



Produced by Barbara Tozier, Bill Tozier, Stephanie Eason,
and the Online Distributed Proofreading Team at
http://www.pgdp.net.









TYPOGRAPHIC TECHNICAL SERIES FOR APPRENTICES--PART VI, NO. 36


  COMPOUND WORDS

  A STUDY OF THE PRINCIPLES
  OF COMPOUNDING, THE COMPONENTS
  OF COMPOUNDS, AND THE
  USE OF THE HYPHEN

  BY
  FREDERICK W. HAMILTON, LL. D.

  EDUCATIONAL DIRECTOR
  UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA.

  PUBLISHED BY THE COMMITTEE ON EDUCATION
  UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA
  1918



  COPYRIGHT, 1918
  UNITED TYPOTHETAE OF AMERICA
  CHICAGO, ILL.




PREFACE


The subject of compounds is one of the most difficult of the matters
relating to correct literary composition. The difficulty arises from the
fact that usage, especially in the matter of the presence or absence of
the hyphen, is not clearly settled. Progressive tendencies are at work
and there is great difference of usage, even among authorities of the
first rank, with regard to many compounds in common use.

An attempt is made to show first the general character of the problems
involved. Then follows a discussion of the general principles of
compounding. The general rules for the formation of compounds are stated
and briefly discussed. The various components of compounds are fully
analyzed and tabulated. The best modern usage in the matter of the
employment of the hyphen is set forth in a series of rules. The whole is
concluded by practical advice to the compositor as to the use of the
rules in the actual work of the office.




CONTENTS

                                    PAGE

  INTRODUCTION                         1

  GENERAL PRINCIPLES                   4

  ACCENT IN COMPOUNDING                5

  THE FORMATION OF COMPOUNDS           6

  COMPONENTS OF COMPOUNDS              7

  RULES FOR THE USE OF THE HYPHEN      9

  SUPPLEMENTARY READING               16

  REVIEW QUESTIONS                    17




COMPOUND WORDS




INTRODUCTION


The English language contains a great many words and phrases which are
made up of two or more words combined or related in such a way as to
form a new verbal phrase having a distinct meaning of its own and
differing in meaning from the sum of the component words taken singly.
_Income_ and _outgo_, for example, have quite definite meanings related,
it is true, to _come_ and _go_ and to _in_ and _out_, but sharply
differentiated from those words in their ordinary and general
signification. We use these compound words and phrases so commonly that
we never stop to think how numerous they are, or how frequently new ones
are coined. Any living language is constantly growing and developing new
forms. New objects have to be named, new sensations expressed, new
experiences described.

Sometimes these words are mere aggregations like _automobile_,
_monotype_, _sidewalk_, _policeman_ and the like. Sometimes, indeed very
often, they are short cuts. A _hatbox_ is a box for carrying a hat, a
_red-haired_ man is a man with red hair. A _bookcase_ is a case to
contain books, etc.

Sometimes the phrase consists of two or more separate words, such as
_well known_ or _nicely kept_. Sometimes it consists of words joined by
a hyphen, such as _boarding-house_, _sleeping-car_. Sometimes it
consists of a single word formed by amalgamating or running together the
components, such as _penholder_, _nevertheless_.

In which of these forms shall we write the phrase we speak so easily?
How shall we shape the new word we have just coined? Which of these
three forms shall we use, and why? Ordinarily we look for the answer to
such questions from three sources, historical development, the past of
the language; some logical principle of general application; or some
recognized standard of authority. Unfortunately we get little help from
either of these sources in this special difficulty.

The history of the language is a history of constant change. The
Anglo-Saxon tongue was full of compounds, but the hyphen was an unknown
device to those who spoke it. The English of Chaucer, the period when
our new-born English tongue was differentiated from those which
contributed to its composition, is full of compounds, and the compounds
were generally written with a hyphen. Shakespeare used many compound
words and phrases some of which sound strange, if not uncouth, to modern
ears, but used the hyphen much less than Chaucer. In modern times the
tendency has been and is to drop the hyphen. The more general
progression seems to be (1) two words, (2) two words hyphenated, (3) two
words run together into one. Sometimes, however, the hyphen drops,
leaving two words separated. That there is constant change, and that the
change is progressing consistently in the direction of eliminating the
hyphen is fairly clear. This, however, does not help us much. At what
stage of the process are we with regard to any given word? Which form of
the process is operating in any given case?

There are no laws or principles of universal application on which we may
build a consistent system of practice. Certain general principles have
been laid down and will be here set forth. While they are helpful to the
understanding of the subject they are not sufficiently universal to
serve as practical guides in all cases. In any event they need to be
supplemented by careful study of the rules for the use of the hyphen, by
careful study of the best usage in particular cases, and by thorough
knowledge of the style of each particular office, as will be pointed out
later. Authorities and usage differ widely, and it is often difficult to
say that a particular form is right or wrong.

