text:
\section{Introduction}
Understanding mental phenomena has been an age old subject in various disciplines ranging from philosophy~\cite{Hume, Locke}, psychology~\cite{emotions}, ethology~\cite{Konrad} cognitive sciences~\cite{Laird} and linguistics~\cite{Torneke}. It is also the subject matter of modern fields such as neuroscience~\cite{neuro} and artificial intelligence~\cite{Minsky, Soar}. Some of the early studies in psychology and philosophy approach the question looking at mental phenomena subjectively in terms of experiences and percepts. Others such as neurobiology or AI approach it from the other end in viewing the mind as a neural network~\cite{neural} where each neuron is a primitive binary circuit. Simplicity theory~\cite{Chater99, CV03} (and other older works ~\cite{Mach}) emphasizes the principle of `simplicity' in cognition -- using the notion of Kolmogorov Complexity~\cite{Kol}, it demonstrates that several cognitive functions can be understood as giving simple descriptions of a certain sensory stimulus. In this paper, we also model the mind as a place where a circuit grows, starting as a collection of primitive components at birth and then grows incrementally bottom up. A new node is formed by a simple composition of prior nodes when we undergo a repeated experience that can be described by that composition. Unlike neural networks, however, these circuits take ``concepts" or ``percepts" as inputs and outputs. Thus the growing circuits can be likened to a growing collection of lambda expressions~\cite{lambda} that are built on top of one another.

\subsection{ Sensations, Emotions and Experience}
Human behavior is rooted in experience. An experience is any sequence of observations, feelings, insights that we go through. Getting a precise understanding of the nature of experiences is key to modeling psychological behavior. At the simplest level it may be a sight, sound or any stimulus from the senses often accompanied by some feeling or emotion. Sensations produce feelings; feelings are diverse but fit into two broad categories -- painful and pleasurable. Intense feelings are the emotions. Sensations -- sights, sounds, smells -- go through a mental evaluation to produce feelings. Sometimes they give rise to `mental concepts'. A sight (say of a scene containing a mountain) may give rise to a concept of a mountain. The feeling that arises from such a sight may be triggered from the concept rather than the sight itself. Concepts and their associated feelings may be stored in memory. Memory may also retain concepts with associated (related) concepts. For example the concept of a mountain may be associated with recent experiences (say hiking trips) related to mountains. External sensations are not necessary to trigger emotions. Concepts retrieved from memory can also trigger emotions. Thoughts is a sequence of concepts retrieved by following a chain of associations. Thoughts may be triggered by an external sensation or simply from recalling concepts from memory -- thoughts produce intense emotions.

Sensations, feelings, emotions, concepts, thoughts -- these are the objects of the mind. The pleasure principle is an important guiding factor that affects what the mind will be pay attention to. The mind will pay attention to and seek objects that produce pleasurable feelings; it will also pay attention to and push away from objects that produce painful feelings. Another important factor that attracts mental attention is `contrast' -- a change in stimulus -- contrast happens when two very different sensations, feelings or experiences are placed side by side (in time or space). Even a pleasurable feeling from a stimulus tends to fade if the source remains constant. The mind will quickly grow tired and look for alternate new sources of pleasure -- and then grow tired of that again and keep hunting and switching (it may even grow tired of constant hunting and experiencing of pleasure and prefer tranquility for a period). This hunting may occur in external sensations or concepts present in thoughts from memory.
Memory is accumulated over time. But feelings arise from sensations even without memory. A child without memory will also react with feelings on external sights and sounds. Thus the brain (even without any stored memory) maps sights and sounds to feelings. This `circuit' is a primitive circuit that is inborn. For example the taste of milk produces a pleasurable feeling and the taste of grapefruit produces a bitter painful feeling.

This primitive circuit does not have state and produces the same output on the same input, Memory provides state. Over time concepts and associated feelings accumulate in the memory over time and interact with the operation of a circuit.
The operation of the primitive circuit (without memory) is complex. It is not additive -- two objects together may produce a very different feeling from the simple combination of the feelings produced by each individual object.
Contrast is an important principle in the formation of concepts. The mind creates a concept from anything it sees as different and sees repeatedly. For instance seeing many black dots on a white board will make the mind notice the black dots (due to contrast) and then creates the concept of a 'dot' -- every concept is nothing but the common experience separated by the contrast. Similarly experiencing a very different feeling in time will separate the new feeling based on contrast and create a new concept of that feeling -- which is the experience of that feeling.

