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AN ADVANCED ENGLISH GRAMMAR

WITH EXERCISES


BY

GEORGE LYMAN KITTREDGE

GURNEY PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH LITERATURE IN
HARVARD UNIVERSITY

AND

FRANK EDGAR FARLEY

PROFESSOR OF ENGLISH LITERATURE IN
WESLEYAN UNIVERSITY


GINN AND COMPANY

BOSTON · NEW YORK · CHICAGO · LONDON
ATLANTA · DALLAS · COLUMBUS · SAN FRANCISCO


COPYRIGHT, 1913, BY GEORGE LYMAN KITTREDGE
AND FRANK EDGAR FARLEY
ENTERED AT STATIONERS’ HALL
ALL RIGHTS RESERVED
424.2

The Athenæum Press

GINN AND COMPANY · PROPRIETORS
· BOSTON · U.S.A.




PREFACE


This grammar is intended for students who have already received
instruction in the rudiments. Still, every such textbook must begin
at the beginning. Part One, therefore, which occupies pp. 1–24, gives
a succinct treatment of the Parts of Speech in the Sentence and of
their substitutes, the Phrase and the Clause, concluding with a Summary
of Definitions. Thus it clears the way for what follows, and may be
utilized as a review, if the student needs to refresh his memory.

Part Two deals specifically and fully with Inflections and Syntax (pp.
25–182). It includes also a chapter on the use of subordinate clauses
as nouns, adjectives, and adverbs (pp. 157–162), as well as a chapter
in which such clauses are logically classified in accordance with their
particular offices in the expression of thought (pp. 163–182).

Part Three (pp. 183–226) develops the subject of Analysis in its
natural order, first explaining how sentences are put together, and
then illustrating the process by which they may be resolved into their
constituent parts. Modifiers and Complements are classified, and the
so-called Independent Elements are discussed. There is added a special
chapter on Combinations of Clauses, in which the grammatical and
logical relations of coördination and subordination are set forth, and
their functions in the effective use of language are considered. This
portion of the book, it is hoped, will be especially useful to students
of English composition.

The Appendix furnishes lists of verbs, tables of conjugation, rules
for capitals and marks of punctuation, a summary of important rules of
syntax, and a brief history of the English language.

The Exercises (pp. 227–290) are collected at the end of the text, so
as not to break continuity. References prefixed to each, as well as
page-numbers in the Table of Contents, enable the teacher to attach
them, at will, to the topics which they concern. The passages for
parsing, analysis, etc., have been carefully selected from a wide
range of eminent British and American writers. The name of the author
is often appended to the quotation, when the passage is particularly
noteworthy either for its contents or its form. In most cases, however,
this has not been done; but the student may always feel confident that
he is occupying himself with specimens of English as actually composed
by distinguished authors. The constructive exercises call particular
attention to those matters in which error is especially prevalent.

An advanced grammar must aim to be serviceable in two ways. It should
afford the means for continuous and systematic study of the subject
or of any part of it; and it should also be useful for reference in
connection with the study of composition and of literature. With this
latter end in view, many notes and observations have been included,
in smaller type, to show the nature and development of the various
forms and constructions, and to point out differences between the
usage of to-day and that which the student observes in Shakspere and
other English classics. The fulness of the index makes it easy to find
anything that the volume contains.

In accordance with the desire of many teachers, certain topics of
importance have been treated with unusual thoroughness. Among these may
be mentioned the uses of _shall_ and _will_, _should_ and _would_, the
infinitive and the infinitive clause, conditional sentences, indirect
discourse, and the combination of clauses in sentences of different
kinds.

The authors are indebted to several teachers for suggestions and
criticism. Particular acknowledgment is due to Mr. Theodore C.
Mitchill, of the Jamaica High School, New York, and Mr. C. L. Hooper,
of the Chicago Normal School.




