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[Transcriber's Notes: Mathematical problems could not be represented as
in the original as we cannot stack numbers. The following rules were
used:

Parentheses added to groupings of numbers.

Bracket and "rt" square roots. [3rt]

Carets and curly brackets indicate a superscripted number, letter or
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by _underscores_.]


[Illustration: _The "Suna" before the Explosion._]

[Illustration: _The Torpedo._]

[Illustration: _The "Suna" after the Explosion._]


    Griffin & C^{o.} Portsmouth.    W.F. Mitchell del.




    TORPEDOES

    AND

    TORPEDO WARFARE:

    CONTAINING A

    COMPLETE AND CONCISE ACCOUNT OF THE

    RISE AND PROGRESS OF SUBMARINE WARFARE;

    ALSO A

    DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF ALL MATTERS APPERTAINING THERETO,
    INCLUDING THE LATEST IMPROVEMENTS.

    BY
    C. W. SLEEMAN, ESQ.,
    LATE LIEUT. R.N., AND LATE COMMANDER IMPERIAL OTTOMAN NAVY.


    _WITH FIFTY-SEVEN FULL-PAGE ILLUSTRATIONS, DIAGRAMS,
    WOODCUTS, &c._


    PORTSMOUTH:
    GRIFFIN & CO., 2, THE HARD,
    (_Publishers by Appointment to H.R.H. The Duke of Edinburgh._)
    LONDON AGENTS: SIMPKIN, MARSHALL, & CO.
    1880.

    _All Rights reserved._]




PREFACE.


IN the following pages the Author has endeavoured to supply a want,
viz. a comprehensive work on Torpedo Warfare, brought down to the
latest date.

The information has been obtained while practically engaged in torpedo
work at home and abroad, and from the study of the principal books
which have already appeared on the subject, and to the authors of which
he would now beg to express his acknowledgments, viz.: "Submarine
Warfare," by Lieut.-Commander Barnes, U.S.N.; "Notes on Torpedoes," by
Major Stotherd, R.E.; "Art of War in Europe," by General Delafield,
U.S.A.; "Life of Fulton," by C. D. Colden; "Torpedo War," by R.
Fulton; "Armsmear," by H. Barnard; "Treatise on Coast Defence," by
Colonel Von Scheliha; Professional Papers of the Royal Engineers; "The
Engineering"; "The Engineer"; "Scientific American"; "Iron"; &c., &c.

The Author is also desirous of thanking the following gentlemen, to
whom he is indebted for much of the valuable information contained
herein:--

Messrs. Siemens Brothers, Messrs. Thornycroft and Co., Messrs. Yarrow
and Co., Captain C. A. McEvoy, 18 Adam Street, W.C., Mr. L. Lay,
Messrs. J. Vavaseur and Co.

LONDON, 1879.




CONTENTS.


                                                                PAGE
  Preface                                                        iii

  CHAPTER I.

  The early History of the Torpedo--Remarks on the existing
    State of Torpedo Warfare                                       1


  CHAPTER II.

  Defensive Torpedo Warfare--Mechanical Submarine
    Mines--Mechanical Fuzes--Mooring Mechanical Mines             13


  CHAPTER III.

  Defensive Torpedo Warfare (_continued_)--Electrical
    Submarine Mines--Electrical Fuzes--Insulated Electric
    Cables--Electric Cable Joints--Junction Boxes--Mooring
    Electrical Submarine Mines                                    27


  CHAPTER IV.

  Defensive Torpedo Warfare (_continued_)--Circuit
    Closers--Firing by Observation--Voltaic
    Batteries--Electrical Machines--Firing Keys and Shutter
    Apparatus--Testing Submarine Mines--Clearing a Passage
    through Torpedo Defences                                      60


  CHAPTER V.

  Offensive Torpedo Warfare--Drifting Torpedoes--Towing
    Torpedoes--Locomotive Torpedoes--Spar Torpedoes--General
    Remarks on Offensive Torpedoes                               115


  CHAPTER VI.