An external sensation (such as a sight) produces an experience consisting of several experiences separated by contrast -- these separated experiences create concepts -- repeated similar experiences causes the associated concept to be stored in memory. On a future experience the same or similar experience (and the associated tags) are retrieved from memory.
This is also true when we hear sounds in a language. Syllables are separated by contrasts. A sequence of syllables is an experience which on repetition forms a concept stored in memory. It is associated with the related concept which is the thought of the object that the word semantically refers to. Thus hearing speech can be understood as a collection of experiences separated by contrast and then retrieving related experiences from memory stored as concepts.

Basic concepts such as time comes from the feeling of `waiting' for something pleasurable; the concept of space comes from `having to reach out' to grab something pleasurable; from the consistent experience that a certain action is always followed by a pleasurable experience -- `if action then reward', comes reason and mental computation.

An important question here is how is a sensation (say a scene) stored in memory~\cite{Smith}. It is unlikely that an image is stored as a raw bit-map. Contrast is used to separate the scene into several scenes. These are in-turn divided recursively using contrast. Some may be mapped to a previously stored concept. Thus the scene is stored recursively as a collection of concepts that can be used to approximately reconstruct the scene.

\section{Repeated experience creates concepts}
Most machine learning algorithms work within a certain model or framework that allows certain parameters that are optimized to fit the data. We will argue that the mind on the other hand ``grows" circuits or functions bottom up -- this growth has no upper bound and can potentially continue endlessly creating more and more complex concepts. Thus by observing and processing external events, the mind can create computational frameworks that are not bounded by any specific model.

\noindent{\bf Relation to Kolmogorov Complexity (Finding succinct descriptions hierarchically):}
The same experience repeated many times is stored in memory as a hardened concept. Given a new episode of experience, we try to decompose it into concepts that are stored in memory. The principle of contrast is used to break up an experience into components that may be mapped to known concepts. Over time this produces a hierarchy of concepts build on top of each other. Thus the mind tries to come up with the simplest description of an experience by building concepts incrementally. This is similar in spirit to the notion of Kolmogorov complexity~\cite{Kol} that is the length of the turning machine with the shortest description that produces the string upon execution. The Kolmogorov complexity is incomputable as one cannot decide if a turing machine will terminate. Our mental process also attempts to find short descriptions of the input that can be easily obtained from previous concepts; thus it can be viewed as a heuristic for upper bounding the Kolmogorov complexity. Thus we are reaffirming the principle of simplicity that was proposed in ~\cite{Chater99}

For example, when we look at a room, we decompose the image into `known objects' and describe the scene as consisting of those objects in  a certain arrangement. Each object in-turn may be stored as a composition of prior concepts. Perhaps we store concepts as  programs, rather as circuits that recursively describe an input. Thus we may be able to think of mind as growing functional programs rather  functional circuits hierarchically as a heuristic for bounding the Kolmogorov Complexity of a stream of inputs.

Kolmogorov Complexity is the ideal compression of an input. Thus the ideal efficient {\em approximation}-algorithm (indeed, a very gross approximation) for Kolmogorov Complexity can also be viewed as a univeral-compression algorithm. Since there is  a well known (see for example ~\cite{learning}) strong connection between compression and learning/prediction and communitation, it can also be viewed as a universal-learner for prediction. Thus the ideal cognitive process will simultaneously achieve good compression (that also facilitates quick communication) and good predictive power.

\noindent{\bf Lambda Calculus :} A concept can be viewed as some type of a lambda expression. Lambda calculus~\cite{lambda} is one of the oldest formalizations of functional languages with anonymous functions that can take other functions as arguments; that is it can build functions built on top of other functions. Each concept is obtained by composing previous concepts which can be thought of as composing the lambda expressions corresponding to those concepts.

