Saturnalia
saturnalia ancient roman festival holiday honour god saturn held december julian calendar later expanded festivity december st century bc celebration extended december total seven day festivity holiday celebrated sacrifice temple saturn roman forum public banquet followed private giftgiving continual partying carnival atmosphere overturned roman social norm gambling permitted master provided table service slave seen time liberty slave freedman alike common custom election king saturnalia gave order people followed presided merrymaking gift exchanged usually gag gift small figurine made wax pottery known sigillaria poet catullus called best day saturnalia roman equivalent earlier greek holiday kronia celebrated attic month hekatombaion late midsummer held theological importance roman saw restoration ancient golden age world ruled saturn neoplatonist philosopher porphyry interpreted freedom associated saturnalia symbolizing freeing soul immortality saturnalia may influenced custom associated later celebration western europe occurring midwinter particularly tradition associated christmas feast holy innocent epiphany particular historical western european christmas custom electing lord misrule may root saturnalia celebration roman mythology saturn agricultural deity said reigned world golden age human enjoyed spontaneous bounty earth without labour state innocence revelry saturnalia supposed reflect condition lost mythical age greek equivalent kronia celebrated twelfth day month hekatombaion occurred around midjuly midaugust attic calendar greek writer athenaeus cite numerous example similar festival celebrated throughout grecoroman world including cretan festival hermaia honor hermes unnamed festival troezen honor poseidon thessalian festival peloria honor zeus pelorios unnamed festival babylon also mention custom master dining slave associated athenian festival anthesteria spartan festival hyacinthia argive festival hybristica though directly related saturnalia involved similar reversal role woman would dress men men would dress woman ancient roman historian justinus credit saturn historical king preroman inhabitant italy first inhabitant italy aborigine whose king saturnus said man extraordinary justice one slave reign private property thing common undivided one estate use every one memory way life ordered saturnalia slave everywhere sit master entertainment rank made equal although probably bestknown roman holiday saturnalia whole described beginning end single ancient source modern understanding festival pieced together several account dealing various aspect saturnalia dramatic setting multivolume work name macrobius latin writer late antiquity major source information holiday macrobius describes reign justinuss king saturn time great happiness account universal plenty prevailed yet division bond free – one may gather complete license enjoyed slave saturnalia lucians saturnalia chronos proclaims festive season ti lawful drunken slave license revile lord one interpretation macrobiuss work saturnalia festival light leading winter solstice abundant presence candle symbolizing quest knowledge truth renewal light coming new year celebrated later roman empire dy natalis solis invicti birthday unconquerable sun december popularity saturnalia continued rd th century ce roman empire came christian rule many custom recast least influenced seasonal celebration surrounding christmas new year saturnalia underwent major reform bc battle lake trasimene roman suffered one crushing defeat carthage second punic war time celebrated holiday according roman custom romano consultation sibylline book adopted greek rite introducing sacrifice carried greek manner public banquet continual shout io saturnalia became characteristic celebration cato elder – bc remembered time socalled greek element added roman saturnalia unusual roman offer cult cultus deity nation hope redirecting favour see evocatio second punic war particular created pressure roman society led number religious innovation reform robert ea palmer argued introduction new rite time part effort appease baal hammon carthaginian god regarded counterpart roman saturn greek cronus table service master offered slave thus would extended carthaginian african war captive statue saturn main temple normally foot bound wool removed holiday act liberation official ritual carried according greek rite ritus graecus sacrifice officiated priest whose head uncovered roman rite priest sacrificed capite velato head covered special fold toga procedure usually explained saturn assimilation greek counterpart cronus since roman often adopted reinterpreted greek myth iconography even religious practice deity uncovering priest head may also one saturnalian reversal opposite normal following sacrifice roman senate arranged lectisternium ritual greek origin typically involved placing deity image sumptuous couch present actively participating festivity public banquet followed convivium publicum day supposed holiday form work school closed exercise regimen suspended court session justice administered declaration war could made public ritual observance continued home december also holiday public business family conducted domestic ritual bathed early mean sacrificed suckling pig traditional offering earth deity saturn also less benevolent aspect one consort lua sometimes called lua saturni saturn lua identified lua mater mother destruction goddess whose honor weapon enemy killed war burned perhaps expiation saturn chthonic nature connected underworld ruler dīs pater roman equivalent greek plouton pluto latin also god hidden wealth source third century ad later saturn recorded receiving dead gladiator offering munera near saturnalia gladiatorial event ten day throughout december presented mainly quaestor sponsored fund treasury saturn practice gladiator munera criticized christian apologist form human sacrifice although evidence practice republic offering gladiator led