



Produced by David Widger with thanks to Google Books





A HISTORY OF SCIENCE

By Henry Smith Williams

Assisted By Edward H. Williams

In Five Volumes


VOLUME V.

Aspects Of Recent Science

New York And London

Harper And Brothers

Copyright, 1904, by Harper & Brothers.

Published November, 1904.



CONTENTS


  BOOK V


  CHAPTER I--THE BRITISH MUSEUM

  The founding of the British Museum, p. 4--Purchase of Sir Hans Sloane's
  collection of curios by the English government, p. 4--Collection of
  curios and library located in Montague Mansion, p. 5--Acquisition of
  the collection of Sir William Hamilton, p. 5--Capture of Egyptian
  antiquities by the English, p. 5--Construction of the present museum
  building, p. 6--The Mesopotamian department, p. 8--The Museum of Natural
  History in South Kensington, p. 8--Novel features in the structure of
  the building, p. 9--Arrangement of specimens to illustrate evolution,
  protective coloring, etc., p.-- --Exhibits of stuffed specimens amid
  their natural surroundings, p. 10--Interest taken by visitors in the
  institution, p. 12.

  CHAPTER II--THE ROYAL SOCIETY OP LONDON FOR IMPROVING NATURAL KNOWLEDGE

  The Royal Society, p. 14--Weekly meetings of the society, p. 15--The tea
  before the opening of the lecture, p. 15--Announcement of the beginning
  of the lecture by bringing in the great mace, p. 16--The lecture-room
  itself, p. 17--Comparison of the Royal Society and the Royal Academy
  of Sciences at Berlin, p. 18--The library and reading-room, p. 19--The
  busts of distinguished members, p. 20--Newton's telescope and Boyle's
  air-pump, p. 21.

  CHAPTER III--THE ROYAL INSTITUTION AND LOW-TEMPERATURE RESEARCHES

  The founding of the Royal Institution, p. 29--Count Rumford, p. 30--His
  plans for founding the Royal Institution, p. 32--Change in the spirit
  of the enterprise after Rumford's death, p. 33--Attitude of the
  earlier workers towards the question of heat as a form of motion,
  p. 34--Experiments upon gases by Davy and Faraday, p. 35--Faraday's
  experiments with low temperatures, p. 39--Other experiments to produce
  lower temperature, p. 39--Professor De-war begins low-temperature
  research, p. 39--His liquefaction of hydrogen, p. 43--Hampson's method
  of producing low temperatures, p. 44--Dewar's invention of the vacuum
  vessel, p. 53--Its use in retaining liquefied gases, p. 54--Changes in
  physical properties of substances at excessively low temperatures, p.
  56--Magnetic phenomena at low temperatures, p. 56--Changes in the color
  of substances at low temperatures, p. 57--Substances made luminous by
  low temperatures, p. 58--Effect of low temperatures upon the strength of
  materials, p. 59--Decrease of chemical activity at low temperatures, p.
  60--Olzewski's experiments with burning substances in liquid oxygen,
  p. 61--Approach to the absolute zero made by liquefying hydrogen, p.
  69--Probable form of all matter at the absolute zero, p. 70--Uncertain
  factors that enter into this determination, p. 71.

  CHAPTER IV--SOME PHYSICAL LABORATORIES AND PHYSICAL PROBLEMS

  Sir Norman Lockyer and Spectroscopic Studies of the Sun and Stars, p.
  73--Observations made at South Kensington by Sir Norman and his staff,
  p. 74--His theories as to the influence of sun-spots and terrestrial
  weather, p. 75--Spectroscopic studies of sun-spots, p. 76--Studies of
  the so-called reverse lines of the spectrum, p. 78--Discovery of the new
  star in the constellation of Perseus, p. 80--Spectroscopic studies
  of the new star, p. 81--Professor Ramsay and the new gases, p.
  82--University College in London, p. 83--Professor Ramsay's laboratory
  and its equipment, p. 84--The discovery of argon, p. 86--Professor
  Ramsay's work on krypton, neon, and zenon, p. 87--Discoveries of new
  constituents of the atmosphere, p. 88--Interesting questions raised
  by these discoveries, p. 89--Professor J. J. Thomson and the nature
  of electricity, p. 92--Study of gases in relation to the conduction
  of electricity, p. 93--Electricity regarded as a form of matter, p.
  97--Radio-activity, p. 97--The nature of emanations from radio-active
  bodies, p. 10a--The source of energy of radioactivity, p.
  106--Radio-activity and the structure of the atom, p. 108--Effect of
  radio-activity upon heat-giving life of the sun and the earth, p. 111.

