Which RAF fighter-bomber was built by the Panavia partnership?
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Royal Air Force Attack aircraft Panavia Tornado
The Royal Air Force (RAF) is the United Kingdom's aerial warfare force. Formed towards the end of the First World War on 1 April 1918,  it is the oldest independent air force in the world.  Following victory over the Central Powers in 1918 the RAF emerged as, at the time, the largest air force in the world.  Since its formation, the RAF has taken a significant role in British military history, in particular, playing a large part in the Second World War where it fought its most famous campaign, the Battle of Britain. 

The RAF's mission is to support the objectives of the British Ministry of Defence (MoD), which are to "provide the capabilities needed: to ensure the security and defence of the United Kingdom and overseas territories, including against terrorism; to support the Government’s foreign policy objectives particularly in promoting international peace and security." The RAF describe its mission statement as "... [to provide] An agile, adaptable and capable Air Force that, person for person, is second to none, and that makes a decisive air power contribution in support of the UK Defence Mission."  The mission statement is supported by the RAF's definition of air power, which guides its strategy. Air power is defined as "the ability to project power from the air and space to influence the behaviour of people or the course of events." 

Today the Royal Air Force maintains an operational fleet of various types of aircraft,  described by the RAF as being "leading-edge" in terms of technology.  This largely consists of fixed-wing aircraft, including: fighter and strike aircraft, airborne early warning and control aircraft, ISTAR and SIGINT aircraft, aerial refueling aircraft and strategic and tactical transport aircraft. The majority of the RAF's rotary-wing aircraft form part of the tri-service Joint Helicopter Command in support of ground forces. Most of the RAF's aircraft and personnel are based in the UK, with many others serving on operations (principally Afghanistan) or at long-established overseas bases (Ascension Island, Cyprus, Gibraltar, and the Falkland Islands). Although the RAF is the principal British air power arm, the Royal Navy's Fleet Air Arm and the British Army's Army Air Corps also deliver air power which is integrated into the maritime, littoral and land environments.

History

Origins

While the British were not the first to make use of heavier-than-air military aircraft, the RAF is the world's oldest independent air force: that is, the first air force to become independent of army or navy control. It was founded on 1 April 1918, with headquarters located in the former Hotel Cecil, during the First World War, by the amalgamation of the Royal Flying Corps (RFC) and the Royal Naval Air Service (RNAS). At that time it was the largest air force in the world. After the war, the service was drastically cut and its inter-war years were relatively quiet, with the RAF taking responsibility for the control of Iraq and executing a number of minor actions in other parts of the British Empire. The RAF's naval aviation branch, the Fleet Air Arm, was founded in 1924 but handed over to Admiralty control on 24 May 1939.

The RAF developed the doctrine of strategic bombing which led to the construction of long-range bombers and became its main bombing strategy in the Second World War. 

Second World War

The RAF underwent rapid expansion prior to and during the Second World War. Under the British Commonwealth Air Training Plan of December 1939, the air forces of British Commonwealth countries trained and formed "Article XV squadrons" for service with RAF formations. Many individual personnel from these countries, and exiles from occupied Europe, also served with RAF squadrons. By the end of the war the Royal Canadian Air Force had contributed more than 30 squadrons to serve in RAF formations, similarly, approximately a quarter of Bomber Command's personnel were Canadian.  Additionally, the Royal Australian Air Force represented around nine percent of all RAF personnel who served in the European and Mediterranean theaters. 

In the Battle of Britain in 1940, the RAF (supplemented by 2 Fleet Air Arm Squadrons, Polish, Czecho-Slovak and other multinational pilots and ground personnel) defended the skies over Britain against the numerically superior German Luftwaffe. In what is perhaps the most prolonged and complicated air campaign in history, the Battle of Britain contributed significantly to the delay and subsequent indefinite postponement of Hitler's plans for an invasion of the United Kingdom (Operation Sealion). In the House of Commons on 20 August, prompted by the ongoing efforts of the RAF, Prime Minister Winston Churchill eloquently made a speech to the nation, where he said "Never in the field of human conflict was so much owed by so many to so few". 

The largest RAF effort during the war was the strategic bombing campaign against Germany by Bomber Command. While RAF bombing of Germany began almost immediately upon the outbreak of war, under the leadership of Air Chief Marshal Harris, these attacks became increasingly devastating from 1942 onward as new technology and greater numbers of superior aircraft became available. The RAF adopted night-time area bombing on German cities such as Hamburg and Dresden, and developed precision bombing techniques for specific operations, such as the "Dambusters" raid by No. 617 Squadron,  or the Amiens prison raid known as Operation Jericho.

Cold War era

Following victory in the Second World War, the RAF underwent significant re-organisation, as technological advances in air warfare saw the arrival of jet fighters and bombers. During the early stages of the Cold War, one of the first major operations undertaken by the Royal Air Force was in 1948 and the Berlin Airlift, codenamed Operation Plainfire. Between 26 June and the lifting of the Russian blockade of the city on 2 May, the RAF provided 17% of the total supplies delivered during the event, using Avro Yorks, Douglas Dakotas flying to Gatow Airport and Short Sunderlands flying to Lake Havel. 

Before Britain developed its own nuclear weapons the RAF was provided with American nuclear weapons under Project E. However following the development of its own arsenal, the British Government elected on 16 February 1960 to share the country's nuclear deterrent between the RAF and submarines of the Royal Navy, first deciding on 13 April to concentrate solely on the air force's V bomber fleet. These were initially armed with nuclear gravity bombs, later being equipped with the Blue Steel missile. Following the development of the Royal Navy's Polaris submarines, the strategic nuclear deterrent passed to the navy's submarines on 30 June 1969.  With the introduction of Polaris, the RAF's strategic nuclear role was reduced to a tactical one, using WE.177 gravity bombs. This tactical role was continued by the V bombers into the 1980s and until 1998 by Tornado GR1s.

For much of the Cold War the primary role of the RAF was the defence of Western Europe against potential attack by the Soviet Union, with many squadrons based in West Germany. With the decline of the British Empire, global operations were scaled back, and RAF Far East Air Force was disbanded on 31 October 1971. Despite this, the RAF fought in many battles in the Cold War period. In June 1948 the RAF commenced Operation Firedog against Malayan terrorists during the Malayan Emergency. Operations continued for the next 12 years until 1960 with aircraft flying out of RAF Tengah and RAF Butterworth. The RAF played a minor role in the Korean War, with flying boats taking part. From 1953 to 1956 the RAF Avro Lincoln squadrons carried out anti-Mau Mau operations in Kenya using its base at RAF Eastleigh. The Suez Crisis in 1956 saw a large RAF role, with aircraft operating from RAF Akrotiri and RAF Nicosia on Cyprus and RAF Luqa and RAF Hal Far on Malta as part of Operation Musketeer. The Konfrontasi against Indonesia in the early 1960s did see use of RAF aircraft, but due to a combination of deft diplomacy and selective ignoring of certain events by both sides, it never developed into a full-scale war.

One of the largest actions undertaken by the RAF during the cold war was the air campaign during the 1982 Falklands War, in which the RAF operated alongside the Fleet Air Arm. During the war, RAF aircraft were deployed in the mid-Atlantic at RAF Ascension Island and a detachment from No. 1 Squadron was deployed with the Royal Navy, operating from the aircraft carrier HMS Hermes.   RAF pilots also flew missions using the Royal Navy's Sea Harriers in the air-to-air combat role.  Following a British victory, the RAF remained in the South Atlantic to provide air defence to the Falkland Islands, based at RAF Mount Pleasant (built 1984).

Recent history

With the end of the Cold War and the collapse of the Soviet Union, the RAF's focus has returned to delivering expeditionary air power.  Since 1990 the RAF has been involved in several large-scale operations, including: the 1991 Gulf War, the 1999 Kosovo War, the 2001 War in Afghanistan, the 2003 invasion and war in Iraq and the 2011 intervention in Libya.

The RAF's 90th anniversary was commemorated on 1 April 2008 by a flypast of 9 Red Arrows and four Typhoons along the Thames, in a straight line from just south of London City Airport Tower Bridge, the London Eye, the RAF Memorial and (at 13.00) the Ministry of Defence building.   

Four major defence reviews have been conducted since the end of the Cold War: the 1990 Options for Change, the 1998 Strategic Defence Review, the 2003 Delivering Security in a Changing World and the 2010 Strategic Defence and Security Review. All four defence reviews have resulted in steady reductions in manpower and numbers of aircraft, especially combat aircraft such as fast-jets. As part of the latest 2010 Strategic Defence and Security Review, the BAE Systems Nimrod MRA4 maritime patrol aircraft was cancelled due to over spending and missing deadlines.  Other reductions saw total RAF manpower reduced by 5,000 personnel to a trained strength of 33,000 and the early retirement of the Joint Force Harrier aircraft, the Harrier GR7/GR9.

In recent years fighter aircraft on Quick Reaction Alert (QRA) have been increasingly required to scramble in response to efforts made by the Russian Air Force to approach British airspace.  On 24 January 2014 in the Houses of Parliament, Conservative MP and Minister of State for the Armed Forces, Andrew Robathan, announced that the RAF's QRA force had been scrambled almost thirty times in the last three years: eleven times during 2010, ten times during 2011 and eight times during 2012. 

RAF Coningsby in Lincolnshire and RAF Lossiemouth in Moray both provide Quick Reaction Alert, or QRA, and scramble their fighter jets within minutes to meet or intercept aircraft which give cause for concern. Lossiemouth generally covers the northern sector, while Coningsby provides QRA in the south. Typhoon pilot Flight Lieutenant Noel Rees describes how QRA duty works. "At the start of the scaled QRA response, civilian air traffic controllers might see on their screens an aircraft behaving erratically, not responding to their radio calls, or note that it’s transmitting a distress signal through its transponder.
Rather than scramble Typhoons at the first hint of something abnormal, a controller has the option to put them on a higher level of alert, ‘a call to cockpit’. In this scenario the pilot races to the hardened aircraft shelter and does everything short of starting his engines." 

On the 4th of October 2015, a final stand-down saw the end of more than 70 years of RAF Search and Rescue provision in the UK.  The RAF and Royal Navy's Westland Sea King fleets, after over 30 years of service, were retired. A civilian contractor, Bristow Helicopters, has taken over responsibility for UK Search and Rescue, under a Private Finance Initiative with newly purchased Sikorsky S-92 and AgustaWestland AW189 aircraft. While the Royal Navy's SAR force will continue to operate until the end of the year, the new contract means that by 2016, all UK SAR coverage will be provided by Bristow's.

Structure

The professional head of the RAF is the Chief of the Air Staff (CAS). The CAS heads the Air Force Board, which is a committee of the Defence Council. The Air Force Board is the management board of the RAF and consists of several high-ranking officers.

Command

Authority is delegated from the Air Force Board to the RAF's command. While there were once individual commands responsible for bombers, fighters, training, etc., now only the Air Command exists, headquartered at RAF High Wycombe. 

Groups

Groups are the subdivisions of operational commands; these are responsible for certain types of operation or for operations in limited geographical areas. As from July 2014, four groups exist.  Additionally there is an expeditionary air group.
*No. 1 Group (Air Combat): controls the RAF's combat fast jet aircraft as well as the following stations: RAF Odiham, RAF Benson, RAF Leeming, RAF Coningsby, RAF Marham, RAF Waddington and RAF Lossiemouth in the UK in addition to RAF Unit Goose Bay in Canada, which is used extensively as an operational training base. The RAF's electronic warfare tactics range at RAF Spadeadam in Cumbria, is also within its sphere of responsibility.
*No. 2 Group (Air Combat Support): controls Intelligence, Surveillance, Target Acquisition, and Reconnaissance (ISTAR) assets,  the strategic and tactical air transport aircraft, the RAF Regiment, the RAF's air-to-air refuelling aircraft and search and rescue assets.
*No. 38 Group (Air Combat Service Support): engineering, logistics, communications and medical operations units.
*No. 22 (Training) Group: responsible for recruiting, personnel management and training, including flying training.
*No. 83 Expeditionary Air Group, under the command of the Permanent Joint Headquarters, is active in the Middle East, currently supporting operations over Afghanistan (Operation Herrick) and Operation Shader. The expeditionary air group also supported operation over Iraq (Operation Telic).

Stations

An RAF station is ordinarily subordinate to a group and it is administratively sub-divided into wings. Since the mid to late 1930s RAF stations have controlled a number of flying squadrons or other units at one location by means of a station headquarters.

As the Air Force has reduced in size and modernised, the squadrons and aircraft types have tended towards groupings at fewer, larger bases. Examples include the ISTAR fleet at RAF Waddington and the Support Helicopter fleet of Puma and Chinook aircraft split between RAF Odiham and RAF Benson. Nearly the entire transport fleet now resides at the hub of RAF Brize Norton, following the closure of RAF Lyneham. The continuous reduction in aircraft numbers since the end of the Cold War made it uneconomical to support operations at multiple bases.

The RAF still operates a number of overseas bases to support global operations. RAF Akrotiri is a key staging post for operations in the Middle East, and RAF Mount Pleasant enables a vital air bridge between the United Kingdom and the Falkland Islands, as well as providing a base for Typhoon air defence aircraft.

Wings

A wing is either an operational sub-division of a group or an administrative sub-division of an RAF station.

Independent Wings are a grouping of two or more squadrons, either flying squadrons or ground support squadrons. In former times, numbered flying wings have existed, but recently they have been created only when required. For example, during Operation Telic, Tornado GR4 wings were formed to operate from Ali Al Salem and Al Udeid air bases and the Tornado F3 equipped Leuchars Fighter Wing at Prince Sultan Air Base; each of these were made up of aircraft and crews from several squadrons.

On 31 March 2006, the RAF formed nine Expeditionary Air Wings (EAWs) to support operations. They were established at the nine main operating bases; RAF Coningsby, RAF Cottesmore, RAF Kinloss, RAF Leeming, RAF Leuchars, RAF Lossiemouth, RAF Lyneham, RAF Marham and RAF Waddington numbered Nos 121, 122, 325, 135, 125, 140, 38, 138 and 34 EAWs respectively. These units are commanded by a Group Captain who is also the parent unit's Station Commander. The EAW comprises the non-formed unit elements of the station that are required to support a deployed operating base, i.e., the command and control, logistics and administration functions amongst others. They are designed to be flexible and quickly adaptable for differing operations. They are independent of flying squadrons, Air Combat Support Units (ACSU) and Air Combat Service Support Units (ACSSU) who are attached to the EAW depending on the task it has been assigned. 