later theory primeval saturn demanded human victim macrobius say dīs pater placated human head saturn sacrificial victim consisting men virorum victimis mythic lore visit hercules italy civilizing demigod insisted practice halted ritual reinterpreted instead head dīs pater roman offer effigy mask oscilla mask appears representation saturnalia calendar filocalus since greek word phota meant man light candle substitute offering saturn light life figurine exchanged gift sigillaria may also represented token substitute saturnalia characterized role reversal behavioral license slave treated banquet kind usually enjoyed master ancient source differ circumstance suggest master slave dined together others indicate slave feasted first master actually served food practice might varied time saturnalian license also permitted slave disrespect master without threat punishment time free speech augustan poet horace call december liberty two satire set saturnalia horace slave offer sharp criticism master everyone knew however leveling social hierarchy temporary limit social norm ultimately threatened holiday would end toga characteristic garment male roman citizen set aside favor greek synthesis colourful dinner clothes otherwise considered poor taste daytime wear roman citizen status normally went bareheaded saturnalia donned pilleus conical felt cap usual mark freedman slave ordinarily entitled wear pilleus wore well everyone pilleated without distinction participation freeborn roman woman implied source name gift woman presence banquet may depended custom time late republic onward woman mingled socially men freely earlier time female entertainer certainly present otherwise allmale gathering roleplaying implicit saturnalia status reversal hint maskwearing guising theatrical event mentioned connection festivity classicist erich segal saw roman comedy cast impudent freewheeling slave libertine senior imbued saturnalian spirit gambling diceplaying normally prohibited least frowned upon permitted even slave coin nut stake calendar philocalus saturnalia represented man wearing furtrimmed coat next table dice caption reading license slave game master rampant overeating drunkenness became rule sober person exception seneca looked forward holiday somewhat tentatively letter friend month december greatest part city bustle loose rein given public dissipation everywhere may hear sound great preparation real difference day devoted saturn transacting business would willingly confer plan conduct whether eve usual way avoid singularity take better supper throw toga roman found bit much pliny describes secluded suite room laurentine villa used retreat especially saturnalia rest house noisy licence holiday festive cry way dont hamper game people dont hinder work study sigillaria december day giftgiving gift value would mark social status contrary spirit season often pottery wax figurine called sigillaria made specially day candle gag gift augustus particularly fond child received toy gift many poem saturnalia martial name expensive quite cheap gift including writing tablet dice knucklebones moneyboxes comb toothpick hat hunting knife axe various lamp ball perfume pipe pig sausage parrot table cup spoon item clothing statue mask book pet gift might costly slave exotic animal martial suggests token gift low intrinsic value inversely measure high quality friendship patron boss might pas along gratuity sigillaricium poorer client dependent help buy gift emperor noted devoted observance sigillaria practice might compared modern greeting card verse sometimes accompanied gift martial collection poem written attached gift catullus received book bad poem worst poet time joke friend giftgiving confined day sigillaria household guest family member received gift feast slave shared imperial source refer saturnalicius princeps ruler saturnalia ruled master ceremony proceeding appointed lot compared medieval lord misrule feast fool capricious command sing naked throw cold water obeyed guest convivium creates misrule chaotic absurd world future emperor nero recorded playing role youth since figure appear account republican period princeps saturnalia may developed satiric response new era rule princeps title assumed first emperor augustus avoid hated connotation word king rex art literature augustus celebrated reign new golden age saturnalia make mockery world law determined one man traditional social political network reduced power emperor subject poem lavish saturnalia domitian statius make clear emperor like jupiter still reign temporary return saturn phrase io saturnalia characteristic shout salutation festival originally commencing public banquet single day december interjection io greek ἰώ ǐō pronounced either two syllable short long single syllable becoming latin consonantal j pronounced yō strongly emotive ritual exclamation invocation used instance announcing triumph celebrating bacchus also punctuate joke observance state religion saturnalia supposed held quarto decimo kalendarum ianuariarum fourteenth day kalends prejulian twentynine day december oldest roman religious calendar roman believed established legendary founder romulus successor numa pompilius dy festus legal holiday public business could conducted day marked dedication anniversary dy natalis temple saturn roman forum bc julius caesar calendar reformed fallen synchronization solar year two day added month date saturnalia changed still falling december sixteenth day kalends per roman reckoning date time felt thus original day thus moved two day saturnalia celebrated augustus threeday official holiday encompassing date late republic private festivity saturnalia expanded seven day imperial period contracted variously three five day caligula extended official observance five date december first day astrological sign capricorn house saturn planet named god proximity winter solstice december julian calendar endowed various meaning ancient modern scholar instance widespread