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          ENCYCLOPAEDIA BRITANNICA

  A DICTIONARY OF ARTS, SCIENCES, LITERATURE
           AND GENERAL INFORMATION

              ELEVENTH EDITION


             VOLUME II, SLICE V

          Arculf to Armour, Philip




ARTICLES IN THIS SLICE:


  ARCULF                           ARIMASPI
  ARDASHIR                         ARIMINUM
  ARDEA                            ARIOBARZANES
  ARDEBIL                          ARION
  ARDECHE                          ARIOSTO, LODOVICO
  ARDEE                            ARISTAENETUS
  ARDEN, FOREST OF                 ARISTAEUS
  ARDENNES (district)              ARISTAGORAS
  ARDENNES (department of France)  ARISTANDER
  ARDGLASS                         ARISTARCHUS (of Samos)
  ARDITI, LUIGI                    ARISTARCHUS (of Samothrace)
  ARDMORE                          ARISTEAS (Greek mythical personage)
  ARDRES                           ARISTEAS (author of "Letter")
  ARDROSSAN                        ARISTIDES (Athenian statesman)
  AREA                             ARISTIDES (of Miletus)
  ARECIBO                          ARISTIDES (of Thebes)
  AREMBERG                         ARISTIDES, AELIUS
  ARENA                            ARISTIDES, QUINTILIANUS
  ARENDAL                          ARISTIDES, APOLOGY OF
  ARENIG GROUP                     ARISTIPPUS
  AREOI                            ARISTO (of Chios)
  AREOPAGUS                        ARISTO (of Pella)
  AREQUIPA (department of Peru)    ARISTOBULUS (of Cassandreia)
  AREQUIPA (city of Peru)          ARISTOBULUS (of Paneas)
  ARES                             ARISTOCRACY
  ARETAEUS                         ARISTODEMUS
  ARETAS                           ARISTOLOCHIA
  ARETE                            ARISTOMENES
  ARETHAS                          ARISTONICUS
  ARETHUSA                         ARISTOPHANES (Greek dramatist)
  ARETINO, PIETRO                  ARISTOPHANES (of Byzantium)
  AREZZO                           ARISTOTLE
  ARGALI                           ARISTOXENUS
  ARGAO                            ARISUGAWA
  ARGAUM                           ARITHMETIC
  ARGEI                            ARIUS
  ARGELANDER, FRIEDRICH AUGUST     ARIZONA
  ARGENS, JEAN BAPTISTE DE BOYER   ARJUNA
  ARGENSOLA, LUPERCIO LEONARDO DE  ARK
  ARGENSON                         ARKANSAS (river of the U.S.)
  ARGENTAN                         ARKANSAS (state)
  ARGENTEUIL                       ARKANSAS CITY
  ARGENTINA                        ARKLOW
  ARGENTINE                        ARKWRIGHT, SIR RICHARD
  ARGENTITE                        ARLES (town of France)
  ARGENTON                         ARLES (kingdom)
  ARGHANDAB                        ARLINGTON, HENRY BENNET
  ARGHOUL                          ARLINGTON
  ARGOL                            ARLON
  ARGON                            ARM
  ARGONAUTS                        ARMADA, THE
  ARGONNE                          ARMADILLO
  ARGOS                            ARMAGEDDON
  ARGOSTOLI                        ARMAGH (county of Ireland)
  ARGOSY                           ARMAGH (city)
  ARGUIN                           ARMAGNAC
  ARGUMENT                         ARMATOLES
  ARGUS                            ARMATURE
  ARGYLL, EARLS AND DUKES OF       ARMAVIR
  ARGYLLSHIRE                      ARMENIA
  ARGYRODITE                       ARMENIAN CHURCH
  ARGYROKASTRO                     ARMENIAN LANGUAGE AND LITERATURE
  ARGYROPULUS, JOHN                ARMENTIERES
  ARIA                             ARMET
  ARIADNE                          ARMFELT, GUSTAF MAURITZ
  ARIANO DI PUGLIA                 ARMIDALE
  ARIAS MONTANO, BENITO            ARMILLA
  ARICA                            ARMINIUS
  ARICIA                           ARMINIUS, JACOBUS
  ARICINI                          ARMISTICE
  ARIEGE                           ARMOIRE
  ARIES                            ARMORICA
  ARIKARA                          ARMOUR, PHILIP DANFORTH




