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     THE
     HOLY ROMAN EMPIRE

     BY
     JAMES BRYCE, D.C.L.

     _FELLOW OF ORIEL COLLEGE
     and
     PROFESSOR OF CIVIL LAW IN THE UNIVERSITY OF OXFORD_


     THIRD EDITION REVISED


     London
     MACMILLAN AND CO.
     1871




     OXFORD:
     By T. Combe, M.A., E. B. Gardner, and E. Pickard Hall,
     PRINTERS TO THE UNIVERSITY.




PREFACE TO THE THIRD EDITION.


The object of this treatise is not so much to give a narrative history
of the countries included in the Romano-Germanic Empire--Italy during
the middle ages, Germany from the ninth century to the nineteenth--as
to describe the Holy Empire itself as an institution or system, the
wonderful offspring of a body of beliefs and traditions which have
almost wholly passed away from the world. Such a description, however,
would not be intelligible without some account of the great events
which accompanied the growth and decay of imperial power; and it has
therefore appeared best to give the book the form rather of a
narrative than of a dissertation; and to combine with an exposition of
what may be called the theory of the Empire an outline of the
political history of Germany, as well as some notices of the affairs
of mediaeval Italy. To make the succession of events clearer, a
Chronological List of Emperors and Popes has been prefixed[1].

The present edition has been carefully revised and corrected
throughout; and a good many additions have been made to both text and
notes.

     LINCOLN'S INN,
     August 11, 1870.

FOOTNOTE:

[1] The author has in preparation, and hopes before long to complete
and publish, a set of chronological tables which may be made to serve
as a sort of skeleton history of mediaeval Germany and Italy.




CONTENTS.


     CHAPTER I.
     Introductory.


     CHAPTER II.
     The Roman Empire before the Invasion of the Barbarians.

     The Empire in the Second Century                                5
     Obliteration of National distinctions                           6
     Rise of Christianity                                           10
     Its Alliance with the State                                    10
     Its Influence on the Idea of an Imperial Nationality           13


     CHAPTER III.
     The Barbarian Invasions.

     Relations between the Primitive Germans and the Romans         15
     Their Feelings towards Rome and her Empire                     16
     Belief in its Eternity                                         20
     Extinction by Odoacer of the Western branch of the Empire      26
     Theodoric the Ostrogothic King                                 27
     Gradual Dissolution of the Empire                              30
     Permanence of the Roman Religion and the Roman Law             31


     CHAPTER IV.
     Restoration of the Empire in the West.

     The Franks                                                     34
     Italy under Greeks and Lombards                                37
     The Iconoclastic Schism                                        38
     Alliance of the Popes with the Frankish Kings                  39
     The Frankish Conquest of Italy                                 41
     Adventures and Plans of Pope Leo III                           43
     Coronation of Charles the Great                                48


     CHAPTER V.
     Empire and Policy of Charles.

     Import of the Coronation at Rome                               52
     Accounts given in the Annals of the time                       53
     Question as to the Intentions of Charles                       58
     Legal Effect of the Coronation                                 62
     Position of Charles towards the Church                         64
     Towards his German Subjects                                    67
     Towards the other Races of Europe                              70
     General View of his Character and Policy                       72


     CHAPTER VI.
     Carolingian and Italian Emperors.

     Reign of Lewis I                                               76
     Dissolution of the Carolingian Empire                          78
     Beginnings of the German Kingdom                               79
     Italian Emperors                                               80
     Otto the Saxon King                                            84
     Coronation of Otto at Rome                                     87


     CHAPTER VII.
     Theory of the Mediaeval Empire.

     The World Monarchy and the World Religion                      91
     Unity of the Christian Church                                  94
     Influence of the Doctrine of Realism                           97
     The Popes as heirs to the Roman Monarchy                       99
     Character of the revived Roman Empire                         102
     Respective Functions of the Pope and the Emperor              104
     Proofs and Illustrations                                      109
     Interpretations of Prophecy                                   112
     Two remarkable Pictures                                       116


     CHAPTER VIII.
     The Roman Empire and the German Kingdom.