  Torpedo Vessels and Boats--The _Uhlan_--The _Alarm_--The
    _Destroyer_--Thornycroft's Torpedo Boats--Yarrow's
    Torpedo Boats--Schibau's Torpedo Boats--Herreshoff's
    Torpedo Boats--Torpedo Boat Attacks--Submarine Boats         158


  CHAPTER VII.

  Torpedo Operations--The Crimean War (1854-56)--The
    Austro-Italian War (1859)--The American Civil War
    (1861-65)--The Paraguayan War (1864-68)--The Austrian
    War (1866)--The Franco-German War (1870-71)--The
    Russo-Turkish War (1877-78)                                  187


  CHAPTER VIII.

  On Explosives--Definitions--Experiments--Gunpowder--Picric
    Powder--Nitro-Glycerine--Dynamite--Gun-cotton--Fulminate
    of Mercury--Dualin--Lithofracteur--Horsley's
    Powder--Torpedo Explosive Agents--Torpedo Explosions         204


  CHAPTER IX.

  Torpedo Experiments--Chatham, England,
    1865--Austria--Carlscrona, Sweden, 1868--Kiel,
    Prussia--England, 1874--Copenhagen, Denmark,
    1874--Carlscrona, Sweden, 1874-75--Portsmouth, England,
    1874-75--Pola, Austria, 1875--Portsmouth, England,
    1876--Experiments with Countermines--The Medway, England,
    1870--Stokes Bay, England, 1873--Carlscrona, Sweden, 1874    220


  CHAPTER X.

  The Electric Light--The Nordenfelt and Hotchkiss Torpedo
    Guns--Diving                                                 239


  CHAPTER XI.

  Electricity                                                    265


  APPENDIX.

  McEvoy's Single Main Systems                                   283
  Siemens' Universal Galvanometer Tables                         287
  Synopsis of the Principal Events that have occurred in
    connection with the History of the Torpedo                   290

  Index                                                          297




LIST OF PLATES.


  DESTRUCTION OF TURKISH GUNBOAT "SUNA" (_Frontispiece_).
        I. FULTON'S TORPEDOES.
       II. FRAME TORPEDOES, BUOYANT MECHANICAL MINES.
      III. SINGER'S AND MCEVOY'S MECHANICAL MINES.
       IV. EXTEMPORE MECHANICAL MINE, MECHANICAL PRIMERS.
        V. MECHANICAL FUZES.
       VI. FORM OF CASE OF SUBMARINE MINES.
      VII. ELECTRIC FUZES.
     VIII. ELECTRIC CABLES, EXTEMPORE CABLE JOINTS.
       IX. PERMANENT JOINTS FOR ELECTRIC CABLES.
        X. JUNCTION BOXES, MECHANICAL TURK'S HEAD.
       XI. MOORINGS FOR SUBMARINE MINES.
      XII. STEAM LAUNCH FOR MOORING SUBMARINE MINES.
     XIII. MATHIESON'S CIRCUIT CLOSER.
      XIV. AUSTRIAN CIRCUIT CLOSER, MERCURY CIRCUIT CLOSER.
       XV. MCEVOY'S MAGNETO ELECTRO CIRCUIT CLOSER.
      XVI. RUSSIAN SUBMARINE MINE, FIRING BY OBSERVATION.
     XVII. APPARATUS FOR FIRING BY OBSERVATION.
    XVIII. SYSTEMS OF DEFENCE BY SUBMARINE MINES.
      XIX. FIRING BATTERIES, TESTING BATTERIES.
       XX. FIRING KEYS, SHUTTER APPARATUS.
      XXI. SHUTTER APPARATUS.
     XXII. GALVANOMETERS FOR TESTING.
    XXIII. SIEMENS' UNIVERSAL GALVANOMETER.
   XXIIIA.     DITTO    DITTO.
     XXIV.     DITTO    DITTO.
    XXIVA.     DITTO    DITTO.
      XXV. SHUNT, COMMUTATOR, RHEOSTAT.
     XXVI. WHEATSTONE'S BRIDGE.
    XXVII. TEST TABLE, DIFFERENTIAL GALVANOMETER.
   XXVIII. METHODS OF TESTING--ARMSTRONG--AUSTRIAN.
     XXIX. DRIFTING TORPEDOES.
      XXX. HARVEY'S TOWING TORPEDO.
     XXXI.     DITTO    DITTO.
    XXXII. SYSTEMS OF ATTACK WITH HARVEY'S SEA TORPEDO.
   XXXIII.     DITTO    DITTO.
    XXXIV.     DITTO    DITTO.
     XXXV. GERMAN AND FRENCH TOWING TORPEDOES.
    XXXVI. WHITEHEAD'S FISH TORPEDOES.
   XXXVII. THORNYCROFT'S BOAT APPARATUS FOR FISH TORPEDOES.
  XXXVIII. LAY'S LOCOMOTIVE TORPEDO.
    XXXIX.     DITTO    DITTO.
       XL.     DITTO    DITTO.
      XLI.     DITTO    DITTO.
     XLII.     DITTO    DITTO.
    XLIII.     DITTO    DITTO.
     XLIV. MCEVOY'S DUPLEX SPAR TORPEDOES.
      XLV. THE "ALARM" TORPEDO SHIP.
     XLVI. THE "DESTROYER" TORPEDO SHIP.
    XLVII. THORNYCROFT'S TORPEDO BOATS.
   XLVIII.     DITTO    DITTO.
     XLIX.  YARROW'S TORPEDO BOATS.
        L.     DITTO    DITTO.
       LI. RUSSIAN TORPEDO BOAT, HERRESHOFF'S TORPEDO BOAT.
      LII. SUBMARINE MINE EXPLOSION.
     LIII.     DITTO    DITTO.
      LIV. MCEVOY'S SINGLE MAIN SYSTEM.




