Spectacles in ancient Rome
spectacle ancient rome numerous open citizen generally free charge distinguished grandeur staging cruelty roman preferred attend gladiatorial fight ferocious beast venationes reproduction naval battle naumachia chariot race athletic contest theatrical performance mime pantomime forty year invective juvenal n lamented republican sobriety severity people aspired panem et circenses bread spectacle fronto – almost word described disconsolately sad reality indeed roman ruling class considered primary task distribute food month people distract regulate leisure time free entertainment offered religious holiday secular occasion numerous occasion roman attend spectacle roman festival occasion religious celebration rough calculation neglecting certain duplication whereby two festival coincided daywe arrive mathematical calculation obligatory feast day imperial rome occupied half year addition offered rome caesar also celebrated countryside peasant hamlet neighborhood festival honor local shrine new cult guild scholae military finally surprisingly offered imperial munificence gladiatorial fight second century ce could last month time thus said roman year bear two feast day working day spectacle thus almost daily suetonius record since confusion disorder reigned spectacle roman emperor augustus introduced order discipline well augustus also made habit day leading spectacle case animal never seen worthy known brought rome present people extraordinary way place example rhinoceros saepta julia tiger theatrical scene snake fifty cubit meter front tribal assembly augustus senate decree duration public spectacle wherever offered first row bench belonged senator forbade rome allow ambassador allied free nation take seat orchestra embarrassed learn free slave delegation separated soldier people assigned married plebeian bleacher wore pretesta particular sector bleacher one beside preceptor forbade poorly dressed stand middle bleacher allow woman sit gladiator fight could observe alongside men except top alone regarding fight athlete strictly forbade woman entering theater fifth hour originally festival religious cult linked example fishing contest took place june presence praetor ended eating fried fish originally festus testifies substitute sacrifice honor god vulcan accepted exchange pisciculi small fish pro animis humanis place human soul religious sacrificial significance roman forgotten still present horse race held forum october winning horse immolated blood spilled lustrations head hotly contested inhabitant via sacrum suburra competed honor displaying relic october horse festival reminder horse race latin ancient rome celebrated end annual war expedition began spring ended fall bygone day blood winning horse sacrificed served purify city sacred character also present republican age bc gladiatorial fight instituted state originally born cult rendered private individual tomb parent religious character preserved term munus public office designated bloody fight meant appease god even second century ad festus call oblation offered official ground tertullian obligatory honor mani ausonius blood shed earth appease god armed sickle imperial era roman audience completely forgotten religious reference even though certain ritual etiquette established since time augustus spectator example wear gala toga strove bring back fashion custom former time one day seeing gathering people crowd illdressed people indignantly exclaimed roman master world people wearing toga instructed aediles tolerate anyone stopping around forum unless first dropped cloak covered toga want turned away keep polite attitude could finally neither eat drink performance even one stand inaugural procession statue imperial star along deity done sign respect gratitude imperial dynasty offered grandiose spectacle ancient religious imprint game roman imperial age reduced formality bore relation ritual religion forgotten replaced astrological symbolism depicted arena represented earth moat surrounding track sea obelisk spina symbolized sun top sky seven lap chariot race track reproduced orbit seven planet succession seven day week twelve door chariot shed facing circus depicted place zodiac emperor appeared circus amphitheater theater crowd greeted standing waving white handkerchief paying homage manifesting presence emotional almost religious coparticipation witnessing spectacle taking place common sight crowd spectator good fortune see prince person midst people emperor also made instrument political power forging direct relationship crowd spectacle public opinion absence ancient comitia autonomy senate longer way expressing spectacle thus strengthened political power prince time safeguarded remained traditional religion spectacle population people lived without working expense state employment half day free commitment including forcibly political one served occupy leisure time distract channel passion instinct violence people yawn ripe revolt caesar let roman pleb yawn either hunger boredom spectacle great diversion unemployment subject consequently certain tool absolutism suetonius report augustus attended game usually sat dining room one friend freedman sometimes sitting tribune together wife child would absent performance sometimes several hour sometimes day apologizing recommending people magistrate take place absence attended attentive participative avoid discontent since people past complained adoptive father gaius julius caesar used devote game reading letter petition augustus took supreme pleasure attending something never made secret happened frequently offered even expense gladiatorial spectacle game organized others crown rich prize attend contest performance greek origin setting without honoring participant merit particular interest boxing match especially latin one often compared greek one among professional also among commoner fighting street