ARCULF, a Gallican bishop and pilgrim-traveller, who visited the Levant
about 680, and was the earliest Christian traveller and observer of any
importance in the Nearer East after the rise of Islam. On his return he
was driven by contrary winds to Britain, and so came to Iona, where he
related his experiences to his host, the abbot Adamnan (679-704). This
narrative, as written out by Adamnan, was presented to Aldfrith the
Wise, last of the great Northumbrian kings, at York about 701, and came
to the knowledge of Bede, who inserted a brief summary of the same in
his _Ecclesiastical History of the English Nation_, and also drew up a
separate and longer digest which obtained great popularity throughout
the middle ages as a standard guide-book (the so-called _Libellus de
locis sanctis_) to the Holy Places of Syria. Arculf is the first to
mention the column at Jerusalem, which claimed to mark the exact centre
of the Inhabited Earth, and later became one of the favourite Palestine
wonders. Besides a valuable account of the principal sacred sites of
Judaea, Samaria and Galilee as they existed in the 7th century, he also
gives important information as to Alexandria and Constantinople, briefly
describes Damascus and Tyre, the Nile and the Lipari volcanoes, and
refers to the caliph Moawiya I. (A.D. 661-680), whom he pictures as
befriending Christians and rescuing the "sudarium" of Christ from the
Jews. Arculf's record is especially useful from its plans, drawn from
personal observation by the traveller himself, of the churches of the
Holy Sepulchre and of Mount Sion in Jerusalem, of the Ascension on
Olivet and of Jacob's well at Sichem. It is also a useful witness to the
prosperity and trade of Alexandria after the Moslem conquest: it tells
us how the Pharos was still lit up every night; and it gives us (from
Constantinople) the first form of the story of St George which ever
seems to have attracted notice in Britain.

  Thirteen MSS, of the original Arculf-Adamnan narrative exist, and
  fully 100 of Bede's abridgment: of the former, the most important,
  containing all the plans, are (1) Bern, Canton Library, 582, of 9th
  cent.; (2) Paris, National Library, Lat. 13,048, of 9th cent.; a
  third MS., London, B. Mus., Cotlon, Tib. D. V., of 8th-9th cents.,
  though damaged by fire and lacking the illustrations, is of value for
  the text, being the oldest of all. Among editions the first is of
  1619, by Gretser; the best, that of 1877, by Tobler, in _Itinera et
  Descriptiones Terrae Sanctae_; we may also mention that of 1870, by
  Delpit, in his _Essai sur les anciens pelerinages a Jerusalem_; see
  also Delpit's remarks upon Arculf in the same work, pp. 260-304;
  Beazley, _Dawn of Modern Geography_, i. 131-40 (1897).