[Illustration]




Torpedoes and Torpedo Warfare.




CHAPTER I.

THE EARLY HISTORY OF THE TORPEDO.--REMARKS ON THE EXISTING STATE OF
TORPEDO WARFARE.


THE earliest record we have of the employment of an infernal machine
at all resembling the torpedo of the present day, was in 1585 at the
siege of Antwerp. Here by means of certain small vessels, drifted down
the stream, in each of which was placed a magazine of gunpowder, to be
fired either by a trigger, or a combination of levers and clockwork, an
Italian engineer, Lambelli, succeeded in demolishing a bridge that the
enemy had formed over the Scheldt.

So successful was this first attempt, and so tremendous was the effect
produced on the spectators, by the explosion of one of these torpedoes,
that further investigation of this new mode of Naval warfare was at
once instituted.

But it was not until some two hundred years after that any real
progress was effected, though numerous attempts were made during this
period, to destroy vessels by means of sub-marine infernal machines.

It was owing to the fact, that the condition which is now considered as
essential in torpedo warfare, viz., that the charge must be submerged,
was then entirely ignored, that so long a standstill occurred in this
new art of making war.

_Captain Bushnell, the Inventor of Torpedoes._--To Captain David
Bushnell, of Connecticut, in 1775, is most certainly due the credit
of inventing torpedoes, or as he termed them submarine magazines. For
he first proved practically that a charge of gunpowder could be fired
under water, which is incontestably the essence of submarine warfare.

_Submarine Boat._--To Captain Bushnell is also due the credit of first
devizing a submarine boat for the purpose of conveying his magazines to
the bottom of hostile ships and there exploding them.

_Drifting Torpedoes._--Another plan of his for destroying vessels, was
that of connecting two of his infernal machines together by means of a
line, and throwing them into the water, allowing the current to carry
them across the bows of the attacked ship.

_Mode of Ignition._--The ignition of his magazines was generally
effected by means of clockwork, which, when set in motion, would
run for some time before exploding the machines, thus enabling the
operators to get clear of the explosion.

Captain Bushnell's few attempts to destroy our ships off the American
coast in 1776 and 1777, with his submarine boat, and his drifting
torpedoes were all attended with failure, a result generally
experienced, where new inventions are for the first time subjected to
the test of actual service.

_Robert Fulton._--Robert Fulton, an American, following in his
footsteps, some twenty years after, revived the subject of submarine
warfare, which during that interval seems to have been entirely
forgotten.