There is no recognized standard authority. The dictionaries do not agree
with each other and are not always consistent with themselves. They may
always write a certain word in a certain way but they may write another
word to all appearance exactly analogous to the first in another way.
For example Worcester has _brickwork_ and _brasswork_, but _wood-work_
and _iron-work_. Webster, on the other hand, has _woodwork_ and
_brick-work_.

The best that the printer can do is to adopt a set of rules or style of
his own and stick to it consistently. Here and there a generally
accepted change, like the dropping of the hyphen from _tomorrow_ and
_today_ will force itself upon him, but for the most part he may stick
to his style. Of course, the author, if he has a marked preference, must
be permitted to use his own methods of compounding except in magazine
publications and the like. In such cases, when the author's work is to
appear in the same volume with that of other writers, the style of the
printing office must rule and the individual contributors must bow to
it.




GENERAL PRINCIPLES


Three general principles are laid down by Mr. F. Horace Teall which will
be found useful, though they must be supplemented in practice by more
specific rules which will be given later. They are as follows:

I All words should be separate when used in regular grammatical
relations and construction unless they are jointly applied in some
arbitrary way.

     An _iron fence_ means a fence made of iron. The meaning and
     construction are normal and the words are not compounded.

     An _iron-saw_ means a saw for cutting iron. The meaning is not the
     same as _iron saw_ which would mean a saw made of iron. The
     hyphenated compound indicates the special meaning of the words used
     in this combination.

     _Ironwood_ is a specific name applied to a certain kind of very
     hard wood. Hence, it becomes a single word compounded but without a
     hyphen. Either of the other forms would be ambiguous or impossible
     in meaning.

II Abnormal associations of words generally indicate unification in
sense and hence compounding in form.

     A _sleeping man_ is a phrase in which the words are associated
     normally. The man sleeps.

     A _sleeping-car_ is a phrase in which the words are associated
     abnormally. The car does not sleep. It is a specially constructed
     car in which the passengers may sleep comfortably.

     A _king fisher_ might be a very skilful fisherman. A _kingfisher_
     is a kind of bird. Here again we have an abnormal association of
     words and as the compound word is the name of a specific sort of
     bird there is no hyphen. A _king-fisher_, if it meant anything,
     would probably mean one who fished for kings, as a _pearl-diver_ is
     one who dives for pearls.

III Conversely, no expression in the language should ever be changed
from two or more words into one (either hyphenated or solid) without
change of sense.

     _Saw trimmer_ is not compounded because there is no change in the
     commonly accepted sense of either word.

     _Color work_ is not compounded because the word _color_, by usage
     common in English, has the force of an adjective, and the words are
     used in their accepted sense. In other languages it would be
     differently expressed, for example, in French it would be _oeuvre_,
     or _imprimerie en couleur_, _work_, or, _printing in color_.

     _Presswork_ is compounded because it has a special and specific
     meaning. Good or bad presswork is a good or bad result of work done
     on a press.

     Here as everywhere in printing the great purpose is to secure
     plainness and intelligibility. Print is made to read. Anything
     which obscures the sense, or makes the passage hard to read is
     wrong. Anything which clears up the sense and makes the passage
     easy to read and capable of only one interpretation is right.


INFLUENCE OF ACCENT IN COMPOUNDING

Some writers lay much stress on the influence of accent in the formation
of compounds while others ignore it entirely. Accent undoubtedly has
some influence and the theory may be easily and intelligibly expressed.
It ought to be understood, but it will not be found an entirely safe
guide. Usage has modified the results of compounding in many cases in
ways which do not lend themselves to logical explanation and
classification.

The general principle as stated by Mr. Teall is as follows:

     When each part of the compound is accented, use the hyphen;
     _laughter-loving_.

     When only one part is accented, omit the hyphen; _many sided_.

     When the accent is changed, print the compound solid; _broadsword_.
     This follows the general rule of accenting the first syllable in
     English words.


RULES FOR THE FORMATION OF COMPOUNDS

I Two nouns used together as a name form a compound noun unless:

     (_a_) The first is used in a descriptive or attributive sense, that
           is, is really an adjective, or

     (_b_) The two are in apposition.

Various uses of the noun as an adjective, that is, in some qualifying or
attributive sense are when the noun conveys the sense of:

     1. "Made of;" _leather belt_, _steel furniture_.

     2. "Having the shape, character, or quality of;" _diamond pane_,
        _iron ration_, _bull calf_.

     3. "Pertaining to, suitable for, representing;" _office desk_,
        _labor union_.

     4. "Characterized by;" _motor drive_.

     5. "Situated in, and the like;" _ocean current_, _city life_.

     6. "Supporting or advocating;" _union man_, _Bryan voter_.

     7. "Existing in or coming from;" _Yellowstone geyser_, _California
        lemon_.

     8. "Originated or made by, named for;" _Gordon Press_, _Harvard
        College_.

