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                                  THE

                             NURSERY-BOOK


                           A COMPLETE GUIDE
                                TO THE
               Multiplication and Pollination of Plants


                           _By L. H. BAILEY_


                               New York:
                     The Rural Publishing Company
                                 1891


_By the Same Author._


Horticulturist's Rule-Book.

A Compendium of Useful Information for Fruit Growers, Truck Gardeners,
Florists and others. New edition, completed to the close of 1890. Pp.
250. Library edition, cloth, $1. Pocket edition, paper, 50 cents.


Annals of Horticulture

FOR THE YEARS 1889 AND 1890.

A Witness of Passing Events, and a Record of Progress. Being records
of introductions during the year, of new methods and discoveries in
horticulture, of yields and prices, horticultural literature and work
of the experiment stations, necrology, etc. _Illustrated._ 2 vols.
Library edition, cloth, $1 per vol. Pocket edition, paper, 50 cents per
vol.


COPYRIGHTED 1891,
BY L. H. BAILEY.

ELECTROTYPED AND PRINTED
BY J. HORACE M'FARLAND, HARRISBURG, PA.




PREFACE.


This little handbook aims at nothing more than an account of the
methods commonly employed in the propagation and crossing of plants,
and its province does not extend, therefore, to the discussion of
any of the ultimate results or influences of these methods. All such
questions as those relating to the formation of buds, the reciprocal
influences of cion and stock, comparative advantages of whole and piece
roots, and the results of pollination, do not belong here.

In its preparation I have consulted freely all the best literature
of the subject, and I have been aided by many persons. The entire
volume has been read by skilled propagators, so that even all such
directions as are commonly recommended in other countries have also
been sanctioned, if admitted, as best for this. In the propagation of
trees and shrubs and other hardy ornamentals, I have had the advice of
the head propagator of one of the largest nurseries in this country.
The whole volume has also passed through the hands of B. M. Watson,
Jr., of the Bussey Institution of Harvard University, a teacher of
unusual skill and experience in this direction, and who has added
greatly to the value of the book. The articles upon orchids and upon
most of the different genera of orchids in the Nursery List, have been
contributed by W. J. Bean, of the Royal Gardens, Kew, who is well
known as an orchid specialist. I have drawn freely upon the files of
magazines, both domestic and foreign, and I have made particular use
of Nicholson's Illustrated Dictionary of Gardening, Vilmorin's Les
Fleurs de Pleine Terre, Le Bon Jardinier, and Rümpler's Illustriertes
Gartenbau-Lexikon.

It is believed that the Nursery List contains all the plants which are
ordinarily grown by horticulturists in this country either for food
or ornament. But in order to give some clew to the propagation of any
which are omitted, an ordinal index has been added, by which one can
search out plants of a given natural order or family. It cannot be
hoped that the book is complete, or that the directions are in every
case best for all regions, and any corrections or additions which will
be useful in the preparation of a second edition are solicited.

                                                         L. H. BAILEY.

Ithaca, N. Y., _Jan. 1, 1891_.




CONTENTS.


CHAPTER I.

  Seedage                                     9-24
    Regulation of Moisture                       9
    Requirements of Temperature                 14
    Preparatory Treatment of Seeds              15
    Sowing                                      19
    Miscellaneous Matters                       21
    Spores                                      24

CHAPTER II.

  Separation                                 25-31

CHAPTER III.

  Layerage                                   32-38

CHAPTER IV.

  Cuttage      39-62
    Devices for Regulating Heat and Moisture    39
    Soils and General Methods                   46
    Particular Methods--Kinds of Cuttings       51
      1. Tuber Cuttings                         52
      2. Root Cuttings                          53
      3. Stem Cuttings                          54
      4. Leaf Cuttings                          60

CHAPTER V.

  Graftage                                   63-96
    General Considerations                      63
    Particular Methods                          67
      Budding                                   67
      Grafting                                  76
    Grafting Waxes                              92

CHAPTER VI.

  The Nursery List                          97-285

CHAPTER VII.