A resident in France, in 1797, he is found during that year making
various experiments on the Seine with a machine which he had
constructed, and by which he designed "to impart to carcasses of
gunpowder a progressive motion under water, to a certain point, and
there explode them."[A]

_Fulton's Failures._--Though these first essays of his resulted in
failure, Fulton thoroughly believed in the efficacy of his schemes, and
we find him, during that and succeeding years, vainly importunating the
French and Dutch Governments, to grant him aid and support in carrying
out experiments with his new inventions, whereby he might perfect
them, and thus ensure to whichever government acceded to his views, the
total destruction of their enemy's fleets.

_Bonaparte aids Fulton._--Though holding out such favourable terms, it
was not until 1800, when Bonaparte became First Consul, that Fulton's
solicitations were successful, and that money was granted him to carry
out a series of experiments.

In the following year (1801), under Bonaparte's immediate patronage,
Fulton carried out various and numerous experiments in the harbour of
Brest, principally with a submarine boat devised by him (named the
_Nautilus_), subsequently to his invention of submarine carcasses as
a means of approaching a ship and fixing one of his infernal machines
beneath her, unbeknown to the crew of the attacked ship.

_First Vessel destroyed by Torpedoes._--In August, 1801, Fulton
completely destroyed a small vessel in Brest harbour by means of one of
his submarine bombs, then called by him for the first time, torpedoes,
containing some twenty pounds of gunpowder. This is the first vessel
known to have been sunk by a submarine mine.

_Bonaparte's patronage withdrawn._--Notwithstanding the apparent
success, and enormous power of Fulton's projects, on account of a
failure on his part to destroy one of the English Channel fleet, at the
end of 1801, Bonaparte at once withdrew his support and aid.

Disgusted with this treatment, and having been previously pressed by
some of England's most influential men, to bring his projects to that
country, so that the English might reap the benefit of his wonderful
schemes, Fulton left France, and arrived in London, in May, 1804.

_Pitt supports Fulton._--Mr. Pitt, then Prime Minister, was much struck
with Fulton's various schemes of submarine warfare, and after examining
one of his infernal machines, or torpedoes, exclaimed, "that if
introduced into practice, it could not fail to annihilate all military
marines."[B]

Though having secured the approval of Mr. Pitt, and a few other members
of the Government, he was quite unable to induce the English to accept
his schemes in toto, and at once employ them in the Naval service.

Twice Fulton attempted to destroy French men-of-war, lying in the
harbour of Boulogne, by means of his drifting torpedoes, but each time
he failed, owing as he then explained, and which afterwards proved
to be the case, to the simple mistake of having made his machines
specifically heavier than water, thus preventing the current from
carrying them under a vessel's bottom.

_Destruction of the "Dorothea."_--Though in each of the above-mentioned
attempts Fulton succeeded in exploding his machines, and though on the
15th October, 1805, in the presence of a numerous company of Naval
and other scientific men, he completely demolished a stout brig, the
_Dorothea_, off Walmer Castle, by means of his drifting torpedoes,
similar to those employed by him at Boulogne, but considerably
improved, still the English Government refused to have anything further
to do with him or his schemes.

England, at that time, being mistress of the seas, it was clearly
her interest to make the world believe that Fulton's schemes were
impracticable and absurd.

Earl St. Vincent, in a conversation with Fulton, told him in very
strong language, "that Pitt was a fool for encouraging a mode of
warfare, which, if successful, would wrest the trident from those who
then claimed to bear it, as the sceptre of supremacy on the ocean."[C]

Wearied with incessant applications and neglect, and with failures, not
with his inventions, but in inducing governments to accept them, he
left England in 1806, and returned to his native country.

_Application to Congress for Help._--Arrived there, he lost no time in
solicitating aid from Congress to enable him to carry out experiments
with his torpedoes and submarine boats, practice alone in his opinion
being necessary to develop the extraordinary powers of his invention,
as an auxiliary to harbour defence.

By incessant applications to his government, and by circulating his
torpedo book[D] among the members, in which he had given detailed
accounts of all his previous experiments in France and England, and
elaborate plans for rendering American harbours, etc., invulnerable
to British attack, a Commission was appointed to inquire into and
practically test the value of these schemes.