\noindent{\bf Concepts of space, time and persistence of objects:}
Early on a child develops the concept of space and objects and the persistence of objects (that objects don't simply disappear)~\cite{Bloom}. The mind develops the ability to visualize objects and visualize the operations of moving objects, translating and rotating them in space -- thus given a scene it knows how it will change if you add another object somewhere or move a given object.

\noindent{\bf Parsing a simple Picture:}

Consider as an example how a child may process a simple image containing a rectangle colored blue and a triangle colored red partially overlapping. A large number of complex computations are involved in doing this.

\begin{enumerate}
\item To parse this picture a child needs to develop first the concept of rectangle and a triangle.
\item To understand a rectangle, it needs to understand the concept of a straight line segment.
\item When the child sees many instances of lines, it abstracts a common theme, that of moving in the same direction. This common theme present in the 'experience' of seeing a line, is stored as a concept of a 'straight line'
\item The concept of rectangle is built upon the concept of lines as using four lines arranged in a certain fashion -- two vertical and two horizontal lines properly aligned. Thus it makes use of concepts of vertical and horizontal that must have been learned previously.
\item Then the child must have experience with superimposing shapes on a blank paper. This is learnt by seeing many examples of objects being placed on a table.
\item Having known the concepts of rectangle and triangle, the child notices that the scene is obtained by first place a blue rectangle, and then a red triangle on top overlapping it partly. This then becomes a succinct description of the picture.
\end{enumerate}

A scene or an experience may be stored to different levels of detail depending on the level of attention. At first we get a crude description of the scene. At the next level of attention we refine the description to add more detail. This process may continue till we are able to completely describe the scene. If we do not revisit the experience for a long time, we may forget it, perhaps losing the fine details first and then going down the different levels of details in the description of the scene.
Thus the picture may be described in increasing detail starting from the most crude description to the fine one.
\begin{enumerate}
\item Some colorful objects on a white paper
\item A blue object and a red object
\item Objects are described by straight lines
\item The objects are a triangle and a rectangle
\item Some information about the position of the objects; such as, the rectange is in the middle and the triangle is to the upper left.
\end{enumerate}

The above sequence can be viewed as a circuit with 6 nodes, where each node applies a certain operation on the concept corresponding to the chain instructed so far. On first exposure one may construct the circuit 1. On next one may construct $1 \rightarrow 2$. Then $1\rightarrow 2\rightarrow 3$ and so on until we construct the fill circuit that completely describes the picture. Here the terms such as `rectangle', `triangle', `red', `blue', `object' are references to prior learnt concepts.

The memory thus stores a web of concepts connected by edges. Edges indicate the use of one concept in describing another concept

When two concepts co-occur frequently, it gives rise to a compound concept that references these two concepts. For example if `eating icecream' is frequently followed by `pleasure' it produces the concept `eating icecream is followed by pleasure' that references the two concepts. This new node connects the nodes `eating icecream' and `pleasure' in the web of concepts. Because of this the concept `eating icecream' becomes pleasurable. Thus nodes become pleasurable or painful to the extent to which they are near the concepts of `pleasure' or `pain' in the web of concepts graph.

\noindent{\bf An apple falling down :}

Consider an experience that involves watching an apple falling. This involves a sequence of events that produces several concepts in a sequence combined to produce the final concept of a ``falling apple". First contrast is used to identify a certain object of red color that is different from the rest of the color. Based on the shape it is mapped to the concept of an ``apple" stored in memory. Watching the image over time, one observes that the red part of the image is translating slowly in the down direction. This produces the concept of a ``persistent object" , the apple, moving down creating the concept of ``falling apple".

The arising of the percept of ``falling apple" may trigger additional percepts. If the person has had prior experience of eating an apple and finding it tasty, then the concept "apple is tasty" combined with the "falling apple" experience triggers the concept of "can reach out to eat a tasty apple". This would result in the recalling the emotion of "pleasant taste" from memory. Thus retrieval of a concept from memory tends to retrieve related concepts that are nearby in the graph as well.