  Pollination                              286-298
    General Requirements                       287
    Methods                                    291
    Crossing of Flowerless Plants              297

[Illustration]


NURSERY.--_An establishment for the rearing of plants. In America the
word is commonly used in connection with the propagation of woody
plants only, as fruit-trees and ornamental trees and shrubs. This is
erroneous. The word properly includes the propagation of all plants by
whatever means, and in this sense it is used in this book._


Tabular Statement of the Ways in which Plants are Propagated.


  _A._ By Seeds.--_Seedage._

           {              {                { Root-tips.
           {              {                { Runners.
           {              {  1. By         { Layers proper:
           {              {  undetached    {        Simple.
           {              {  parts.--      {        Serpentine.
           {              {  _Layerage._   {        Mound.
           {              {                {        Pot or Chinese.
           {              {
           { I. On their  {                { 1. By undivided parts.--
           { own roots.   {                { _Separation_ (Bulbs, corms,
           {              {                { bulbels, bulblets,
           {              {                { bulb-scales, tubers, etc).
           {              {                {
           {              { 2. By detached {               { Division.
           {              { parts.         { 2. By divided { Cuttings
           {              {                { parts.--      { proper:
           {              {                { _Cuttage._    {    Of tubers.
  _B._     {              {                {               {    Of roots.
  By Buds. {              {                {               {    Of stems.
           {              {                {               {    Of leaves.
           {
           {              {                { I. Budding: Shield, flute,
           {              {                { veneer, ring, annular,
           {              {                { whistle or tubular.
           {              {                {
           {              {                { II. Grafting:
           {              {                {         Whip.
           { II. On roots {                {         Saddle.
           { of other     { 1. By detached {         Splice.
           { plants.--    { scions.        {         Veneer.
           { _Graftage._  {                {         Cleft.
           {              {                {         Bark.
           {              {                {         Herbaceous.
           {              {                {         Seed.
           {              {                {         Double.
           {              {                {         Cutting.
           {              { 2. By undetached scions.--Inarching.




CHAPTER I.

SEEDAGE.

=Seedage.=--The process or operation of propagating by seeds or spores,
or the state or condition of being propagated by seeds or spores.


There are three external requisites to the germination of
seeds--moisture, free oxygen, and a definite temperature. These
requisites are demanded in different degrees and proportions by seeds
of different species, or even by seeds of the same species when
differing widely in age or degree of maturity. The supply of oxygen
usually regulates itself. It is only necessary that the seeds shall not
be planted too deep, that the soil is porous and not overloaded with
water. Moisture and temperature, however, must be carefully regulated.

[Illustration: Fig. 1. Double Seed-Pot.]

=Regulation of Moisture.=--Moisture is the most important factor
in seedage. It is usually applied to the seeds by means of soil or
some similar medium, as moss or cocoanut fiber. Fresh and vigorous
seeds endure heavy waterings, but old and poor seeds must be treated
sparingly. If there is reason to suspect that the seeds are weak,
water should not be applied to them directly. A favorite method of
handling them is to sow them in a pot of loose and sandy loam which
is set inside a larger pot, the intermediate space being filled with
moss, to which, alone, the water is applied. This device is illustrated
in Fig. 1. The water soaks through the walls of the inner pot and is
supplied gradually and constantly to the soil. Even in this case it
is necessary to prevent soaking the moss too thoroughly, especially
with very weak seeds. When many pots are required, they may be simply
plunged in moss with the same effect. The soil should be simply very
slightly moist, never wet. Moisture is sometimes supplied by setting
the seed-pot in a shallow saucer of water, or it may be sufficient to
simply place it in the humid atmosphere of a propagating-box. Large
seeds may be laid upon the surface of the soil in a half-filled pot,
covered with thin muslin, and then covered with loose and damp loam.
Every day the pot is inverted, the covering taken off and fresh soil
is added. A modification of this plan for small seeds can be made by
placing the seeds between two layers of thin muslin and inserting them
in damp loam, which is frequently renewed to avoid the extremes which
would result from watering or from allowing the soil to become dry.
In these last operations, no water is applied to the seeds and they
constitute one of the most satisfactory methods of dealing with seeds
of low vitality. They are essentially the methods long ago used by
Knight, who laid such seeds between two sods cut from an old and dry
pasture.