corner without special boxing technique athlete preserved privilege indeed increased forbade gladiator fight without adequate reward histrion limited period game theater coercive power magistrate previously law extended everywhere period always demanded strict discipline competition among athlete gladiatorial combat repressed finally behavior judged morally disordered histrion learned certain stephanius author fabulae togatae served table woman hair cut boyish fashion banished beaten rod three theater main sport ancient rome pankration wrestling boxing running javelin throw discus throw shot put modeled ancient greece conception sport ancient rome however reflect greek culture predilection nonprofessional athletic activity agon ἀγῶνες bloodless contest concerning sport also different field human activity winner received prize demonstrating according greek mentality superior physical moral gift forty year conquest greece even civilization influenced roman civilization certamina graeca instituted marcus fulvius nobilior bc considered roman society immoral exhibition devoid practical purpose gave meaning military gymnastic training exercise war intellectual tacitus wrote feared part roman society attached tradition greek refinement might invalidate ancient value left today young people show naked take boxing glove think fight instead military service vein considered aversion senatorial class emperor infatuated greek civilization caligula nero aroused scandal taking pleasure attending game person likely roman borrowed custom organizing chariot race etruscan turn borrowed greek however roman custom influenced greek direct way especially conquered mainland greece bc according one roman legend romulus used stratagem organizing chariot race shortly founding rome distract sabine sabine enjoying spectacle romulus men captured kidnapped sabine woman event traditionally known rape sabine woman ancient rome main structure designated host chariot race circus maximus located valley palatine aventine hill could accommodate spectator construction circus maximus probably date back etruscan time rebuilt around bc order julius caesar reaching length meter width meter one end track one chariot lined start wider organize start roman used series barrier called carceres term meaning greek hysplex placed step like hysplexes slight difference roman track median separating barrier spina center track carceres set one vertex track wagon arranged behind barrier secured snap system chariot ready emperor organizer race held rome would drop cloth known map thus starting race barrier opened allowing equal start participant race began chariot could move freely around track try cause accident opponent pushing spinae spinae egg large signal similar dolphin greek race dropped gutter water flowed center spina signal number lap go end spina ended becoming elaborate constructiondecorated statue obelisk work artto extent spectator often could follow chariot opposite side apparently thought fact made experience exciting increasing suspense two end spina two curve course called metae greek race spectacular collision accident occurred accident resulted destruction chariot serious injury horse charioteer called naufragia term shipwreck course race also similar greek race main difference dozen race could held day event sometimes lasted hundred day consecutively race however held distance lap later time race could held day instead greek racetype composed roman organization also much interested economic aspect runner professional huge betting round widespread among public chariot race could drawn four horse quadrigae two horse bigae race among four horse important rare case charioteer wanted demonstrate skill could employ ten horse practice combined great difficulty little actual utility roman charioteer unlike greek charioteer wore helmet body protector tied rein around waist greek held hand latter custom roman could let go rein case accident often ended dragged horse around track either killed managed free carried knife able get situation famous best reconstruction roman chariot race despite actually historically accurate several respect seen film benhur origin gladiatorial combat open debate although tendency interpret practice etruria like many aspect etruscan culture adopted roman systematic evidence beginning roman funeral rite punic war rd century bc quickly became essential element roman world politics social life munera gladiatoria particular due custom wealthier individual offer people expense public spectacle special occasion duel death slave occasion funeral relative munera could ordinaria scheduled certain holiday extraordinaria celebrate particular occasion popularity gladiator led use increasingly lavish expensive ludi gladiatorial game lasted nearly thousand year reaching peak first century bce second century ce flavian dynasty began emperor vespasian endowed rome special monumental infrastructure expressly dedicated munera first foremost flavian amphitheater gone history colosseum inaugurated emperor titus added imperial gladiatorial school ludi ludus magnus ludus gallicus ludus matutinus ludus dacicus built emperor domitian flavians successor thus privileged stage dedicated assembly line expensive bloody spectacle ce trajan celebrated dacian victory using gladiator animal ludi lasting day cost gladiator munera continued rise control marcus aurelius ad legislation little solve problem subsequent reign commodus marcus aurelius son heir marked inordinate use munera venationes christian disapproved game involved idolatrous pagan rite popularity gladiatorial contest declined fifth century leading demise first munera took place near tomb deceased organized munerator lit one made offering later game held editor identical munerator official employed time title meaning may merged republican time private citizen could train gladiator rent lanista owner gladiator