     The German or East Frankish Monarchy                          122
     Feudality in Germany                                          123
     Reciprocal Influence of the Roman and Teutonic Elements on
     the Character of the Empire                                   127


     CHAPTER IX.
     Saxon and Franconian Emperors.

     Adventures of Otto the Great in Rome                          134
     Trial and Deposition of Pope John XII                         135
     Position of Otto in Italy                                     139
     His European Policy                                           140
     Comparison of his Empire with the Carolingian                 144
     Character and Projects of the Emperor Otto III                146
     The Emperors Henry II and Conrad II                           150
     The Emperor Henry III                                         151


     CHAPTER X.
     Struggle of the Empire and the Papacy.

     Origin and Progress of Papal Power                            153
     Relations of the Popes with the early Emperors                155
     Quarrel of Henry IV and Gregory VII                           159
     Gregory's Ideas                                               160
     Concordat of Worms                                            163
     General Results of the Contest                                164


     CHAPTER XI.
     The Emperors in Italy: Frederick Barbarossa.

     Frederick and the Papacy                                      167
     Revival of the Study of the Roman Law                         172
     Arnold of Brescia and the Roman Republicans                   174
     Frederick's Struggle with the Lombard Cities                  175
     His Policy as German King                                     178


     CHAPTER XII.
     Imperial Titles and Pretensions.

     Territorial Limits of the Empire--Its Claims of Jurisdiction
     over other Countries                                          182
          Hungary                                                  183
          Poland                                                   184
          Denmark                                                  184
          France                                                   185
          Sweden                                                   185
          Spain                                                    185
          England                                                  186
          Scotland                                                 187
          Naples and Sicily                                        188
          Venice                                                   188
          The East                                                 189
     Rivalry of the Teutonic and Byzantine Emperors                191
     The Four Crowns                                               193
     Origin and Meaning of the title 'Holy Empire'                 199


     CHAPTER XIII.
     Fall of the Hohenstaufen.

     Reign of Henry VI                                             205
     Contest of Philip and Otto IV                                 206
     Character and Career of the Emperor Frederick II              207
     Destruction of Imperial Authority in Italy                    211
     The Great Interregnum                                         212
     Rudolf of Hapsburg                                            213
     Change in the Character of the Empire                         214
     Haughty Demeanour of the Popes                                217


     CHAPTER XIV.
     The Germanic Constitution--the Seven Electors.

     Germany in the Fourteenth Century                             222
     Reign of the Emperor Charles IV                               225
     Origin and History of the System of Election, and of the
     Electoral Body                                                225
     The Golden Bull                                               230
     Remarks on the Elective Monarchy of Germany                   233
     Results of Charles IV's Policy                                236


     CHAPTER XV.
     The Empire as an International Power.

     Revival of Learning                                           240
     Beginnings of Political Thought                               241
     Desire for an International Power                             242
     Theory of the Emperor's Functions as Monarch of Europe        244
     Illustrations                                                 249
     Relations of the Empire and the New Learning                  251
     The Men of Letters--Petrarch, Dante                           254
     The Jurists                                                   256
     Passion for Antiquity in the Middle Ages: its Causes          258
     The Emperor Henry VII in Italy                                262
     The _De Monarchia_ of Dante                                   264


     CHAPTER XVI.
     The City of Rome in the Middle Ages.

     Rapid Decline of the City after the Gothic Wars               273
     Her Condition in the Dark Ages                                274
     Republican Revival of the Twelfth Century                     276
     Character and Ideas of Nicholas Rienzi                        278
     Social State of Mediaeval Rome                                 280
     Visits of the Teutonic Emperors                               282
     Revolts against them                                          284
     Existing Traces of their Presence in Rome                     286
     Want of Mediaeval, and especially of Gothic Buildings, in
     Modern Rome                                                   289
     Causes of this; Ravages of Enemies and Citizens               291
     Modern Restorations                                           292
     Surviving Features of truly Mediaeval Architecture--the
     Bell-towers                                                   294
     The Roman Church and the Roman City                           296
     Rome since the Revolution                                     299


     CHAPTER XVII.
     The Renaissance: Change in the Character of the Empire.