Thus it seems there is a universal set of emotions, a universal set of sensations, a universal set of concepts, and a universal set of rules for the arising of concepts from sensations, and the arising of emotions from concepts, depending on the contents in the memory. The sequence of receiving sensations, arising of concepts, and emotions, in turn triggering additional concepts and emotions in a chain becomes an {\em episode of experience}. The sets of sensations, concepts, and emotions, may include simple elemental ones such as sensation of ``red color", ``sweet taste", ``pain", ``pleasure", ``object", ``space" and compound ones such as ``a given colorful scenery", ``combination of tastes", complex emotions, and realization of complex phenomena.

\section{Concepts grow like circuits hierarchically}
Exposure to external events create sensations that result in an experience. Alternately an experience may also be created by recalling events (experiences) from memory.
The final experience depends on how the sensations are interpreted based on the web of concepts stored in memory.

An experience is broken down into smaller units of experience based on contrast. It is then interpreted as a composition of a small number of prior concepts. A common experience or a common theme in prior experiences is instantiated as a new concept. A frequently visited concept is hardened and ingrained in memory. The circuits or functions underlying these frequent concepts can be computed very quickly as if they were in the `fast path'. Thus concepts move from slow path to fast path based on usage. Concepts in the slow path need to evaluated consciously and slowly. Concepts in the fast path are evaluated 'automatically' without a conscious experience of the computation.

The concept-graph operations can be described thus:
\begin{verbatim}
For each new experience from external events:
    Break the experience into components based on contrast (recursively).
    Check if the new experience can be described as a simple composition of a small
    number of prior concepts in the concept-graph
    If so, create a new concept (node) as a circuit that composes these prior concepts
\end{verbatim}

Thus we can {\em approximately} view concepts as some type of functions or (lambda expressions) $f_1, f_2,...,f_n$. At any time if a new repeated experience $e$ can be approximated as a composition of a small number of some of these functions $e \approx f_i . f_j .f_k$ then we create a new node $f_i . f_j .f_k$ in the hierarchy. Any future exposure to experience $e$ will trigger this new node. The more $e$ is experienced the more weight this node accumulates (it perhaps also decays geometrically with disuse.) Observe that if the ``." operator were simply the concatenation operator instead of a composition we would only get a context-free-grammar. But since we are allowing a composition we can get arbitrary turing machines.

When visiting candidate concept to explain the new experience, we visit them in order of their weight. High weight concepts are tried first. The weight of a concept depends on how often it has been invoked in the past or how closely related it is to recently visited concepts. The rank or order in which functions are tried may also depend on the outputs of the previously tried functions (that provide a context). The choice of the first function $f_i$ may condition the choice of the next function for composition based on how compatible they are. The ranking of functions is a crucial component in the efficiency (and efficacy) of learning new concepts.

As a concept's get matched, they are fired as output that may then become inputs for more advanced concepts built on them. The process can be viewed as many base level concepts feeding into a circuit and outputting a complex concept at the top of the circuit.

Thus on hearing a sequence of sounds, contrast is used to break it into pieces of continuous sounds separated by silent pauses. Each continuous stream of sound is broken into syllables by contrasting the nature of the sound. Similarly a picture is broken into components by contrasting the colors or a sharp change in intensity of color. Each component (syllable or image) may be mapped to concept. Group of concepts are mapped to a compound concept and this continuous recursively. Attention of the mind is attracted whenever an experience is parsed into a concept. The more complex the experience and simpler the concept maps to the higher the level of attention that it attracts~\cite{Chater99, CV03}; Simplicity theory, points out several examples where this is evident. If many concepts (circuits) have a common component, then the mind may observe this commonality and abstract the common component. This common component is used to simplify all the previous circuits.

{\bf Storing concepts in increasing levels of detail:}
At first exposure, an experience may only be partially described in terms of prior concepts. On subsequent exposures, this description is refined giving more detailed descriptions. This continues until we may get a perfect description of the experience in terms of prior concepts. Thus we obtain a chain of refinements each making a small change on the prior concept where the first node in the chain is a crude first impression of the experience and the last one perfectly matches the experience.

{\bf How associations are created :}
If two concepts occur frequently in succession, then the experience of ``B follows A" becomes a common experience and thus a new concept. Many such experiences of ``x follows y" has the common theme of ``some concept follows another concept". Thus ``follows" becomes a new node that generalizes all ``B follows A" types of nodes. That is ``B follows A" is viewed as ``follows" experience applied on the previous concepts B and A.
There are different concepts (functions) such as ``follows in time", ``follows in space", ``near by in time or space" describing different types of associations.