     Placing the two nouns in apposition is much the same as using the
     first as an adjective.

     Such compounds are generally written as two words without the
     hyphen, but see specific rules for use of hyphens.

II Every name apparently composed of a plain noun and a noun of agent or
verbal noun, but really conveying the sense of a phrase with suffix
_er_, _or_, or _ing_, should be treated as a compound; _roller
distribution_.

III Possessive phrases used as specific names (generally plants) are
treated as compounds.

     They are hyphenated unless very common, in which case they are
     closed up; _crane's-bill_, _ratsbane_.

IV Any phrase used as a specific name in an arbitrary application not
strictly figurative is written as a compound; _blueberry_, _red-coat_,
_forget-me-not_.

V Any pair of words used as one name of which the second is a noun but
the first not really an adjective should be written as a compound;
_foster-brother_, _down-town_, _after-consideration_.

     As elsewhere the use of the hyphen depends largely in the
     familiarity of the phrase; _spoilsport_, _pickpocket_.

VI Any two words other than nouns should be treated as a compound,
generally solid, when arbitrarily associated as a name; _standpoint_,
_outlook_.

VII A name or an adjective made by adding a suffix to a proper name
compounded of two words should be treated as a compound with a hyphen;
_East-Indian_, _New-Yorker_. If the name is not inflected this rule does
not apply; _East India Company_, _New York man_.

VIII Any pair or series of words arbitrarily associated in a joint sense
different from their sense when used separately, should be compounded;
_workman-like_, _warlike_.


COMPONENTS OF COMPOUNDS

Compounds having the force of nouns may be made up in several ways.

     1. Two nouns used in other than their natural signification;
        _claw-hammer_.

     2. A noun and an adjective used in other than their natural
        signification; _great-uncle_, _dry-goods_.

     3. A noun and an adverb; _touch-down_, _holder-forth_.

     4. A noun and an adverb; _down-draft_, _flare-back_.

     5. A noun and a verb; _know-nothing_, _draw-bar_.

     6. A noun and a preposition; _between-decks_.

     7. Two adjectives; _high-low_, _wide-awake_.

     8. Two verbs; _make-believe_.

     9. A verb and an adverb; _cut-off_, _break-up_.

     10. A verb and a preposition; _to-do_, _go-between_.

Compounds having the force of adjectives may be made up in several ways.

     1. A group of words compacted into one idea;
        _never-to-be-forgotten_.

     2. Two adjectives; _white-hot_, _ashy-blue_.

     3. An adjective and a participle or noun and suffix simulating a
        participle; _odd-looking_, _foreign-born_, _bow-legged_.

     4. An adjective and a noun; _fire-new_, _type-high_.

     5. A noun and a participle (or noun and suffix simulating a
        participle); _hand-printed_, _peace-making_.

     6. An adverb and an adjective used together before a noun;
        _well-bred_, _long-extended_.

     7. Two nouns used adjectively before another noun; _cotton-seed
        oil_, _shoe-sewing machine_, _Sunday-school teacher_.

     8. An adjective and a noun used together before a noun;
        _civil-service examination_, _free-trade literature_, _fresh-water
        sailor_.

     9. A verb and a noun; _John Lack-land_.

Four compounds occur with the force of verbs.

     1. Two verbs; _balance-reef_.

     2. A verb and a noun; _silver-plate_, _house-break_.

     3. A verb and an adjective; _cold-press_, _fine-still_.

     4. A verb and an adverb; _cross-examine_.

Several combinations are used with the force of adverbs.

     1. Two adverbs; _upright_, _henceforth_.

     2. A noun and an adverb; _brain-sickly_.

     3. An adjective and an adverb (or compound adjective with suffix,
        simulating an adverb); _stout-heartedly_, _ill-naturedly_.

     4. An adjective and a verb; _broadcast_.

     5. Two nouns; _piecemeal_, _half-mast_.

     6. A noun and an adjective; _cost-free_, _pointblank_.

     7. A noun and a preposition; _down-stairs_, _above-board_,
       _offhand_.


RULES FOR THE USE OF THE HYPHEN

1. Hyphenate nouns formed by the combination of two nouns standing in
objective relation to each other, that is, one of whose components is
derived from a transitive verb:

     _well-wisher_             _wood-turning_
     _mind-reader_             _child-study_
     _office-holder_           _clay-modeling_

When such compounds are in very common use, and especially when they
have a specific or technical meaning, they are printed solid;

     _typewriter_              _stockholder_
     _proofreader_             _copyholder_
     _lawgiver_                _dressmaker_

2. Hyphenate a combination of a present participle with a noun when the
meaning of the combination is different from that of the two words taken
separately; _boarding-house_, _sleeping-car_, _walking-stick_.

3. Hyphenate a combination of a present participle with a preposition
used absolutely (not governing the following noun); _the putting-in or
taking-out of a hyphen_.

4. As a rule compounds of _book_, _house_, _will_, _room_, _shop