A wing is also an administrative sub-division of an RAF station. Historically, for a flying station these were normally Operations Wing, Engineering Wing and Administration Wing and each wing was commanded by an officer of wing commander rank. Early in the 21st century, the model changed, with Engineering Wing typically being split into Forward Support Wing and Depth Support Wing, while Administration Wing was redesignated Base Support Wing.

Squadrons

A flying squadron is an aircraft unit which carries out the primary tasks of the RAF. RAF squadrons are somewhat analogous to the regiments of the British Army in that they have histories and traditions going back to their formation, regardless of where they are based, which aircraft they are operating, etc. They can be awarded standards and battle honours for meritorious service. Whilst every squadron is different, most flying squadrons are commanded by a wing commander and, for a fast-jet squadron, have an establishment of around 100 personnel and 12 aircraft.

The term squadron can be used to refer to a sub-unit of an administrative wing or small RAF station, e.g., Air Traffic Control Squadron, Personnel Management Squadron etc. There are also Ground Support Squadrons, e.g., No 2 (Mechanical Transport) Squadron which is located at RAF Wittering. Administrative squadrons are normally commanded by a squadron leader.

Training Schools

The RAF Schools consist of the squadrons and support apparatus that train new aircrew to join front-line squadrons. The schools separate individual streams, but group together units with similar responsibility or that operate the same aircraft type.  Some schools operate with only one Squadron, and have an overall training throughput which is relatively small; some, like 3 FTS, have responsibility for all Elementary Flying Training (EFT) in the RAF, and all RAF aircrew will pass through its squadrons when they start their flying careers. 2 FTS and 6 FTS do not have a front-line training responsibility - their job is to group the University Air Squadrons and the Volunteer Gliding Squadrons together. 2 FTS's commanding officer holds the only full-time flying appointment for a Group Captain in the RAF, although he is a reservist.

*Central Flying School – CFS standardises flying training across the air force and ensures standards and safety are maintained.
*No. 1 Flying Training School - Basic Fast Jet Training (BFJT) at RAF Linton-on-Ouse using 72(R) Squadron's Tucano T.1 aircraft.
*No. 2 Flying Training School - Volunteer Gliding Squadrons & the Central Gliding School, based at RAF Syerston
*No. 3 Flying Training School - Elementary Flying Training at RAF Cranwell and RAF Wittering with 57(R) and 16(R) Squadrons and CFS's 115(R) Squadron on the Tutor T.1, as well as Multi-Engine Lead In training on 45(R) Squadron on the King Air as well as training of all non-pilot aircrew.
*No. 4 Flying Training School - Advanced Fast Jet Training (AFJT) at RAF Valley, on the Hawk T.1 with 208(R) Squadron & Hawk T.2 aircraft of 4(R) Squadron.
*No. 6 Flying Training School - Responsible for the University Air Squadrons which fly the Tutor T.1 

The British military operate a number of joint training organisations based at RAF Stations:

*Defence Elementary Flying Training School - EFT for Royal Navy and Army Air Corps students at RAF Barkston Heath, comprising 703 Naval Air Squadron and No. 674 Squadron AAC
*Defence Helicopter Flying School - A Tri-service school combining 705 Naval Air Squadron and No. 660 Squadron AAC on the Squirrel HT.1 for basic helicopter training, which take alternate intakes from all three services, and the RAF's 60(R) Squadron for advanced flying training on the Griffin HT.1. Based at RAF Shawbury.

Flights

A flight is a sub-division of a squadron. Flying squadrons are often divided into two flights, e.g., "A" and "B", each under the command of a squadron leader. Administrative squadrons on a station are also divided into flights and these flights are commanded by a junior officer, often a flight lieutenant. Because of their small size, there are several flying units formed as flights rather than squadrons. For example, No. 1435 Flight is based at RAF Mount Pleasant in the Falkland Islands, maintaining air defence cover with four Eurofighter Typhoon aircraft.

Personnel

At its height in 1944 during the Second World War, more than 1,100,000 personnel were serving in the RAF. The longest-lived founding member of the RAF was Henry Allingham, who died on 18 July 2009 aged 113. 

As of 1 January 2015, the Royal Air Force numbered some 34,200 Regular  and 1,940 Royal Auxiliary Air Force  personnel, giving a combined component strength of 36,140 personnel. In addition to the active elements of the Royal Air Force, (Regular and Royal Auxiliary Air Force), all ex-Regular personnel remain liable to be recalled for duty in a time of need, this is known as the Regular Reserve. In 2007 there were 33,980 Regular Reserves of the Royal Air Force, of which 7,950 served under a fixed-term reserve contract.  Publications since April 2013 no-longer report the entire strength of the Regular Reserve, instead they only give a figure for Regular Reserves who serve under a fixed-term reserve contract.  They had a strength of 7,120 personnel in 2014.  All personnel figures exclude the Royal Air Force Volunteer Reserve and its associated University Air Squadron.

The Royal Air Force Volunteer Reserve is another reserve element of the RAF, however unlike the ones described above, they have no call-up liability. Instead, they are responsible for the management and operation of the Air Training Corps, Combined Cadet Force RAF Sections (CCF(RAF)), Volunteer Gliding Squadrons, Air Experience Flights, University Air Squadron and the Defence Technical Undergraduate Scheme.

Figures provided by the International Institute for Strategic Studies from 2012 showed that Royal Air Force pilots achieve a relatively high number of flying hours per year when compared with other major NATO allies such as France and Germany. RAF pilots achieve 210 to 290 flying hours per year.  French and German Air Force pilots achieved only 180 and 150 flying hours across their fleets respectively. 

Officers

Officers hold a commission from the Sovereign, which provides the legal authority for them to issue orders to subordinates. The commission of a regular officer is granted after successfully completing the 32-week-long Initial Officer Training course at the RAF College, Cranwell, Lincolnshire. Other officers also train at RAF Cranwell, but on different courses, such as those for professionally qualified officers.

The titles and insignia of RAF officers were chiefly derived from those used by the Royal Navy, specifically the Royal Naval Air Service (RNAS) during World War I. For example, the rank of Squadron Leader derived its name from the RNAS rank of Squadron Commander. RAF officers fall into three categories: air officers, senior officers and junior officers.

Other ranks

Other ranks attend the Recruit Training Squadron at RAF Halton for basic training, with the exception of the RAF Regiment, which trains its recruits at RAF Honington.

The titles and insignia of other ranks in the RAF were based on that of the Army, with some alterations in terminology. Over the years, this structure has seen significant changes: for example, there was once a separate system for those in technical trades, and the ranks of Chief Technician and Junior Technician continue to be held only by personnel in technical trades. RAF other ranks fall into four categories: Warrant Officers, Senior Non-Commissioned Officers, Junior Non-Commissioned Officers and Airmen.

All Warrant Officers in the RAF are equal in terms of rank, but the most senior Non-Commissioned appointment is known as the  Chief of the Air Staff's Warrant Officer. 

Branches and trades

*RAF Pilots and Weapon Systems Officers (WSO) (formerly known as Navigators) are commissioned officers of the Flying Branch. i.e., Fg(P) or Fg(WSO). Formerly in the General Duties branch, which is now reserved for Wing Commanders and above from any previous branch. 
*Non-commissioned (NCO) Aircrew known as Weapons System Operators (WSOp), fulfil the specialist roles of air engineer (E), air electronics operator (AEOp), air loadmaster (ALM) and air signaller (S). Though they are now known collectively as weapon systems operators, individual trade specialisations remain. Commissioned officer specialists are promoted from within branch to become Fg(WSO). 

The majority of the members of the RAF serve in support roles on the ground.
*Logistics Officers manage the movement of the people, transport and equipment necessary to keep aircraft flying. They are the custodians of the supply chain; responsible for catering within the UK, and on exercises and operations overseas; purchase and store equipment/fuel and operate IT systems that manage RAF Logistics. 
*Engineering Officers and technicians are employed to maintain and repair the equipment used by the RAF. This includes routine preparation for flight and maintenance on aircraft, arming aircraft with weapons, as well as deeper level repair work on aircraft systems, IT systems, ground based radar, vehicles, ground support equipment, etc. 
*RAF Flight Operations Officers are involved with the planning and co-ordination of all Flying Operations. Flight Operations Officers can be found in every RAF Flying Station and Squadron. 
*The RAF Regiment is the RAF's infantry unit, its officers and gunners defend RAF airfields from attack.  The RAF Regiment is also responsible for CBRN defence  and training the rest of the RAF in ground defence.
*Aerospace Battle Managers(Officers), Aerospace Systems Managers/Operators(Other Ranks) (formally Fighter Controllers/FC) and Air Traffic Controllers (ATC) and Flight Operations Assistants(Other Ranks), control RAF and NATO aircraft. The FC control the interception of enemy aircraft while the ATC provide air traffic services at RAF stations and to the majority of en-route military aircraft in UK airspace. 
*RAF Intelligence Officers and Intelligence Analysts support all operational activities by providing timely and accurate indicators and warnings. They conduct detailed all source military intelligence fusion and analysis by utilising classified and open source information including imagery, human and communications (signals) intelligence. Intelligence is used to inform commanders of the assessed capabilities and intentions of the enemy for strategic / operational planning and targeting. They also tailor the information to brief aircrews for mission planning and other tactical units (such as RAF Regiment) for Force Protection. 
*RAF Medical Branch provides healthcare at home and on deployed operations, including aeromedical evacuation services. Medical officers are the doctors of the RAF and have specialist expertise in aviation medicine to support aircrew and their protective equipment. Medical officers can go on aeromedical evacuations, providing vital assistance on search-and-rescue missions or emergency relief flights worldwide. RAF Medical Officers are either based in primary care on operations or on RAF stations in the UK or in one of six Ministry of Defence Hospital Units (MDHU's) around the UK as specialist practitioners. 
*Administrative Officers and associated Pers Admin trades are involved with human resources management, training management, physical education, catering, infrastructure management, accounts, dress and discipline, personnel and recruitment. 
*RAF Chaplains Branch provides spiritual and moral support for RAF personnel and their families. 
*RAF Legal Branch provides legal advice on discipline / criminal law and operations law. 
*RAF Police are the military police of the RAF. 

Specialist training and education

The Royal Air Force operates several units and centres for the provision of non-generic training and education. These include the Royal Air Force Leadership Centre and the Royal Air Force Centre for Air Power Studies, both based at RAF Cranwell, and the Air Warfare Centre, based at RAF Waddington and RAF Cranwell. NCO training and developmental courses occur at RAF Halton and officer courses occur at the Joint Services Command and Staff College at Shrivenham.

Aircraft

British military aircraft designations generally comprise a type name followed by a mark number which includes an alphabetical rôle prefix. For example, the Typhoon F2 is designated as a fighter by the 'F', and the second variant of the type to be produced.

Air defence and strike aircraft

The Eurofighter Typhoon FGR4 is the RAF's only air defence fighter aircraft, with a total of six squadrons based across RAF Coningsby and RAF Lossiemouth,   following the retirement of the Panavia Tornado F3 in late March 2011. Their task is to defend UK airspace. In October 2007 it was announced that MoD Boscombe Down, RNAS Culdrose and RAF Marham would also be used as Quick Reaction Alert bases from early 2008, offering around-the-clock fighter coverage for the South and South West of UK airspace when a direct threat has been identified.  The RAF has five front-line and one reserve Typhoon units; 3 Squadron, 11 Squadron and 29 Squadron (Operational Conversion Unit) based at RAF Coningsby, with 1 Squadron, 2 Squadron and 6 Squadron based at RAF Lossiemouth. On 23 November 2015 it was announced that two additional front-line Typhoon squadrons will be formed consisting of Tranche 1 versions. 

The mainstay of the strike fleet are the four squadrons of Tornado GR4s. These supersonic aircraft can carry a wide range of weaponry, including Storm Shadow cruise missiles, laser-guided bombs and the ASRAAM missile.  Since June 2008, the Eurofighter Typhoon FGR4 has also been capable of being deployed operationally in the air-to-ground role.  The RAF has three operational Tornado units, with   9 Squadron, 12 Squadron and 31 Squadron based at RAF Marham. RAF Lossiemouth is home to the reserve 15 Squadron. 

The Tornado was previously supplemented by the Harrier GR7/GR9 in the strike and close air support roles, and to counter enemy air defences. The Harrier fleet was withdrawn in December 2010 following the Strategic Defence and Security Review; the Tornado GR4 is due to retire in March 2019 and be replaced by the Eurofighter Typhoon and F-35 Lightning II. On 23 November 2015 it was announced that a total of 138 F-35Bs will be ordered.  

Airborne early warning and reconnaissance aircraft

The Sentry AEW1, based at RAF Waddington, provides airborne early warning to detect incoming enemy aircraft and to co-ordinate the aerial battlefield. The Sentinel R1 (also known as ASTOR – Airborne STand-Off Radar) provides a ground radar-surveillance platform based on the Bombardier Global Express long range business jet. These were supplemented in 2009 by four ( a fifth was added later) Beechcraft Shadow R1 aircraft equipped for the ISTAR role over Afghanistan.  Three more Shadow aircraft will be procured as per the 2015 Defence Review. The Tornado GR4A is fitted with cameras and sensors in the visual, infra-red and radar ranges of the spectrum. 

Ten MQ-9 Reaper Unmanned aerial vehicles have been purchased to support operations in Iraq and Afghanistan. They are operated by No. 39 Squadron RAF based at Creech Air Force Base and 13 Squadron at RAF Waddington.  Three Britten-Norman Islanders are operated by the Station Flight of RAF Northolt, involved in "photographic mapping and light communications roles". 

Three Boeing RC-135W Rivet Joint have been ordered to replace the Nimrod R1 fleet in the signals intelligence role in 2014. The Nimrod fleet was retired in 2011, and the RAF will share signals aircraft of the US Air Force until the RC-135s enter service.  The aircraft will be Boeing KC-135 Stratotanker tankers converted to RC-135W standard in the most complex combined Foreign Military Sales case and co-operative support arrangement that the UK has undertaken with the United States Air Force since the Second World War. In RAF service, they will be known as the Airseeker.  Airseeker received its first operational deployment in August 2014, when it was deployed to the Middle East to fly missions over Iraq and Syria as part of Operation Shader. 

