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 A

 PRACTICAL ENQUIRY

 INTO

 THE PHILOSOPHY

 OF

 EDUCATION.


 BY JAMES GALL,

 INVENTOR OF THE TRIANGULAR ALPHABET FOR THE BLIND; AND
 AUTHOR OF THE "END AND ESSENCE OF SABBATH
 SCHOOL TEACHING," &c.

 "_The Works of the Lord are great, sought out of all them that have
 pleasure therein._"--PSAL. cxi. 2.




 EDINBURGH:
 JAMES GALL & SON,
 24, NIDDRY STREET.
 LONDON: HOULSTON & STONEMAN, 65, PATERNOSTER-ROW.
 GLASGOW; GEORGE GALLIE. BELFAST: WILLIAM M'COMB.

 MDCCCXL




Printed by J. Gall & Son. 22, Niddry Street.




PREFACE.


The Author of the following pages is a plain man, who has endeavoured to
write a plain book, for the purpose of being popularly useful. The
philosophical form which his enquiries have assumed, is the result
rather of accidental circumstances than of free choice. The strong
desire which he felt in his earlier years to benefit the Young, induced
him to push forward in the paths which appeared to him most likely to
lead to his object; and it was not till he had advanced far into the
fields of philosophy, that he first began dimly to perceive the
importance of the ground which he had unwittingly occupied. The truth
is, that he had laboured many years in the Sabbath Schools with which he
had connected himself, before he was aware that, in his combat with
ignorance, he was wielding weapons that were comparatively new; and it
was still longer, before he very clearly understood the principles of
those Exercises which he found so successful. One investigation led to
another; light shone out as he proceeded; and he now submits, with full
confidence in the truth of his general principles and deductions, the
results of more than thirty years' experience and reflection in the
great cause of Education.

He has only further to observe, that the term "NATURE," which
occurs so frequently, has been adopted as a convenient and popular mode
of expression. None of his readers needs to be informed, that this is
but another manner of designating "THE GOD OF NATURE," whose
laws, as established in the young mind, he has been endeavouring humbly,
and perseveringly to imitate.

 _Myrtle Bank, Trinity, Edinburgh, 8th May, 1840._




CONTENTS


 PART I.

 ON THE PRELIMINARY OBJECTS NECESSARY FOR THE ESTABLISHMENT AND
 IMPROVEMENT OF EDUCATION.


 CHAP. I.                                                            Page

 On the Importance of establishing the Science of Education on a
 solid Foundation,                                                     13


 CHAP. II.

 On the Cultivation of Education as a Science,                         16


 CHAP. III.

 On the Improvement of Teaching as an Art,                             25


 CHAP. IV.

 On the Establishment of Sound Principles in Education,                32


 PART II.

 ON THE GREAT DESIGN OF NATURE'S TEACHING, AND THE METHODS SHE
 EMPLOYS IN CARRYING IT ON.


 CHAP. I.

 A Comprehensive View of the several Educational Processes
 carried on by Nature,                                                 37


 CHAP. II.

 On the Method employed by Nature for cultivating the Powers of
 the Mind,                                                             45


 CHAP. III.

 On the Means by which Nature enables her Pupils to acquire
 Knowledge,                                                            52


 CHAP. IV.

 On Nature's Method of communicating Knowledge to the Young by
 the Principle of Reiteration,                                         56


 CHAP. V.

 On the Acquisition of Knowledge by the Principle of
 Individuation,                                                        65


 CHAP. VI.

 On the Acquisition of Knowledge by the Principle of Association,
 or Grouping,                                                          72


 CHAP. VII.

 On the Acquisition of Knowledge by the Principle of Analysis,
 or Classification,                                                    83


 CHAP. VIII.

 On Nature's Methods of Teaching her Pupils to make use of their
 Knowledge,                                                            95


 CHAP. IX.

 On Nature's Methods of Applying Knowledge by the Principle of
 the Animal, or Common Sense,                                         101


 CHAP. X.

 On Nature's Method of applying Knowledge, by means of the
 Moral Sense, or Conscience,                                          111


 CHAP. XI.