CONTENTS


[_The numbers in the first column refer to the pages of the text; those
in the second column to the pages of the Exercises._]

INTRODUCTION

                                                         TEXT  EXERCISES

  Language and Grammar                                     xi
  Grammar and Usage                                        xv
  Summary of General Principles                          xvii


ENGLISH GRAMMAR

PART ONE--THE PARTS OF SPEECH IN THE SENTENCE

  The Sentence--Subject and Predicate                       1        227
  Kinds of Sentences                                        2        227
  The Eight Parts of Speech Defined                         3        228
  The Same Word as Different Parts of Speech                9        229
  Infinitives and Participles                              11        229
  Comparative Importance of the Parts of Speech            13
  Simple and Complete Subject and Predicate                14        230
  Compound Subject and Predicate                           15        230
  Substitutes for the Parts of Speech                      16        231
  Phrases--Noun, Verb, Adjective, Adverbial                16        231
  Clauses--Independent and Subordinate                     16        232
  Compound and Complex Sentences                           17        232
  Compound Complex Sentences                               18        232
  Clauses as Parts of Speech                               19        232
  Summary of Definitions                                   21


PART TWO--INFLECTION AND SYNTAX

CHAPTER I--INFLECTION

  Inflection in General                                    25
  Summary of Inflections                                   26

CHAPTER II--NOUNS

  Classification--Common Nouns and Proper Nouns            27        233
  Special Classes--Abstract, Collective, Compound          29        234
  Inflection of Nouns                                      30        235
  Gender                                                   31        235
  Number                                                   34        235
  Person                                                   39        236
  Case                                                     40        237
  Nominative Case                                          41        237
  Possessive Case                                          43        238
  Objective Case                                           47        239
  Parsing of Nouns                                         54        240

CHAPTER III--PRONOUNS

  Personal Pronouns                                        55        241
  Gender and Number of Personal Pronouns                   56        241
  Case of Personal Pronouns                                57        241
  The Self-Pronouns (Compound Personal Pronouns)           60        241
  Adjective Pronouns--Demonstratives                       62        243
  Adjective Pronouns--Indefinites                          64        243
  Relative Pronouns                                        66        244
  The Relative Pronoun _What_                              71        246
  Compound Relative Pronouns                               72        246
  Interrogative Pronouns                                   73        246
  Parsing of Pronouns                                      74        247

CHAPTER IV--ADJECTIVES

  Classification of Adjectives                             75        248
  Adjectives--the Articles                                 77        248
  Comparison of Adjectives                                 79        249
  Irregular Comparison                                     81        249

CHAPTER V--ADVERBS

  Classification of Adverbs                                83        250
  Relative and Interrogative Adverbs                       86        251
  Comparison of Adverbs                                    87        252
  Use of the Comparative and Superlative                   88        252
  Numerals--Adjectives, Nouns, Adverbs                     89        252

CHAPTER VI--VERBS

  Classification of Verbs                                  91        253
  Auxiliary Verbs--Verb-Phrases                            91        253
  Transitive and Intransitive Verbs                        92        253
  Copulative Verbs                                         93        253
  Inflection of Verbs                                      94        254
  Tense of Verbs                                           94        254
  Present and Past Tenses                                  94        254
  Weak (Regular) and Strong (Irregular) Verbs              95        254
  Person and Number                                        97        254
  The Personal Endings                                     97        254
  Conjugation of the Present and the Past                  98        254
  Special Rules of Number and Person                      100        254
  The Future Tense--_Shall_ and _Will_                    102        256
  Complete or Compound Tenses                             106        258
  Voice--Active and Passive                               107        258
  Conjugation of the Six Tenses                           108        258
  Use of the Passive Voice                                110        258
  Progressive Verb-Phrases                                113        260
  Emphatic Verb-Phrases                                   114        260
  Mood of Verbs                                           115        261
  Indicative Mood                                         115        261
  Imperative Mood                                         116        261
  Subjunctive Mood--Forms                                 118        261
  Uses of the Subjunctive                                 119        261
  Potential Verb-Phrases (Modal Auxiliaries)              124        262
  Special Rules for _Should_ and _Would_                  127        264
  The Infinitive                                          132        266
  The Infinitive as a Noun                                134        266
  The Infinitive as a Modifier                            136        266
  The Infinitive Clause                                   137        267
  Participles--Forms and Constructions                    140        268
  Nominative Absolute                                     144        269
  Verbal Nouns in _-ing_ (Participial Nouns)              145        269

CHAPTER VII--PREPOSITIONS

  List of Prepositions                                    148        270
  Special Uses of Prepositions                            149        270

CHAPTER VIII--CONJUNCTIONS

  Coördinate (or Coördinating) Conjunctions               151        270
  Subordinate (or Subordinating) Conjunctions             153        270
  Correlative Conjunctions                                153        270

CHAPTER IX--INTERJECTIONS

  Interjections                                           155        272
  Exclamatory Expressions                                 155        272

