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         NEW THEORIES IN ASTRONOMY

                    BY

             WILLIAM STIRLING

              CIVIL ENGINEER

              [Illustration]

                 London:

    E. & F. N. SPON, LIMITED, 57 HAYMARKET

                New York:

     SPON & CHAMBERLAIN, 123 LIBERTY STREET

                  1906




TO THE READER.

Mr. William Stirling, Civil Engineer, who devoted the last years of his
life to writing this work, was born in Kilmarnock, Scotland, his father
being the Rev. Robert Stirling, D.D., of that city, and his brothers,
the late Mr. Patrick Stirling and Mr. James Stirling, the well known
engineers and designers of Locomotive Engines for the Great Northern
and South Eastern Railways respectively.

After completing his studies in Scotland he settled in South America,
and was engaged as manager and constructing engineer in important
railway enterprises on the west coast, besides other concerns both in
Peru and Chile; his last work being the designing and construction
of the railway from the port of Tocopilla on the Pacific Ocean to
the Nitrate Fields of Toco in the interior, the property of the
Anglo-Chilian and Nitrate Railway Company.

He died in Lima, Peru, on the 7th October, 1900, much esteemed and
respected, leaving the MS. of the present work behind him, which is now
published as a tribute to his memory, and wish to put before those who
are interested in the Science of Astronomy his theories to which he
devoted so much thought.




                        CONTENTS.
                                                               PAGE
                       INTRODUCTION.                              1

                        CHAPTER I.

  The bases of modern astronomy. Their late formation            18
  Instruments and measures used by ancient astronomers           19
  Weights and measures sought out by modern astronomers          20
  Means employed to discover the density of the earth.
       Measuring by means of plummets not sufficiently exact     20
  Measurements with torsion and chemical balances more accurate  21
  Sir George B. Airy's theory,
       and experiments at the Harton colliery                    22
  Results of experiments not reliable.
       Theory contrary to the Law of Attraction                  23
  Proof by arithmetical calculation of its error                 24
  Difficulties in comparing beats of pendulums at top
       and bottom of a mine                                      26
  The theory upheld by text-books without proper examination     27
  Of a particle of matter within the shell of a hollow sphere.
       Not exempt from the law of Attraction                     28
  A particle so situated confronted with the law of the
       inverse square ofdistance from an attracting body.
       Remarks thereon                                           29
  It is not true that the attraction of a spherical shell
       is "zero" for a particle of matter within it              31

                        CHAPTER II.

  The moon cannot have even an imaginary rotation on its axis,
       but is generally believed to have.
       Quotations to prove this                                  33
  Proofs that there can be no rotation. The most confused
       assertion that there is rotation shown to be without
       foundations                                               35
  A gin horse does not rotate on its axis in its revolution      37
  A gin horse, or a substitute, driven instead of being a driver 38
  Results of the wooden horse being driven by the mill           38
  The same results produced by the revolution of the moon.
       Centrifugal force sufficient to drive air and water
       away from our side of the moon                            39
  That force not sufficient to drive them away from
       its other side                                            40
  No one seems ever to have thought of centrifugal force in
       connection with air and water on the moon                 41
  Near approach made by Hansen to this notion                    41
  Far-fetched reasons given for the non-appearance
       of air and water                                          42
  The moon must have both on the far-off hemisphere              44
  Proofs of this deduced from its appearance at change           44
  Where the evidences of this may be seen if looked for
       at the right place. The centrifugal force shown to
       be insufficient to drive off even air, and less water,
       altogether from the moon                                  45
  The moon must have rotated on its axis at one period
       of its existence                                          47
  The want of polar compression no proof to the contrary         48
  Want of proper study gives rise to extravagant conceptions,
       jumping at conclusions, and formation of
       "curious theories"                                        48

                        CHAPTER III.

  Remarks on some of the principal cosmogonies. Ancient notions  49
  The Nebular hypothesis of Laplace. Early opinions on it.
       Received into favour. Again condemned as erroneous        50
  Defects attributed to it as fatal. New cosmogonies advanced    51
  Dr. Croll's collision, or impact, theory discussed             53
  Dr. Braun's cosmogony examined                                 59
  M. Faye's "Origine du Monde" defined                           61
  Shown to be without proper foundation, confused, and
       in some parts contradictory                               65
  Reference to other hypotheses not noticed. All more or less
       only variations on the nebular hypothesis                 70
  Necessity for more particular examination into it              71

                        CHAPTER IV.

  Preliminaries to analysis of the Nebular hypothesis            72
  Definition of the hypothesis                                   73
  Elements of solar system. Tables of dimensions and masses      75
  Explanation of tables and density of Saturn                    78
  Volume, density and mass of Saturn's rings, general remarks
       about them, and satellites to be made from them           79
  Future of Saturn's rings                                       79
  Notions about Saturn's satellites and their masses             80
  Nature of rings seemingly not well understood                  81
  Masses given to the satellites of Uranus and Neptune.
       Explanations of                                           81
  Volumes of the members of the solar system at density of water 82

                        CHAPTER V.

