabriel Canyon Road/Sierra Madre Avenue south through Orange County.
Metro Gold Line light rail service stops at Azusa Downtown station adjacent to Azusa city hall and the line terminates at Azusa Pacific University/Citrus College station at the eastern border of Downtown Azusa. On March 5, 2016, Azusa became the eastern terminus of the first phase of the Foothill Extension which previously operated between Los Angeles Union Station and Sierra Madre Villa station in eastern Pasadena.
The Gold Line operates along former Atchison, Topeka & Santa Fe Railway right-of-way purchased by the Metropolitan Transportation Authority in 1993. MTA is currently pre-constructing and planning to extend the line to the end of its reserved right-of-way in Montclair, just across the San Bernardino County line. In October 2009, the MTA Board unanimously voted to include the Foothill Extension in its long-range plan, and approved funding for the construction and operation of the Foothill Extension's first phase to Azusa. This phase of the extension broke ground in June 2010.
The Metrolink San Bernardino Line stops nearby at Covina station and Baldwin Park station several times each day.
Azusa's main arterial streets are:
In popular culture.
A popular running gag on the long-running radio comedy "The Jack Benny Program" involved a character voiced by Mel Blanc announcing the arrival or departure of a train to or from "Anaheim, Azusa, and Cuc-a-monga," all three then being small towns without rail service.
The city's name appeared in the title of the Jan and Dean song "Anaheim, Azusa, & Cucamonga Sewing Circle, Book Review and Timing Association" in 1964.
In 1971 "Life" magazine ran a cover story on teen pregnancy featuring a unique program for pregnant high school teens. The story focused on teenage mothers attending Citrus High School in Azusa. At a time when many pregnant teens were shunned by their schools and families, Citrus High School sought to help the teen mothers continue their studies while pregnant.
In "Hold Back the Dawn" (1941), Emmy Brown (Olivia de Havilland), a schoolmarm from Azusa, recites the claim that it "stands for everything from A to Z in the U.S.A." The same happens in "A Woman's Secret" (1949), with Susan Caldwell (Gloria Grahame), born and raised in Azusa, describing the town's name as "kind of a made-up name".


Canon de 75 mle GP II

The Canon de 75 mle GP II was a field gun used by Belgium during World War II. Cockerill mounted lengthened Canon de 75 mle TR barrels on ex-German 7.7 cm FK 16 gun carriages received as reparations after World War I. After 1940, the Wehrmacht designated captured guns as the 7.5 cm FK 234(b) and used them to equip occupation units in Belgium.


Dirty Harry round

Dirty Harry is the name given to the special round chambered 5.56×45mm. The rounds are designed by BAE Systems and were safety and performance tested by QinetiQ to supplement the existing 5.56 standard NATO ammunition issued to British Forces.
Background.
The necessity to use a more powerful round in place of regular 5.56mm NATO round was felt due to its unsatisfactory performance in medium-range engagements.
This resulted in the Ministry of Defence (MoD) requesting the development of a special round to be used from the existing SA80 rifles resulting in Dirty Harry.
The reference inaccurately refers to the bullet fired by Clint Eastwood's fictional character Dirty Harry in the eponymous movie series. Eastwood's character actually fired a .44 magnum load from his iconic Smith & Wesson Model 29 revolver, neither the same charge nor the same bullet as any .45 caliber round, including the 5.56x45mm. Still, the Ministry of Defence (MoD)'s intent was likely more about shock and awe than it was about the actual ordinance characteristics itself.
Status.
The ammunition was tested in 2010 in the Future Dismounted Close Combat research program.


Decoppering

Decoppering is the act of removing copper and it is most commonly used in the context of the removal of copper residues from the rifling of gun barrels.
Decoppering agents are frequently added to smokeless powder propellants. Decoppering is most important for large guns (especially naval guns), but the additives are used even in medium and small caliber guns.
The most common decoppering additives are:


Herman Arthur