 On Nature's Method of Training her Pupils to Communicate
 their Knowledge,                                                     129


 CHAP. XII.

 Recapitulation of the Philosophical Principles developed
 in the previous Chapters,                                            141


 PART III.

 ON THE METHODS BY WHICH THE EDUCATIONAL PROCESSES OF NATURE MAY BE
 SUCCESSFULLY IMITATED.


 CHAP. I.

 On the Exercises by which Nature may be imitated in cultivating
 the Powers of the Mind,                                              148


 CHAP. II.

 On the Methods by which Nature may be imitated in the Pupil's
 Acquisition of Knowledge; with a Review of the Analogy between
 the Mental and Physical Appetites of the Young,                      170


 CHAP. III.

 How Nature may be imitated in Communicating Knowledge to the
 Pupil, by the Reiteration of Ideas,                                  177


 CHAP. IV.

 On the Means by which Nature may be imitated in Exercising the
 Principle of Individuation,                                          192


 CHAP. V.

 On the Means by which Nature may be imitated in Applying the
 Principle of Grouping, or Association,                               204


 CHAP. VI.

 On the Methods by which Nature may be imitated in Communicating
 Knowledge by Classification, or Analysis,                            218


 CHAP. VII.

 On the Imitation of Nature in Teaching the Practical Use of
 Knowledge,                                                           233


 CHAP. VIII.

 On the Imitation of Nature in Teaching the Use of Knowledge
 by Means of the Animal, or Common Sense,                             245


 CHAP. IX.

 On the Imitation of Nature in Teaching the Practical Use of
 Knowledge by means of the Moral Sense, or Conscience,                257


 CHAP. X.

 On the Application of our Knowledge to the Common Affairs of
 Life,                                                                274


 CHAP. XI.

 On the Imitation of Nature, in training her Pupils fluently to
 communicate their Knowledge,                                         288


 PART IV.

 ON THE SELECTION OF PROPER TRUTHS AND SUBJECTS TO BE TAUGHT IN
 SCHOOLS AND FAMILIES.


 CHAP. I.

 On the General Principles which ought to regulate our choice
 of Truths and Subjects to be taught to the Young,                    306


 CHAP II.

 On the particular Branches of Education required for Elementary
 Schools,                                                             317


 CHAP. III.

 On the Easiest Methods of Introducing these Principles, for
 the first time, into Schools already established,                    326


 Notes,                                                               331




 PRACTICAL ENQUIRY, &c.




 PART I.

 ON THE PRELIMINARY OBJECTS NECESSARY FOR
 THE ESTABLISHMENT AND IMPROVEMENT
 OF EDUCATION.




 CHAP. I.

 _On the Importance of establishing the Science of
 Education on a solid Foundation._


Education is at present obviously in a transition state. The public mind
has of late become alive to the importance of the subject; and all
persons are beginning to feel awake to the truth, that something is yet
wanting to insure efficiency and permanence to the labours of the
teacher. The public will not be satisfied till some decided change has
taken place; and many are endeavouring to grope their way to something
better. It is with an earnest desire to help forward this great
movement, that the writer of the following pages has been induced to
publish the result of much study, and upwards of thirty years'
experience, in the hope that it may afford at least some assistance in
directing the enquiries of those who are prosecuting the same object.

On entering upon this investigation, it will be of use to keep in mind,
that all the sciences have, at particular periods of their history, been
in the same uncertain and unsettled position, as that which Education at
present occupies; and that each of them has in its turn, had to pass
through an ordeal, similar to that which education is about to undergo.
They have triumphantly succeeded; and their subsequent rapid
advancement is the best proof that they are now placed on a solid and
permanent foundation. It is of importance, therefore, in attempting to
forward the science of education, that we should profit by the
experience of those who have gone before us. They succeeded by a strict
observation of facts, and a stern rejection of every species of mere
supposition and opinion;--by an uncompromising hostility to prejudice
and selfishness, and a fearless admission of truth wherever it was
discovered. Such must be the conduct of the Educationist, if he expects
to succeed in an equal degree. The history of astronomy as taught by
astrologers, and of chemistry in the hands of the alchymist, should
teach both the lovers and the fearers of change an important lesson.
These pretended sciences being mere conjectures, were of use to nobody;
and yet the boldness with which they were promulgated, and the
confidence with which they were received, had the effect of suppressing
enquiry, and shutting out the truth for several generations. Similar may
be the effects of errors in education, and similar the danger of too
easily admitting them. The adoption of plausible theories, or of
erroneous principles, must lead into innumerable difficulties; and
should they be hastily patronized, and authoritatively promulgated, the
improvement of this first and most important of the sciences may be
retarded for a century to come.