  Analysis of the Nebular Hypothesis. Separation from the nebula
       of the rings for the separate planets, etc.               83
  Excessive heat attributed to the nebula erroneous
       and impossible                                            84
  Centigrade thermometer to be used for temperatures             85
  Temperature of the nebula not far from absolute zero           86
  Erroneous ideas about glowing gases produced by collisions
       of their atoms, or particles of cosmic matter in the
       form of vapours                                           86
  Separation of ring for Neptune. It could not have been
       thrown off in one mass, but in a sheet of cosmic matter   87
  Thickness and dimensions of the ring                           88
  Uranian ring abandoned, and its dimensions                     89
  Saturnian ring    do.              do.                         90
  Jovian ring       do.              do.                         91
  Asteroidal ring   do.              do.                         93
  Martian ring      do.              do.                         94
  Earth ring        do.              do.                         95
  Venus ring        do.              do.                         96
  Mercurian ring    do.              do.                         97
  Residual mass. Condensation of Solar Nebula to various
       diameters, and relative temperatures and densities        98
  Unaccountable confusion in the mode of counting absolute
       temperature examined and explained. Negative 274 degrees
       of heat only equal 2 degrees of absolute temperature      100
  The Centigrade thermometric scale no better than any other,
       and cannot be made decimal                               103
  The sun's account current with the Nebula drawn up and
       represented by Table III.                                104

                        CHAPTER VI.

  Analysis continued. Excessive heat of nebula involved
       condensation only at the surface. Proof that this
       was Laplace's idea                                       108
  Noteworthy that some astronomers still believe in
       excessive heat                                           109
  Interdependence of temperature and pressure in gases
       and vapours. Collisions of atoms the source of heat      110
  Conditions on which a nebula can be incandescent.
       Sir Robert Ball                                          110
  No proper explanation yet given of incandescent
       or glowing gas                                           112
  How matter was thrown off, or abandoned by the Jovian nebula  115
  Division into rings of matter thrown off determined
       during contraction                                       116
  How direct rotary motion was determined by friction and
       collisions of particles                                  117
  Saturn's rings going through the same process.
       Left to show process                                     118
  Form gradually assumed by nebulae. Cause of Saturn's
       square-shouldered appearance                             120
  A lens-shaped nebula could not be formed by
       surface condensation                                     120
  Retrograde rotary motion of Neptune and Uranus, and
       revolution of their satellites recognised by
       Laplace as possible                                      121
  Satellites of Mars. Rapid revolution of inner one may
       be accounted for                                         123
  Laplace's proportion of 4000 millions not reduced but
       enormously increased by discoveries of this century      124

                        CHAPTER VII.

  Analysis continued. No contingent of heat could be imparted
       to any planet by the parent nebula                       126
  Only one degree of heat added to the nebula from the
       beginning till it had contracted to the density
       of 1/274th of an atmosphere                              127
  Increase in temperature from 0 deg. to possible average of 274 deg.
       when condensed to 4,150,000 miles in diameter            127
  Time when the sun could begin to act as sustainer of life
       and light anywhere. Temperature of space                 128
  The ether devised as carrier of light, heat, etc.
       What effect it might have on the nebula                  129
  First measure of its density, as far as we know               130
  The estimate _too_ high. May be many times less          133
  Return to the solar nebula at 63,232,000 miles in diameter    134
  Plausible reason for the position of Neptune not conforming
       to Bode's Law. The ring being very wide had separated
       into two rings                                           134
  Bode's law reversed. Ideas suggested by it                    135
  Rates of acceleration of revolution from one
       planet to another                                        137
  Little possibility of there being a planet in
       the position assigned to Vulcan                          138
  Densities of planets compared. Seem to point to differences
       in the mass of matter abandoned by the nebula at
       different periods                                        138
  Giving rise to the continuous sheet of matter separating
       into different masses. Probably the rings had to arrive
       at a certain stage of density before contracting
       circumferentially                                        139
  Possible average temperature of the sun at the present day.
       Central heat probably very much greater                  140
  Churning of matter going on in the interior of the sun,
       caused by unequal rotation between the equator
       and the poles                                            140

                        CHAPTER VIII.

  Inquiry into the Interior Construction of the Earth.
       What is really known of the exterior or surface          142
  What is known of the interior                                 143
  Little to be learned from Geology, which reaches
       very few miles down                                      144
  Various notions of the interior                               145
  What is learnt from earthquake and volcanoes.
       Igno-aqueous fusion, liquid magma.                       146
  Generally believed that the earth consists of solid matter
       to the centre. Mean density. Surface density             147
  More detailed estimate of densities near the surface          148
  Causes of increased surface density after the crust
       was formed                                               148
  Calculations of densities for 9 miles deep, and from
       there to the centre forming Table IV.                    150
  Reflections on the results of the calculations                151
  Notion that the centre is composed of the heaviest metals.
       "Sorting-out" theory absurd                              151
  Considerations as to how solid matter got to the centre       152
  Gravitation might carry it there, but attraction could not    153
  How the earth could be made out of cosmic matter,
       meteorites or meteors                                    154

                        CHAPTER IX.