Helicopters

An important part of the work of the RAF is to support the British Army by ferrying troops and equipment at the battlefield. However, RAF helicopters are also used in a variety of other roles, including support of RAF ground units and heavy-lift support for the Royal Marines. The support helicopters are organised into the tri-service Joint Helicopter Command (JHC), along with helicopters of the British Army and Royal Navy. The only helicopters not coordinated by the JHC are those RN helicopters that are normally based on board a ship such as a destroyer or frigate, RAF Search & Rescue, and training helicopter fleets.

The large twin-rotor Chinook, based at RAF Odiham provides heavy-lift support and is supported by the Puma HC2 medium-lift helicopter based at RAF Benson. The Griffin HAR.2s based at RAF Akrotiri in the Cyprus Sovereign Base Areas, the only remaining dedicated helicopter Search and Rescue force in the RAF. However, all UK military helicopter aircrew routinely train and practice the skills necessary for SAR, and the support helicopters based in the UK are available to the Government under Military Aid to the Civil Authorities in case they are needed. The A-109 Power Elite aircraft of 32 (the Royal) Squadron also provide VIP transport and military helicopter capabilities.

Transport and air-to-air refuelling aircraft

The RAF operate the C-17 Globemaster III in the heavy strategic airlift role, originally leasing four from Boeing. These were purchased, followed by a fifth delivered on 7 April 2008 and a sixth delivered on 8 June 2008. The new aircraft entered frontline use within days rather than weeks. The MoD said there was "a stated departmental requirement for eight" C-17s and a seventh was subsequently ordered, to be delivered in December 2010.  In February 2012 the purchase of an eighth C-17 was confirmed;  the aircraft arrived at RAF Brize Norton in May 2012. 

More routine strategic airlift transport tasks are carried out by the  Airbus A330 MRTT, known as the Voyager in RAF service. The first Voyager arrived in the UK for testing at MoD Boscombe Down in April 2011,  and entered service in April 2012.  The Voyager received approval from the MoD on 16 May 2013 to begin air-to-air refuelling flights and made its first operational tanker flight on 20 May 2013 as part of a training sortie with Tornado GR4s. By 21 May 2013, the Voyager fleet had carried over 50,000 passengers and carried over 3,000 tons of cargo.  A total of 14 Voyagers are due to form the fleet, with 9 allocated to sole RAF use. As the Voyagers lack a refueling boom, the RAF has requested a memorandum of understanding (MoU) with the USAF allowing the UK access to tankers equipped with refueling booms for its Boeing RC-135W Airseeker SIGINT aircraft. 

Shorter range, tactical-airlift transport is provided by the Hercules, the fleet including both older C-130K (Hercules C1/C3) and newer C-130J (Hercules C4/C5) variants, based at RAF Brize Norton in Oxfordshire. The 14 C-130J-30 extended variants operated by the RAF will remain in service until 2030 at least.  The Airbus A400M Atlas will replace the RAF's fleet of Hercules C1/C3 (C-130K) transport aircraft.  Originally, 25 aircraft were ordered, although the total is now 22. The A400M will be known as the Atlas in RAF service. 

No. 32 (The Royal) Squadron replaced the Queen's Flight in 1995 and operate the Agusta A109 and BAe 146 CC2 in the general air transport and VIP transport roles. The squadron is based at RAF Northolt in west London. Aircraft operate with a priority for military needs over VIP transport. Two additional BAe 146s were purchased in March 2012 from TNT Airways and were refitted by Hawker Beechcraft on behalf of BAE Systems for tactical freight and personnel transport use.   The aircraft, designated as the BAe 146 C Mk 3, arrived in Afghanistan in April 2013. 

Training aircraft

Elementary Flying Training, as well as Multi-Engine Lead-In training, is conducted on the Tutor T1. Basic fast jet training is provided on the Tucano T1 and initial helicopter training on the Squirrel HT1, at which stage aircrew gain their 'wings'. Multi-Engine aircrew, Weapon Systems Officer (WSO) and Weapon Systems Operator (WSOp) students are trained on the King Air to gain their wings before a posting to an Operational Conversion Unit. Advanced jet flying training is now provided on Hawk T2 for fast jet aircrew and helicopter pilots complete a course on the Griffin HT1, before they are sent to their OCU, which trains them on a specific aircraft type in preparation for service with a front-line squadron. The OCUs use modified operational aircraft, such as the Typhoon T3, as well as sophisticated simulators and ground training.

Air Cadets, CCF and University Training

The Tutor equips the fourteen University Air Squadrons, which provide University students an opportunity to undertake an RAF training syllabus based loosely on EFT to get them to and beyond solo standard. These units are co-located with Air Experience Flights, which share the same aircraft and facilities and provide air experience flying to Air Cadets and CCF cadets. The Volunteer Gliding Squadrons also provide air experience flying to cadets using the Vigilant T1 motor-glider or the Viking TX1 conventional glider.

Since April 2014, the Vigilant and Viking fleets have been grounded due to air-worthiness issues. As of March 2016, a 'recovery plan' is in place which will see Viking schools merged and expanded and significant reduction of the Vigilant fleet, which is to be retired by 2019. 

Future aircraft

The F-35B Lightning II is intended to enter service around 2020 under the Joint Combat Aircraft programme.  On 19 July 2012 the Defence Secretary, Philip Hammond, in a speech in the USA, indicated that the UK would initially receive 48 F-35B to equip the Navy's carrier fleet and would announce at a later date what the final numbers would be. Jon Thompson, MOD Permanent Secretary, told the House of Commons Defence Select Committee, in late 2012: "Our commitment over the first 10 years is for 48 F-35B". An order for the first 14 aircraft on top of the four already procured for operational test and evaluation is expected later in 2013. The first four of 14 production aircraft were ordered in November 2014.[http://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2015/mar/24/prince-of-wales-aircraft-carrier-makes-little-sense-report Prince of Wales aircraft carrier ‘makes little sense’ without aircraft to fly from it], The Guardian. Retrieved 25 October 2015. On 24 May 2015 there was a further order for four aircraft, while further contracts will be placed for the remaining six aircraft. The remaining six aircraft were ordered on 3 November 2015, with expected delivery in 2016. In November 2015, the government commitment to order 48 F35B aircraft by 2023,[http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/uk-34901846 Defence Review: Fighting old battles?], BBC News. Retrieved 26 November 2015. 24 of which will be available for carrier duties. The 2015 Strategic Defence and Security Review stated the intent for the UK to purchase 138 F-35 aircraft over the life of the programme. The first F-35 aircraft arrived at RAF Fairford in Gloucestershire on 29 June 2016 after a Transatlantic crossing involving air to air refuelling. 

Project Taranis is a technology demonstrator programme, possibly leading to a future Strategic Unmanned Combat Aerial Vehicle (UCAV) for both ground attack and reconnaissance roles. 

The BAE Mantis is another UCAV under development, with an autonomous capability, allowing it to fly itself through an entire mission. This is a potential candidate to fulfill a requirement for an ISTAR UAV to enter service after 2015 as part of the RAF's Scavenger programme. On 5 October 2015, it was announced that the Scavenger programme had been replaced by "Protector", a new requirement for at least 20 systems.  On 7 October 2015, it was revealed that Protector will be a derivative of the MQ-9 Reaper with enhanced range and endurance. 

In July 2014 the House of Common Defence Select Committee released a report on the RAF future force structure that envisaged a mixture of unmanned and manned platforms, including a UCAV such as Taranis and further orders of F-35s, a service life extension for the Eurofighter (which would otherwise end its service in 2030) or a possible new manned aircraft. 

The Tutor, Tucano and King Air training aircraft are due to be replaced in the next few years through the implentation of the UK Military Flying Training System, a public-private partnership which has seen flying training for the Royal Air Force privatised and handed over to a civilian contractor, although military instructors remain. This will see the introduction of the Grob 'Prefect', the Beechcraft T-6 Texan II and the Embraer Phenom 100 into RAF service.

In November 2015, the Government confirmed in its latest Strategic Defence and Security Review that nine Boeing P-8 Poseidon aircraft will be purchased for surveillance, anti-submarine and anti-surface ship warfare, filling a capability gap in maritime patrol that had been left since the unexpected cancellation of the Nimrod MRA4 programme in the 2010 SDSR.  These aircraft were formally ordered on 11 July 2016. 

Increase of fast jet squadrons

On 20 September 2015, The Sunday Times reported that the number of fast jet squadrons would increase due to threats posed by Islamic State and Russia.  This was later officially confirmed by the government in its 2015 Strategic Defence and Security Review (SDSR) which outlined the government's commitment to 138 F-35 Lightning IIs and two additional Typhoon squadrons. On 4 December 2015, Chief of the Air Staff Air Chief Marshal Sir Andrew Pulford announced his plans for one more combat squadron, in addition to the three outlined in the SDSR, to bring the total number of combat squadrons to ten. 

Symbols, flags, emblems and uniform

Following the tradition of the other British fighting services, the RAF has adopted symbols to represent it, use as rallying devices for members and promote esprit de corps.

The RAF Ensign is flown from the flagstaff on every RAF station during daylight hours. The design was approved by King George V in 1921, after much opposition from the Admiralty, who have the right to approve or veto any flag flown ashore or on board ship.

British aircraft in the early stages of the First World War carried the Union Flag as an identifying feature, however this was easy to confuse with Germany's Iron Cross motif. Therefore, in October 1914 the French system of three concentric rings was adopted, with the colours reversed to a red disc surrounded by a white ring and an outer blue ring. The relative sizes of the rings have changed over the years and during World War II an outer yellow ring was added. Aircraft serving in the Far East during World War II had the red disc removed to prevent confusion with Japanese aircraft. Since the 1970s, camouflaged aircraft carry low-visibility roundels, either red and blue on dark camouflage, or washed-out pink and light blue on light colours. Most uncamouflaged training and transport aircraft retain the traditional red-white-blue roundel.

The Latin motto of the RAF, "Per Ardua ad Astra", is usually translated as "Through Adversity to the Stars",  but the RAF's official translation is "Through Struggle to the Stars".  The choice of motto is attributed to a junior officer named J S Yule, in response to a request from a commander of the RFC, Colonel Sykes, for suggestions. The RAF inherited the motto from the RFC.

The Badge of the Royal Air Force was first used in August 1918. In heraldic terms it is: "In front of a circle inscribed with the motto Per Ardua Ad Astra and ensigned by the Imperial Crown an eagle volant and affronte Head lowered and to the sinister." Although there have been debates among airmen over the years whether the bird was originally meant to be an albatross or an eagle, the consensus is that it was always an eagle. 

In 2006 the RAF adopted a logotype featuring a roundel and the Service's unabbreviated name (shown at the top of this article). The logotype is used on all correspondence and publicity material and aims to provide the Service with a single, universally recognisable brand identity.

Ceremonial functions and display

Red Arrows

The Red Arrows, officially known as the Royal Air Force Aerobatic Team, is the aerobatics display team of the Royal Air Force based at RAF Scampton, with under-review plans to move to RAF Waddington. The team was formed in late 1964 as an all-RAF team, replacing a number of unofficial teams that had been sponsored by RAF commands.

The Red Arrows badge shows the aircraft in their trademark Diamond Nine formation, with the motto Éclat, a French word meaning "brilliance" or "excellence".

Initially, they were equipped with seven Folland Gnat trainers inherited from the RAF Yellowjacks display team. This aircraft was chosen because it was less expensive to operate than front-line fighters. In their first season, they flew at 65 shows across Europe. In 1966, the team was increased to nine members, enabling them to develop their Diamond Nine formation. In late 1979, they switched to the BAE Hawk trainer. The Red Arrows have performed over 4,000 displays worldwide in 53 countries. 

Royal Air Force music

Headquarters Royal Air Force Music Services, located at RAF Northolt, supports 177 professional musicians who attend events around the globe in support of the RAF. RAF Music Services were established in 1921, although the first RAF Director of Music was appointed in 1918. The Music Services were expanded for World War II and in the post war years there were ten established bands. Since then, Music Services has gradually been reduced in size and today comprises:
*Headquarters Music Services
*Central Band of the Royal Air Force (including the RAF Salon Orchestra)
*Band of the Royal Air Force College
*Band of the Royal Air Force Regiment

Overseas deployments

The current or regular overseas deployments of the Royal Air Force are as follows:

 style
"text-align:center" style="margin:auto; width:100%;"
! style="text-align:center; width:14%;"|Country
! style="text-align:center; width:10%;"|Dates
! style="text-align:center; width:13%;"|Deployment
! style="text-align:center; width:63%;"|Details
|- style="background:#efefef; color:black"
| Gibraltar || 1940s–present || RAF Gibraltar || No permanently stationed aircraft. RAF aircraft (e.g., Hercules transports) make regular visits.
|-
| Cyprus || 1940–present || RAF AkrotiriRAF Nicosia || During the Suez Crisis, Operation Musketeer involved RAF aircraft based on Cyprus. Today, RAF aircraft are stationed at RAF Akrotiri on Cyprus as part of British Forces Cyprus, from where, in 2014, aircraft were deployed in the intervention against ISIS.
|- style="background:#efefef; color:black"
| Norway || 1960s–present || Bardufoss Air Station || RAF fighter and/or helicopter squadrons undergo winter-training here most years.
|-
| Ascension Island || 1982–present || RAF Ascension Island
||Used as an air bridge between the UK and the Falkland Islands. United States Air Force personnel are also stationed at this base.
|- style="background:#efefef; color:black"
| Falkland Islands || 1982–present || RAF StanleyRAF Mount Pleasant || After initial use of the Airport at Stanley, the airbase/airport at Mount Pleasant was built to allow a fighter and transport facility on the islands, and to strengthen the defence capacity of BFFI (British Forces Falkland Islands). BFFI now replaced by BFSAI (British Forces South Atlantic Islands).
|-
| United States || 2009–present || Creech AFB, Nevada ||Operation of MQ-9 Reaper UAVs by No. 39 Squadron RAF. 
|- style="background:#efefef; color:black"
| Qatar || 2005–present || RAF Al Udeid, Al Udeid Air Base|| Previously used in support of British operations in Iraq and Afghanistan (Op. Telic and Op. Herrick respectively), Al Udeid is currently in use as a Middle Eastern base for the RAF as well as being the headquarters for the RAF contribution against ISIL on Op. Shader. Currently an RAF RC-135 Rivet Joint aircraft is based there.
|}