Even sound and strong seeds should be watered with care. Drenchings
usually weaken or destroy them. The earth should be kept simply damp.
To insure comparative dryness in in-door culture, some loose material,
as pieces of broken pots or clinkers, should be placed in the bottom of
the pot or box to afford drainage. It should be borne in mind, however,
that the seed bed should be approximately equally moist throughout its
depth. The waterings should therefore be copious enough to moisten the
soil throughout. A wet or moist surface over a dry substratum should
always be avoided. Error is common here. It is usually best to apply
water with a watering-pot, as watering with a hose is apt to wash out
the seeds and to pack the soil, and the quantity of water is not so
easily regulated.

At first thought, it would appear that the apparently good results
following soaking of seeds in many cases, are a contradiction of these
statements that seeds may be over-watered. But soaking is usually
beneficial only when practiced for a comparatively short time. It is
not good practice to soak delicate seeds before sowing, and it is of
doubtful utility in most other cases, unless it is necessary to soften
the integuments of hard-shelled species, as discussed on page 17. The
gain in rapidity of germination following soaked, as compared with dry
seeds, is really fictitious, inasmuch as germination actually begins in
the soaked seeds before the dry samples are sown. The soaked seeds are
sown in water rather than in soil, and as conditions are more uniform
there, a gain apparently due to soaking may result. In the case of
strong seeds which must be planted out-doors in cold or uncongenial
soil, a preliminary soaking of from 12 to 24 hours may be beneficial,
as it lessens the period which the seeds would otherwise pass in
untoward conditions. But soaked seeds, unless of very hardy species,
should never be sown out-doors until the soil has become rather dry and
warm.

To prevent too rapid drying out, the soil should be firmly pressed
about the seeds. The pot or box should be given a shady place, or some
covering may be applied to check evaporation. A pane of glass is often
placed over the box, being tilted a little at intervals to allow of
ventilation and to prevent the soil from becoming soggy or "sour." A
seed-case, with a glass cover, as shown in Fig. 2, is neat and handy in
the treatment of small seeds. A thin covering of fine moss is sometimes
given, or a newspaper may be thrown over the soil.

[Illustration: Fig. 2. Seed-Case.]

In out-door culture, only a naturally dry and well-drained soil should
be chosen for all ordinary seeds, especially for such as are sown
in the fall or remain in the ground a long time before germinating.
Soils which contain a liberal amount of sand or gravel are especially
valuable for this purpose.

To prevent drying in out-door culture, it is important that the earth
be well firmed over the seeds. Walking on the row, placing one foot
directly ahead of the other, is usually the most expeditious and
satisfactory operation, at least with large seeds. Or the earth may
be firmed with a hoe or the back of a spade, or a board may be placed
upon the row and then be thoroughly settled by walking over it. In
the sowing of celery and other small and slow seeds, it is a frequent
practice to leave the board on the row until the seeds appear in order
to hold the moisture. This is a doubtful expedient, however, for the
young plants are apt to be quickly dispatched by the sun when the board
is removed. If the board is employed, it should be raised an inch or
two from the ground as soon as the plants begin to appear. But the
shade of the board is too dense and plants do not grow stocky under it.
It is better to use brush or lath screens if protection is desired;
or fine litter, if free from weed seeds, may be used. In most cases,
however, screens will not be needed by celery and similar seeds if the
ground is in the proper condition and is well firmed at planting time.
It is always advisable, nevertheless, to place the beds for slow and
small seeds where they can be watered occasionally.

[Illustration: Fig. 3. Lath Screen.]

There are many kinds of screens in use to prevent the drying out of
small seeds in out-door seedage and to protect the young seedlings.
These are used also in the shading of cuttings. The common lath screen
(Fig. 3) is the most useful for general purposes. It is simply a square
frame made from common laths laid at right angles in a double series.
The interstices between the laths are equal in width to the laths
themselves. These screens are laid horizontally upon a light frame-work
a few inches above the seeds. The passage of the sun constantly moves
the shadows over the bed, and sufficient shade is afforded while
thorough ventilation is allowed. This and all other elevated screens
are useful in shading and protecting the young plants as well, but when
used for this purpose they are usually raised a greater distance above
the beds. A brush screen consisting of a low frame covered with boughs,
is often used, as shown in Fig. 4. This is cheaper than the lath
screens, and is equally as good for most purposes. The brush is often
laid directly upon the ground, especially in large beds. This answers
the purpose of shading, but it does not allow of weeding and it must
be taken off soon after the seeds germinate, or slender plants will be
injured in its removal. Brush screens are sometimes raised three or
four feet to allow of weeding. A screen for frames is shown in Fig.
5. It is a simple covering of muslin stretched over the top and sides
of a rough frame-work. The cloth is usually omitted from the front
side. This style of screens is much used by nurserymen, especially for
cutting beds. Whitewashing the sashes also affords good shading. A more
elaborate and permanent screen is shown in Fig. 6. It is built of
slats, usually 3-inch stuff. This shed screen is oftenest used for the
protection of tender plants, but it affords an exceedingly useful and
convenient place for the storage of pots and boxes of slow-germinating
seeds.