use wax candle cerei singular cereus could refer returning power sun light solstice saturnalia reflects contradictory nature deity saturn joyful utopian aspect careless wellbeing side side disquieting element threat danger deity agricultural bounty saturn embodied prosperity wealth general name consort ops meant wealth resource festival opalia celebrated december temple saturn housed state treasury aerarium saturni administrative headquarters quaestor public official whose duty included oversight mint among oldest cult site rome location ancient altar ara even building first temple bc roman regarded saturn original autochthonous ruler capitolium first king latium even whole italy time tradition saturn immigrant deity received janus usurped son jupiter zeus expelled greece contradictions—a foreigner one rome oldest sanctuary god liberation kept fetter year—indicate saturn capacity obliterating social distinction roman mythology golden age saturn reign differed greek tradition arrived italy dethroned fugitive brought agriculture civilization became king augustan poet virgil described gathered together unruly race faun nymph scattered mountain height gave law reign golden age men tell perfect peace ruled nation third century neoplatonic philosopher porphyry took allegorical view saturnalia saw festival theme liberation dissolution representing freeing soul immortality—an interpretation mithraist may also followed since included many slave freedman according porphyry saturnalia occurred near winter solstice sun enters capricorn astrological house saturn time saturnalia macrobius proximity saturnalia winter solstice lead exposition solar monotheism belief sun see sol invictus ultimately encompasses divinity one avodah zarah list saturnalia festival gentile along kalents january kratesis b avodah zarah record ḥanan b rava said kalends begin eight day winter solstice saturnura begin eight day winter solstice ḥananel b ḥushiel followed rashi claim eight day solstice festival eight day slightly overstates saturnalia historical sixday length possibly associate holiday hanukkah jerusalem talmud avodah zarah claim etymology saturnalia שנאה טמונה śinʾâ ṭǝmûnâ hidden hatred refers hatred esau rabbi believed fathered rome harbored jacob babylonian talmud avodah zarah ascribes origin saturnalia kalends adam saw day getting shorter thought punishment sin first man saw day continuously shortening said woe sinned world darkens around return formlessness void death heaven sentenced decided spend eight day fasting prayer saw winter solstice saw day continuously lengthening said order world went feasted eight day following year feasted established heaven name established name idolatryin babylonian avodah zarah etiology attributed tannaim story suspiciously similar etiology kalends attributed jerusalem avodah zarah abba arikha unlike several roman religious festival particular cult site city prolonged seasonal celebration saturnalia home could held anywhere empire saturnalia continued secular celebration long removed official calendar william warde fowler note saturnalia left trace found parallel great number medieval modern custom occurring time winter solstice actual date jesus birth unknown spurious correspondence cyril jerusalem pope julius – quoted john nikiu th century sometimes given source claim fourth century ad pope julius formalized nativity christ celebrated december speculate around time saturnalia celebration part reason chose date may trying create christian alternative saturnalia another reason decision may ad roman emperor aurelian declared december birthdate sol invictus julius may thought could attract convert christianity allowing continue celebrate day may also influenced idea jesus died anniversary conception jesus died passover third century ad passover celebrated march may assumed jesus birthday must come nine month later december fact correspondence spurious result close proximity date many christian western europe continued celebrate traditional saturnalia custom association christmas surrounding holiday like saturnalia christmas middle age time ruckus drinking gambling overeating tradition saturnalicius princeps particularly influential medieval france switzerland boy would elected bishop day december feast holy innocent would issue decree much like saturnalicius princeps boy bishop tenure ended evening vesper custom common across western europe varied considerably region place boy bishop order could become quite rowdy unrestrained others power ceremonial part france boy bishop tenure actual clergy would wear mask dress womens clothing reversal role line traditional character saturnalia late medieval period early renaissance many town england elected lord misrule christmas time preside feast fool custom sometimes associated twelfth night epiphany common tradition western europe drop bean coin small token cake pudding whoever found object would become king queen bean protestant reformation reformer sought revise even completely abolish practice regarded popish effort largely successful puritan banned lord misrule england custom largely forgotten shortly thereafter though bean pudding survived tradition small gift one finding single almond hidden traditional christmas porridge scandinavia nonetheless middle nineteenth century old ceremony giftgiving revived englishspeaking country part widespread christmas revival revival author charles dickens sought reform conscience christmas turn formerly riotous holiday familyfriendly occasion vestige saturnalia festivity may still preserved tradition associated christmas custom giftgiving christmas time resembles roman tradition giving sigillaria lighting advent candle resembles roman tradition lighting torch wax taper likewise saturnalia christmas share association eating drinking singing dancing brumalia yule bacchanalia medium related saturnalia wikimedia common saturnalia – world history encyclopedia saturnalia longer article james grout