The following is an incomplete list of previous deployments:

 style
"text-align:center" style="margin:auto; width:100%;"
! style="text-align:center; width:14%;"|Country
! style="text-align:center; width:10%;"|Dates
! style="text-align:center; width:13%;"|Deployment
! style="text-align:center; width:63%;"|Details
|- style="background:#efefef; color:black"
| Canada || 1940s–2005 || RAF Unit Goose Bay, Canada || RAF aircraft trained in low-level tactical flying at CFB Goose Bay, a NATO air force base of the Royal Canadian Air Force. 
|-
| Holy Land ||1940s|| RAF Gaza
|-
| Bosnia || 1995–2007 || Various helicopters || RAF enforced no-fly zones over the Balkans in the late 1990s and participated in the NATO interventions in Bosnia and Kosovo. RAF helicopters remained to provide support to the United Nations.
|- style="background:#efefef; color:black"
| Afghanistan and Persian Gulf || 2001–2014 || Operation VeritasOperation Herrick || Chinooks provided airlift support to coalition forces. Additionally Merlin helicopters began tasking in late 2009 following the end of Operation Telic (Iraq). Since late 2004 six BAe Harriers provided reconnaissance and close air support to the ISAF. The Harriers were replaced by an equivalent force of Tornado GR4 in mid-2009. In August 2010, the Tornado force was uplifted to 10 aircraft. Other support units are deployed to Muscat International Airport in Oman, and air bases in the UAE and the Kingdom of Bahrain.  Combat operations within Helmand Province ended on 26 October 2014.
|-
| Iraq || 2003–2011 || Operation TelicOperation Kipion || During the initial invasion, British strike fighters were used. Support aircraft such as the Hercules C130, Puma helicopter and Merlin helicopter stayed in Iraq until the withdrawal in 2009. The Merlin helicopters were the last RAF aircraft to leave Iraq. 
|- style="background:#efefef; color:black"
| Kenya || 2008–2012 || Kenya Air Force Laikipia Air Base || Semi permanent detachment which involved helicopters giving support to the British Army
|-
| Libya || 2011 || Operation Ellamy ||Enforcement of no fly zone in Libya according to United Nations Security Council Resolution 1973. 
|- style="background:#efefef; color:black"
|Malta  || 1940–1979 || RAF Luqa || During the Suez Crisis, Operation Musketeer involved RAF aircraft based on Malta.
|} An attack aircraft, strike aircraft, or attack bomber, is a tactical military aircraft that has a primary role of carrying out airstrikes with greater precision than bombers, and is prepared to encounter strong low-level air defenses while pressing the attack.Mortensen 1987, pp. 24–25. This class of aircraft is designed mostly for close air support and naval air-to-surface missions, overlapping the tactical bomber mission. Designs dedicated to non-naval roles are often known as ground-attack aircraft.Gunston 2009, p. 73. Fighter aircraft often carry out the attack role although they would not be considered attack aircraft per se, although fighter-bomber conversions of those same aircraft would be considered part of the class. Strike fighters, which have effectively replaced the fighter-bomber and light bomber concepts, also differ little from the broad concept of an attack aircraft.

The dedicated attack aircraft as a separate class existed primarily during and after World War II. The precise implementation varied from country to country, and was handled by a wide variety of designs. In the US and UK, attack aircraft were generally based on light bombers, sometimes carrying heavier forward-firing weapons like the B-25G and Mosquito Tsetse. In Germany and USSR, where they were known as schlachtflugzeug ("battle aircraft") or shturmovik ("storm trooper"), this role was carried out by aircraft such as the Henschel Hs 129 and Ilyushin Il-2, purpose-designed and heavily armored. The Germans and Soviets also used light bombers in this role, cannon armed versions of the Ju 87 greatly outnumbered the Hs 129, while the Pe-2 was used for this role in spite of not being specifically designed for it.

In the late-war era, the fighter-bomber began to take over many attack roles, a change that continued in the post-war era. Jet powered examples were relatively rare, but not unknown, like the Blackburn Buccaneer. The US Navy continued to introduce new aircraft in their A-series, but these were purely light bombers. The need for this design category was greatly diminished by the introduction of precision-guided munitions, which allowed almost any aircraft to carry out this role while remaining safe at high altitude, while the attack helicopter took over many of the remaining roles that could only be carried out at lower altitudes. Since the 1960s, only two dedicated attack aircraft designs have been widely introduced, the US A-10 Thunderbolt II and Soviet Sukhoi Su-25 Frogfoot. One oddity belonging to this class is the AC-130, which features as its primary armament high-caliber artillery guns adapted for aircraft use, including the 105 mm M102 howitzer.

A variety of light attack aircraft exist, usually based on adapted trainers or other light fixed-wing aircraft.

Definition and designations

United States definition and designations

Presently, U.S. attack aircraft are identified by the prefix A-, as in "A-6 Intruder". However, until the end of World War II the A- designation was shared between attack planes and light bombersJohnson [http://books.google.com/books?id
GmFhOCYckfQC&pg=PA413 2008, p. 413.]  for the Army aircraft (as opposed to B- prefix for medium or heavy bombers). The US Navy used a separate designation system and at the time preferred to call similar aircraft scout bombers (SB) or torpedo bombers (TB or BT).For example, Douglas SBD Dauntless scout bomber, was designated A-24 when used by the USAAF. It was not until 1946 when US Navy started using "attack" (A) designation, when it renamed BT2D Skyraider and BTM Mauler to, respectively, AD Skyraider and AM Mauler. 

As with many aircraft classifications, the definition of attack aircraft is somewhat vague and has tended to change over time. Current U.S. military doctrine defines it as an aircraft which most likely performs an attack mission, more than any other kind of mission. Attack mission means, in turn, specifically tactical air-to-ground action—in other words, neither air-to-air action nor strategic bombing is considered an attack mission.Pierrot and Vines [http://books.google.com/books?id
mOAKC6jQdy0C&pgPA3 1997, pp. 2–4.] In United States Navy vocabulary, the alternative designation for the same activity is a strike mission. Attack missions are principally divided into two categories: air interdiction and close air support.

In the last several decades, the rise of the ubiquitous multi-role fighter has created some confusion about the difference between attack and fighter aircraft. According to the current U.S. designation system, an attack aircraft (A) is designed primarily for air-to-surface (Attack: Aircraft designed to find, attack, and destroy land or sea targets).[http://www.af.mil/shared/media/epubs/AFI16-401%28I%29.pdf Designating and Naming Defense Military Aerospace Vehicles 2005.] missions (also known as "attack missions"), while a fighter category F incorporates not only aircraft designed primarily for air-to-air combat, but additionally "F - Fighter Aircraft were designed to intercept and destroy other aircraft or missiles. Includes multipurpose aircraft also designed for ground support missions such as interdiction and close air support.  multipurpose aircraft designed also for ground-attack missions. Just to mention one example amongst many, the F-111 "Aardvark" was designated F despite having only minimal air-to-air capabilities. Only a single aircraft in the USAF's current inventory bears a simple, unmixed "A" designation: the A-10 Thunderbolt II.

Other designations

British designations have included FB for fighter-bomber and more recently "G" for "Ground-attack" as in Harrier GR1 (meaning "Ground-attack/Reconnaissance, Mark 1").

The NATO reporting names for Soviet/Russian ground-attack aircraft at first started with "B" categorizing them as bombers, as in case of Il-10 'Beast'. But later they were usually classified as fighters ("F")—possibly because (since Sukhoi Su-7 Fitter) they were similar in size and visual appearance to Soviet fighters, or were simply derivatives of such.

History

World War I

The attack aircraft as a role was defined by its use during World War I, in support of ground forces on battlefields. Battlefield support is generally divided into close air support and battlefield air interdiction, the first requiring strict and the latter only general cooperation with friendly surface forces.Hallion [http://books.google.com/books?id
ZAdtAIMTReEC&pgPA5 2010, pp. 3–6.] though such aircraft also attacked targets in rear areas. Such missions required flying where light anti-aircraft fire was expected and operating at low altitudes to precisely identify targets. Other  roles, including those of light bombers, medium bombers, dive bombers, reconnaissance, fighters, fighter-bombers, could and did perform air strikes on battlefields.Cooling [http://books.google.com/books?id_mIq1PP0nCEC&pg
PA123 1990, pp. 101, 123.]  All these types could significantly damage ground targets from a low level flight, either by bombing, machine guns, or both.

Attack aircraft came to diverge from bombers and fighters. While bombers could be used on a battlefield, their slower speeds made them extremely vulnerable to ground fire, as did as the lighter construction of fighters. The survivability of attack aircraft was guaranteed by their speed/power, protection (i.e. armor) and strength of construction;

Germany was the first country to produce dedicated ground-attack aircraft (designated CL-class and J-class). They were put into use in autumn 1917,  during World War I. Most notable was the Junkers J.I, which pioneered the idea of an armoured "bathtub", that was both fuselage structure and protection for engine and crew. The British experimented with the Sopwith TF series (termed "trench fighters"), although these did not see combat.

The last battles of 1918 on the Western Front demonstrated that ground-attacking aircraft were a valuable component of all-arms tactics. Close-support ground-strafing (machine-gunning) and tactical bombing of infantry (especially when moving between trenches and along roads), machine-gun posts, artillery, and supply formations was a part of the Allied armies' strength in holding German attacks and supporting Allied counter-attacks and offensives. Admittedly, the cost to the Allies was high, with the Royal Flying Corps sustaining a loss rate approaching 30% among ground-attack aircraft.

1919–1939

After WWI, it was widely believed that using aircraft against tactical targets was of little use other than in harassing and undermining enemy morale; attacking combatants was generally much more dangerous to aircrews than their targets, a problem that was continually becoming more acute with the ongoing refinement of anti-aircraft weapons. Within the range of types serving attack roles, dive bombers were coming to be seen as more effective than aircraft designed for strafing with machine-guns or cannons.

Nevertheless, during the 1920s, the US military, in particular, procured specialized "Attack" aircraft and formed dedicated units, that were trained primarily for that role. The US Army Engineering Division became involved in designing ground attack aircraft. The 1920 Boeing GA-1 was an armoured twin-engine triplane for ground strafing with eight machine guns and about a ton of armour plate, and the 1922 Aeromarine PG-1 was a combined pursuit (fighter) and ground attack design with a 37mm gun. The United States Marine Corps Aviation applied close air support tactics in the Banana Wars. While they did not pioneer dive bombing tactics, Marine aviators were the first to include it in their doctrine during the United States occupation of Haiti and Nicaragua.  The United States Army Air Corps was notable for its creation of a separate "A-" designation for attack types, distinct from and alongside "B-" for bomber types and "P-" for pursuit (later replaced by "F-" for fighter) aircraft. The first designated attack type to be operational  with the USAAC was the Curtiss A-2 Falcon. Nevertheless, such aircraft, including the A-2's replacement, the Curtiss A-12 Shrike, were unarmored and highly vulnerable to AA fire.

The British Royal Air Force focused primarily on strategic bombing, rather than ground attack. However, like most air arms of the period it did operate attack aircraft, named Army Cooperation in RAF parlance, which included the Hawker Hector, Westland Lysander and others.

During the 1930s, Nazi Germany had begun to field a class of Schlacht ("battle") aircraft, such as the Henschel Hs 123. Moreover, the experiences of German Condor Legion during the Spanish Civil War, against an enemy with few fighter aircraft, changed ideas about ground attack. Though equipped with generally unsuitable designs such as the Henschel Hs 123 and cannon-armed versions of the Heinkel He 112, their armament and pilots proved that aircraft were a very effective weapon, even without bombs. This led to some support within the Luftwaffe for the creation of an aircraft dedicated to this role, resulting in tenders for a new "attack aircraft". This led to the introduction (in 1942) of a unique single-seat, twin-engine attack aircraft, the slow-moving but heavily-armored and formidably-armed  Henschel Hs 129 Panzerknacker ("Safecracker" /"Tank Cracker").

In Japan, the Imperial Japanese Navy had developed the Aichi D3A dive bomber (based on the Heinkel He 70) and the Mitsubishi B5M light attack bomber. Both, like their US counterparts, were lightly-armored types, and were critically reliant on surprise attacks and the absence of significant fighter or AA opposition.

Perhaps the most notable attack type to emerge during the late 1930s was the Soviet Ilyushin Il-2 Sturmovik, which became the most-produced military aircraft type in history.

As World War II approached, the concept of an attack aircraft was not well-defined and various air services used many different names for widely-differing types, all performing similar roles (sometimes in tandem with non-attack roles of bombers, fighters, reconnaissance and other roles.

;Army co-operation

The British concept of a light aircraft mixing all the roles that required extensive communication with land forces: reconnaissance, liaison, artillery spotting, aerial supply, and, last but not least, occasional strikes on the battlefield.    The concept was similar to front-line aircraft used in the World War I, which was called the CL class in the German Empire.Hallion 2010, pp. 16-22, 77. Eventually the RAF's experience showed types such as Westland Lysander to be unacceptably vulnerable and it was replaced by faster fighter types for photoreconnaissance, and light aircraft for artillery spotting. 
 
;Light bomber

During the inter-war period, the British considered that in a future war it would be France that would be the enemy. For the light day bomber they had the Fairey Battle which originated in a 1932 specification. Designs in 1938 for a replacement  were adapted as a target tug.
The last British specification issued for a light bomber was B.20/40 described as a "Close Army Support Bomber" capable of dive bombing and photoreconnaissance. However, the specification was dropped before an aircraft went into production. 

; Dive bomber

In some air services, dive bombers did not equip ground-attack units, but were treated as a separate class. In Nazi Germany, the Luftwaffe distinguished between the Stuka (Sturzkampf-, "dive bombing") units, equipped with Junkers Ju 87 from Schlacht ("battle") units, using strafing/low-level bombing types such as the Henschel Hs 123).

;Fighter-bomber

Although not a synonymous class with ground-attack aircraft, fighter-bombers were usually used for the role, and proved to excel at it, even when they were only lightly armored. The Royal Air Force and United States Army Air Forces relegated obsolescent fighters to this role, while cutting-edge fighters would serve as interceptors and establish air superiority.