CHAPTER X--CLAUSES AS PARTS OF SPEECH

  Clauses as Parts of Speech                              157        272
  Adjective Clauses                                       157        272
  Adverbial Clauses                                       158        272
  Noun (or Substantive) Clauses                           159        272

CHAPTER XI--THE MEANINGS OF SUBORDINATE CLAUSES

  Clauses of Place and Time                               163        272
  Causal Clauses                                          164        272
  Concessive Clauses                                      164        272
  Clauses of Purpose and Result                           166        274
  Conditional Sentences                                   167        274
  Forms of Conditions                                     169        274
  Present and Past Conditions                             170        274
  Future Conditions                                       171        274
  Clauses of Comparison                                   173        275
  Indirect Discourse                                      173        277
  _Shall_ and _Will_, _Should_ and _Would_
      in Indirect Discourse                               177        278
  Indirect Questions                                      179        280
  _Shall_ and _Will_, _Should_ and _Would_
      in Indirect Questions                               182        281


PART THREE--ANALYSIS

CHAPTER I--THE STRUCTURE OF SENTENCES

  Analysis--the Elements                                  183        282
  Simple Sentences                                        184        282
  Compound Sentences                                      185        282
  Complex Sentences                                       186        282
  Compound and Complex Clauses                            186        287
  Compound Complex Sentences                              187        283

CHAPTER II--ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES

  Simple Sentences                                        188        283
  Compound Sentences                                      188        283
  Complex Sentences                                       189        283
  Compound Complex Sentences                              190        283

CHAPTER III--MODIFIERS

  Modifiers in General                                    191        283
  Modifiers of the Subject                                192        283
  Modifiers of the Predicate                              196        284

CHAPTER IV--COMPLEMENTS

  Use of Complements                                      200        285
  The Direct Object                                       201        285
  The Predicate Objective                                 202        285
  The Predicate Nominative                                202        285
  The Predicate Adjective                                 203        285

CHAPTER V--MODIFIERS OF COMPLEMENTS AND OF MODIFIERS

  Modifiers of Complements                                205        286
  Modifiers of Other Modifiers                            207        286

CHAPTER VI--INDEPENDENT ELEMENTS

  Four Kinds of Independent Elements                      209        286
  Parenthetical Expressions                               209        286

CHAPTER VII--COMBINATIONS OF CLAUSES

  General Principles                                      210        287
  Coördination and Subordination                          210        287
  Clauses--Simple, Compound, Complex                      211        287
  Complex Sentences                                       186        282
  Simple Sentences with Compound Subject or Predicate     212        287
  Compound and Complex Sentences                          213        287
  Compound Complex Sentences                              215        287
  Varieties of the Complex Sentence                       216        287
  Special Complications in Complex Sentences              220        288
  Special Complications in Compound Complex Sentences     222        288

CHAPTER VIII--ELLIPTICAL SENTENCES

  Ellipsis in Clauses and Sentences                       224        288
  Varieties of Ellipsis                                   225        288
  Examples of Elliptical Constructions                    226        288


EXERCISES

  Exercises on Part One                                              227
  Exercises on Part Two                                              233
  Exercises on Part Three                                            282


APPENDIX

  Lists of Verbs                                                     291
  Conjugation of the Verb _to be_                                    300
  Conjugation of the Verb _to strike_                                301
  Use of Capital Letters                                             305
  Rules of Punctuation                                               306
  Rules of Syntax                                                    311
  The English Language                                               316


INDEX                                                                321




INTRODUCTION


LANGUAGE AND GRAMMAR


I. THE NATURE OF LANGUAGE

Language is the expression of thought by means of spoken or written
words.

The English word _language_ comes (through the French _langue_) from
the Latin _lingua_, “the tongue.” But the tongue is not the only organ
used in speaking. The lips, the teeth, the roof of the mouth, the soft
palate (or uvula), the nose, and the vocal chords all help to produce
the sounds of which language consists. These various organs make up one
delicate and complicated piece of mechanism upon which the breath of
the speaker acts like that of a musician upon a clarinet or other wind
instrument.

Spoken language, then, is composed of a great variety of sounds made
with the vocal organs. A word may consist of one sound (as _Ah!_ or _O_
or _I_), but most words consist of two or more different sounds (as
_go_, _see_, _try_, _finish_). Long or short, however, a word is merely
a sign made to express thought.