The other sciences, during the last half century, have advanced with
amazing rapidity. This has been the result of a strict adherence to well
established facts, and their legitimate inferences.--A docile subjection
of the mind to the results of experiment, and a candid confession and
abandonment of fallacies, have characterized every benefactor of the
sciences;--and the science of education must be advanced by an adherence
to the same principles. The Educationist must be willing to abandon
error, as well as to receive truth; and must resolutely shake off all
conjecture and opinions not founded on fair and appropriate experiment.
This course may appear tedious;--but it is the shortest and the best. By
this mode of induction, all the facts which he is able to glean will
assuredly be found to harmonize with nature, with reason, and with
Scripture; and with these for his supporters, the Reformer in education
has nothing to fear. His progress may be slow, but it will be sure; for
every principle which he thus discovers, will enable him, not only to
outrun his neighbours, but to confer a permanent and valuable boon upon
posterity.

That any rational and accountable being should ever have been found to
oppose the progress of truth, is truly humiliating; yet every page of
history, which records the developement of new principles, exhibits also
the outbreakings of prejudice and selfishness. The deductions of
Galileo, of Newton, of Harvey, and innumerable others, have been opposed
and denounced, each in its turn; while their promoters have been
vilified as empyrics or innovators. Nor has this been done by those only
whose self love or worldly interests prompted them to exclude the truth,
but by good and honourable men, whose prejudices were strong, and whose
zeal was not guided by discretion. Such persons have frequently been
found to shut their eyes against the plainest truths, to wrestle with
their own convictions, and positively refuse even to listen to evidence.
The same thing may happen with regard to education;--and this is no
pleasing prospect to the lover of peace, who sets himself forward as a
reformer in this noble work.--Change is inevitable. Teaching is an art;
and it must, like all the other arts, depend for its improvement upon
the investigations of science. Now, every one knows, that although the
cultivation of chemistry, and other branches of natural science, has, of
late years, given an extraordinary stimulus to the arts, yet the science
of education, from which the art of teaching can alone derive its
power, is one, beyond the threshold of which modern philosophy has
scarcely entered. Changes, therefore, both in the theory and practice of
teaching, may be anticipated;--and that these changes will be
inconvenient and annoying to many, there can be no doubt. That
individuals, in these circumstances, should be inclined to deprecate and
oppose these innovations and improvements, is nothing more than might be
expected; but that the improvements themselves should on that account be
either postponed or abandoned, would be highly injurious. An enlightened
system of education is peculiarly the property of the public, on which
both personal, family, and national happiness in a great measure
depends. These interests therefore must not be sacrificed to the wishes
or the convenience of private individuals. The prosperity and happiness
of mankind are at stake; and the welfare of succeeding generations will,
in no small degree, be influenced by the establishment of sound
principles in education at the present time. Nothing, therefore, should
be allowed to mystify or <DW36> that science, upon which the spread and
the permanence of all useful knowledge mainly rest.




CHAP. II.

_On the Cultivation of Education as a Science._


From numerous considerations, it must be evident, that education claims
the first rank among the sciences; and, in that case, the art of
Teaching ought to take precedence among the arts;--not perhaps in
respect of its difficulties, but most certainly in respect of its
importance.

