



Produced by Marius Masi, Don Kretz and the Online
Distributed Proofreading Team at http://www.pgdp.net









Transcriber's notes:

(1) Numbers following letters (without space) like C2 were originally
      printed in subscript. Letter subscripts are preceded by an
      underscore, like C_n.

(2) Characters following a carat (^) were printed in superscript.

(3) Side-notes were relocated to function as titles of their respective
      paragraphs.

(4) Macrons and breves above letters and dots below letters were not
      inserted.

(5) [root] stands for the root symbol; [alpha], [beta], etc. for greek
      letters.

(6) The following typographical errors have been corrected:

    ARTICLE GABEL, KRISTOFFER: "See Carl Frederik Bricka, Dansk.
      Biograf. Lex. art "Gabel" (Copenhagen, 1887, &c.); Danmarks Riges
      Historie (Copenhagen, 1897-1905), vol. v." '1905' amended from
      '1005'.

    ARTICLE GALLS: "The same authority (loc. cit. p. 550) mentions a
      willow-gall which provides no less than sixteen insects with food
      and protection; these are preyed upon by about eight others, so
      that altogether some twenty-four insects,..." 'altogether' amended
      from 'alltogether'.

    ARTICLE GANNET: "... and orderly takes its place in the rear of the
      string, to repeat its headlong plunge so soon as it again finds
      itself above its prey." 'its' amended from 'is'.

    ARTICLE GARDNER, PERCY: "... an account of excavations in Greece
      and Asia Minor; Manual of Greek Antiquities (with F.B. Jevons, 2nd
      ed. 1898);..." 'Asia' amended from 'Aisa'.

    ARTICLE GARNET, HENRY: "... by the Jesuit L'Heureux, under the
      pseudonym Eudaemon-Joannes, and Dr Robert Abbot's reply, Antilogia
      versus Apologiam Eudaemon-Joannes,..." 'Eudaemon' amended from
      'Endaemon'.

    ARTICLE GARTH, SIR SAMUEL: "He wrote little besides his best-known
      work The Dispensary and Claremont, a moral epistle in verse."
      'epistle' amended from 'espistle'.

    ARTICLE GAS ENGINE: "The Westinghouse Co. of Pittsburgh have also
      built large engines, several of which are in operation at the
      various works of the Carnegie Steel Co." 'Pittsburgh' amended from
      'Pittsburg'.




          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
           AND GENERAL INFORMATION

              ELEVENTH EDITION


            VOLUME XI, SLICE IV

          G to Gaskell, Elizabeth




ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:


  G                                 GALLUPPI, PASQUALE
  GABBRO                            GALLUS, CORNELIUS
  GABEL, KRISTOFFER                 GALLUS, GAIUS AELIUS
  GABELENTZ, HANS CONON VON DER     GALLUS, GAIUS CESTIUS
  GABELLE                           GALLUS, GAIUS SULPICIUS
  GABERDINE                         GALOIS, EVARISTE
  GABES                             GALSTON
  GABII                             GALT, SIR ALEXANDER TILLOCH
  GABINIUS, AULUS                   GALT, JOHN
  GABION                            GALT
  GABLE                             GALTON, SIR FRANCIS
  GABLER, GEORG ANDREAS             GALUPPI, BALDASSARE
  GABLER, JOHANN PHILIPP            GALVANI, LUIGI
  GABLETS                           GALVANIZED IRON
  GABLONZ                           GALVANOMETER
  GABORIAU, EMILE                   GALVESTON
  GABRIEL                           GALWAY (county of Ireland)
  GABRIEL HOUNDS                    GALWAY (town of Ireland)
  GABRIELI, GIOVANNI                GAMA, VASCO DA
  GABUN                             GAMALIEL
  GACE BRULE                        GAMBETTA, LEON
  GACHARD, LOUIS PROSPER            GAMBIA (river of West Africa)
  GAD                               GAMBIA (country of West Africa)
  GADAG                             GAMBIER, JAMES GAMBIER,
  GADARA                            GAMBIER
  GADDI                             GAMBOGE
  GADE, NIELS WILHELM               GAMBRINUS
  GADOLINIUM                        GAME
  GADSDEN, CHRISTOPHER              GAME LAWS
  GADSDEN, JAMES                    GAMES, CLASSICAL
  GADWALL                           GAMING AND WAGERING
  GAEKWAR                           GAMUT
  GAETA                             GANDAK
  GAETANI                           GANDAMAK
  GAETULIA                          GANDERSHEIM
  GAGE, LYMAN JUDSON                GANDHARVA
  GAGE, THOMAS                      GANDIA
  GAGE                              GANDO
  GAGERN, HANS CHRISTOPH ERNST      GANESA
  GAHANBAR                          GANGES
  GAIGNIERES, FRANCOIS ROGER DE     GANGOTRI
  GAIL, JEAN BAPTISTE               GANGPUR
  GAILLAC                           GANGRENE
  GAILLARD, GABRIEL HENRI           GANILH, CHARLES
  GAINESVILLE (Florida, U.S.A.)     GANJAM
  GAINESVILLE (Texas, U.S.A.)       GANNAL, JEAN NICOLAS
  GAINSBOROUGH, THOMAS              GANNET
  GAINSBOROUGH                      GANODONTA
  GAIRDNER, JAMES                   GANS, EDUARD
  GAIRLOCH                          GANSBACHER, JOHANN BAPTIST
  GAISERIC                          GANTE
  GAISFORD, THOMAS                  GANYMEDE
  GAIUS                             GAO
  GAIUS CAESAR                      GAOL
  GALAGO                            GAON
  GALANGAL                          GAP
  GALAPAGOS ISLANDS                 GAPAN
  GALASHIELS                        GARARISH
  GALATIA                           GARASHANIN, ILIYA
  GALATIANS, EPISTLE TO THE         GARAT, DOMINIQUE JOSEPH
  GALATINA                          GARAT, PIERRE-JEAN
  GALATZ                            GARAY, JANOS
  GALAXY                            GARBLE
  GALBA, SULPICIUS (Roman general)  GARCAO, PEDRO ANTONIO JOAQUIM CORREA
  GALBA, SULPICIUS (Roman emperor)  GARCIA (DEL POPOLO VICENTO), MANOEL
  GALBANUM                          GARCIA DE LA HUERTA, VICENTE ANTONIO
  GALCHAS                           GARCIA DE PAREDES, DIEGO
  GALE, THEOPHILUS                  GARCIA GUTIERREZ, ANTONIO
  GALE, THOMAS                      GARD
  GALE                              GARDA, LAKE OF
  GALEN, CHRISTOPH BERNHARD         GARDANE, CLAUDE MATTHIEU
  GALEN, CLAUDIUS                   GARDELEGEN
  GALENA (Illinois, U.S.A.)         GARDEN
  GALENA (Kansas, U.S.A.)           GARDENIA
  GALENA (ore of lead)              GARDINER, JAMES
  GALEOPITHECUS                     GARDINER, SAMUEL RAWSON
  GALERIUS                          GARDINER, STEPHEN
  GALESBURG                         GARDINER
  GALGACUS                          GARDNER, PERCY
  GALIANI, FERDINANDO               GARDNER
  GALICIA (crownland of Austria)    GARE-FOWL
  GALICIA (province of Spain)       GARFIELD, JAMES ABRAM
  GALIGNANI, GIOVANNI ANTONIO       GAR-FISH
  GALILEE (province of Palestine)   GARGANEY
  GALILEE (architectural term)      GARGANO, MONTE
  GALILEE, SEA OF                   GARGOYLE
  GALILEO GALILEI                   GARHWAL
  GALION                            GARIBALDI, GIUSEPPE
  GALL, FRANZ JOSEPH                GARIN LE LOHERAIN
  GALL                              GARLAND, JOHN
  GALLABAT                          GARLIC
  GALLAIT, LOUIS                    GARNET, HENRY
  GALLAND, ANTOINE                  GARNET
  GALLARATE                         GARNETT, RICHARD
  GALLARS, NICOLAS DES              GARNIER, CLEMENT JOSEPH
  GALLAS, MATTHIAS                  GARNIER, GERMAIN
  GALLAS                            GARNIER, JEAN LOUIS CHARLES
  GALLATIN, ALBERT                  GARNIER, MARIE JOSEPH FRANCOIS
  GALLAUDET, THOMAS HOPKINS         GARNIER, ROBERT
  GALLE                             GARNIER-PAGES, ETIENNE JOSEPH LOUIS
  GALLENGA, ANTONIO CARLO NAPOLEONE GARNISH
  GALLERY                           GARO HILLS
  GALLEY                            GARONNE
  GALLIA CISALPINA                  GARRET
  GALLIC ACID                       GARRETT, JOAO BAPTISTA DE ALMEIDA
  GALLICANISM                       GARRETTING
  GALLIENI, JOSEPH SIMON            GARRICK, DAVID
  GALLIENUS, PUBLIUS EGNATIUS       GARRISON, WILLIAM LLOYD
  GALLIFFET, GASTON AUGUSTE         GARRISON
  GALLIO, JUNIUS ANNAEUS            GARROTE
  GALLIPOLI (Italy)                 GARRUCHA
  GALLIPOLI (Turkey)                GARSTON
  GALLIPOLIS                        GARTH, SIR SAMUEL
  GALLITZIN, DEMETRIUS AUGUSTINE    GARTOK
  GALLIUM                           GARY
  GALLON                            GAS
  GALLOWAY, JOSEPH                  GASCOIGNE, GEORGE
  GALLOWAY, THOMAS                  GASCOIGNE, SIR WILLIAM
  GALLOWAY                          GASCONY
  GALLOWS                           GAS ENGINE
  GALLS                             GASKELL, ELIZABETH CLEGHORN