     Weakness of Germany                                           302
     Loss of Imperial Territories                                  303
     Gradual Change in the Germanic Constitution                   307
     Beginning of the Predominance of the Hapsburgs                310
     The Discovery of America                                      311
     The Renaissance and its Effects on the Empire                 311
     Projects of Constitutional Reform                             313
     Changes of Title                                              316


     CHAPTER XVIII.
     The Reformation and its Effects upon the Empire.

     Accession of Charles V                                        319
     His Attitude towards the Reformation                          321
     Issue of his Attempts at Coercion                             322
     Spirit and Essence of the Religious Movement                  325
     Its Influence on the Doctrine of the Visible Church           327
     How far it promoted Civil and Religious Liberty               329
     Its Effect upon the Mediaeval Theory of the Empire             332
     Upon the Position of the Emperor in Europe                    333
     Dissensions in Germany                                        334
     The Thirty Years' War                                         335


     CHAPTER XIX.
     The Peace of Westphalia: Last Stage in the Decline
     of the Empire.

     Political Import of the Peace of Westphalia                   337
     Hippolytus a Lapide and his Book                              339
     Changes in the Germanic Constitution                          340
     Narrowed Bounds of the Empire                                 341
     Condition of Germany after the Peace                          342
     The Balance of Power                                          345
     The Hapsburg Emperors and their Policy                        348
     The Emperor Charles VII                                       351
     The Empire in its last Phase                                  352
     Feelings of the German People                                 354


     CHAPTER XX.
     Fall of the Empire.

     The Emperor Francis II                                        356
     Napoleon as the Representative of the Carolingians            357
     The French Empire                                             360
     Napoleon's German Policy                                      361
     The Confederation of the Rhine                                362
     End of the Empire                                             363
     The German Confederation                                      364


     CHAPTER XXI.
     Conclusion: General Summary.

     Causes of the Perpetuation of the Name of Rome                366
     Parallel instances: Claims now made to represent the Roman
     Empire                                                        367
     Parallel afforded by the History of the Papacy                369
     In how far was the Empire really Roman                        374
     Imperialism: Ancient and Modern                               375
     Essential Principles of the Mediaeval Empire                   377
     Influence of the Imperial System in Germany                   378
     The Claim of Modern Austria to represent the Mediaeval Empire  381
     Results of the Influence of the Empire upon Europe            383
     Upon Modern Jurisprudence                                     383
     Upon the Development of the Ecclesiastical Power              384
     Struggle of the Empire with three Hostile Principles          388
     Its Relations, Past and Present, to the Nationalities
     of Europe                                                     390
     Conclusion: Difficulties caused by the Nature of the
     Subject                                                       392


     APPENDIX.

     NOTE A.
     On the Burgundies                                             395

     NOTE B.
     On the Relations to the Empire of the Kingdom of Denmark
     and the Duchies of Schleswig and Holstein                     398

     NOTE C.
     On certain Imperial Titles and Ceremonies                     400

     NOTE D.
     Hildebert's Lines contrasting the Past and Present of Rome    406


     INDEX                                                         407




     DATES OF
     SEVERAL IMPORTANT EVENTS
     IN THE HISTORY OF THE EMPIRE.


                                                                  B.C.

     Battle of Pharsalia                                            48

                                                                  A.D.

     Council of Nicaea                                              325

     End of the separate Western Empire                            476

     Revolt of the Italians from the Iconoclastic Emperors         728

     Coronation of Charles the Great                               800

     End of the Carolingian Empire                                 888

     Coronation of Otto the Great                                  962

     Final Union of Italy to the Empire                           1014

     Quarrel between Henry IV and Gregory VII                     1076

     The First Crusade                                            1096

     Battle of Legnano                                            1176

     Death of Frederick II                                        1250

     League of the three Forest Cantons of Switzerland            1308

     Career of Rienzi                                        1347-1354

     The Golden Bull                                              1356

     Council of Constance                                         1415

     Extinction of the Eastern Empire                             1453

     Discovery of America                                         1492

     Luther at the Diet of Worms                                  1521

     Beginning of the Thirty Years' War                           1618

     Peace of Westphalia                                          1648

     Prussia recognized as a Kingdom                              1701

     End of the House of Hapsburg                                 1742

     Seven Years' War                                        1756-1763

     Peace of Luneville                                           1801

     Formation of the German Confederation                        1815

     Establishment of the North German Confederation              1866




     CHRONOLOGICAL TABLE
     OF
     EMPERORS AND POPES.