  Inquiry into the Interior Construction of
       the Earth--_continued_                              165
  The earth gasiform at one period. Density including the moon
       may have been 1/10,000th that of air. Must have been a
       hollow body. Proofs given                                166
  Division of the mass of the earth alone into two parts        169
  Division of the two masses at 817 miles from surface          171
  Reasons why the earth cannot be solid to the centre           172
  Gasiform matter condensing in a cone leaves apex empty        172
  Proportions of the matter in a cone                           173
  Calculations of the densities of the outer half of the hollow
       shell of the earth. Remarks upon the condensation        174
  Calculations of inner half of the hollow shell                175
  Remarks upon position of inner surface of the shell           177
  Calculations of the same                                      179

                        CHAPTER X.

  Inquiry into the interior construction of
       the Earth--_continued_                              184
  Density of 8.8 times that of water still too high for the
       possible compression of the component matter of the
       earth as known to us                                     185
  Reasons for this conclusion drawn from crushing strains
       of materials                                             186
  A limit to density shown thereby                              187
  The greatest density need not exceed 6.24 of water            188
  Gases shut up in the hollow centre. Their weight must so
       far diminish the conceded maximum of 6.24                189
  Density of inner half of earth at 3000 miles diameter.
       Greatest density may be less than 5.833 of water         190
  Supposed pressure of inclosed gases very moderate             191
  Meaning of heat limit to density. Temperature of interior
       half of shell and inclosed gases must be equal           193
  State of the hollow interior                                  194
  Results of the whole inquiry                                  195

                        CHAPTER XI.

  The Earth. The idea entertained by some celebrated men,
       and others                                               197
  Difficulties of forming a sphere out of a lens-shaped nebula  199
  Various studies of the earth's interior made for special
       purposes. Difficulty some people find in conceiving
       how the average density of little over 5.66 can be
       possible, the earth being a hollow sphere                200
  What is gained by its being a hollow shell                    201
  Geological theories of the interior discussed. Volcanoes
       and earthquakes in relation to the interior              202
  Liquid matter on the interior surface of the shell, and
       gases in the hollow, better means for eruptions than
       magma layers                                             206
  Focal depths of earthquakes within reach of water,
       but not of lavas                                         207
  Minute vesicles in granite filled with gases, oxygen and
       hydrogen, but not water                                  209
  The Moon. A small edition of the earth                        211
  Rotation stopped. Convulsions and cataclysms caused thereby.
       Air, water, vapour driven off thereby to far-off
       hemisphere. Liquid matter in hollow interior would
       gravitate to the inside of the nearest hemisphere        212
  Form and dimensions during rotation. Altered form after
       it stopped                                               213
  Agreeing very closely with Hansen's "curious theory"          214

                        CHAPTER XII.

  Some of the results arising from the sun's being
       a hollow sphere                                          215
  Repetition of the effects of condensation on the
       temperature of the nebula                                216
  Ideas called up by the apparently anomalous increase
       of temperature                                           217
  How heat is carried from the sun to the earth                 218
  The sun supposed to radiate heat only to bodies that can
       receive and hold it, and not to all space. The heat
       of the sun accumulated in a hot box to considerably
       beyond the boiling point of water                        219
  The heat accumulated in this way supposed to be due to a
       peculiar function of the ether, as it is a fact that
       heat can be radiated from a cold to a hot body           220
  The sun must be gaseous, or rather gasiform, throughout.
       No matter in it solid or even liquid. Divisions and
       densities of shell                                       221
  The hollow centre filled with gases, whose mass naturally
       diminishes the mean density of the whole body            222
  The amount of this reduction so far defined. The presence
       of gases or vapours in the hollow a natural result
       of condensation                                          223
  The hollow centre filled with gases not incompatible with
       the sun's being a hollow sphere. The temperature at
       the centre may be anything, not depending on any
       law of gases                                             223
  Further exposition of hollow-sphere theory put off till after
       further development of the construction of the sun       224

                        CHAPTER XIII.

  The ether. Its nature considered. Behaves like a gas          226
  Can be pumped out of a receive                                227
  Light and heat do not pass through a tube _in vacuo_.
       Laboratory experiments examined                          228
  Light and darkness in a partial vacuum, though high           229
  Electricity not a carrying agent                              230
  Why there are light and dark strata in a high vacuum          232
  The real carrying agent through a high vacuum is the residue
       of ether left in it. Digression to consider the aurora   233
  How air may be carried to extraordinary heights. Zones of