They were as follows:--

    1.--_Drifting Torpedoes._--Two torpedoes connected by
    a line floated in the tide at a certain depth, and
    suffered to drift across the bows of the vessel to
    be attacked; the coupling line being arrested by the
    ship's cable would cause the torpedoes to be forced
    under her bottom; this plan is represented and will be
    readily understood by Fig. 3.

    2.--_Harpoon Torpedo._--A torpedo attached to one end
    of a line, the other part to a harpoon, which was to be
    fired into the bows of the doomed vessel from a piece
    of ordnance mounted in the bows of a boat, specially
    constructed for the purpose; the line being fixed to
    the vessel by the harpoon, the current, if the vessel
    were at anchor, or her progress if underweigh, would
    carry the torpedo under her bottom. Fig. 2 represents
    this type of Fulton's submarine infernal machine.

    3.--_Spar Torpedo._--A torpedo attached to a spar
    suspended by a swivel from the bowsprit of a torpedo
    boat, so nearly balanced, that a man could easily
    depress, or elevate the torpedo with one hand, whilst
    with the other he pulled a trigger and exploded it.

    4.--_Block Ship._--Block ships, that is vessels from
    50 to 100 tons, constructed with sides impervious to
    cannon shot, and decks made impenetrable to musket
    shot. A spar torpedo _a, a, a_, to be carried on each
    bow and quarter Fig. 4 represents this curious craft.

    _Stationary Mines._--Stationary buoyant torpedoes
    for harbour defence, to be fired by means of levers
    attached to triggers. This kind of mine is shown at
    Fig. 1.

    5.--_Cable Cutters._--Cable cutters, that is submarine
    guns discharging a sharp piece of iron in the shape of
    a crescent, with sufficient force to cut through ship's
    cables, or other obstructions.[E]

_Practical Experiments._--Various and exhaustive experiments were
carried out in the presence of the Commissioners, tending generally to
impress them with a favourable view of Fulton's many projects.

As a final test, the sloop _Argus_ was ordered, under the
superintendence of Commodore Rodgers, to whom Fulton had previously
explained his mode of attack, to be prepared to repel all attempts made
against her by Fulton, with his torpedoes.

_Defence of the "Argus."_--Though repeated attempts were made, none
were successful, owing to the energetic, though somewhat exaggerated
manner in which the defence of the sloop had been carried out. She
was surrounded by numerous spars lashed together, nets down to the
ground, grappling irons, heavy pieces of metal suspended from the yard
arms ready to be dropped into any boat that came beneath them, scythes
fitted to long spars for the purpose of mowing off the heads of any who
might be rash enough to get within range of them.

As Robert Fulton very justly remarked, "a system, then only in its
infancy, which compelled a hostile vessel to guard herself by such
extraordinary means could not fail of becoming a most important mode of
warfare."

Three of the Commissioners reported as favourably as could be expected,
considering its infancy, on the practical value of Fulton's scheme of
torpedo warfare.

_Congress refuse aid._--But on the strength of Commodore Rodgers's
report, which was as unfair and prejudiced, as the others were fair
and unprejudiced, Congress refused Fulton any further aid, or to
countenance any further experiments that he might still feel inclined
to prosecute.

Though undeterred by this fresh instance of neglect, and still having a
firm belief in the efficacy of his various torpedo projects, yet other
important matters connected with the improvement of the steam engine
occupied his whole time and prevented him from making any further
experiments with his submarine inventions.

_Mode of Firing, 1829._--Up to 1829, that is to say for nearly sixty
years after the invention of torpedoes, mechanical means only were
employed to effect the ignition of the torpedo charges, such as levers,
clockwork, and triggers pulled by hand; with such crude means of
exploding them, it is not extraordinary to find, that all the attempts
made to destroy hostile ships, resulted in failure.

[Illustration: FULTON'S TORPEDOES.