  A. D.                                                             B. C.
                                      Augustus.                     27
                                                                    A. D.
                                      Tiberius.                     14
                                      Caligula.                     37
                                      Claudius.                     41
  42      St. Peter, (according
           to Jerome).
                                      Nero.                         54
  67      Linus, (according to
           Jerome, Irenaeus,
           Eusebius).
  68      Clement, (according         Galba, Otho, Vitellius,
           to Tertullian and           Vespasian.                   68
           Rufinus).
  78      Anacletus (?).
                                      Titus.                        79
                                      Domitian.                     81
  91      Clement, (according
           to later writers).
                                      Nerva.                        96
                                      Trajan.                       98
  100     Evaristus (?).
  109     Alexander (?).
                                      Hadrian.                      117
  119     Sixtus I.
  129     Telesphorus.
                                      Antoninus Pius.               138
  139     Hyginus.
  143     Pius I.
  157     Anicetus.
                                      Marcus Aurelius.              161
  168     Soter.
  177     Eleutherius.
                                      Commodus.                     180
                                      Pertinax.                     190
                                      Didius Julianus.              191
                                      Niger.                        192
  193     Victor (?).                 Septimius Severus.            193
  202     Zephyrinus (?).
                                      Caracalla, Geta,
                                       Diadumenian.                 211
                                      Opilius Macrinus.             217
                                      Elagabalus.                   218
  219     Calixtus I.
                                      Alexander Severus.            222
  223     Urban I.
  230     Pontianus.
  235     Anterius or Anteros.        Maximin.                      235
  236     Fabianus.
                                      The two Gordians, Maximus
                                       Pupienus, Balbinus.          237
                                      Gordian the Younger.          238
                                      Philip.                       244
                                      Decius.                       249
  251     Cornelius.                  Gallus.                       251
  252     Lucius I.                   Volusian.                     252
  253     Stephen I.                  AEmilian, Valerian,
                                       Gallienus.                   253
  257     Sixtus II.
  259     Dionysius.
                                      Claudius II.                  268
  269     Felix.
                                      Aurelian.                     270
  275     Eutychianus.                Tacitus.                      275
                                      Probus.                       276
                                      Carus.                        282
  283     Caius.
                                      Carinus, Numerian,
                                       Diocletian.                  284
                                      Maximian, joint Emperor
                                       with Diocletian.             286
  296     Marcellinus.                                             [305(?)
  304     Vacancy.                    Constantius, Galerius.        304(?)
                                      Licinius.                  or 307]
  308     Marcellus I.                Maximin.                      308
                                      Constantine, Galerius,
                                       Licinius, Maximin,
                                       Maxentius, and Maximian
                                       reigning jointly.            309
  310     Eusebius.
  311     Melchiades.
  314     Sylvester I.
                                      Constantine (the Great)
                                       alone.                       323
  336     Marcus I.
  337     Julius I.                   Constantine II,
                                       Constantius II,
                                       Constans.                    337
                                      Magnentius.                   350
  352     Liberius.
                                      Constantius alone.            353
  356     Felix (Anti-pope).
                                      Julian.                       361
                                      Jovian.                       363
                                      Valens and Valentinian I.     364
  366     Damasus I.
                                      Gratian and Valentinian I.    367
                                      Valentinian II and
                                       Gratian.                     375