ARDASHIR, the modern form of the Persian royal name ARTAXERXES (q.v.),
"he whose empire is excellent." After the three Achaemenian kings of
this name, it occurs in Armenia, in the shortened form Artaxias
(Armenian, Artashes or Artaxes), and among the dynasts of Persia who
maintained their independence during the Parthian period (see PERSIS).
One of these, (1) Artaxerxes or ARDASHIR I. (in his Greek inscriptions
he calls himself Artaxares, and the same form occurs in Agathias II. 25,
iv. 24), became the founder of the New-Persian or Sassanian empire. Of
his reign we have only very scanty information, as the Greek and Roman
authors mention only his victory over the Parthians and his wars with
Rome. A trustworthy tradition about the origin of his power, from
Persian sources, has been preserved by the Arabic historian Tabari (Th.
Noldeke, _Geschichte der Perser und Araber zur Zeit der Sasaniden, aus
der arabischen Chronik des Tabari_, 1879). He was the second son of
Papak (Babek), the offspring of Sassan (Sasan), after whom the dynasty
is named. Papak had made himself king of the district of Istakhr (in the
neighbourhood of Persepolis, which had fallen to ruins). After the death
of Papak and his oldest son Shapur (Shahpuhr, Sapores), Ardashir made
himself king (probably A.D. 212), put his other brothers to death and
began war against the neighbouring dynasts of Persis. When he had
conquered a great part of Persis and Carmania, the Parthian king
Artabanus IV. interfered. But he was defeated in three battles and at
last killed (A.D. 236). Ardashir now considered himself sovereign of the
whole empire of the Parthians and called himself "King of Kings of the
Iranians." But his aspirations went farther. In Persis the traditions of
the Achaemenian empire had always been alive, as the name of Ardashir
himself shows, and with them the national religion of Zoroaster.
Ardashir, who was a zealous worshipper of Ahuramazda and in intimate
connexion with the magian priests, established the orthodox Zoroastrian
creed as the official religion of his new kingdom, persecuted the
infidels, and tried to restore the old Persian empire, which under the
Achaemenids had extended over the whole of Asia from the Aegean Sea to
the Indus. At the same time he put down the local dynasts and tried to
create a strong concentrated power. His empire is thus quite different
in character from the Parthian kingdom of the Arsacids, which had no
national and religious basis but leant towards Hellenism, and whose
organization had always been very loose. Ardashir extirpated the whole
race of the Arsacids, with the exception of those princes who had found
refuge in Armenia, and in many wars, in which, however, as the Persian
tradition shows, he occasionally suffered heavy defeats, he succeeded in
subjugating the greater part of Iran, Susiana and Babylonia. The
Parthian capital Ctesiphon (q.v.) remained the principal residence of
the Sassanian kingdom, by the side of the national metropolis Istakhr,
which was too far out of the way to become the centre of administration.
Opposite to Ctesiphon, on the right bank of the Tigris, Ardashir
restored Seleucia under the name of Weh-Ardashir. The attempt to conquer
Mesopotamia, Armenia and Cappadocia led to a war with Rome, in which he
was repelled by Alexander Severus (A.D. 233). Before his death (A.D.
241) Ardashir associated with himself on the throne his son Shapur, who
successfully continued his work.

Under the tombs of Darius I. at Persepolis, on the surface of the rock,
Ardashir has sculptured his image and that of the god Ahuramazda (Ormuzd
or Ormazd). Both are on horseback; the god is giving the diadem to the
king. Under the horse of the king lies a defeated enemy, the Parthian
king Artaban; under the horse of Ormuzd, the devil Ahriman, with two
snakes rising from his head. In the bilingual inscription (Greek and
Pahlavi), Ardashir I. calls himself "the Mazdayasnian [i.e. "worshipper
of Ahuramazda"] god Artaxares, king of the kings of the Arianes
(Iranians), of godly origin, son of the god Papak the king." (See Sir R.
Ker Porter, _Travels_ (1821-1822), i. 548 foll.; Flandin et Coste,
_Voyage en Perse_, iv. 182; F. Stolze and J.C. Andreas, _Persepolis_,
pl. 116; Marcel Diculafoy, _L'Art antique de la Perse_, 1884-1889, v.
pl. 14). A similar inscription and sculpture is on a rock near Gur
(Firuzabad) in Persia. On his coins he has the same titles (in Pahlavi).
We see that he, like his father and his successors, were worshipped as
gods, probably as incarnations of a secondary deity of the Persian
creed.

Like the history of the founder of the Achaemenian empire, that of
Ardashir has from the beginning been overgrown with legends; like Cyrus
he is the son of a shepherd, his future greatness is predicted by dreams
and visions, and by the calculations of astronomers he becomes a servant
at the court of King Art