The United States Navy, in distinction to the USAAF, preferred the older term "Scout-Bomber", under a "SB-" designation, such as the Curtiss SB2C Helldiver.

World War II

The Junkers Ju 87s of the  German Luftwaffe became virtually synonymous with close air support during the early months of WW2. The British Commonwealth's Desert Air Force, led by Arthur Tedder, became the first Allied tactical formation to emphasise the attack role, usually in the form of single-engine Hawker Hurricane and Curtiss P-40 fighter-bombers or specialized  "tank-busters", such as the Hurricane Mk IID, armed with two 40 mm Vickers S guns (notably No. 6 Squadron RAF).

At around the same time, a massive invasion by Axis forces had forced the Soviet air forces to quickly expand their army support capacity, such as the Ilyushin Il-2 Sturmovik. The women pilots known as the "Night Witches" utilised an obsolescent, wooden light trainer biplane type, the Polikarpov Po-2 and small anti-personnel bombs in "harassment bombing" attacks that proved difficult to counter.

Wartime experience showed that poorly-armored and/or lightly-built, pre-war types were unacceptably vulnerable, especially  to fighters. Nevertheless, skilled crews could be highly successful in those types, such as the leading Stuka ace, Hans-Ulrich Rudel, who claimed 500 tanks, a battleship, a cruiser, and two destroyers in 2,300 combat missions.

The Bristol Beaufighter, based on an obsolescent RAF bomber, became a versatile twin-engine attack aircraft and served in almost every theatre of the war, in the maritime strike and ground attack roles as well as that of night fighter.

Conversely, some mid-war attack types emerged as adaptations of fighters, including several versions of the German Focke-Wulf Fw 190, the British Hawker Typhoon and the US Republic P-47 Thunderbolt. The Typhoon, which was disappointing as a fighter, due to poor high altitude performance, was very fast at low altitudes and thus became the RAF's premier ground attack fighter.  It was armed with four 20mm cannon, augmented first with bombs, then rockets. Likewise the P-47 was designed and intended for use as a high altitude bomber escort, but gradually found that role filled by the North American P-51 Mustang (because of its much longer range and greater manuevrability). The P-47 was also heavier and more robust than the P-51 and regarded therefore, as an "energy fighter": ideal for high-speed dive-and-climb tactics, including strafing attacks. Its armament of eight 0.50 caliber machine guns was effective against Axis infantry and light vehicles in both Europe and the Pacific.

While machine guns and cannon were initially sufficient, the evolution of well-armored tanks required heavier weapons. To augment bombs, high explosive rockets were introduced,  although these unguided projectiles were still "barely adequate" because of their inaccuracy.  For the British RP3, one hit per sortie was considered acceptable.  However, even a near miss with rockets could cause damage or injuries to "soft targets" and patrols by Allied rocket-armed aircraft over Normandy disrupted or even completely paralyzed German road traffic. They also affected morale, because even the prospect of a rocket attack was unnerving. 

The ultimate development of the cannon-armed light attack aircraft was the small production run in 1944 of the Henschel Hs 129B-3, armed with a modified PAK 40 75 mm anti-tank gun. This weapon, the Bordkanone BK 7,5, was the most powerful forward-firing weapon fitted to a production military aircraft during World War II. The only other aircraft to be factory-equipped with similar guns were the 1,420 maritime strike variants of the North American B-25 MitchellG/H, which mounted either a M4 cannon, or light-weight T13E1 or M5 versions of the same gun. These weapons, however, were hand-loaded, had shorter barrels and/or a lower muzzle velocity than the BK 7,5 and, therefore, poorer armor penetration, accuracy and rate of fire. (The BK 7,5 was unsurpassed as an aircraft-fitted gun until 1971, when the four-engine Lockheed AC-130E Spectre – equipped with a 105 mm M102 howitzer – entered service with the US Air Force.)

Post-World War II

In the immediate post war era the piston-engined ground-attack aircraft remained useful since all of the early jets lacked endurance due to the fuel consumption rates of the jet engines. The higher powered piston engine types that had been too late for World War II were still capable of holding their own against the jets as they were able to both out accelerate and out manoeuver the jets. The Royal Navy Hawker Sea Fury fighters and the U.S. Vought F4U Corsair and Douglas A-1 Skyraider were operated during the Korean War while the latter continued to be used throughout the Vietnam War.

Most of the post-World War II era air forces have been reluctant to develop fixed-wing jet aircraft specifically for ground-attack. Although close air support and interdiction remain crucial to the modern battlefield, attack aircraft are less glamorous than fighters, and both pilots and military planners have a certain well-cultivated contempt for 'mud-movers.' More practically, the cost of a specialized ground-attack aircraft is harder to justify as opposed to having multirole combat aircraft. This by no means meant that there were no jet attack aircraft designed; the Douglas A-3 Skywarrior and North American A-5 Vigilante were designed for aircraft carrier-based nuclear strike roles, while the Grumman A-6 Intruder, Vought A-7 Corsair II, Sukhoi Su-25, A-10 Thunderbolt, Panavia Tornado, AMX, Dassault Etendard and Super Etendard and numerous other less-well-known aircraft have been designed specifically for ground-attack, strike, close-support and anti-armor work, with little or no air-to-air capability integrated into the design. More recently, apart from the multi-role fighter aircraft often employed, ground attack has become a task of converted trainers, like the BAE Hawk or Aero L-39 Albatros, and many trainers are built with this task in mind, like the CASA 101 or the Aermacchi MB-339. These are popular with air forces which cannot afford to purchase more expensive multi-role aircraft, or who don't wish to risk the few they have obtained on risky ground attack missions.

The division of aircraft between the U.S. Army and the U.S. Air Force, was that latter had been generally allocated all fixed-wing aircraft, while helicopters were under control of the former; this was governed by the Key West Agreement.  The Army, wishing to have its own resources to support its troops in combat and faced with a lack of Air Force enthusiasm for the ground-attack role, developed the dedicated attack helicopter.

Recent history

On 17 January 1991, Task Force Normandy began its attack on two Iraqi anti-aircraft missile sites. TF Normandy, under the command of LTC Richard A. "Dick" Cody, consisted of nine AH-64 Apaches, one UH-60 Black Hawk and four Air Force MH-53J Pave Low helicopters. The purpose of this mission was to create a safe corridor through the Iraqi air defense system. The attack was a huge success and cleared the way for the beginning of the Allied bombing campaign. 

One concern involving the Apache arose when a unit of these helicopters was very slow to deploy during U.S. military involvement in Kosovo. According to the Army Times,  the Army is shifting its doctrine to favour ground-attack aircraft over attack helicopters for deep strike attack missions because ground-attack helicopters have proved to be highly vulnerable to small-arms fire; the U.S. Marine Corps has noted similar problems. 

In the late 1960s the United States Air Force requested a dedicated close air support (CAS) plane that became the Fairchild Republic A-10 Thunderbolt II. It eventually became a primarily anti-armor weapon with limited capability in the interdiction and tactical bombing role, and even in the anti-tank role it initially met with mixed feelings. The A-10's performance during Operation Desert Storm negated these criticisms. It remained the only dedicated fixed-wing ground-attack aircraft in U.S. service. Overall U.S. experience in the Gulf War, Kosovo, Afghanistan, and Iraq War has resulted in renewed interest in such aircraft. Officially, the U.S. Air Force planned to replace the A-10, with its new "Joint Strike Fighter", the F-35 Lightning II.  Facing political concerns that the new fighters were not designed for the ground-attack role that had proven particularly useful in Iraq  and Afghanistan,   a plan to decommission the A-10 has been replaced with a plan to upgrade the existing aircraft with improved electronics,  extending the service life of the planes until as late as 2028. The U.S. Air Force has not commissioned any new designs for this role (in part, out of concern for the F-35 program). Nevertheless, the current U.S. doctrine emphasizes the use of United States Army helicopters for close air support and anti-tank missions. Nevertheless, a Light Attack/Armed Reconnaissance program has been initiated by the USAF.

The Soviets' similar Sukhoi Su-25 (Frogfoot) found success in the "flying artillery" role with many air forces.

The UK has completely retired the BAE Harrier II in 2011,  expecting to obtain the F-35 in the near future; it retains its fleet of Panavia Tornado dedicated attack-reconnaissance aircraft and Eurofighter Typhoon multirole fighters. The Panavia Tornado is a family of twin-engine, variable-sweep wing multirole combat aircraft, which was jointly developed and manufactured by Italy, the United Kingdom, and West Germany. There are three primary Tornado variants: the Tornado IDS (interdictor/strike) fighter-bomber, the suppression of enemy air defences Tornado ECR (electronic combat/reconnaissance) and the Tornado ADV (air defence variant) interceptor aircraft.

The Tornado was developed and built by Panavia Aircraft GmbH, a tri-national consortium consisting of  British Aerospace (previously British Aircraft Corporation), MBB of West Germany, and Aeritalia of Italy. It first flew on 14 August 1974 and was introduced into service in 1979–1980. Due to its multirole nature, it was able to replace several different fleets of aircraft in the adopting air forces. The Royal Saudi Air Force (RSAF) became the only export operator of the Tornado in addition to the three original partner nations. A tri-nation training and evaluation unit operating from RAF Cottesmore, the Tri-National Tornado Training Establishment, maintained a level of international co-operation beyond the production stage.

The Tornado was used by the Royal Air Force (RAF), Italian Air Force and RSAF during the 1991 Gulf War, in which the Tornado conducted many low-altitude penetrating strike missions. The Tornados of various operators were also used in conflicts in the former Yugoslavia during the Bosnian War and Kosovo War, the Iraq War, Libya during the Libyan civil war, as well as smaller roles in Afghanistan, Yemen, and Syria. Including all variants, 992 aircraft were built.

Development

Origins

During the 1960s, aeronautical designers looked to variable-geometry wing designs to gain the manoeuvrability and efficient cruise of straight wings with the speed of swept wing designs. The United Kingdom had cancelled the procurement of the TSR-2 and subsequent F-111K aircraft, and was still looking for a replacement for its Avro Vulcan and Blackburn Buccaneer strike aircraft.Segell 1997, p. 124. Britain and France had initiated the AFVG (Anglo French Variable Geometry) project in 1965, but this had ended with French withdrawal in 1967.  Britain continued to develop a variable-geometry aircraft similar to the proposed AFVG, and sought new partners to achieve this.Willox 2002, p. 11.

In 1968, West Germany, the Netherlands, Belgium, Italy and Canada formed a working group to examine replacements for the Lockheed F-104 Starfighter, initially called the Multi Role Aircraft (MRA), later renamed as the Multi Role Combat Aircraft (MRCA).Scutts 2000, p. 53.  The participating nations all had ageing fleets that required replacing; but, as the requirements were so diverse, it was decided to develop a single aircraft that could perform a variety of missions that were previously undertaken by a fleet of different aircraft.  Britain joined the MRCA group in 1968, represented by Air Vice-Marshal Michael Giddings, and a memorandum of agreement was drafted between Britain, West Germany, and Italy in May 1969. 

By the end of 1968, the prospective purchases from the six countries amounted to 1,500 aircraft.Jefford et al. 2002, p. 28. Canada and Belgium had departed before any long-term commitments had been made to the programme;Haglund 1989, p. 48. Canada had found the project politically unpalatable; there was a perception in political circles that much of the manufacturing and specifications were focused on Western Europe. France had made a favourable offer to Belgium on the Dassault Mirage 5, which created doubt as to whether the MRCA would be worthwhile from Belgium's operational perspective.

Panavia Aircraft GmbH

On 26 March 1969, four partner nations – United Kingdom, Germany, Italy and the Netherlands, agreed to form a multinational company, Panavia Aircraft GmbH, to develop and manufacture the MRCA.Morris, Joe Alex Jr. "Messerschmitt Back in Business." St. Petersburg Times, 30 April 1969. The project's aim was to produce an aircraft capable of undertaking missions in the tactical strike, reconnaissance, air defence, and maritime roles; thus allowing the MRCA to replace several different aircraft then in use by the partner nations. Various concepts, including alternative fixed-wing and single-engine designs, were studied while defining the aircraft.Jefford et al. 2002, p. 26. The Netherlands pulled out of the project in 1970, citing that the aircraft was too complicated and technical for the RNLAF's preferences, which had sought a simpler aircraft with outstanding manoeuvrability.Haglund 1989, p. 49. An additional blow was struck by the German requirement reduced from an initial 600 aircraft to 324 in 1972.Jefford et al. 2002, pp. 28–29.

When the agreement was finalised, the United Kingdom and West Germany each had a 42.5% stake of the workload, with the remaining 15% going to Italy; this division of the production work was heavily influenced by international political bargaining.Haglund 1989, pp. 52, 56. The front fuselage and tail assembly was assigned to BAC (now BAE Systems) in the United Kingdom; the centre fuselage to MBB (now EADS) in West Germany; and the wings to Aeritalia (now Alenia Aeronautica) in Italy.Segell 1997, p. 125. Similarly, tri-national worksharing was used for engines, general and avionic equipment. A separate multinational company, Turbo-Union, was formed in June 1970 to develop and build the RB199 engines for the aircraft, with ownership similarly split 40% Rolls-Royce, 40% MTU, and 20% FIAT.Long, Wellington. [https://news.google.co.uk/newspapers?idBmAvAAAAIBAJ&sjid
2dwFAAAAIBAJ&pg5323,4133149&dq
tornado+bomber&hl=en "Swing-Wing Wonder Weapon Is Going Into Production."] Ludington Daily News,24 August 1976.

At the conclusion of the project definition phase in May 1970, the concepts were reduced to two designs; a single seat Panavia 100 which West Germany initially preferred, and the twin-seat Panavia 200 which the RAF preferred (this would become the Tornado). The aircraft was briefly called the Panavia Panther, and the project soon coalesced towards the two-seat option.  In September 1971, the three governments signed an Intention to Proceed (ITP) document, at which point the aircraft was intended solely for the low-level strike mission, where it was viewed as a viable threat to Soviet defences in that role.  It was at this point that Britain's Chief of the Defence Staff announced "two-thirds of the fighting front line will be composed of this single, basic aircraft type".

