



Produced by David Reed





TREATISES ON FRIENDSHIP AND OLD AGE

By Marcus Tullius Cicero


Translated by E. S. Shuckburgh




INTRODUCTORY NOTE

MARCUS TULLIUS CICERO, the greatest of Roman orators and the chief
master of Latin prose style, was born at Arpinum, Jan. 3, 106 B.C.
His father, who was a man of property and belonged to the class of
the "Knights," moved to Rome when Cicero was a child; and the future
statesman received an elaborate education in rhetoric, law, and
philosophy, studying and practising under some of the most noted
teachers of the time. He began his career as an advocate at the age of
twenty-five, and almost immediately came to be recognized not only as a
man of brilliant talents but also as a courageous upholder of justice in
the face of grave political danger. After two years of practice he left
Rome to travel in Greece and Asia, taking all the opportunities that
offered to study his art under distinguished masters. He returned to
Rome greatly improved in health and in professional skill, and in 76
B. C. was elected to the office of quaestor. He was assigned to the
province of Lilybaeum in Sicily, and the vigor and justice of his
administration earned him the gratitude of the inhabitants. It was at
their request that he undertook in 70 B. C. the Prosecution of Verres,
who as Praetor had subjected the Sicilians to incredible extortion and
oppression; and his successful conduct of this case, which ended in the
conviction and banishment of Verres, may be said to have launched him
on his political career. He became aedile in the same year, in 67 B.C.
praetor, and in 64 B. C. was elected consul by a large majority. The
most important event of the year of his consulship was the conspiracy of
Catiline. This notorious criminal of patrician rank had conspired with
a number of others, many of them young men of high birth but dissipated
character, to seize the chief offices of the state, and to extricate
themselves from the pecuniary and other difficulties that had resulted
from their excesses, by the wholesale plunder of the city. The plot was
unmasked by the vigilance of Cicero, five of the traitors were summarily
executed, and in the overthrow of the army that had been gathered in
their support Catiline himself perished. Cicero regarded himself as the
savior of his country, and his country for the moment seemed to give
grateful assent.

But reverses were at hand. During the existence of the political
combination of Pompey, Caesar, and Crassus, known as the first
triumvirate, P. Clodius, an enemy of Cicero's, proposed a law banishing
"any one who had put Roman citizens to death without trial." This was
aimed at Cicero on account of his share in the Catiline affair, and in
March, 58 B. C., he left Rome. The same day a law was passed by which
he was banished by name, and his property was plundered and destroyed,
a temple to Liberty being erected on the site of his house in the city.
During his exile Cicero's manliness to some extent deserted him. He
drifted from place to place, seeking the protection of officials against
assassination, writing letters urging his supporters to agitate for
his recall, sometimes accusing them of lukewarmness and even treachery,
bemoaning the ingratitude of his country or regretting the course
of action that had led to his outlawry, and suffering from extreme
depression over his separation from his wife and children and the wreck
of his political ambitions. Finally in August, 57 B. C., the decree
for his restoration was passed, and he returned to Rome the next month,
being received with immense popular enthusiasm. During the next few
years the renewal of the understanding among the triumvirs shut Cicero
out from any leading part in politics, and he resumed his activity in
the law-courts, his most important case being, perhaps, the defence of
Milo for the murder of Clodius, Cicero's most troublesome enemy. This
oration, in the revised form in which it has come down to us, is ranked
as among the finest specimens of the art of the orator, though in its
original form it failed to secure Milo's acquittal. Meantime, Cicero was
also devoting much time to literary composition, and his letters show
great dejection over the political situation, and a somewhat wavering
attitude towards the various parties in the state. In 55 B. C. he went
to Cilicia in Asia Minor as proconsul, an office which he administered
with efficiency and integrity in civil affairs and with success in
military. He returned to Italy in the end of the following year, and he
was publicly thanked by the senate for his services, but disappointed in
his hopes for a triumph. The war for supremacy between Caesar and Pompey
which had for some time been gradually growing more certain, broke out
in 49 B.C., when Caesar led his army across the Rubicon, and Cicero
after much irresolution threw in his lot with Pompey, who was overthrown
the next year in the battle of Pharsalus and later murdered in Egypt.
Cicero returned to Italy, where Caesar treated him magnanimously,
and for some time he devoted himself to philosophical and rhetorical
writing. In 46 B.C. he divorced his wife Terentia, to whom he had been
married for thirty years and married the young and wealthy Publilia in
order to relieve himself from financial difficulties; but her also
he shortly divorced. Caesar, who had now become supreme in Rome, was
assassinated in 44 B.C., and though Cicero was not a sharer in the
conspiracy, he seems to have approved the deed. In the confusion which
followed he supported the cause of the conspirators against Antony;
and when finally the triumvirate of Antony, Octavius, and Lepidus was
established, Cicero was included among the proscribed, and on December
7, 43 B.C., he was killed by agents of Antony. His head and hand were
cut off and exhibited at Rome.

The most important orations of the last months of his life were the
fourteen "Philippics" delivered against Antony, and the price of this
enmity he paid with his life.

To his contemporaries Cicero was primarily the great forensic and
political orator of his time, and the fifty-eight speeches which have
come down to us bear testimony to the skill, wit, eloquence, and passion
which gave him his pre-eminence. But these speeches of necessity deal
with the minute details of the occasions which called them forth, and
so require for their appreciation a full knowledge of the history,
political and personal, of the time. The letters, on the other hand,
are less elaborate both in style and in the handling of current events,
while they serve to reveal his personality, and to throw light upon
Roman life in the last days of the Republic in an extremely vivid
fashion. Cicero as a man, in spite of his self-importance, the
vacillation of his political conduct in desperate crises, and the
whining despondency of his times of adversity, stands out as at bottom
a patriotic Roman of substantial honesty, who gave his life to check the
inevitable fall of the commonwealth to which he was devoted. The evils
which were undermining the Republic bear so many striking resemblances
to those which threaten the civic and national life of America to-day
that the interest of the period is by no means merely historical.