The success of the teacher in his labours, will depend almost entirely
on the extent and the accuracy of the investigations of the philosopher.
The science must guide the art. Experience shews, that where an artist
in ordinary life is not directed by science,--by acknowledged
principles,--he can never make any steady improvement. In like manner,
when the principles of education are unknown, no advancement in the art
can be expected from the teacher. Every attempt at change in such
circumstances must be unsatisfactory; and even when improvements are by
chance accomplished, they are but partial, and must be stationary.--When,
on the contrary, the teacher is directed by ascertained principles, he
never can deviate far from the path of success; and even if he should,
he has the means in his own power of ascertaining the cause of his
failure, and of retracing his steps. He can, therefore, at his pleasure,
add to or abridge, vary or transpose his exercises with his pupils,
provided only that the great principles of the science be kept steadily
in view, and be neither outraged, nor greatly infringed. No teacher,
therefore, should profess the art, without making himself familiar with
the philosophical principles upon which it is founded. In the mechanical
arts, this practice is now generally followed, and with the happiest
effects. The men of the present generation have profited by the painful
experience of thousands in former times; who, trusting to mere
conjectures, tried, failed, and ruined themselves. The mechanics of our
day, instead of indulging in blind theories of their own, and hazarding
their money and their time upon speculation and chance, are willing to
borrow light for their guidance from those who have provided it. They
slowly, but surely, follow in the path opened up to them by the
discoveries of science,--and they are never disappointed.

The unexampled success of the mechanical arts, would, upon the above
principles, naturally lead us to conclude, that the sciences, from which
they have derived all that they possess, must have been cultivated with
corresponding energy. And such is the fact. Since the adoption of the
inductive method of philosophizing, nearly all the sciences have been
advancing rapidly and steadily; and the cause of this is to be found in
adhering to the rules of induction. No science has been allowed to rest
its claims upon mere theory, or authority of any kind, but upon evidence
derived from facts. Mere opinions and suppositions have been rigidly
excluded; and that alone which was acquired by accurate investigation,
has been acknowledged in science as having the stamp of truth. The
inductive philosophy takes nothing for granted. Every conclusion must be
legitimately drawn from ascertained facts, or from principles
established by experiment; and the consequence has been, not only that
what has been attained is permanent, and will benefit all future
generations, but the amount of that attainment, in the short time that
has already elapsed, is actually greater than all that had been
previously gained during centuries. In this general improvement,
however, the science of Education has till lately formed an exception.
The principles of true philosophy do not appear to have been brought to
bear upon it, as they have upon the other sciences; and the consequences
of this neglect have been lamentable. In every branch of natural
philosophy, there are great leading principles already established. But
where were there any such principles established by the philosopher for
the guidance of the teacher? By what, except their own experience, and
conjectures, were teachers directed in the training of the
young?--Thirty or forty years ago, what was called "education" in our
ordinary week-day schools, was little more than a mechanical round of
barren exercises. The excitement of religious persecution, which had
been the means of disciplining the intellectual and moral powers of
Scotsmen for several previous generations, had by that time gradually
subsided, and had left education to do its own work, by the use of its
own resources. But these were perfectly inadequate to the task. The
exercises almost universally employed in the education of the young,
had neither been derived from science, nor from experience of their own
inherent power; and they would, from the beginning, have been found
perfectly inefficient, had they not been aided, as before noticed, by
the stimulant of religious persecution.--The state of education, at the
time we speak of, is still fresh on the memory of living witnesses who
were its victims; and some of the absurdities which were then universal,
are not even yet altogether extinct.

Soon after the period above stated, an important change began to take
place in the art of teaching,--but still unaided and undirected by
science. Some of the more thinking and judicious of its professors,
roused by the flagrant failures of their own practice, made several
noble and exemplary efforts to place it on a better footing. Had these
efforts been guided by scientific research, much more good would have
been done than has been accomplished, and an immense amount of
misdirected labour would have been saved. But although many of the
attempts at a change failed, yet some of them succeeded, and have
gradually produced ameliorations and improvements in the art of
teaching. Still it must be observed, that philosophy has had little or
no share in the merit. Her labours in this important field have yet to
be begun. Valuable exercises have no doubt been introduced; but the
principles upon which the success of these exercises depends, remain in
a great measure concealed from the public generally:--And the reason of
this is, that the public have been indebted for them to the _art_ of the
teacher, and not to the _science_ of the philosopher.

