Inaugural games of the Colosseum
inaugural game held order roman emperor titus celebrate completion ad according source colosseum known flavian amphitheatre latin amphitheatrum flavium vespasian began construction amphitheatre around ad completed son titus became emperor following vespasian death ad titus reign began month disaster – including eruption mount vesuvius ad fire rome outbreak plague – inaugurated completion structure lavish game lasted one hundred day perhaps attempt appease roman public god little literary evidence survives activity gladiatorial training fighting ludi appear followed standard format roman game animal entertainment morning session followed execution criminal around midday afternoon session reserved gladiatorial combat recreation famous battle animal entertainment featured creature throughout roman empire included extravagant hunt fight different specie animal also played role execution staged recreation myth historical event naval battle formed part spectacle whether took place amphitheatre lake specially constructed augustus topic debate among historian three contemporary nearcontemporary account game survive work suetonius cassius dio focus major event martial provides fragment information individual entertainment detailed record gladiatorial combat arena known survive fight verus priscus construction colosseum started vespasian low valley surrounded caelian esquiline palatine hill site became available nero great fire rome ad redeveloped personal enjoyment construction huge artificial lake domus aurea colossal statue vespasian started redevelopment site around ad possibly funding construction booty seized roman victory first jewishroman war ad lake infilled site designated location flavian amphitheatre reverting private use nero popular social purpose colosseum raised vespasian popularity gladiatorial school ludi support building later constructed within former ground domus aurea much torn vespasian died structure reached third story within year vespasian death titus able finish construction amphitheatre adjacent public bath called bath titus time amphitheatre completed titus short reign already endured series disaster two month succeeded vespasian mount vesuvius erupted destroying pompeii herculaneum stabiae oplontis fire burned city rome three day three night causing substantial damage destroying temple jupiter recently restored vespasian outbreak plague said worst city ever endured dedicate amphitheatre bath probably attempt mollify roman public god titus inaugurated opening colosseum lavish game lasted hundred day little documentary evidence game remains contemporary nearcontemporary writing mostly record major detail concentrate opening day poet martial give complete truly contemporary account form de spectaculis spectacle somewhat sycophantic series epigram detailing individual event game illustration titus power benevolence much work concerned praising titus difficulty authenticating dating translating various portion martial give detail event covered source known surviving complete record gladiatorial combat arena historian suetonius born ad started writing around ad child time game possible born raised rome may witnessed inaugural game firsthand de vita caesarum life caesar known also twelve caesar life twelve caesar probably completed around ad includes detail opening day game later history titus reveals information game suetonius history early caesar criticised based rumour gossip rather accurate historical source often report source contradict without attempting analyse quality accuracy however generally regarded thorough scholar praised balanced treatment subject major source information game cassius dio lived latter second early third century history rome span book written year much fragment noted attention detail administrative affair major event writing merely impressionistic greater emphasis put interpretation event significance within wider historical context rather reporting detail source varied relies many major commentator also seems paid close attention public record account titus game sourced animal entertainment formed central part game normally took place morning dio say course inaugural game upward tamed wild animal slain sometimes woman particular prominence conflict work eutropius wrote later part fourth century animal slain game dio martial record animal exhibited dio note hunt involving crane another involving four elephant martial mention elephant lion leopard least one tiger hare pigsa bull bear wild boar rhinoceros buffalo bison likely wisent exotic animal may used mentioned ostrich camel crocodile commonly used game giraffe unlikely featured julius caesar brought single giraffe rome bc another recorded europe medici giraffe although first seen rome bc impressive enough detailed game augustus commodus mention hippopotamus titus game martial report contest elephant bull elephant knelt titus may formed part training martial attributed spontaneous recognition emperor power also mention bull enraged fire amphitheatre tossed around arena killed elephant nothing indicate two epigram event repeated many time span one hundred day celebration martial account appears animal would react manner expected crowd martial commented opportunity titus exhibit command beast lion ignored intended preyb caesar lion prey hare play safely massive jaw rhinoceros proved difficult handle initially paraded around arena became infuriated attacked bull apparent delight crowd later supposed fight calmed intended face company men armed spear host animal goaded trembling trainer would engage combatantsc length fury knew returned double horn tossed heavy bear bull toss dummy head star sure stroke strong hand carpophorus still youth aim norcian spear lifted two steer mobile neck yielded fierce buffalo bison panther fleeing ran headlong upon spear carpophorus skilled bestiarius specializing fighting animal arena mentioned martial compare hercules praise ability dispatching bear leopard lion unprecedented size frieze temple vespasian titus templum divi vespasiani roman forum show event similar described martial two separate set decoration show rhinoceros confronting bull bestarius possibly carpophorus spear facing lion leopard carpophorus beast slayer worthy mention another martial epigram refers woman equalling hercules feat slaying nemean lion trainer rhinoceros may trembled fear fate awaited animal failed perform another trainer savaged lion successful one trainer noted tigress though tame enough lick hand torn lion piece novelty unknown time also appears crowd pleased bull perhaps ridden bestarius hoisted aloft arena martial give little clue nature entertainment execution common feature roman game took place around midday interlude animal entertainment morning session gladiatorial combat afternoon although execution seen symbolizing rome