[Illustration: Fig. 4. Brush Screen.]

[Illustration: Fig. 5. Screen for Frames.]

[Illustration: Fig. 6. Shed Screen.]

Various frames and covers are employed for in-door seedage, but
they are designed to regulate atmospheric moisture and to control
temperature. They are more commonly employed in the growing of
cuttings, and are therefore described in Chapter IV.

=Requirements of Temperature.=--Variations in temperature exercise less
influence upon seeds than variations in moisture. Yet it is important
that the extremes of temperature should not be great, especially in
small, delicate or weak seeds. Seeds will endure greater extremes of
temperature when dry than when moist. This indicates that germinating
seeds must be kept in a comparatively uniform temperature. For this
reason it is poor practice to place seed-boxes in a window in full
sunlight. Partial or complete shade serves the double purpose of
preventing too great heat and too rapid evaporation. Various covered
seed-boxes are used for the purpose of maintaining approximately the
required temperature, but as they are oftener used in bud-propagation,
they are discussed in that connection.

Bottom heat is helpful to germination in most seeds, but, except in
the case of certain tropical species, it should not be strong. It is a
common practice to place the seed-boxes on moderately cool pipes under
benches in a greenhouse. Seeds of hardy annuals and perennials do not
require bottom heat, although they may be benefitted by it. If the
soil in seed beds should become too cool, watering with warm or tepid
water will be found helpful.

It is impossible to give rules for the determination of the proper
temperature for different kinds of seeds. In general, it may be said
that seeds germinate most rapidly at a temperature a few degrees above
that required for the best development of the plant itself. Hardy
plants require a temperature of from 50° to 70°, conservatory plants
from 60° to 75° or 80°, and tropical or stove plants from 75° to 95°.
The plantlets should be removed from these highest temperatures, as a
rule, as soon as germination is completed.

In out-door culture, depth of planting has a direct relation to
temperature. Seeds may be planted deeper late in the season than early,
when the soil is cold and damp. Deep planting probably as often kills
seeds because of the absence of sufficient heat as from the lack of
oxygen or the great depth of earth through which the plantlet is unable
to push.

=Preparatory Treatment of Seeds.=--Many seeds demand some treatment
preparatory to sowing. Nearly all hard and bony seeds fail to
germinate, or at least germinate very irregularly, if their contents
are allowed to become thoroughly dry and hard. The shells must also be
softened or broken in many cases before the embryo can grow. Nature
treats such seeds by keeping them constantly moist under leaves or
mold, and by cracking them with frost. This suggests the practice
known to gardeners as _stratification_, an operation which consists in
mixing seeds with earth and exposing them to frost or to moisture for a
considerable time.

Stratification is practiced, as a rule, with all nuts, the seeds of
forest trees, shrubs, the pips of haws and often of roses, and in
many cases with the seeds of common fruits. It should be performed as
soon as possible after the seeds are mature. Small seeds are usually
placed in thin layers in a box alternating with an inch or two of sand.
Sometimes the seeds are mixed indiscriminately in the sand, but unless
they are large it is difficult to separate them out at sowing time.
The sand is often sown with the seeds, however, but it is difficult
in such cases to distribute the seeds evenly, and in sowing large
quantities the handling of the sand entails a considerable burden and
becomes an item of expense. It is advisable to pass the sand through a
sieve of finer mesh than the seeds, and the seeds can then be sifted
out at sowing time. If the seeds are very small or very few in number
they may be placed between folds of thin muslin, which is then laid
in the sand. Any shallow box, like a gardener's "flat," is useful in
making stratifications, or with small lots of seeds pots may be used.
A flat four inches deep might contain two or three layers or strata of
seeds the size of peas.