That this is not the position in which matters of so much public
importance should continue, we think no one will deny. Education must be
cultivated as a science, before teaching can ever flourish as an art.
The philosopher must first ascertain and light up the way, before the
teacher can, with security, walk in it. Experiment must be employed to
ascertain facts, investigate causes, and trace these causes to their
effects. By fair and legitimate deductions drawn from the facts thus
ascertained, he will be enabled to establish certain principles, which,
when acted upon by the teacher, will invariably succeed. But without
this, the history of all the other arts and sciences teaches us, that
success is not to be expected;--for although chance may sometimes lead
the teacher to a happy device, there can be no steady progress. Even
those beneficial exercises upon which he may have stumbled, become of
little practical value; because, when the principles upon which they are
based are unknown, they can neither be followed up with certainty, nor
be varied without danger.

There will no doubt be a difficulty in the investigation of a science
which is in itself so complicated, and which has hitherto been so little
understood; but this is only an additional reason why it should be begun
in a proper manner, and pursued with energy. The mode of procedure is
the chief object of difficulty; but the experience and success of
investigators in the other sciences, will be of great advantage in
directing us in this. In the sciences of anatomy and physiology, for
example, the investigations of the philosopher are designed to direct
the several operations of the physician, the surgeon, and the dentist;
in the same way as the investigations of the Educationist are intended
to direct the operations of the Teacher. Now the mode of procedure in
those sciences for such purposes is well known, and forms an excellent
example for us in the present case. The duty of the anatomist, or
physiologist, is simply to examine the operations of Nature in the
animal economy, and the plans which she adopts for accomplishing her
objects during health, and for throwing off impediments during disease.
In conducting his investigations, the enquirer begins by taking a
general view of the whole subject, and then separating and defining its
leading parts. Pulsation, respiration, digestion, and the various
secretions and excretions of the body, are defined, and their general
connection with each other correctly ascertained. These form his
starting points; and then, taking each in its turn, he sets himself to
discover the principles, or laws, which regulate its working in a
healthy state;--what it is that promotes the circulation or stagnation
of the blood, the bracing or relaxing of the nerves, the several
processes in digestion, and the various functions of the skin and
viscera. These are all first ascertained by observation and experience,
and then, if necessary, established by experiment.

These principles, having thus been established by science, are available
for direction in the arts. The physician acts under their guidance; and
his object is simply to regulate his treatment and advice in accordance
with them. In other words, _he endeavours to imitate Nature_, to remove
the obstructions which he finds interfering with her operations, or to
lend that aid which a knowledge of these principles points out as
necessary. The surgeon and the dentist follow the same course, but more
directly. In healing a wound, for example, the surgeon has to ascertain
from science how Nature in similar cases proceeds when left to herself;
and all his cuttings, and lancings, and dressings, are nothing more than
_attempts to imitate her_ in her healing operations. So well is this now
understood, that every operation which does not at least recognise the
principle is denounced--and justly denounced--as quackery; and the
reason is, that uniform experience has convinced professional men, that
they can only expect success when they follow with docility in the path
which Nature has pointed out to them.

Precisely similar should be the plan of operation pursued by the
Educationist. He should, in the first place, take a comprehensive view
of the whole subject, and endeavour to map out to himself its great
natural divisions;--in other words, he should endeavour to ascertain
what are the things which Nature teaches, that he may, by means of this
great outline, form a general programme for the direction of the
teacher. His next object ought to be, to ascertain the mode, and the
means, adopted by Nature in forwarding these several departments of her
educational process; the powers of mind engrossed in each; the order in
which they are brought into exercise; and the combinations which she
employs in perfecting them. In ascertaining these principles which
regulate the operations of Nature in her educational processes, the same
adherence to the rules prescribed by the inductive philosophy, which has
crowned the other sciences with success, must be rigidly observed. There
must be the same disregard of mere antiquity; there must be the same
scrupulous sifting of evidence, and strict adherence to facts; there
must be a discarding of all hypotheses, and a simple dependence