Thought may be imperfectly expressed by signs made with the head, the
hands, etc. Thus, if I grasp a person’s arm and point to a dog, he may
understand me to ask, “Do you see that dog?” And his nod in reply may
stand for “Yes, I see him.” But any dialogue carried on in this way
must be both fragmentary and uncertain. To express our thoughts fully,
freely, and accurately, we must use words,--that is, signs made with
the voice. Such voice-signs have had meanings associated with them by
custom or tradition, so that their sense is at once understood by all.
Their advantage is twofold: they are far more numerous and varied than
other signs; and the meanings attached to them are much more definite
than those of nods and gestures.

Written words are signs made with the pen to represent and recall
to the mind the spoken words (or voice-signs). Written language
(that is, composition) must, of necessity, be somewhat fuller than
spoken language, as well as more formal and exact. For the reader’s
understanding is not assisted by the tones of the voice, the changing
expressions of the face, and the lively gestures, which help to make
spoken language intelligible.

Most words are the signs of definite ideas. Thus, _Charles_, _captain_,
_cat_, _mouse_, _bread_, _stone_, _cup_, _ink_, call up images or
pictures of persons or things; _strike_, _dive_, _climb_, _dismount_,
express particular kinds of action; _green_, _blue_, _careless_,
_rocky_, _triangular_, _muscular_, enable us to describe objects with
accuracy. Even general terms like _goodness_, _truth_, _courage_,
_cowardice_, _generosity_, have sufficiently precise meanings, for
they name qualities, or traits of character, with which everybody is
familiar.

By the use of such words, even when not combined in groups, we can
express our thoughts much more satisfactorily than by mere gestures.
The utterance of the single word “Charles!” may signify: “Hullo,
Charles! are you here? I am surprised to see you.” “Bread!” may suggest
to the hearer: “Give me bread! I am very hungry.” “Courage!” may be
almost equivalent to, “Don’t be down-hearted! Your troubles will soon
be over.”

Language, however, is not confined to the utterance of single words.
To express our thoughts we must put words together,--we must combine
them into groups; and such groups have settled meanings (just as words
have), established (like the meanings of single words) by the customs
or habits of the particular language that we are speaking or writing.
Further, these groups are not thrown together haphazard. We must
construct them in accordance with certain fixed rules. Otherwise we
shall fail to express ourselves clearly and acceptably, and we may even
succeed in saying the opposite of what we mean.

In constructing these groups (which we call +phrases+, +clauses+, and
+sentences+) we have the aid of a large number of short words like
_and_, _if_, _by_, _to_, _in_, _is_, _was_, which are very different
from the definite and picturesque words that we have just examined.
They do not call up distinct images in the mind, and we should find
it hard to define any of them. Yet their importance in the expression
of thought is clear; for they serve to join other words together, and
to show their relation to each other in those groups which make up
connected speech.

Thus, “box heavy” conveys some meaning; but “_The_ box _is_ heavy” is
a clear and definite statement. _The_ shows that some particular box
is meant, and _is_ enables us to make an assertion about it. _And_, in
“Charles and John are my brothers,” indicates that Charles and John are
closely connected in my thought, and that what I say of one applies
also to the other. _If_, in “If Charles comes, I shall be glad to see
him,” connects two statements, and shows that one of them is a mere
supposition (for Charles may or may not come).

In grouping words, our language has three different ways of indicating
their relations: (1) the forms of the words themselves; (2) their
order; (3) the use of little words like _and_, _if_, _is_, etc.

I. +Change of form.+ Words may change their form. Thus the word _boy_
becomes _boys_ when more than one is meant; _kill_ becomes _killed_
when past time is referred to; _was_ becomes _were_ when we are
speaking of two or more persons or things; _fast_ becomes _faster_ when
a higher degree of speed is indicated. Such change of form is called
+inflection+, and the word is said to be +inflected+.

Inflection is an important means of showing the relations of words
in connected speech. In “Henry’s racket weighs fourteen ounces,”
the form _Henry’s_ shows at once the relation between Henry and the
racket,--namely, that Henry owns or possesses it. The word _Henry_,
then, may change its form to _Henry’s_ to indicate ownership or
possession.

II. +Order of words.+ In “John struck Charles,” the way in which the
words are arranged shows who it was that struck, and who received the
blow. Change the order of words to “Charles struck John,” and the
meaning is reversed. It is, then, the +order+ that shows the relation
of _John_ to _struck_, and of _struck_ to _Charles_.

III. +Use of other words.+ Compare the two sentences:

  The train _from_ Boston has just arrived.