                                      Theodosius.                   379
  384     Siricius.
                                      Arcadius (in the East),
                                       Honorius (in the West).      395
  398     Anastasius I.
  402     Innocent I.
                                      Theodosius II. (E)            408
  417     Zosimus.
  418     Boniface I.
  418     Eulalius (Anti-pope).
  422     Celestine I.
                                      Valentinian III. (W)          424
  432     Sixtus III.
  440     Leo I (the Great).
                                      Marcian. (E)                  450
                                      Maximus, Avitus. (W)          455
                                      Majorian. (W)                 455
                                      Leo I. (E)                    457
  461     Hilarius.                   Severus. (W)                  461
                                      Vacancy. (W)                  465
                                      Anthemius. (W)                467
  468     Simplicius.
                                      Olybrius. (W)                 472
                                      Glycerius. (W)                473
                                      Julius Nepos. (W)             474
                                      Leo II, Zeno, Basiliscus
                                       (all E.)                     474
                                      Romulus Augustulus. (W)       475
                                      (End of the Western Line
                                       in Romulus Augustus.         476)
                                      (Henceforth, till A.D. 800,
                                       Emperors reigning at
  483     Felix III[2].                Constantinople).
                                      Anastasius I.                 491
  492     Gelasius I.
  496     Anastasius II.
  498     Symmachus.
  498     Laurentius (Anti-pope).
  514     Hormisdas.
                                      Justin I.                     518
  523     John I.
  526     Felix IV.
                                      Justinian.                    527
  530     Boniface II.
  530     Dioscorus (Anti-pope).
  532     John II.
  535     Agapetus I.
  536     Silverius.
  537     Vigilius.
  555     Pelagius I.
  560     John III.
                                      Justin II.                    565
  574     Benedict I.
  578     Pelagius II.                Tiberius II.                  578
                                      Maurice.                      582
  590     Gregory I (the Great).
                                      Phocas.                       602
  604     Sabinianus.
  607     Boniface III.
  607     Boniface IV.
                                      Heraclius.                    610
  615     Deus dedit.
  618     Boniface V.
  625     Honorius I.
  638     Severinus.
  640     John IV.
                                      Constantine III,
                                       Heracleonas,
                                       Constans II.                 641
  642     Theodorus I.
  649     Martin I.
  654     Eugenius I.
  657     Vitalianus.
                                      Constantine IV (Pogonatus).   668
  672     Adeodatus.
  676     Domnus or Donus I.
  678     Agatho.
  682     Leo II.
  683(?)  Benedict II.
  685     John V.                     Justinian II.                 685
  685(?)  Conon.
  687     Sergius I.
  687     Paschal (Anti-pope).
  687     Theodorus (Anti-pope).
                                      Leontius.                     694
                                      Tiberius.                     697
  701     John VI.
  705     John VII.                   Justinian II restored.        705
  708     Sisinnius.
  708     Constantine.
                                      Philippicus Bardanes.         711
                                      Anastasius II.                713
  715     Gregory II.
                                      Theodosius III.               716
                                      Leo III (the Isaurian).       718
  731     Gregory III.
  741     Zacharias.                  Constantine V
                                       (Copronymus).                741
  752     Stephen (II).
  752     Stephen II (or III).
  757     Paul I.
  767     Constantine (Anti-pope).
  768     Stephen III (IV).
  772     Hadrian I.
                                      Leo IV.                       775
                                      Constantine VI.               780
  795     Leo III.
                                      Deposition of Constantine
                                       VI by Irene.                 797
                                      Charles I (the Great).        800
                                      (Following henceforth the
                                       new Western line).
                                      Lewis I (the Pious).          814
  816     Stephen IV.
  817     Paschal I.
  824     Eugenius II.
  827     Valentinus.
  827     Gregory IV.
                                      Lothar I.                     840
  844     Sergius II.
  847     Leo IV.
  855     Benedict III.               Lewis II.                     855
  855     Anastasius (Anti-pope).
  858     Nicholas I.