As a philosopher, Cicero's most important function was to make his
countrymen familiar with the main schools of Greek thought. Much of
this writing is thus of secondary interest to us in comparison with his
originals, but in the fields of religious theory and of the application
of philosophy to life he made important first-hand contributions. From
these works have been selected the two treatises, on Old Age and on
Friendship, which have proved of most permanent and widespread interest
to posterity, and which give a clear impression of the way in which
a high-minded Roman thought about some of the main problems of human
life.




ON FRIENDSHIP


THE augur Quintus Mucius Scaevola used to recount a number of stories
about his father-in-law Galus Laelius, accurately remembered and
charmingly told; and whenever he talked about him always gave him the
title of "the wise" without any hesitation. I had been introduced by my
father to Scaevola as soon as I had assumed the _toga virilis_, and I
took advantage of the introduction never to quit the venerable man's
side as long as I was able to stay and he was spared to us. The
consequence was that I committed to memory many disquisitions of his,
as well as many short pointed apophthegms, and, in short, took as much
advantage of his wisdom as I could. When he died, I attached myself
to Scaevola the Pontifex, whom I may venture to call quite the most
distinguished of our countrymen for ability and uprightness. But of this
latter I shall take other occasions to speak. To return to Scaevola the
augur. Among many other occasions I particularly remember one. He was
sitting on a semicircular garden-bench, as was his custom, when I and
a very few intimate friends were there, and he chanced to turn the
conversation upon a subject which about that time was in many people's
mouths. You must remember, Atticus, for you were very intimate
with Publius Sulpicius, what expressions of astonishment, or even
indignation, were called forth by his mortal quarrel, as tribune, with
the consul Quintus Pompeius, with whom he had formerly lived on terms of
the closest intimacy and affection. Well, on this occasion, happening
to mention this particular circumstance, Scaevola detailed to us a
discourse of Laelius on friendship delivered to himself and Laelius's
other son-in-law Galus Fannius, son of Marcus Fannius, a few days after
the death of Africanus. The points of that discussion I committed to
memory, and have arranged them in this book at my own discretion. For
I have brought the speakers, as it were, personally on to my stage to
prevent the constant "said I" and "said he" of a narrative, and to give
the discourse the air of being orally delivered in our hearing.

You have often urged me to write something on Friendship, and I
quite acknowledged that the subject seemed one worth everybody's
investigation, and specially suited to the close intimacy that has
existed between you and me. Accordingly I was quite ready to benefit the
public at your request.

As to the _dramatis personae_. In the treatise on Old Age, which I
dedicated to you, I introduced Cato as chief speaker. No one, I thought,
could with greater propriety speak on old age than one who had been an
old man longer than any one else, and had been exceptionally vigorous
in his old age. Similarly, having learnt from tradition that of all
friendships that between Gaius Laelius and Publius Scipio was the most
remarkable, I thought Laelius was just the person to support the chief
part in a discussion on friendship which Scaevola remembered him to have
actually taken. Moreover, a discussion of this sort gains somehow in
weight from the authority of men of ancient days, especially if they
happen to have been distinguished. So it comes about that in reading
over what I have myself written I have a feeling at times that it is
actually Cato that is speaking, not I.

Finally, as I sent the former essay to you as a gift from one old man to
another, so I have dedicated this _On Friendship_ as a most affectionate
friend to his friend. In the former Cato spoke, who was the oldest and
wisest man of his day; in this Laelius speaks on friendship--Laelius,
who was at once a wise man (that was the title given him) and eminent
for his famous friendship. Please forget me for a while; imagine Laelius
to be speaking.

Gaius Fannius and Quintus Mucius come to call on their father-in-law
after the death of Africanus. They start the subject; Laelius answers
them. And the whole essay on friendship is his. In reading it you will
recognise a picture of yourself.

2. _Fannius_. You are quite right, Laelius! there never was a better or
more illustrious character than Africanus. But you should consider that
at the present moment all eyes are on you. Everybody calls you "the
wise" _par excellence_, and thinks you so. The same mark of respect was
lately paid Cato, and we know that in the last generation Lucius Atilius
was called "the wise." But in both cases the word was applied with
a certain difference. Atilius was so called from his reputation as a
jurist; Cato got the name as a kind of honorary title and in extreme old
age because of his varied experience of affairs, and his reputation
for foresight and firmness, and the sagacity of the opinions which he
delivered in senate and forum. You, however, are regarded as wise in
a somewhat different sense not alone on account of natural ability and
character, but also from your industry and learning; and not in the
sense in which the vulgar, but that in which scholars, give that title.
In this sense we do not read of any one being called wise in Greece
except one man at Athens; and he, to be sure, had been declared by the
oracle of Apollo also to be "the supremely wise man." For those who
commonly go by the name of the Seven Sages are not admitted into the
category of the wise by fastidious critics. Your wisdom people believe
to consist in this, that you look upon yourself as self-sufficing and
regard the changes and chances of mortal life as powerless to affect
your virtue. Accordingly they are always asking me, and doubtless also
our Scaevola here, how you bear the death of Africanus. This curiosity
has been the more excited from the fact that on the Nones of this month,
when we augurs met as usual in the suburban villa of Decimus Brutus for
consultation, you were not present, though it had always been your
habit to keep that appointment and perform that duty with the utmost
punctuality.

_Scaevola_. Yes, indeed, Laelius, I am often asked the question
mentioned