  The train _for_ Boston has just arrived.

Here _from_ and _for_ show the relation between the _train_ and
_Boston_. “The Boston train” might mean either the train _from_ Boston
or the train _for_ Boston. By using _from_ or _for_ we make the sense
unmistakable.

Two matters, then, are of vital importance in language,--the forms of
words, and the relations of words. The science which treats of these
two matters is called +grammar+.

+Inflection is a change in the form of a word indicating some change in
its meaning.+

+The relation in which a word stands to other words in the sentence is
called its construction.+

+Grammar is the science which treats of the forms and the constructions
of words.+

+Syntax is that department of grammar which treats of the constructions
of words.+

Grammar, then, may be said to concern itself with two main
subjects,--inflection and syntax.

English belongs to a family of languages--the Indo-European
Family[1]--which is rich in forms of inflection. This richness may
be seen in other members of the family,--such as Greek or Latin. The
Latin word _homo_, “man,” for example, has eight different inflectional
forms,--_homo_, “a man”; _hominis_, “of a man”; _homini_, “to a
man,” and so on. Thus, in Latin, the grammatical construction of a
word is, in general, shown by that particular inflectional ending
(or termination) which it has in any particular sentence. In the
Anglo-Saxon period,[2] English was likewise well furnished with such
inflectional endings, though not so abundantly as Latin. Many of these,
however, had disappeared by Chaucer’s time (1340–1400), and still
others have since been lost, so that modern English is one of the
least inflected of languages. Such losses are not to be lamented. By
due attention to the order of words, and by using _of_, _to_, _for_,
_from_, _in_, and the like, we can express all the relations denoted by
the ancient inflections. The gain in simplicity is enormous.


II. GRAMMAR AND USAGE

Since language is the expression of thought, the rules of grammar
agree, in the main, with the laws of thought. In other words, grammar
is usually logical,--that is, its rules accord, in general, with the
principles of logic, which is the science of exact reasoning.

The rules of grammar, however, do not derive their authority from
logic, but from good usage,--that is, from the customs or habits
followed by educated speakers and writers. These customs, of course,
differ among different nations, and every language has therefore its
own stock of peculiar constructions or turns of expression. Such
peculiarities are called +idioms+.

Thus, in English we say, “It is I”; but in French the idiom is “C’est
moi,” which corresponds to “It is me.” Many careless speakers of
English follow the French idiom in this particular, but their practice
has not yet come to be the accepted usage. Hence, though “C’est moi” is
correct in French, we must still regard “It is me” as ungrammatical in
English. It would, however, become correct if it should ever be adopted
by the great majority of educated persons.

Grammar does not enact laws for the conduct of speech. Its business is
to ascertain and set forth those customs of language which have the
sanction of good usage. If good usage changes, the rules of grammar
must change. If two forms or constructions are in good use, the
grammarian must admit them both. Occasionally, also, there is room
for difference of opinion. These facts, however, do not lessen the
authority of grammar in the case of any cultivated language. For in
such a language usage is so well settled in almost every particular
as to enable the grammarian to say positively what is right and what
is wrong. Even in matters of divided usage, it is seldom difficult to
determine which of two forms or constructions is preferred by careful
writers.

Every language has two standards of usage,--the colloquial and
the literary. By “colloquial language,” we mean the language of
conversation; by “literary language,” that employed in literary
composition. Everyday colloquial English admits many words, forms,
phrases, and constructions that would be out of place in a dignified
essay. On the other hand, it is an error in taste to be always “talking
like a book.” Unpractised speakers and writers should, however, be
conservative. They should avoid, even in informal talk, any word or
expression that is of doubtful propriety. Only those who know what they
are about, can venture to take liberties. It is quite possible to be
correct without being stilted or affected.[3]

Every living language is constantly changing. Words, forms, and
constructions become +obsolete+ (that is, go out of use) and others
take their places. Consequently, one often notes in the older English
classics, methods of expression which, though formerly correct, are
ungrammatical now. Here a twofold caution is necessary. On the one
hand, we must not criticise Shakspere or Chaucer for using the English
of his own time; but, on the other hand, we must not try to defend our
own errors by appealing to ancient usage.

  Examples of constructions once in good use, but no longer admissible,
  are: “the best of the two” (for “the better of the two”); “the most
  unkindest cut of all”; “There’s two or three of us” (for _there
  are_); “I have forgot the map” (for _forgotten_); “Every one of these
  letters are in my name” (for _is_); “I think it be” (for _is_).