The disposition of the boxes when filled varies with different
operators. Some prefer to bury them. In this case a well-drained sandy
<DW72> is chosen. The flats are placed in a trench from one to two feet
deep, covered with a single thickness of boards, and the trench is
then filled with earth. The seeds usually freeze somewhat, although
freezing is not considered necessary unless in the case of nut-like
seeds. The object attained in burying is to keep the seeds moist and
fresh, inducing the rotting or softening of the coverings, while they
are buried so deep that they will not sprout. Seeds of most forest
trees should be treated in this manner. They are commonly left in the
ground until the second spring, when they are taken up and sown in
drills in mellow ground. If good loam to which has been added a little
well-rotted manure is used, the seeds or nuts of hardy trees and shrubs
may be allowed to germinate and grow for one season in the flats. At
the end of the season or the next spring the plants can be transplanted
without losing one. This is, perhaps, the best way to handle rare and
difficult subjects.

Many growers place the boxes on the surface in some protected place, as
under trees or in a shed, and cover them a foot deep with clean straw
or leaves. This is a good method for all seeds which are to be sown the
following spring, as those of many fruits. If boxes are piled on top
each other they should be mulched with moss, else the under ones may
become too dry. Or the boxes may be placed without covering in a shed,
but they must be examined occasionally to see that they do not become
too dry. Precaution must also be taken to keep away mice, squirrels,
blue-jays and other intruders.

Large nut-like seeds or fruits, like peach-pits, walnuts and
hickory-nuts, are usually buried in sand or light loam where they will
freeze. Or sometimes the large nuts are thrown into a pile with earth
and allowed to remain on the surface. Freezing serves a useful purpose
in aiding to crack the shells, but it is not essential to subsequent
germination, as is commonly supposed. All seeds, so far as known, can
be grown without the agency of frost if properly handled.

Fall sowing amounts to stratification, but unless the soil is mellow
and very thoroughly drained the practice is not advisable. The seeds
are liable to be heaved or washed out, eaten by vermin, and the soil is
apt to bake over them. Under proper conditions, however, the seeds of
fruits and many forest trees thrive well under fall sowing. The seeds
should be sown as soon as they are ripe, even if in mid-summer; or if
the ground is not ready for them at that time, they may be temporarily
stratified to prevent too great hardening of the parts. It is best,
however, to allow all green or moist seeds to dry off a few days before
they are stratified. Fall sown seeds should always be mulched.

Some seeds rarely germinate until the second year after maturity,
even with the best of treatment. The thorns, mountain ash, hollies,
viburnums, some roses, and many others belong to this category. Some
growers sow them regularly as soon as they are ripe and allow the beds
to remain until the seeds appear. This is a waste of land and of labor
in weeding, and the best way is to stratify them and allow them to
remain until the second spring before sowing.

Partial substitutes for stratification are soaking and scalding the
seeds. Soaking may be advantageously practiced in the case of slow and
hard seeds, which are not enclosed in bony shells, and which have been
allowed to become dry. Seeds of apple, locust and others of similar
character, are sometimes treated in this manner. They are soaked for 24
or 36 hours, and it is commonly supposed that if they are exposed to a
sharp frost in the meantime, better results will follow. While still
wet the seeds are sown. Scalding water may be poured over locust and
other seeds to soften their covering. But seeds should not be boiled,
as sometimes recommended.

[Illustration: Fig. 7. Bored Seed.]

The germination of bony seeds is often facilitated by filing or cutting
away the shell very carefully near the germ, or by boring them. A bored
nelumbium seed is shown in Fig. 7.

Treatment with various chemicals has been recommended for the purpose
of softening integuments, and also for some power which strong
oxidizing agents are supposed to exert in hastening germination
itself, but the advantages are mostly imaginary. Secret and patented
"germinator" compounds had better be avoided.