  867     Hadrian II.
  872     John VIII.
                                      Charles II (the Bald).        875
                                      Charles III (the Fat).        881
  882     Martin II.
  884     Hadrian III.
  885     Stephen V.
  891     Formosus.                   Guido.                        891
                                      Lambert.                      894
  896     Boniface VI.                Arnulf.                       896
  896     Stephen VI.
  897     Romanus.
  897     Theodore II.
  898     John IX.
                                      Lewis (the Child).[+]         899
  900     Benedict IV.
                                      Lewis III (of Provence).      901
  903     Leo V.
  903     Christopher.
  904     Sergius III.
  911     Anastasius III.
                                      Conrad I.[+]                  912(?)
  913     Lando.
  914     John X.
                                      Berengar.                     915
                                      Henry I (the Fowler).[+]      918
  928     Leo VI.
  929     Stephen VII.
  931     John XI.
  936     Leo VII.                    Otto I (the Great).[+]        936
  939     Stephen VIII.
  941     Martin III.
  946     Agapetus II.
  955     John XII.
                                      Otto I, crowned at Rome.      962
  963     Leo VIII.
  964     Benedict V (Anti-Pope?).
  965     John XIII.
  972     Benedict VI.
                                      Otto II.                      973
  974     Boniface VII (Anti-pope?).
  974     Domnus II (?).
  974     Benedict VII.
  983     John XIV.                   Otto III                      983
  985     John XV.
  996     Gregory V.
  996     John XVI (Anti-pope).
  999     Sylvester II.
                                      Henry II (the Saint).         1002
  1003    John XVII.
  1003    John XVIII.
  1009    Sergius IV.
  1012    Benedict VIII.
  1024    John XIX.                   Conrad II (the Salic).        1024
  1033    Benedict IX.
                                      Henry III.                    1039
  1044    Sylvester (Anti-pope).
  1045(   Gregory VI.
  1046    Clement II.
  1048    Damasus II.
  1048    Leo IX.
  1054    Victor II.
                                      Henry IV.                     1056
  1057    Stephen IX.
  1058    Benedict X.
  1059    Nicholas II.
  1061    Alexander II.
  1073    Gregory VII (Hildebrand).
  1080    (Clement, Anti-pope).
  1086    Victor III.
  1087    Urban II.
  1099    Paschal II.
                                      Henry V.                      1106
  1118    Gelasius II.
  1118    Gregory, (Anti-pope).
  1119    Calixtus II.
  1121    (Celestine, Anti-pope).
  1124    Honorius II.
                                      Lothar II (the Saxon).        1125
  1130    Innocent II.
           (Anacletus, Anti-pope).
  1138    Victor (Anti-pope).         [*]Conrad III.                1138
  1143    Celestine II.
  1144    Lucius II.
  1145    Eugenius III.
                                      Frederick I (Barbarossa).     1152
  1153    Anastasius IV.
  1154    Hadrian IV.
  1159    Alexander III.
  1159    (Victor, Anti-pope).
  1164    (Paschal, Anti-pope).
  1168    (Calixtus, Anti-pope).
  1181    Lucius III.
  1185    Urban III.
  1187    Gregory VIII.
  1187    Clement III.
                                      Henry VI.                     1190
  1191    Celestine III.
  1198    Innocent III.               [*]Philip, Otto IV
                                       (rivals).                    1198
                                      Otto IV.                      1208
                                      Frederick II.                 1212
  1216    Honorius III.
  1227    Gregory IX.
  1241    Celestine IV.
  1241    Vacancy.
  1243    Innocent IV.
                                      [*]Conrad IV, [*]William,
                                       (rivals).                    1250
  1254    Alexander IV.               Interregnum.                  1254
                                      [*]Richard (earl of
                                       Cornwall).
                                       [*]Alfonso (king of
                                       Castile), (rivals).          1257
  1261    Urban IV.
  1265    Clement IV.
  1269    Vacancy.
  1271    Gregory X.
                                      [*]Rudolf I (of Hapsburg).    1272
  1276    Innocent V.
  1276    Hadrian V.
  1277    John XX or XXI.
  1277    Nicholas I
  1281    Martin IV.
  1285    Honorius IV.
  1289    Nicholas IV.
  1292    Vacancy.                    [*]Adolf (of Nassau).         1292
  1294    Celestine V.
  1294    Boniface VIII.
                                      [*]Albert I.                  1298
  1303    Benedict XI.
  1305    Clement V.
                                      Henry VII.                    1308
  1314    Vacancy.                    Lewis IV.                     1315
                                       (Frederick of Austria,
                                       rival).
  1316    John XXI or XXII.
  1334    Benedict XII.
  1342    Clement VI.
                                      Charles IV.                   1347
  1352    Innocent VI.                (Guenther of Schwartzburg,
                                      rival).
  1362    Urban