Prototypes and testing

The first of more than a dozen Tornado prototypes took flight on 14 August 1974 at Manching, Germany; the pilot, Paul Millett stated of the occasion: "Aircraft handling was delightful... the actual flight went so smoothly that I did begin to wonder whether this was not yet another simulation".  Flight testing led to the need for minor modifications. Airflow disturbances were responded to by re-profiling the engine intakes and the fuselage to minimise surging and buffeting experienced at supersonic speeds.  Testing revealed that a nose-wheel steering augmentation system, connecting with the yaw damper, was necessary to counteract the destabilising effect produced by deploying the thrust reverser during landing rollouts.  In August 1976, Soviet espionage activities were exposed trying to obtain information on the aircraft. 

Two prototypes were lost in accidents, both of which had been primarily caused by poor piloting decisions and errors leading to two ground collision incidents;  a third Tornado prototype was seriously damaged by an incident involving pilot-induced pitch oscillation.  During the type's development, aircraft designers of the era were beginning to incorporate features such as more sophisticated stability augmentation systems and autopilots. Aircraft such as the Tornado and the General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon made use of these new technologies.  Failure testing of the Tornado's triplex analogue command and stability augmentation system (CSAS) was conducted on a series of realistic flight control rigs; the variable-sweep wings in combination with varying, and frequently very heavy, payloads complicated the clearance process. 

Production

The contract for the Batch 1 aircraft was signed on 29 July 1976. The first aircraft were delivered to the RAF and German Air Force on 5 and 6 June 1979 respectively.  The first Italian Tornado was delivered on 25 September 1981. On 29 January 1981, the Tri-national Tornado Training Establishment (TTTE) officially opened at RAF Cottesmore, remaining active in training pilots from all operating nations until 31 March 1999.  The 500th Tornado to be produced was delivered to West Germany on 19 December 1987. 

Export customers were sought after West Germany withdrew its objections to exporting the aircraft; Saudi Arabia was the only export customer of the Tornado.  The agreement to purchase the Tornado was part of the controversial Al-Yamamah arms deal between BAE Systems and the Saudi government.   Oman had committed to purchasing Tornados and the equipment to operate them for a total value of £250 million in the late 1980s, but cancelled the order in 1990 due to financial difficulties. 

During the 1970s, Australia considered joining the MRCA programme to find a replacement for their ageing Dassault Mirage IIIs; ultimately the McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet was selected to meet the requirement.  Canada similarly opted for the F/A-18 after considering the Tornado.  Japan considered the Tornado in the 1980s, along with the General Dynamics F-16 Fighting Falcon and F/A-18; before selecting the Mitsubishi F-2, a domestically produced design based on the F-16.  In the 1990s, both Taiwan and South Korea expressed interest in acquiring a small number of Tornado ECR aircraft.   In 2001, EADS proposed a Tornado ECR variant with a greater electronic warfare capability for Australia. 

Production came to an end in 1998; the last batch of aircraft being produced going to the Royal Saudi Air Force, who had ordered a total of 96 IDS Tornados. In June 2011, it was announced that the RAF's Tornado fleet had flown collectively over one million flying hours.   Aviation author John Lake noted that: "The Trinational Panavia Consortium produced just short of 1,000 Tornados, making it one of the most successful postwar bomber programs".  In 2008, AirForces Monthly said of the Tornado: "For more than a quarter of a century... the most important military aircraft in Western Europe." 

Design

Overview

The Panavia Tornado is a multirole, twin-engined aircraft designed to excel at low-level penetration of enemy defences. The mission envisaged during the Cold War was the delivery of conventional and nuclear ordnance on the invading forces of the Warsaw Pact countries of Eastern Europe; this dictated several significant features of the design. Variable wing geometry, allowing for minimal drag during the critical low-level dash towards a well-prepared enemy, had been desired from the project's start. Advanced navigation and flight computers, including the then-innovative fly-by-wire system, greatly reduced the workload of the pilot during low-level flight and eased control of the aircraft.  For long range bombing missions, the Tornado has a retractable refuelling probe. 

As a multirole aircraft, the Tornado is capable of undertaking more mission profiles than the anticipated strike mission; various operators replaced multiple aircraft types with the Tornado as a common type – the use of dedicated single role aircraft for specialist purposes such as battlefield reconnaissance, maritime patrol duties, or dedicated electronic countermeasures (ECM) were phased out – either by standard Tornados or modified variants, such as the Tornado ECR. The most extensive modification from the base Tornado design was the Tornado ADV, which was stretched and armed with long range anti-aircraft missiles to serve in the interceptor role.

The Tornado operators have chosen to undertake various life extension and upgrade programmes to keep their Tornado fleets as viable frontline aircraft for the foreseeable future. The RAF and RSAF have upgraded their Tornados to the GR4 standard to increase combat effectiveness, while German Tornados have been undergoing periodic upgrades under the multi-stage ASSTA (Avionics System Software Tornado in Ada) programme. With these upgrades, as of 2011, it is projected that the Tornado shall be in service until 2025, more than 50 years after the first prototype took flight.

Variable-sweep wing

In order for the Tornado to perform well as a low-level supersonic strike aircraft, it was considered necessary for it to possess good high-speed and low-speed flight characteristics. To achieve high-speed performance, a swept or delta wing is typically adopted, but these wing designs are inefficient at low speeds. To operate at both high and low speeds with great effectiveness, the Tornado uses a variable-sweep wing. This approach had been adopted by earlier aircraft, such as the American General Dynamics F-111 Aardvark strike fighter, and the Soviet Mikoyan-Gurevich MiG-23 fighter. The F-111 has many similarities with the smaller Tornado; however, the Tornado differs in being a multi-role aircraft with more advanced onboard systems and avionics. 

The level of wing sweep, the angle of the wings in relation to the fuselage, can be altered in flight at the pilot's control. The variable wing can adopt any sweep angle between 25 degrees and 67 degrees, with a corresponding speed range for each angle; some Tornado ADVs were outfitted with an automatic wing-sweep system to reduce pilot workload.  When the wings are swept back, the exposed wing area is lowered and drag is significantly decreased, which is conducive to performing high-speed low-level flight. The weapons pylons pivot with the angle of the variable-sweep wings so that the stores point in the direction of flight and do not hinder any wing positions.Scutts 2000, p. 54. 

In development, significant attention was given to the Tornado's short-field take-off and landing (STOL) performance. Germany, in particular, encouraged this design aspect.  For shorter take-off and landing distances, the Tornado can sweep its wings forwards to the 25-degree position, and deploy its full-span flaps and leading edge slats to allow the aircraft to fly at slower speeds.  These features, in combination with the thrust reverser-equipped engines, give the Tornado excellent low-speed handling and landing characteristics. 

Avionics

The Tornado features a tandem-seat cockpit, crewed by a pilot and a navigator/weapons officer; both electromechanical and electro-optical controls are used to fly the aircraft and manage its systems.  An array of dials and switches are mounted on either side of a centrally placed CRT monitor, controlling the navigational, communications, and weapons-control computers.  BAE Systems developed the Tornado Advanced Radar Display Information System (TARDIS), a  multi-function display, to replace the rear cockpit's Combined Radar and Projected Map Display; the RAF began installing TARDIS on the GR4 fleet in 2004. 

The primary flight controls of the Tornado are a fly-by-wire hybrid, consisting of an analogue quadruplex Command and Stability Augmentation System (CSAS) connected to a digital Autopilot & Flight Director System (AFDS);  in addition a level of mechanical reversion capacity was retained to safeguard against potential failure.  To enhance pilot awareness, artificial feel was built into the flight controls, such as the centrally located stick; because of the Tornado's variable wings enabling the aircraft to drastically alter its flight envelope, the artificial responses adjust automatically to wing profile changes and other changes to flight attitude.  As a large variety of munitions and stores can be outfitted, the resulting changes to the aircraft's flight dynamics are routinely compensated for by the flight stability system. 

The Tornado incorporates a combined navigation/attack Doppler radar that simultaneously scans for targets and conducts fully automated terrain-following for low-level flight operations; being readily able to conduct all-weather hands-off low-level flight was considered one of the core advantages of the Tornado.  The Tornado ADV has a different radar system to other variants, designated AI.24 Foxhunter, as it is designed for air defence operations; it is capable of continuously keeping track of up to 20 targets at ranges of up to 100 mi. The Tornado was one of the earliest aircraft to fitted with a digital data bus for data transmission. A link 16 JTIDS integration on the F3 variant enabled the exchange of radar and other sensory information with nearby friendly aircraft. 

Some Tornado variants carry different avionics and equipment, depending on their mission. The Tornado ECR is devoted to Suppression of Enemy Air Defences (SEAD) missions, operated by Germany and Italy. The Tornado ECR is equipped with an emitter-locator system (ELS) to spot radar use.Jackson et al. 1998, p. 237. German ECRs have a Honeywell infrared imaging system for reconnaissance flights.  RAF and RSAF Tornados have the Laser Range Finder and Marked Target Seekers (LRMTS) for targeting laser-guided munitions.  In 1991, the RAF introduced TIALD, allowing Tornado GR1s to laser-designate their own targets. 

The GR1A and GR4A were equipped with TIRRS (Tornado Infrared Reconnaissance System), consisting of one SLIR (Sideways Looking Infra Red) sensor on each side of the fuselage forward of the engine intakes to capture oblique images, and a single IRLS (InfrarRed LineScan) sensor mounted on the fuselage's underside to provide vertical images.  TIRRS recorded images on six S-VHS video tapes.  The newer RAPTOR reconnaissance pod has replaced the built-in TIRRS system.  

Armament and equipment

The Tornado is cleared to carry the majority of air-launched weapons in the NATO inventory, including various unguided and laser-guided bombs, anti-ship and anti-radiation missiles, as well as specialised weapons such as anti-personnel mines and anti-runway munitions. To improve survivability in combat, the Tornado is equipped with onboard countermeasures, ranging from flare and chaff dispensers to electronic countermeasure pods that can be mounted under the wings. Underwing fuel tanks and a buddy store aerial refuelling system that allows one Tornado to refuel another are available to extend the aircraft's range.Laming 1996, p. 97.

In the decades since the Tornado's introduction, all of the Tornado operators have undertaken various upgrade and modification programmes to allow recently introduced weapons to be used by their squadrons. Amongst the new armaments that the Tornado has been adapted to deploy are the enhanced Paveway and Joint Direct Attack Munition bombs, and modern cruise missiles such as the Taurus and Storm Shadow missiles; these upgrades have increased the Tornado's capabilities and combat accuracy.Cordesman 2003, p. 298. Precision weapons such as cruise missiles have replaced older munitions such as cluster bombs. 

Strike variants have a limited air-to-air capability with AIM-9 Sidewinder or AIM-132 ASRAAM air-to-air missiles (AAMs); additionally the Tornado ADV is outfitted with beyond visual range AAMs such as the Skyflash and AIM-120 AMRAAM missiles.   The Tornado is armed with two 27 mm Mauser BK-27 revolver cannon internally mounted underneath the fuselage; the Tornado ADV was only armed with one cannon. When the RAF GR1 aircraft were converted to GR4, the FLIR sensor replaced the left hand cannon, leaving only one;  the GR1A reconnaissance variant gave up both its guns to make space for the sideways looking infra-red sensors. The Mauser BK-27 was developed specifically for the Tornado, but has since been used on several other European fighters, such as the Dassault/Dornier Alpha Jet, Saab JAS 39 Gripen, and Eurofighter Typhoon. 

The Tornado is capable of delivering air-launched nuclear weapons. In 1979, Britain considered replacing its Polaris submarines with either the Trident submarines or alternatively the Tornado as the main bearer of its nuclear deterrent.  Although the UK proceeded with Trident, several Tornado squadrons based in Germany were assigned to SACEUR to deter a major Soviet offensive with both conventional and nuclear weapons, namely the WE.177 nuclear bomb, which was retired in 1998.   German and Italian Tornados are capable of delivering US B61 nuclear bombs, which are made available through NATO. 

Engine

Britain considered the selection of Rolls-Royce to develop the advanced engine for the MRCA to be essential, and was strongly opposed to adopting an engine from an American manufacturer, to the point where the UK might have withdrawn over the issue.  In September 1969, Rolls-Royce's RB 199 engine was selected to power the MRCA. One advantage over the US competition was that a technology transfer between the partner nations had been agreed; the engine was to be developed and manufactured by a joint company, Turbo-Union.Jefford et al. 2002, p. 50. The programme was delayed by Rolls-Royce's entry into receivership in 1971; the nature of the multinational collaboration process helped avoid major disruption of the Tornado programme.Jefford et al. 2002, p. 51. Research from the supersonic airliner Concorde contributed to the development and final design of the RB.199 and of the engine control units. 

To provide the desired performance, several features were used in the RB.199. To operate efficiently across a wide range of conditions and speeds up to Mach 2, the RB.199 and several other engines make use of variable intake ramps to control the air flow.  The hydraulic system is pressurised by syphoning power from both or either operational engine; the hydraulics are completely contained within the airframe rather than integrating with the engine to improve safety and maintainability.  In case of double-engine, or double-generator, failure, the Tornado has a single-use battery capable of operating the fuel pump and hydraulics for up to 13 minutes. 

Relatively rare amongst fighter aircraft, the RB.199 is fitted with thrust reversers to decrease the distance required to safely land.  To fully deploy the thrust reverser during landings, the yaw damper is connected to the steering of the nosewheel to provide greater stability. 

In August 1974, the first RB.199 powered flight of a prototype Tornado occurred; the engine completed its qualification tests in late 1978.  The final production standard engine met both reliability and performance standards, though the development cost had been higher than predicted, in part due to the ambitious performance requirements.  At the time of the Tornado's introduction to service, the turbine blades of the engine suffered from a shorter life span than desired, which was rectified by the implementation of design revisions upon early-production engines.Jefford et al. 2002, p. 54. Several uprated engines were developed and used on both the majority of Tornado ADVs and Germany's Tornado ECRs.Jefford et al. 2002, p55. The DECU (Digital Engine Control Unit)  is the current engine control unit for RB 199 engines superseding the analogue MECU (Main Engine Control Unit) also known as CUE.   