PLATE I]

Briefly reviewing the history of the torpedo during its first period
of existence, viz., from Captain Bushnell's invention of submarine
magazines in 1775, down to the introduction of electricity, as a
means of exploding submarine mines, by Colonel Colt, in 1829, we
find that due to the unwearied exertions, and numerous experiments
carried out by Captain Bushnell, Mr. R. Fulton and others, the
following very important principles in the art of torpedo warfare were
fully proved:--

    1.--That a charge of gunpowder could be exploded under
    water.

    2.--That any vessel could be sunk by a torpedo,
    provided only the charge were large enough.

    3.--That it was possible to construct a boat which
    could be navigated, and remain for several hours under
    water, without detriment to her crew.

    4.--That a ship at anchor could be destroyed, by means
    of drifting torpedoes, or by a submarine or ordinary
    boat, armed with a spar torpedo.

    5.--That a vessel underweigh could be destroyed by
    means of stationary submarine mines, and by the harpoon
    torpedo.

These principles, which at the time were fully admitted, laid the
foundations of the systems of torpedo warfare, that are at the present
day in vogue, all over the world.

_Second Epoch._--The second epoch in the life of the torpedo dates from
1829, when Colonel Colt, then a mere lad, commenced experiments with
his submarine battery.

_Colt's Experiments._--His first public essay, was on the 4th June,
1842, when he exploded a case of powder in New York harbour, while
himself standing at a great distance off.

Having by numerous successful experiments satisfactorily proved that
vessels at anchor could be sunk by means of his electrical mines,
Colonel Colt engaged to destroy a vessel underweigh by similar means,
which feat he successfully accomplished on 13th April, 1844.

_Colt's Electric Cable._--The electric cable as used by Colonel Colt,
was insulated by cotton yarn, soaked in a solution of asphaltum and
beeswax, and the whole enclosed in a metal case.

_Colt's Reflector._--On examining Colt's papers after his death, one
was found illustrating one of his many devices for effecting the
explosion of a submarine mine at the proper instant.

_Description of Reflector._--One set of conducting wires from all the
mines is permanently attached to a single pole of a very powerful
firing battery, the other wires lead to metal points which are attached
to marks on a chart of the channel in front of the operator and which
marks correspond with the actual positions of the mines in the channel.
A reflector, is arranged to throw the image of a hostile vessel on the
chart, and as this image passes over either of the wire terminations
on it, the operator with the other battery wire, completes the
circuit, and explodes the torpedo, over which by her image thrown on
the chart, the vessel is supposed to be at that precise moment.[F] In
his experiment with a vessel under weigh, Colt had probably taken the
precaution of laying down several circles of mines, and thus aided by
cross staffs, ensured the experiment being a success.

With regard to the invention of the word torpedo, for submarine
infernal machines, Dr. Barnard in his life of Colt says, "that Fulton
used the word torpedo, probably on account of its power of stunning or
making torpid, and that a long way through the water,--in so naming it,
he buildeth better than he knew, for Colt's torpedoes being fired by
electricity may with special fitness take its name from the electric
eel."[G]

_Theoretical Knowledge._--Though many opportunities have occurred
during the last thirty-five years for practically testing the
effectiveness of torpedoes when employed on actual service, especially
during the American Civil War (1861-65) and the late Turco-Russian
War (1877-78), yet in so far as the offensive and electrical portion
of submarine warfare is concerned, our knowledge of them is still
principally theoretically.

_Failure of Offensive Torpedoes._--The manipulation of the ordinary
spar or outrigger torpedo boats, and of the various automatic
torpedoes, appears simple enough, when practice is made with those
submarine weapons during peace time, also the results of such practice
is without doubt uniformly successful, yet when the crucial test of
actual service is applied, as was the case during the war of 1877, with
the Whitehead and spar torpedoes, then a succession of failures had to
be recorded.[H]

The cause of this want of success in war-time with offensive torpedoes,
lies in the fact, that during peace time the experiments and practice
carried out with them, are done so, under the most favourable
circumstances, that is to say in daylight, and the nerves of the
operators not in that high state of tension, which would be the case,
were they attacking a man-of-war on a pitch dark night, whose exact
position cannot be known, and from whose guns at any moment a sheet of
fire may be belched forth, and a storm of shot and bullets be poured on
them, whilst on actual service, this would in nine out of ten instances
be the case.