power higher class normally took advantage interval leave arena dine emperor claudius criticised author unlikely titus would watched part show execution deserter prisonersofwar criminal lower class normally crucifixion damnationes ad bestias would face wild animal scipio aemilianus first execute criminal way deserter army exposed wild beast bc execution often took form recreation tragic scene history mythology criminal cast role victim killed wild beast martial record one execution version mime laureolus catullus notorious bandit executed crucifixion game adapted version legend prometheus day would liver devoured eagle element crucifixion catullus mime remained wild bear substituted eagle prometheus legend prometheus bound scythian crag fed tireless bird abundant breast laureolus hanging sham cross give naked flesh caledonian bear lacerated limb lived dripping gore body body none finally met punishment deserved guilty wretch plunged sword father throat master madness robbed temple secret gold laid cruel torch rome criminal outdone misdeed ancient story play became execution another execution staged cruel twist story orpheus supposedly charmed plant flower song lost eurydice version presented inaugural game tree animal charmed story except unappreciative bear tore minstrel piece likely harmless creature released first give impression story proceeding planned bear released dispatch unfortunate criminal forced role orpheus whose probable restraint prevented fleeing ironic reinterpretation myth may popular addition orpheus failure charm beast martial mention daedalus torn apart another bear mocking word must wish feather martial also suggests rape woman bull recreation myth pasiphaë nero provided similar entertainment event staged using actor dressed costume bull though martial claim act performed inaugural game authentic dio suetonius martial record naumachia commonly used greek term roman also called navalia proelia recreation famous sea battle dio claim purposebuilt naumachia augustus amphitheatre flooded two separate show suetonius state event took place old artificial lake would augustus martial specify naumachia took place clear whatever location discussing could flooded drained distant land late spectator first day sacred show let naval warfare deceive ship water like sea lately land dont believe watch water weary mar short hence saying lately sea appears would difficult flood amphitheatre record survive operation colosseum impossible say certain naval battle took place suetonius writes titus brother successor domitian staged seafights amphitheatre made alteration structure probably included adding hypogeum—a complex underground passage may allowed arena quickly flooded emptied suetonius record titus recreation naval battle took place dio give detail titus suddenly filled theatre water brought horse bull domesticated animal taught behave liquid element land also brought people ship engaged seafight impersonating corcyreans corinthian others gave similar exhibition outside city grove gaius lucius place augustus excavated purpose dio suetonius agree gladiatorial contest wildbeast hunt venatio also took place lake area disagree detail dio state took place first day lake covered planking wooden stand erected around suetonius say event occurred basin water let suetonius writes animal killed single day although record animal pursued hunt survives dio mention hunt crane elephant give location larger exotic animal popular notably elephant big cat bear though smaller game bird rabbit goat also featured suetonius writes domitian staged game entertainment aside usual twohorse chariot race indicates race probably formed part titus game dio tell u horse race second day though give detail type race dios record extends detail third day specifically say …there naval battle three thousand men followed infantry battle athenian conquered syracusans name combatant used made landing islet assaulted captured wall constructed around monument may suggest amphitheatre flooded monument referred could altar diana pluto jupiter latiaris may present centre arena pliny elder mention bridge connection lake augustus suggesting may island well detail gladiatorial combat recorded suetonius writes lavish dio single combat fight group one fight gladiator verus priscus recorded martial priscus continued draw contest verus likewise long time struggle evenly balanced side discharge demanded stout fighter loud frequent shouting caesar obeyed law law palm set fight proceed finger raised allowed making frequent award plate still resolution found contest equal fought equal yielded caesar awarded wooden sword palm thus courage skill received reward happened emperor caesar two men fought two men usual tone epigram somewhat fawning toward patron titus give detail account game seems imply draw uncommon gladiatorial combat level titus eventually yielded wish crowd declared match equal granted men freedom traditional presentation wooden sword traditional way acknowledging defeat yielding gladiator raise finger ad digitum possible case men raised finger martial emphasis titus evenhandedness generosity granting reprieve missio crowd two favourite reference happening titus probably alludes declaration victor evidence neither tie survival gladiator contest uncommon expensive train keep gladiator despatched lightly evidence existence priscus verus least name gladiator outside martial account firstcentury graveyard smyrna contains grave gladiator named priscus verus name etched marble slab ferentinum recording gladiatorial contest detail verus fight unfortunately legible neither may priscus verus mentioned martial attest use name gladiator martial mention giftgiving repeated account dio say titus would throw wooden ball crowd seat box north end arena ball inscribed description gift either food clothing slave pack animal horse cattle gold silver vessel anybody caught one could hand ball official would provide named gift return unusual suetonius mention nero giving bird daily well food parcel voucher various extravagant gift suetonius comment titus reign mention bath event amphitheatre since titus survive long end opening game likely event took place day inauguration suetonius say titus promised one day forgo preference allow crowd decide fate gladiator competing arena admired thracian gladiatorsd arguing passionately crowd subject let preference sway promise informer manager whipped paraded arena sold slave auction others sent away forbidding island suetonius also record titus invited senator pardoned plotting sit one day game inspect sword gladiator statement reinforced degree dio remark titus senator put death reign last day game titus wept openly view public amphitheatre according dio titus died following day officially dedicating amphitheatre bath suetonius say set sabine territory game collapsed died first posting station