  CHAPTER V--THE MARINE BIOLOGICAL LABORATORY

  The aquarium, p. 113--The arrangement of the tanks and exhibits, p.
  114--The submarine effect of this arrangement, p. 115--Appearance of the
  submarine dwellers in their natural surroundings, p. 116--The eels and
  cuttle-fishes, p. 116--The octopuses, p. 117--The technical department
  of the laboratory, p. 119--The work of Dr. Anton Dohrn, founder of the
  laboratory, p. 121--The associates of Dr. Dohrn, p. 122--The collecting
  of surface specimens, p. 123--Collecting specimens by dredging, p.
  124--Fauna of the Bay of Naples, p. 124--Abundance of the material for
  biological study, p. 125--Advantages offered by marine specimens for
  biological study, p. 126--Method of preserving jelly-fish and similar
  fragile creatures, p. 127--Uses made of the specimens in scientific
  study, p. 128--Different nationalities represented among the workers at
  the laboratory, p. 130--Methods of investigation, p. 131--Dr. Diesch's
  studies of heredity at the laboratory, p. 131--Other subjects under
  scientific investigation, p. 132--The study of chromosomes, p.
  133--Professor Weismann's theory of heredity based on these studies,
  p. 33--Experiments in the division of egg-cells, p. 134--Experiments
  tending to refute Weismann's theory, p. 136--Dr. Dohrn*s theory of
  the type of the invertebrate ancestor, p. 137--Publications of the
  laboratory, p. 139--Meetings of the investigators at Signor Bifulco's,
  p. 141--Marine laboratories of other countries, p. 142.

  CHAPTER VI--ERNST HAECKEL AND THE NEW ZOOLOGY

  The "dream city" of Jena, p. 145--The old market-place, p. 147--The
  old lecture-halls of the university, p. 148--Ernst Haeckel, p. 151--His
  discoveries of numerous species of radiolarians, p. 153--The part played
  in evolution by radiolarians, p. 156--Haeckel's work on morphology,
  and its aid to Darwinian philosophy, p. 156--Freedom of thought and
  expression in the University of Jena, p. 157--Haeckel's laboratory, p.
  160--His method of working, p. 161--His methods of teaching, p. 164--The
  import of the study of zoology, p. 166--Its bearing upon evolution, p.
  168--The present status of Haeckel's genealogical tree regarding the
  ancestry of man, p. 171--Dubois's discovery of the skull of the ape-man
  of Java, p. 173--Its close resemblance to the skull of the ape, p.
  173--Man's line of descent clearly traced by Haeckel, p. 175--The
  "missing link" no longer missing, p. 176.

  CHAPTER VII--SOME MEDICAL LABORATORIES AND MEDICAL PROBLEMS

  The Boulevard Pasteur, p. 179--The Pasteur Institute, p. 180--The tomb
  of Pasteur within the walls, p. 181--Aims and objects of the Pasteur
  Institute, p. 182--Antirabic treatment given, p. 183--Methods of
  teaching in the institute, p. 185--The director of the institute and his
  associates, p. 185--The Virchow Institute of Pathology, p. 186--Studies
  of the causes of diseases, p. 187--Organic action and studies of
  cellular activities, p. 188--The discoveries of Rudolph Virchow, p.
  188--His work in pathology, p. 189--Character of the man, his ways of
  living and working, p. 189--His methods of lecturing and teaching, p.
  191--The Berlin Institute of Hygiene, p. 193--Work of Professor Koch
  as carried on in the institute, p. 194--Work of his successors in the
  institute, p. 195--Investigations in hygiene, p. 196--Investigations
  of the functions of the human body in their relations to everyday
  environment, p. 197--The Museum of Hygiene, p. 198--Studies in methods
  of constructing sewerage systems in large cities, p. 199--Studies in
  problems of ventilation, p. 200.