Upgrades

Being designed for low-level operations, the Tornado required modification to perform in medium level operations that the RAF adopted in the 1990s.  The RAF's GR1 fleet was extensively re-manufactured as Tornado GR4s. Upgrades on Tornado GR4s included a Forward looking infrared, a wide-angle HUD (Head-up display), improved cockpit displays, NVG (Night vision devices) capabilities, new avionics, and a Global Positioning System receiver. The upgrade eased the integration of new weapons and sensors which were purchased in parallel, including the Storm Shadow cruise missile, the Brimstone anti-tank missile, Paveway III laser-guided bombs and the RAPTOR reconnaissance pod was integrated.[http://www.baesystems.com/Newsroom/NewsReleases/2001/press_17102001.html "BAE SYSTEMS delivers 100th mid-life upgrade Tornado GR4."] BAE Systems, 17 October 2001.[http://www.raf.mod.uk/equipment/tornado.cfm "Tornado GR4/GR4A."] Royal Air Force. Retrieved: 29 November 2011.  The first flight of a Tornado GR4 was on 4 April 1997, on 31 October 1997 the RAF accepted the first delivery and deliveries were completed in 2003.  In 2005, the RSAF opted to have their Tornado IDSs undergo a series of upgrades to become equivalent to the RAF's GR4 configuration. On 21 December 2007 BAE signed a £210m contract for CUSP, the Capability Upgrade Strategy (Pilot). This project would see RAF GR4/4A improved in two phases, starting with the integration of the Paveway IV bomb and a communications upgrade, followed by a new tactical datalink in Phase B.

Beginning in 2000, German IDS and ECR Tornados received the ASSTA 1 (Avionics System Software Tornado in Ada) upgrade. ASSTA 1 involved a replacement weapons computer, new GPS and Laser Inertial navigation systems.  The new computer allowed the integration of the HARM III, HARM 0 Block IV/V and TAURUS KEPD 350 missiles, the Rafael Litening II Laser Designator Pod and GBU-24 Paveway III laser-guided bombs.  The ASSTA 2 upgrade began in 2005, primarily consisting of several new digital avionics systems, a new ECM suite and provision for the Taurus cruise missile; these upgrades are to be only applied to 85 Tornados (20 ECRs and 65 IDSs), as the Tornado is in the process of being replaced by the Eurofighter Typhoon. Hoyle, Craig. [http://www.flightglobal.com/news/articles/german-air-force-starts-tests-with-upgraded-tornado-340632/ "German air force starts tests with upgraded Tornado."] Flight International, 14 April 2010. The ASSTA 3 upgrade programme, started in 2008, will introduce support for the laser-targeted Joint Direct Attack Munition along with further software changes.[http://www.defpro.com/news/details/11683/ "German Air Force Tornado aircraft get more punch for air-to-surface missions."] defpro.com, 3 December 2009.

Test platform for 3-D printed parts

BAE Systems announced that, in December 2013, the company had test flown a Tornado equipped with parts that were made with 3D printing equipment. The parts included a protective cover for the radio, a landing-gear guard and air-intake door support struts. The test demonstrated the feasibility of making replacement parts quickly and cheaply at the air base hosting the Tornado.  The company claims that, with some of the parts costing less than £100 per piece to manufacture, 3D printing has already resulted in savings of more than £300,000 and will offer further potential cost savings of more than £1.2 million between now and 2017. 

Operational history

German Air Force (Luftwaffe)

The first Tornado prototype made its first flight on 14 August 1974 from Manching airbase, in what was then West Germany.Taylor 1975–1976, p. 71. Deliveries of production Tornados began on 27 July 1979. The total number of Tornados delivered to the German Air Force numbered 247, including 35 ECR variants.  Originally Tornados equipped five fighter-bomber wings (Geschwader), with one tactical conversion unit and four front line wings, replacing the Lockheed F-104 Starfighter.  When one of the two Tornado wings of the German Navy was disbanded in 1994, its aircraft were used to re-equip a Luftwaffe's reconnaissance wing formerly equipped with RF-4E Phantoms. 

As many as 15 German Tornados undertook combat operations as a part of NATO's campaign during the Bosnian War; this was the first combat operation for the Luftwaffe since World War II.  The Tornados, operating from in Piacenza, Italy, flew reconnaissance missions to survey damage inflicted by previous strikes and to scout targets for other aircraft to strike.  These reconnaissance missions were reportedly responsible for a significant improvement in target selection throughout the campaign. 

In 1999, German and Italian Tornados participated in Operation Allied Force, NATO's military operation against the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia during the Kosovo War. The ECR aircraft would escort various allies' aircraft while carrying several AGM-88 HARM missiles to counter attempted use of radar against the allied aircraft.  During the Kosovo hostilities, Germany's IDS Tornados would routinely conduct reconnaissance flights to identify both enemy ground forces and civilian refugees within Yugoslavia.  

In June 2007, a pair of Luftwaffe Tornado were controversially used to fly reconnaissance flights over an anti-globalisation demonstration during the 33rd G8 summit in Heiligendamm.   Following the mission, the German Defence Ministry admitted one aircraft had broken the minimum flying altitude and that mistakes were made in the handling of security of the summit. 

In 2007, a detachment of six Tornados of the Aufklärungsgeschwader 51 "Immelmann" (51st reconnaissance wing) were deployed to Mazar-i-Sharif, Northern Afghanistan, to support NATO forces.  The decision to send Tornados to Afghanistan was a controversial decision, including one political party launching an unsuccessful legal bid to block the deployment as unconstitutional.   In support of the Afghanistan mission, improvements in the Tornado's reconnaissance equipment were accelerated; improving the Tornado's ability to detect hidden improvised explosive devices (IEDs).  The German Tornados were withdrawn from Afghanistan in November 2010. 

Defence cuts announced in March 2003 resulted in the decision to retire 90 Tornados from Luftwaffe service. This led to a reduction in its Tornado strength to four wings by September 2005.   On 13 January 2004, the then German Defence Minister Peter Struck announced further major changes to the German armed forces. A major part of this announcement is the plan to cut the German fighter fleet from 426 in early 2004 to 265 by 2015.  The German Tornado force is to be reduced to 85, with the type expected to remain in service with the Luftwaffe until 2020. The aircraft being retained have been undergoing a service life extension programme.  Currently, the Luftwaffe operates Tornados with Tactical Wings Taktisches Luftwaffengeschwader 33 in Cochem / Büchel, Rhineland-Palatinate and with Taktisches Luftwaffengeschwader 51 "Immelmann" in Jagel, Schleswig-Holstein. Aircrew training takes place at Fliegerisches Ausbildungszentrum der Luftwaffe, based on Holloman Air Force Base in New Mexico, US. 

German Navy (Marineflieger)

In addition to the order made by the Luftwaffe, the German Navy's Marineflieger also received 112 of the IDS variant in the anti-shipping and marine reconnaissance roles, again replacing the Starfighter. These equipped two wings, each with a nominal strength of 48 aircraft. The principal anti-ship weapon was the AS.34 Kormoran anti-ship missile, which were initially supplemented by unguided bombs and BL755 cluster munitions, and later by AGM-88 HARM anti-radar missiles. Pods fitted with panoramic optical cameras and an infrared line scan were carried for the reconnaissance mission. 

The end of the Cold War and the signing of the CFE Treaty gave rise to a requirement for Germany to reduce the size of its armed forces, including the number of combat aircraft. To meet this need, one of the Marinefliegers Tornado wings was disbanded on 1 January 1994; its aircraft replaced the Phantoms of a Luftwaffe reconnaissance wing.   The second wing was enlarged and continued in the anti-shipping, reconnaissance and anti-radar roles until it was disbanded in 2005 with its aircraft and duties passed on to the Luftwaffe. 

Italian Air Force (Aeronautica Militare)

The first Italian prototype made its maiden flight on 5 December 1975 from Turin, Italy. The Aeronautica Militare received a total of 100 Tornado IDS. 16 IDSs were subsequently converted to the ECR configuration; the first Italian Tornado ECR was delivered on 27 February 1998.  As a stop-gap measure for 10 years, the Aeronautica Militare additionally operated 24 Tornado ADVs in the air defence role, which were leased from the RAF to cover the service gap between the retirement of the Lockheed F-104 Starfighter and the introduction of the Eurofighter Typhoon. 

In 2000, with major delays hampering the Eurofighter, the Aeronautica Militare began a search for another interim fighter. While the Tornado itself was considered, any long term extension to the lease would have involved upgrade to RAF CSP standard and thus was not considered cost effective. In February 2001, Italy announced its arrangement to lease 35 F-16s from the United States.  The Aeronautica Militare returned its Tornado ADVs to the RAF, with the final aircraft arriving at RAF Saint Athan on 7 December 2004. One aircraft was retained for static display purposes. 

Italian Tornados, along with RAF Tornados, took part in the first Gulf War in 1991. Operation Locusta saw eight Tornado IDS interdictors deployed from Gioia del Colle, Italy, to Al Dhafra, Abu Dhabi, as a part of Italy's contribution to the coalition.  During the conflict, one aircraft was lost to Iraqi anti-aircraft fire, the pilots ejected safely and were captured by Iraqi forces. 

A total of 22 Italian Tornados were deployed in the NATO-organised Operation Allied Force over Kosovo in 1999, the IDS variant was used in the bombing role while the ECR variants patrolled the combat region, acting to suppress enemy anti-aircraft radars,  firing 115 AGM-88 HARM missiles.  In response to anticipated violence during the 2010 Afghanistan elections, Italy, along with several other nations, increased its military commitment in Afghanistan, dispatching four IDS Tornados to the region. 

Italian Tornado IDS and ECR aircraft participated in the enforcement of a UN no-fly zone during the 2011 military intervention in Libya.  Various coalition aircraft operated from bases in Italy, including RAF Tornados.  Italian military aircraft delivered a combined 710 guided bombs and missiles during the strikes against Libyan targets. Of these Aeronautica Militare Tornados and AMX fighter-bombers released 550 guided bombs and missiles, and Italian Navy AV-8Bs delivered 160 guided bombs. Italian Tornados launched 20 to 30 Storm Shadow cruise missiles with the rest consisting of Paveway and JDAM guided bombs. 

In July 2002, Italy signed a contract with the Tornado Management Agency (NETMA) and Panavia for the upgrading of 18 IDSs, the first of which was received in 2003.  The upgrade introduced improved navigation systems (integrated GPS and laser INS) and the ability to carry new weapons, including the Storm Shadow cruise missile, Joint Direct Attack Munition and Paveway III laser-guided bombs. 

Italy has opted to extend the Tornado's service life at the expense of alternative ground-attack aircraft such as the AMX International AMX; in 2010 a major upgrade and life extension program was initiated, which will provide new digital displays, Link 16 communications capability, night-vision goggles compatibility, and several other upgrades.  In the long term, it is planned to replace the Tornado IDS/ECR fleet in Italian service with the Lockheed Martin F-35 Lightning II,  with the final Italian Tornado scheduled to be phased out in 2025. 

On 14 November 2014, Italy announced it was sending four Tornado aircraft with 135 support staff to Ahmed Al Jaber Air Base in Kuwait in participation of coalition operations against the Islamic State.  The four aircraft will be used for reconnaissance missions only. 

Royal Air Force

Nicknamed the "Tonka" by the British,  the Tornado made its combat debut as part of the British contribution to the Gulf War in 1991. Operation Granby saw nearly 60 RAF GR1s deploy to air bases at Muharraq in Bahrain and Tabuk and Dhahran in Saudi Arabia.[http://www.raf.mod.uk/gulf/raf_ac.html#torngr1 "RAF Tornado Aircraft Deployments in Operation Granby."] Royal Air Force. Retrieved: 27 October 2006. Several Tornado ADVs were deployed to provide air cover, the threat of their long range missiles being a significant deterrent to Iraqi pilots, who would deliberately avoid combat when approached. 

Early on in the conflict, the GR1s targeted military airfields across Iraq, deploying a mixture of 1000 lb unguided bombs in loft-bombing attacks and specialised JP233 runway denial weapons. Six RAF Tornados were lost in the conflict, four were lost while delivering unguided bombs, one was lost after delivering JP233, and one trying to deliver laser-guided bombs.  On 17 January 1991, the first Tornado to be lost was shot down by an Iraqi SA-16 missile following a failed low-level bombing run.  On 19 January, another RAF Tornado was shot down during an intensive raid on Tallil Air Base.  The impact of the Tornado strikes upon Iraqi air fields is difficult to determine.  

In an emergency deployment, the UK sent out a detachment of Blackburn Buccaneer aircraft equipped with the Pave Spike laser designator, allowing Tornado GR1s to drop precision guided weapons. A further crash programme in support of the sudden military action saw multiple GR1s outfitted with the TIALD laser designation system; author Claus-Christian Szejnmann declared that the TIALD pod enabled the GR1 to "achieve probably the most accurate bombing in the RAF's history".   Although laser designation proved effective in the Gulf War, only 23 TIALD pods were purchased by 2000; shortages hindered combat operations over Kosovo. 

Following the initial phase of the war, the GR1s switched to medium level strike missions, typical targets for these strikes included munition depots and oil refining facilities.  Only the reconnaissance Tornado GR1As continued to operate at the low-altitude high-speed profile throughout the war, the GR1A emerged unscathed despite the inherent danger posed by missions such as conducting pre-attack reconnaissance.  In the war's aftermath, Britain maintained a military presence in the Gulf, around half a dozen GR1s were based at Ali Al Salem airbase in Kuwait for operations over the southern no fly zone as part of Operation Southern Watch; another half a dozen GR1s participated in missions over Northern Iraq in Operation Provide Comfort. 

In March 1993, a Mid-Life Upgrade (MLU) project of the Tornado was launched to upgrade the GR1/GR1A to GR4/GR4A standard. The Tornado GR4 made its operational debut in Operation Southern Watch; patrolling Iraq's southern airspace from bases in Kuwait. Both Tornado GR1s and GR4s based at Ali Al Salem, Kuwait, took part in coalition strikes at Iraq's military infrastructure during Operation Desert Fox in 1998.  In December 1998, an Iraqi anti-aircraft battery fired six to eight missiles at a patrolling Tornado, the battery was later attacked in retaliation, no aircraft were lost during the incident.  It was reported that during Desert Fox RAF Tornados had successfully destroyed 75% of allotted targets, and out of the 36 missions planned, 28 had been successfully completed. 