G    The form of this letter which is familiar to us is an invention of
the Romans, who had previously converted the third symbol of the
alphabet into a representative of a _k_-sound (see C). Throughout the
whole of Roman history C remained as the symbol for G in the
abbreviations C and Cn. for the proper names Gaius and Gnaeus. According
to Plutarch (_Roman Questions_, 54, 59) the symbol for G was invented by
Spurius Carvilius Ruga about 293 B.C. This probably means that he was
the first person to spell his cognomen RVGA instead of RVCA. G came to
occupy the seventh place in the Roman alphabet which had earlier been
taken by Z, because between 450 B.C. and 350 B.C. the z-sounds of Latin
passed into r, names like _Papisius_ and _Fusius_ in that period
becoming Papirius and Furius (see Z), so that the letter z had become
superfluous. According to the late writer Martianus Capella z was
removed from the alphabet by the censor Appius Claudius Caecus in 312
B.C. To Claudius the insertion of G into the alphabet is also sometimes
ascribed.

In the earliest form the difference from C is very slight, the lower lip
of the crescent merely rising up in a straight line [symbol], but
[symbol] and [symbol] are found also in republican times. In the
earliest Roman inscription which was found in the Forum in 1899 the form
is [symbol] written from right to left, but the hollow at the bottom lip
of the crescent is an accidental pit in the stone and not a diacritical
mark. The unvoiced sound in this inscription is represented by K. The
use of the new form was not firmly established till after the middle of
the 3rd century B.C.

In the Latin alphabet the sound was always the voiced stop (as in _gig_)
in classical times. Later, before _e_, _g_ passed into a sound like the
English _y_, so that words begin indifferently with _g_ or _j_; hence
from the Lat. _generum_ (accusative) and _Ianuarium_ we have in Ital.
_genero_ and _Gennajo_, Fr. _gendre_ and _janvier_. In the ancient
Umbrian dialect _g_ had made this change between vowels before the
Christian era, the inhabitant of _Iguvium_ (the modern Gubbio) being in
the later form of his native speech _Iuvins_, Lat. _Iguvinus_. In most
cases in Mid. Eng. also _g_ passed into a _y_ sound; hence the old
prefix _ge_ of the past participle appears only as _y_ in _yclept_ and
the like. But _ng_ and _gg_ took a different course, the _g_ becoming an
affricate d_z_ (_dzh_), as in _singe_, _ridge_, _sedge_, which in
English before 1500 were _senge_, _rigge_, _segge_, and in Scotch are
still pronounced _sing_, _rig_, _seg_. The affricate in words like
_gaol_ is of French origin (_geole_), from a Late Lat. _gabiola_, out of
_caveola_, a diminutive of the Lat. _cavea_.

The composite origin of English makes it impossible to lay down rules
for the pronunciation of English _g_; thus there are in the language
five words _Gill_, three of which have the _g_ hard, while two have it
soft: viz. (1) _gill_ of a fish, (2) _gill_, a ravine, both of which are
Norse, and (3) _Gill_, the surname, which is mostly Gaelic = White; and
(4) _gill_ a liquid measure, from O. Fr. _gelle_, Late Lat. _gella_ in
the same sense, and (5) _Gill_, a girl's name, shortened from _Gillian_,
_Juliana_ (see Skeat's _Etymological Dictionary_). No one of these words
is of native origin; otherwise the initial _g_ would have changed to
_y_, as in Eng. _yell_ from the O. Eng. _gellan_, _giellan_.
     (P. Gi.)




GABBRO, in petrology, a group of plutonic basic rocks, holocrystalline
and usually rather coarse-grained, consisting essentially of a basic
plagioclase felspar and one or more ferromagnesian minerals (such as
augite, hornblende, hypersthene and olivine). The name was given
originally in north Italy to certain coarsely crystalline dark green
rocks, some of which are true gabbros, while others are serpentines. The
gabbros are the plutonic or deep-seated representatives of the
dolerites, basalts and diabases (also of some varieties of andesite)
with which they agree closely in mineral composition, but not in minute
structure. Of their minerals felspar Is usually the