  CHAPTER VIII--SOME UNSOLVED SCIENTIFIC PROBLEMS

  The ever-shifting ground of scientific progress, p. 203--Solar and
  telluric problems, p. 205--Mayer's explanation of the continued heat
  of the sun, p. 206--Helmholtz's suggestion as to the explanation, p.
  207--The estimate of the heat-giving life of the sun by Lord Kelvin
  and Professor Tait, p. 208--Lockyer's suggestion that the chemical
  combination of elements might account for the sun's heat, p.
  209--Computations as to the age of the earth's crust, p. 210--Lord
  Kelvin's computation of the rigidity of the telluric structure, p.
  211--Estimates of the future life of the earth, p. 212--Physical
  problems, p. 213--Attempts to explain the power of gravitation,
  p. 214--The theory of Le Sage, p. 214--Speculations based upon the
  hypothesis of the vortex atom, p. 216--Lord Kelvin's estimate of the
  vortex theory, p. 217--Attempted explanation of the affinity of
  atoms, p. 217--Solubility, as explained by Ostwald and Mendeleef, p.
  218--Professor Van 't Hoof's studies of the space relations of atoms, p.
  219--Life problems, p. 220--Question as to living forms on other worlds
  besides our own, p. 21 x--The question of the "spontaneous generation"
  of living protoplasm, p. 222--The question of the evolution from
  non-vital to vital matter, p. 223--The possibility of producing organic
  matter from inorganic in the laboratory, p. 224--Questions as to
  the structure of the cell, p. 225--Van Beneden's discovery of the
  centrosome, p. 226--Some problems of anthropology, p. 227.

  CHAPTER IX--RETROSPECT AND PROSPECT

  The scientific attitude of mind, p. 2 30--Natural versus supernatural,
  p. 233--Inductive versus deductive reasoning, p. 235--Logical induction
  versus hasty generalization, p. 239--The future of Darwinism, p. 241.

  APPENDIX

  A LIST OF SOURCES




A HISTORY OF SCIENCE--BOOK V




ASPECTS OF RECENT SCIENCE

STUDENTS of the classics will recall that the old Roman historians were
accustomed to detail the events of the remote past in what they were
pleased to call annals, and to elaborate contemporary events into
so-called histories. Actuated perhaps by the same motives, though with
no conscious thought of imitation, I have been led to conclude this
history of the development of natural science with a few chapters
somewhat different in scope and in manner from the ones that have gone
before.

These chapters have to do largely with recent conditions. Now and again,
to be sure, they hark back into the past, as when they tell of the
origin of such institutions as the British Museum, the Royal Society,
and the Royal Institution; or when the visitor in modern Jena imagines
himself transplanted into the Jena of the sixteenth century. But these
reminiscent moods are exceptional. Our chief concern is with strictly
contemporary events--with the deeds and personalities of scientific
investigators who are still in the full exercise of their varied powers.
I had thought that such outlines of the methods of contemporary workers,
such glimpses of the personalities of living celebrities, might form a
fitting conclusion to this record of progress. There is a stimulus in
contact with great men at first hand that is scarcely to be gained in
like degree in any other way. So I have thought that those who have not
been privileged to visit the great teachers in person might like to
meet some of them at second hand. I can only hope that something of
the enthusiasm which I have gained from contact with these men may make
itself felt in the succeeding pages.

It will be observed that these studies of contemporary workers are
supplemented with a chapter in which a hurried review is taken of the
field of cosmical, of physical, and of biological science, with
reference to a few of the problems that are still unsolved. As we have
noted the clearing up of mystery after mystery in the past, it may be
worth our while in conclusion thus to consider the hordes of mysteries
which the investigators of our own age are passing on to their
successors. For the unsolved problems of to-day beckon to the alluring
fields of to-morrow.




I. THE BRITISH MUSEUM

IN the year 1753 a remarkable lottery drawing took place in London.
It was authorized, through Parliament, by "his gracious Majesty" King
George the Second. Such notables as the archbishop of Canterbury and the
lord chancellor of the realm took official interest in its success. It
was advertised far and wide--as advertising went in those days--in the
_Gazette_, and it found a host of subscribers. Of the fifty thousand
tickets--each costing three pounds--more than four thousand were to
be of the class which the act of Parliament naively describes as
"fortunate tickets." The prizes aggregated a hundred thousand pounds.

To be sure, state lotteries were no unique feature in the England of
that day. They formed as common a method of raising revenue in the
island realm of King George II. as they still do in the alleged
continental portion of his realm, France, and in the land of his
nativity, Germany. Indeed, the particular lottery in question was to
be officered by the standing committee on lotteries, whose official
business was to "secure two and a half million pounds for his Majesty"
by this means. But the great lottery of 1754 had interest far beyond the
common run, for it aimed to meet a national need of an anomalous kind--a
purely intellectual need. The money which it was expected to bring was
to be used to purchase some collections of curiosities and of books that
had been offered the government, and to provide for their future care
and disposal as a public trust for the benefit and use of the people.
The lottery brought the desired money as a matter of course, for the
"fool's tax" is the one form of revenue that is paid