training school see principate onward private citizen could hold munera gladiator imperial permission role editor increasingly tied state officialdom claudius legislation required quaestor lowest rank roman magistrate personally subsidize twothirds cost game community case small town thus formalizing fixed cash outlay advertisement politician personal generosity partial buyout duty important game organized highranking magistrate could better afford largest lavish paid emperor first type gladiator named enemy republic rome samnite thracian gaul samnite heavily elegantly armed probably popular type renamed secutor gaul renamed murmillo land inhabited people absorbed empire midrepublican munus type gladiator fought either kind equated type late republic early empire various type fantasy introduced well opposing contrasting type gladiator different complementaryː eg agile retiarius net man bareheaded armored left arm shoulder used net trident charged dagger heavily armored secutor protected solid helmet depiction gladiator show common popular type respect reliable historical reconstruction available u today innovation introduced period included gladiator fighting war chariot cavalry formation gladiator trade empirewide subject official supervision rome military success produced supply soldierprisoners redistributed use mine stateowned amphitheater sale open market example aftermath first jewish war gladiatorial school received influx jew rejected training sent directly arena noxii lit hurtful one sturdier one sent rome rome military ethos enemy soldier surrendered allowed capture enslavement granted undeserved gift life training gladiator amounted redemption honor munus naumachia latin naumachia ancient greek ναυμαχίαnaumachía literally naval combat denotes roman world spectacle representing naval battle reservoir broader sense building held first known naumachia one organized julius caesar rome bc fourfold triumph large reservoir dug near tiber campus martius capable containing real biremes trireme quadriremes hired among prisoner war fighter oarsman bc inauguration temple mar ultor avenging mar augustus organized naumachia faithfully reproduced one caesar recall re gestæ reservoir dug right bank tiber place called forest caesar nemus caesarum men counting oarsman vessel rostrum many smaller unit faced claudius held naumachia vast natural body water fucine lake inaugurate drainage work opening claudius tunnel combatant convict sentenced death known particular suetonius naumachiarii fighter naumachia battle greeted emperor phrase become famous morituri te salutant erroneous tradition appropriated make ritual phrase gladiator emperor fact attested occasion naumachia thus deadly spectacle gladiator latter engaged lesser personnel battle systematically end death vanquished appearance naumachia closely related somewhat earlier another spectacle combat troop engage combatant pair two small army precisely latter combatant often convict without specific training real gladiator caesar creator naumachia simply transposed principle land battle formation naval setting however relation troop combat naumachia peculiarity developing historical pseudohistorical theme fleet facing embodied people famous maritime power classical greece hellenistic east egyptian phoenician caesar naumachia persian athenian augustus sicels rhodians claudius moreover required considerable mean greater even largest troop battle factor made naumachia spectacle reserved exceptional occasion closely linked celebration emperor victory monument irreducible specificity spectacle theme drawn history greek world explains origin term phonetic transcription greek word naval battle ναυμαχία naumakhía later also indicating vast reservoir dedicated ancient rome theater represented one highest expression latin culture middle third century bc multiple form dramatic performance already developed italian peninsula owing greek influence local tradition including etruria rome fescennine developed sometimes accompanied music dance performance sport game ii south campania atellan farce widespread iii finally dorian colony southern italy sicily phlyax play performed taranto italic cradle dramatic art came rome thanks precisely tarentine author particular poet rhinthon – bc given literary form mythological parody theatrical genre remained u best documented greek origin palliata comedy cothurnata tragedy cothurnus typical footwear tragic actor roman setting called togata trabeata comedy praetexta tragedy respectively togata distinguished popular comic genre atellan farce juxtaposed commedia dellarte mime roman subject tragedy praetexta renewed event considering historical fact tabernaria hand comic play roman setting roman theater reached zenith livius andronicus gnaeus naevius plautus terence comedy seneca tragedy theatrical production livius andronicus – bc shifted attention roman preliterary comic work tragic genre andronicus archaic age latin literature usually said begin first author albeit greek origin compose play latin performed bc ludi scaenici organized roman victory first punic war fragment work preserved even possible determine whether comedy tragedy innovation gnaeus naevius – bc brought latin literature introduction praetexta tragedy set rome instead greece two title known romulus lupus clastidium romulus story romulus remus told clastidium tell battle clastidium bc marcellus gaul victory enabled roman conquer cisalpine gaul nevius also wrote six cothurnate tragedy tragedy greek subject aesiona danae equos troianus iphigenia hector proficiscens lycurgus danae equos troianus latter presented opening pompey theater rome bce repeat title livius andronicus best known lycurgus story thracian king lycurgus confused mythical spartan lawgiver drove god bacchus bacchae land provoking baleful wrath wine god retaliated killing king setting fire palace theme relevant rome cult dionysus