Pulpy and fleshy coverings should be removed from seeds before sowing.
Soft fruits, like berries, are broken up or ground into a pulp and
the seeds are then washed out. This separation may be performed
immediately in some cases, but when the pulp adheres to the seed,
the whole mass is usually allowed to stand until fermentation and
partial decay has liberated the seeds. The pulp will then rise, in
most instances, leaving the seeds at the bottom of the vessel. Seeds
can be liberated quickly by adding a stick of caustic potash to each
pail of water. After the mass has stood an hour or so, the seeds can
be rubbed out easily. Even tomato seeds can be cleaned with safety in
this manner. Seeds which have thin coverings, as the viburnums and many
haws, can be prepared by rubbing them through the hands with sharp
sand. Or the scant pulp of such seeds may be allowed to rot off in the
stratification box. Fleshy coverings of hard and bony seeds may be
removed by maceration. Allow them to stand in water at a temperature
of about 75° for one to three weeks, and then wash them out. Resinous
coverings are sometimes removed by mixing the seeds with fresh ashes or
lime, or by treating them with lye. Hard, thick-walled seeds are rarely
injured by the decay of the pulpy covering, but thin-walled seeds
should be cleaned, to avoid the possibility of damaging them.[A]

[A] An admirable paper upon the propagation of hardy trees and shrubs
from seeds and the treatment of the young seedlings, by Jackson Dawson,
may be found in Trans. Mass. Hort. Soc. 1885, part 1, 145, and also in
Rep. Sec. Mass. Bd. Agr. 1885, 468.

=Sowing.=--The soil in which seeds are sown, especially in in-door
culture, should be such as to allow of perfect drainage and at the same
time to hold moisture. Good potting soil, with a liberal allowance of
sharp sand, is the best for general purposes. Pure sand becomes too
dense, and leaf mold alone is usually too loose and open. A proper
combination of the two corrects both faults. It is impossible to
describe a good potting or seed-bed soil. Some experience is essential
to the best results in preparing it. It should be of such character
that when a damp portion is firmly compressed in the hand it will fall
apart when released. It should never bake. Good old garden loam, to
which an equal quantity of sand has been added, is usually a good soil
for common in-door seedage. There should be no manure in soil used for
seeds which produce a delicate growth, as rhododendrons and kalmias. In
all such cases, rotted sod or leafy peat forms the best basis. The soil
should be sifted and thoroughly fined before seeds are put into it.
Seeds usually require lighter soil than that in which the growing plant
will flourish. Cocoanut fiber is sometimes used in place of the soil,
as it holds moisture, allows of almost perfect drainage, and does not
become "sour." Fine dead sphagnum moss may also be used. Orchid seeds
are usually sown on the live moss in which the parent plant is growing;
or they may be sown on damp wood or cork. (See under Orchids, Chap.
VI.) Small seeds, like those of cineraria and calceolaria, germinate
well in very old cow-dung obtained from a pasture; the unctuous
matters have disappeared, leaving a fibrous remainder. But all things
considered, well-prepared soil is the most satisfactory medium which
can be used. Seeds of aquatic plants which are to be sown in a pond may
be placed in a ball of clay and dropped into the water.

Shallow boxes or "flats" and earthen seed-pans and lily-pans are
usually preferable to pots in which to grow seeds. They give more
surface in proportion to their contents and require less attention in
drainage. If pots are used, the four to six inch sizes are best.

If delicate seeds are sown out-doors, they should be given some
protection, if possible. An ordinary hot-bed frame gives the best
results. In warm weather or a sunny exposure it will be found desirable
to substitute a cloth screen for the sash. A thin or medium water-proof
plant cloth, either commercial or home-made, is excellent for this
purpose. It may be tacked upon a simple and light rectangular frame
which is strengthened at the corners by iron "carriage-corners." These
cloth-covered frames are handy for many purposes, particularly for
protecting and supplying some warmth to seed-pans and young seedlings.

It is essential that good drainage be given all in-door seed-pots or
seed-beds. A layer of broken pots or other coarse material is placed on
the bottom. Many growers place a thin layer of fine dead sphagnum moss
or of peat over this drainage material, and it certainly makes a useful
addition. It is particularly useful in isolated pots or small boxes,
as it holds enough moisture to prevent too rapid drying out, while all
surplus water is quickly taken off by the coarse material beneath. Over
the moss coarse siftings from the soil may be placed, while on top only
the finest and best soil should be used. The smaller the seeds, the
more care must be exercised in the sowing.

The proper depth for sowing