The language of poetry admits many old words, forms, and constructions
that are no longer used in ordinary prose. These are called +archaisms+
(that is, ancient expressions). Among the commonest archaisms are
_thou_, _ye_, _hath_, _thinkest_, _doth_. Such forms are also common in
prose, in what is known as the +solemn style+, which is modelled, in
great part, on the language of the Bible.[4]

In general, it should be remembered that the style which one uses
should be appropriate,--that is, it should fit the occasion. A short
story and a scientific exposition will differ in style; a familiar
letter will naturally shun the formalities of business or legal
correspondence. Good style is not a necessary result of grammatical
correctness, but without such correctness it is, of course, impossible.


SUMMARY OF GENERAL PRINCIPLES

1. Language is the expression of thought by means of spoken or written
words.

2. Words are the signs of ideas.

Spoken words are signs made with the vocal organs; written words are
signs made with the pen to represent the spoken words.

The meanings of these signs are settled by custom or tradition in each
language.

3. Most words are the signs of definite ideas: as,--_Charles_,
_captain_, _cat_, _strike_, _dive_, _climb_, _triangular_, _careless_.

Other words, of less definite meaning, serve to connect the more
definite words and to show their relations to each other in connected
speech.

4. In the expression of thought, words are combined into groups called
phrases, clauses, and sentences.

5. The relation in which a word stands to other words in the sentence
is called its construction.

The construction of English words is shown in three ways: (1) by their
form; (2) by their order; (3) by the use of other words like _to_,
_from_, _is_, etc.

6. Inflection is a change in the form of a word indicating some change
in its meaning: as,--_boy_, _boy’s_; _man_, _men_; _drink_, _drank_.

7. Grammar is the science which treats of the forms and the
constructions of words.

Syntax is that department of grammar which treats of the constructions
of words.

8. The rules of grammar derive their authority from good usage,--that
is, from the customs or habits followed by educated speakers and
writers.




ENGLISH GRAMMAR




PART ONE

THE PARTS OF SPEECH IN THE SENTENCE

  +Summary.+ The Sentence: Subject and Predicate; Kinds of
  Sentences.--Use of words in the Sentence: the Eight Parts of Speech;
  Infinitives and Participles.--Comparative Importance of the Parts
  of Speech in the Sentence: the Subject Noun (or Simple Subject);
  the Predicate Verb (or Simple Predicate); Compound Subject and
  Predicate.--Substitutes for the Parts of Speech: Phrases; Clauses;
  Compound and Complex Sentences.


THE SENTENCE

+1.+ +A sentence is a group of words which expresses a complete
thought.+

  Fire burns.

  Wolves howl.

  Rain is falling.

  Charles is courageous.

  Patient effort removes mountains.

  London is the largest city in the world.

  A man who respects himself should never condescend to use slovenly
  language.

Some of these sentences are short, expressing a very simple thought;
others are comparatively long, because the thought is more complicated
and therefore requires more words for its expression. But every one
of them, whether short or long, is complete in itself. It comes to a
definite end, and is followed by a full pause.

+2.+ Every sentence, whether short or long, consists of two parts,--a
+subject+ and a +predicate+.

+The subject of a sentence designates the person, place, or thing that
is spoken of; the predicate is that which is said of the subject.+

  Thus, in the first example in § 1, the subject is _fire_ and the
  predicate is _burns_. In the third, the subject is _rain_; the
  predicate, _is falling_. In the last, the subject is _a man who
  respects himself_; the predicate, _should never condescend to use
  slovenly language_.

Either the subject or the predicate may consist of a single word or of
a number of words. But neither the subject by itself nor the predicate
by itself, however extended, is a sentence. The mere mention of a thing
(_fire_) does not express a complete thought. Neither does a mere
assertion (_burns_), if we neglect to mention the person or thing about
which the assertion is made. Thus it appears that both a subject and a
predicate are necessary to make a sentence.

+3.+ +Sentences may be declarative, interrogative, imperative, or
exclamatory.+

1. +A declarative sentence declares or asserts something as a fact.+

  Dickens wrote “David Copperfield.”

  The army approached the city.

2. +An interrogative sentence asks a question.+

  Who is that officer?

  Does Arthur Moore live here?

3. +An imperative sentence expresses a command or a request.+

  Open the window.

  Pronounce the vowels more