introduced last decade rd century bc c propitiatoryorgiastic rite forbidden ruling senatus consultum de bacchanalibus fragment remained day far comic production concerned nevius make important predecessor plautus field fragment come u note colorful verbal inventiveness seems prepare field plautus titus maccius plautus – bc author enormous success immediate posthumous great prolificacy seems second century many comedy related name circulated unknown many authentic plautus great strength lie comedy arises individual situation taken one another verbal creativity new situation unleash however direct reading restore adequate impression plautus comic art nature escape overly closed formula greater systematicity arises precisely consideration plot basic constructive line plautus comedy possible distinguish according already ancient subdivision deverbia cantica dialogic part several actor interlocuting sung part mostly monologue sometimes also dialogue two even three character pattern love intrigue often recurs young man adulescens falling love girl love dream always encounter problem turning reality depending woman fall love courtesan find money marry honest obstacle family one helping overcome various difficulty servus callidus tricky slave parasite penniless man help exchange food various deception pitfall manages overcome various difficulty get two married prank organized servus significant element plautian comedy servus one figure widely used plautus comedy central plautian metatheater fact character take role poet alter idem creator deception publius terentius afer – bc wrote six comedy preserved entirety present day terence adapted greek comedy particular followed model attic new comedy νέα κωμῳδία menander strong artistic connection greek playwright called julius caesar menander dimidiatus terence work limited simple translation reproposition greek original connotes contaminatio introduction comedy character episode belonging different comedy also greek origin part terence fortune attributed ability actor lucius ambivius turpio one best time compared plautus terence aimed cultured audience much comedy sociocultural topic scipionic circle member found addition contrast plautian comedy called motoria excessive showmanship characterized figure servus currens estrangement presence cantica terence work called stataria relatively serious include moment metatheatery cantica given greater sophistication play said terence simple audience move away theater something never happened another difference care taken plot coherent less complex plautian comedy also engaging since terence unlike plautus use expository prologue containing antecedent anticipation plot particularly important terence also moral message underlying entire work aimed emphasizing humanitas respect every human aware person limitation tragedy lucius anneus seneca – ad latin tragic work come u nonfragmentary form thus constitute valuable testimony entire literary genre revival latin tragic theater vain attempt implemented augustan cultural policy promote revival theatrical activity julioclaudian age bc – ad early flavian age – senatorial intellectual elite resorted tragic theater express opposition regime latin tragedy take exalts fundamental aspect classical greek tragedy namely republican inspiration execration tyranny surprisingly tragedian julioclaudian flavian age prominent figure roman public life nine tragedy believed authentic plus tenth octavia believed spurious greek mythological subject work perhaps intended primarily reading may excluded stage performance time cumbersomeness grim spectacularity scene would seem presuppose stage performance whereas simple reading would limited effect sought dramatic text various tragic event take form clash opposing force conflict reason passion although theme motif philosophical work taken tragedy senecian theater merely illustration form exempla provided myth stoic doctrine specifically literary matrix remains strong tragic universe logo rational principle stoic doctrine entrusts government world prof incapable curbing passion stemming spread evil various tragic event set background reality dark atrocious tone giving conflict good evil cosmic dimension universal scope particular prominence figure bloodthirsty powerhungry tyrant closed moderation leniency tormented fear anguish despot provides cue ethical debate power important seneca reflection almost senecian tragedy greek model remain relation seneca great autonomy however presupposes ongoing relationship model author make intervention contamination restructuring rationalization dramatic structure venationes sing venatio form entertainment involved hunting killing wild animal wild exotic beast brought rome far reach empire venationes held morning main afternoon event gladiatorial duel hunt held roman forum saepta circus maximus although none venue offered protection crowd wild animal arena special precaution erecting barrier digging ditch taken prevent animal escaping place animal escaped hunt although sometimes defeated bestiarius hunter wild beast thousand wild animal slaughtered day example game held trajan became emperor animal killed animal ferocious although animal appeared venationes included lion tiger leopard elephant bear deer wild goat camel venatio naumachia chariot racing bread circus suetonius de vita caesarum book iiiiii terence del corno ed adelphoe ª ed rizzoli isbn beare william romani teatro translated de nonno mario bariroma laterza isbn carcopino jérôme la vita quotidiana rom bari universale laterza gregori gianluca ludi e munera anni di ricerche sugli spettacoli detà romana led edizioni universitarie isbn futrell sourcebook roman game oxford united kingdom blackwell publishing isbn kyle g spectacle death ancient rome london routledge isbn kyle g sport spectacle ancient world oxford blackwell publishing isbn wiedemann emperor gladiator london routledge isbn