The GR1 participated in the Kosovo War in 1999. The Tornados initially operated from RAF Bruggen, Germany; they later moved to Solenzara Air Base, Corsica.  Experience from fighting in Kosovo led to the RAF procuring AGM-65 Maverick missiles and Enhanced Paveway smart bombs for the Tornado fleet. Following the Kosovo War, the GR1 was phased out as more aircraft were upgraded to GR4 standard. The final GR1 was upgraded and returned to the RAF on 10 June 2003. 

The GR4 was heavily used in Operation Telic, the British contribution to the 2003 invasion of Iraq. RAF Tornados flew in the opening phase of the war, flying alongside American strike aircraft to rapidly attack key installations.  Following an emphasis on minimising casualties, Tornados of No. 617 Squadron deployed the new Storm Shadow precision cruise missile for the first time in the Iraq conflict; while 25% of the UK's air-launched weapons in Kosovo were precision-guided, four years later in Iraq this ratio increased to 85%.

On 23 March 2003, a Tornado GR4 was shot down over Iraq by friendly fire from a US Patriot missile battery, killing both crew members.   In July 2003, a US board of inquiry exonerated the battery's operators, observing the Tornado's "lack of functioning IFF (Identification Friend or Foe)" as a factor in the incident.  Problems with Patriot were also suggested as a factor, multiple incidents of mis-identification of friendly aircraft have occurred, including the fatal shootdown of a US Navy McDonnell Douglas F/A-18 Hornet a few weeks after the loss of the Tornado.    Britain withdrew the last of its Tornados from Iraq in June 2009. 

In early 2009, several GR4s arrived at Kandahar airfield, Afghanistan to replace the Harrier GR7/9 aircraft deployed there since November 2004.  In 2009, Paveway IV guided bombs were brought into service on the RAF's Tornados, having been previously used in Afghanistan by the Harrier II fleet.  In Summer 2010, extra Tornados were dispatched to Kandahar for the duration of the 2010 Afghan election.  British Tornados ended their operations in Afghanistan in November 2014.  They flew over 5,000 pairs sorties over 33,500 hours, including 600 "shows of force" to deter Taliban attacks.  During more than 70 engagements, some 140 Brimstone missiles and Paveway IV bombs were deployed in total (roughly half each) and over 3,000 27 mm cannon shells were fired. 

Prior to the 2010 Strategic Defence and Security Review (SDSR)'s publication, the retirement of the entire Tornado fleet was under consideration, savings of £7.5 billion were anticipated.  The SDSR announced the Tornado would be retained at the expense of the Harrier II, although Tornado numbers are to decline in transition to the Eurofighter Typhoon, and later on, the F-35 Lightning II.  

On 18 March 2011, British Prime Minister David Cameron announced the deployment of Tornados and Typhoons to enforce a no-fly zone in Libya.  In March 2011, several Tornados flew 3000 mi strike missions against targets inside Libya in what were, according to Defence Secretary Liam Fox, "the longest range bombing mission conducted by the RAF since the Falklands conflict".[http://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-12797500 "Libya: British missiles fired at military sites."] BBC News, 20 March 2011.  A variety of weapons were used in operations over Libya, including Laser-guided bombs and Brimstone missiles.  59 RAF aircraft are receiving the CUSP avionics upgrade which achieved Initial Service Date (ISD) in March 2013 and the type will be withdrawn from RAF service on 31 March 2019. 

On 11 August 2014, a Cabinet Office Briefing Room (COBR) emergency meeting concluded that the RAF would deploy Tornado GR4s to RAF Akrotiri, Cyprus in support of refugees sheltering from Islamic State militants in the Mount Sinjar region of Iraq. The decision came three days after the United States began conducting air attacks against the Islamic State. Tornados were pre-positioned to use their surveillance capabilities to gather situational awareness to help with humanitarian efforts.   On 29 September 2014, three days after Parliament approved of airstrikes against Islamic State forces inside Iraq, two Tornados conducted their first armed reconnaissance mission over the country, in conjunction with other coalition aircraft, and were cleared to conduct airstrikes if needed.  Britain's first airstrike was conducted the next day, when two Tornados hit a heavy weapons post and an armored vehicle in the process of supporting Kurdish forces in northwest Iraq.  By 1 March 2015, eight RAF Tornados had been deployed to Akrotiri and conducted 159 airstrikes against IS targets in Iraq. 

On the 2 December 2015, the British Parliament voted to begin air strikes in Syria as well as Iraq, to combat the growing threat of ISIS. Tornados began their bombing that evening. 

Royal Saudi Air Force

On 25 September 1985, the UK and Saudi Arabia signed the Al Yamamah I contract including, amongst other things, the sale of 48 IDS and 24 ADV model Tornados.  The first flight of a RSAF Tornado IDS was on 26 March 1986, and the first Saudi ADV was delivered on 9 February 1989. Saudi Tornados undertook operations during the Gulf War. In June 1993 the Al Yamamah II contract was signed, the main element of which was 48 additional IDSs.  

Following experience with both the Tornado and the McDonnell Douglas F-15E Strike Eagle, the RSAF discontinued low-level mission training in the F-15E in light of the Tornado's superior low-altitude flight performance. In addition, 10 of the Saudi Tornados were outfitted with equipment for performing reconnaissance missions. The 22 Tornado ADVs were replaced by the Eurofighter Typhoon; the retired aircraft were being purchased back by the UK as of 2007. 

By 2007, both the Sea Eagle anti-ship missile and the ALARM anti-radiation missile that previously equipped the RSAF's Tornados had been withdrawn from service.Cordesman 2007, p. 210. As of 2010, Saudi Arabia has signed several contracts for new weapon systems to be fitted to their Tornado and Typhoon fleets, such as the short range air-to-air IRIS-T missile, and the Brimstone and Storm Shadow cruise missiles. 

In September 2006, the Saudi government signed a contract worth £2.5 billion (US$4.7 billion) with BAE Systems to upgrade up to 80 RSAF Tornado IDS aircraft to keep them in service until 2020. RSAF Tornado 6612 was returned to BAE Systems Warton in December 2006 for upgrade under the "Tornado Sustainment Programme" (TSP), which will "equip the IDS fleet with a range of new precision-guided weapons and enhanced targeting equipment, in many cases common with those systems already fielded by the UK's Tornado GR4s."Hoyle, Craig. [http://www.flightglobal.com/articles/2007/09/18/216775/saudi-arabia-reveals-progress-of-tornado-upgrade.html "Saudi Arabia reveals progress of Tornado upgrade."] Flight International, 18 September 2007. In December 2007, the first RSAF aircraft to complete modernisation was returned to Saudi Arabia. 

Starting from the first week of November 2009, Saudi Air Force Tornados, along with Saudi F-15s performed air raids during the Shia insurgency in north Yemen. It was the first time since Operation Desert Storm in 1991 that the Royal Saudi Air Force participated in a military operation over hostile territory. 

Variants

Tornado IDS

;Tornado GR1
RAF IDS variants were initially designated the Tornado GR1 with later modified aircraft designated Tornado GR1A, Tornado GR1B, Tornado GR4 and Tornado GR4A. The first of 228 GR1s was delivered on 5 June 1979, and the type entered service in the early 1980s. A total of 142 aircraft were upgraded to GR4 standard from 1997 to 2003.

;Tornado GR1B
The Tornado GR1B was a specialised anti-shipping variant of the GR1. A total of 26 were converted,  which were based at RAF Lossiemouth, Scotland, replacing the Blackburn Buccaneer. Each aircraft was equipped to carry up to four Sea Eagle anti-ship missiles. At first the GR1B lacked the radar capability to track shipping, instead relying on the missile's seeker for target acquisition, later updates allowed target data to be fed from aircraft to missile. 

;Tornado GR4
In 1984, the UK Ministry of Defence began studies for a GR1 Mid-Life Update (MLU). The update to GR4 standard, approved in 1994, would improve capability in the medium-altitude role based on lessons learned from the GR1's performance in the 1991 Gulf War. British Aerospace (later BAE Systems) upgraded 142 Tornado GR1s to GR4 standard, beginning in 1996 and finished in 2003. 59 RAF aircraft are receiving the CUSP avionics package which integrates the Paveway IV bomb and installs a new secure communications module from Cassidian in Phase A, followed by the Tactical Information Exchange (TIE) datalink from General Dynamics in Phase B.

;Tornado GR1A/GR4A
The GR1A is the reconnaissance variant used by the RAF and RSAF, fitted with the TIRRS (Tornado Infra-Red Reconnaissance System), replacing the cannon.  The RAF ordered 30 GR1As, 14 as GR1 rebuilds and 16 as new-builds.  When the Tornado GR1s were upgraded to become GR4s, GR1A aircraft were upgraded to GR4A standard.  The switch from low-level operations to medium/high-level operations means that the internal TIRRS is no longer in use.  As the GR4A's internal sensors are no longer essential, the RAF's Tactical Reconnaissance Wing operate both GR4A and GR4 aircraft. 

Tornado ECR

Operated by Germany and Italy, the ECR is a Tornado variant devoted to Suppression of Enemy Air Defenses (SEAD) missions. It was first delivered on 21 May 1990. The ECR has sensors to detect radar usage and is equipped with anti-radiation AGM-88 HARM missiles. The Luftwaffe's 35 ECRs were delivered new, while Italy received 16 converted IDSs. Italian Tornado ECRs differ from the Luftwaffe aircraft as they lack built-in reconnaissance capability and use RecceLite reconnaissance pods, also only Luftwaffe ECRs are equipped with RB199 Mk.105 engine, which has a slightly higher thrust rating.Jackson et al. 1998, p. 241. The German ECRs do not carry a cannon.  The RAF uses the IDS version in the SEAD role instead of the ECR. It also modified several of its Tornado F.3s to undertake the mission.

Tornado ADV

The Tornado ADV (air defence variant)  was an interceptor variant of the Tornado, developed for the RAF (designated Tornado F2 or F3) and also operated by Saudi Arabia and Italy. The ADV had inferior agility to fighters like the McDonnell Douglas F-15 Eagle,  but it was not intended as a dog-fighter, instead it was a long-endurance interceptor to counter the threat from Cold War bombers.Eagles 1991, p. 88. Although the ADV had 80% parts commonality with the Tornado IDS, the ADV had greater acceleration, improved RB199 Mk.104 engines, a stretched body, greater fuel capacity, the AI.24 Foxhunter radar, and software changes. It had only one cannon to accommodate a retractable inflight refuelling probe.Eagles 1991, pp. 88–91.[http://www.turbounion.co.uk/ "Turbo-Union: The Power for Peace and Freedom."] turbounion.co.uk. Retrieved: 29 November 2011.

Operators

;
*German Air Force had 64 IDS and 29 ECR aircraft in service in December 2015. 
;
*Italian Air Force had 62 IDS and 16 ECR aircraft in operation in December 2011. 
;
*Royal Saudi Air Force had 82 IDS in operation in December 2011. 
;
*Royal Air Force had 102 GR4/GR4A aircraft in service in March 2014. 

Aircraft on display

;Bulgaria
*44+13 Tornado IDS on display at the National Museum of Military History, Sofia

;Germany
*D-9591 Tornado Prototype P.01 on display at Militärhistorisches Museum Flugplatz Berlin-Gatow  
*XX948 Tornado Prototype P.06 on display at Hermeskeil
*43+01 Tornado IDS (first series aircraft) at Taktisches Luftwaffengeschwader 33 in Cochem / Büchel  
*43+96 Tornado gate guard at the German air base in Jagel, near Schleswig, Schleswig-Holstein
*44+97 Tornado IDS of the Einsatzgeschwader (Expeditionary Air Wing) Mazar-i-Sharif at the Deutsches Museum Flugwerft Schleissheim, Oberschleißheim
*44+31 Tornado IDS (Blue Lightning paint scheme) of the 31st Fighter Bomber Wing "Boelcke" at Nörvenich AB
*Tornado IDS on display at the Luftwaffenmuseum, in Berlin
*Tornado IDS on display at the Technikmuseum Speyer
*43+86 Tornado (MTU corporate design paint scheme) at MTU Aero Engines, in Munich

;Italy
*MM7210 Tornado F3 on display at the Italian Air Force Museum, Vigna di Valle

;Saudi Arabia
*Tornado ADV on display at King Abdul-Aziz Air Base, Dhahran
*Tornado ADV on display at the Royal Saudi Air Force Museum in Riyadh
*Tornado IDS on display the Royal Saudi Air Force Museum in Riyadh
*Tornado IDS on display at King Abdul-Aziz Air Base, Dhahran

;United Kingdom
*XX946 Tornado Prototype P.02 on display at the RAF Museum Cosford, England 
*XX947 Tornado Prototype P.03, was gate guardian at Shoreham Airport in West Sussex, England   but was for sale in September 2014. 
*XZ631 Tornado GR4 Prototype P.15 on display at Yorkshire Air Museum, Elvington, England 
*ZA319 Tornado GR1T Gate Guard, MoD DSDA Arncott, Bicester, Oxfordshire, England 
*ZA326 Tornado GR1 on display at Bruntingthorpe Aerodrome, Leicestershire, England. 
*ZA354 Tornado GR1 on display at Yorkshire Air Museum, Elvington, England

ZA361 Tornado GR1 on display at RNAS Can Florit, Calvia, Palma Mallorca, Spain - not on public display
*ZA362 Tornado GR1 on display at Highland Aviation Museum, Inverness, Scotland 
*ZA452 Tornado GR4 on display at Midland Air Museum, Coventry, England. 
*ZA457 Tornado GR1B on display at RAF Museum, Hendon, England 
*ZA465 Tornado GR1 on display at Imperial War Museum, Duxford, England 
*ZA475 Tornado GR1 on the gate at RAF Lossiemouth, Scotland. 
*ZA549 Tornado GR4 on display at RAF Marham, Norfolk, England. 
*ZE760 Tornado F3 on the gate at RAF Coningsby, Lincolnshire, England 
*ZE887 Tornado F3 on display at RAF Museum, Hendon, England. 
*ZE934 Tornado F3 on display at National Museum of Flight, East Fortune, Scotland 
*ZH552 Tornado F3 on display at RAF Leeming, North Yorkshire, England 

;United States

*ZA374 Tornado GR1 on display at the National Museum of the United States Air Force, Wright Patterson AFB, Ohio 
*43+74 Tornado IDS of the German Navy, Marinefliegergeschwader 1 at the Pima Air & Space Museum, Tucson, AZ

Specifications (Tornado GR4)

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