Some uncertainty must and will always exist in offensive torpedo
operations when carried out in actual war, where, as in this case, the
success of the enterprise depends almost wholly on the state of a man's
nerves, yet this defect, a want of certainty, may to a considerable
extent be eradicated were means to be found of carrying out in time of
peace, a systematic practice of this branch of torpedo warfare, under
circumstances similar to those experienced in war time, and this is not
only possible, but practicable.

_Moral Effect of Torpedoes._--We now come to the moral effect of
torpedoes, which is undoubtedly the very essence of the vast power of
these terrible engines of war. Each successive war that has occurred,
in which the torpedo has taken a part, since Captain Bushnell's futile
attempt in 1775 to destroy our fleet by drifting numerous kegs charged
with gunpowder down the Delawarre, teem with proofs of the great worth
of torpedoes in this respect alone.

That such a dread of them should and always will be met with in future
Naval wars, at times creating a regular torpedo scare or funk, is not
extraordinary, when it is remembered that these submarine weapons of
the present day, are capable of sinking the finest ironclad afloat, and
of launching into eternity without a moment's warning or preparation,
whole ships' crews.

The torpedoes existing at the present day have, without doubt, reached
a very high degree of excellence, in so far as their construction,
fuzes, cables, &c., both electrically and mechanically, is concerned,
but much has yet to be done to develop their actual effectiveness.

The result of the numerous and exhaustive experiments that have of
late years been carried out by England, America, and Europe prove that
the necessary distances between stationary submarine mines are by far
greater than those within which the explosions are effective.

Therefore it will be found necessary to supplement those submarine
harbour defences, by automatic torpedoes that can be controlled and
directed from the shore, as well as by specially constructed torpedo
boats.

_Automatic Arrangements._--And to ensure certainty, which is the
desideratum in torpedo warfare, circuit closers, or other automatic
arrangements for exploding the submarine mines, must be employed, as
the system of firing them by judgment is not at all a sure one.

_Ship Defence._--The problem, which occupies the attention of Naval
and other scientific men, at the present day, is how best to enable a
ship to guard herself against attacks from the fish and other automatic
torpedoes, and this without in any way impairing her efficiency as a
man-of-war.

The means of such defence, should most certainly be inherent in the
vessel herself, outward methods, such as nets, booms, etc., are
to great extent impracticable, besides one of the above mentioned
torpedoes, being caught by such obstructions would, on exploding, most
probably destroy them, thus leaving the vessel undefended against
further attacks.

_Mechanical Mines._--Several ingenious methods have of late been
devised for the purpose of obviating one of the principal defects
common to all kinds of mechanical submarine mines, the most efficient
and practical of which will be found fully described in the following
pages, viz., the great danger attendant on the mooring of such mines;
but as yet, no really practical mode of rendering mechanical mines
safe, after they have once been moored and put in action, has been
discovered, were such to be devised, a very difficult and extremely
important problem of defensive torpedo warfare would be solved.

_Electrical Mines._--In regard to electrical submarine mines, much
has been done by torpedoists in general to simplify this otherwise
somewhat complicated branch of defensive torpedo warfare, by adopting
the platinum wire fuze, in the place of the high tension one, by the
employment of Leclanche firing batteries, by the simplification of
the circuit closer, and discarding the use of a circuit breaker, by
altering the form of torpedo case, and whenever possible by enclosing
the circuit closer in the submarine mine.

The necessity of a very elaborate system of testing should, if
possible, be overcome, for a system of submarine mines that requires
the numerous and various tests that are at the present day employed,
to enable those in charge of them to know for certain that when wanted
the mines will explode, cannot be considered as adaptable to actual
service. It must be remembered that the safety of many ports, etc.,
will in future wars depend almost entirely on the practical efficiency
of electrical and mechanical mines. As yet, in actual war, little or
no experience has been gained of the real value of a mode of coast
defence by electrical mines, excepting from a moral point of view,
though in this particular they have most undoubtedly been proved to be
exceedingly effective.

A submarine mine much wanted on active service, is one that can be
carried on board ships, capable of being fitted for use at a moment's
notice, and of