\noindent{\bf Learning numbers :}

Here is how the concept of the number ``2" may be leant incrementally.
Consider a picture containing 2 circles another with 2 squares and another with 2 apples. The concept of the number ``2" is distilled as a common experience in all these pictures. Before learning the number, the pictures may be described as follows.

draw a circle, repeat,

draw a square, repeat.

draw an apple, repeat.

The common description of operations ``object, repeat" becomes a concept that we associate with the symbol ``2" and the sound of the word ``two".
Thus the concept ``2" is (lambda) function that given an object produces two copies of that object $ (\lambda x ) x x$.

A child gets more pleasure from eating two candies than eating one candy, thus it contrasts the image of a plate containing two candies from that containing one candy.
Similarly it contrasts three candies from two candies and understands the concept that `a configuration of 3 candies' is 'better than' a 'configuration of two candies. This produces the concept of ``greater than".'
Similarly the abstract concept of each of the different numbers `3', `4', `5' is produced. A canonical image containing `some quantity' of candy may be used to represent an arbitrary number not known precisely.

\noindent{\bf Learning Addition :}

The concept of `add one candy' is learnt by observing constantly observing the action of `taking another candy and putting it on the plate', and noticing that by repeating the `add one candy' action one obtains different configurations of candy on the plate.

Similarly the concept of `add one apple' may be learnt. And then one may observe the commonality of these operations and create a new abstract concept of `add one object' that given a scene containing a collection of objects adds
another copy of the object to the scene. The operation may make use of some canonical object to represent any object.

Similarly the concepts of subtraction, multiplication and division are built incrementally on top of each other. This is similar to how one could write a function defining these operations in a modular fashion from the simplest to the most complicated; except that the creating of the functions happen by observing examples and exacting out the simple new operation on existing concepts that describes these examples ~\cite{example}.

One develops not only the ability to manipulate spatial configurations but also imaginary configurations of abstract concepts. For example one may manipulate numbers once the concept of numbers and concept of operations on these numbers is developed. Such a sequence of mental manipulations is also an episode of experience that can result in new concepts.

For example by thinking about numbers, multiplication and division, one may come up with the concept of prime numbers. Upon further contemplation or through further learning one may realize that there is endless prime numbers. Each such realization is an experience that results in a new concept. It is used to describe the "scene" involving the manipulation of numbers. By looking at things moving in a straight line, we produce the concept of an ideal straight line even though the lines we saw were never perfect but were approximated by the `abstract line' which is a simple description for these real lines. By looking at longer and longer lines, we generate the notion of `infinite line' as this captures the experience of a very long lines which seem to be similar to an `infinite line' -- for example, travelling on a very long road feels just like an endless road. Thus we learn the concept of `infinity'.

Exposure to a sequence of experiences results in the growth of concepts. This can be viewed as the growth of circuits (or algorithms) that are used to describe (or make sense) these experiences. Over time one gets a complex web of circuits interconnected as a graph of concepts.

\noindent{\bf Concept of ``War"}

``War" is a complex concept build upon other complex concepts. To understand this one first has to develop the concept of ``two people fighting" -- this in turn happens through experience of two people with conflicting wishes subject to the emotion of anger that leads to explicit acts of hurting one another. Then one has to develop the notion of ``Nations" and the concept of ``wishes and aspirations of nations". Then one builds the concept of ``Nations fighting". One then sees certain typical images of a battle and associates this image with the concept of ``Nations fighting". This results in the compound concept of ``War"

\noindent{\bf Concept of ``Contentment"}

This is another complex concept that develops hierarchically over time. First a child needs to understand the concept of ``possessions" -- a common pattern in the experiences of ``my toys", ``my books". Then one sees the arising of delight from new possessions and then the fading away of the novelty and delight over time. This gives rise to the concept of ``dissatisfaction". When one experiences a repeated pattern of ``new possessions provide delight and then become dissatisfactory" one develops the common theme of ``discontent". This makes one appreciate the concept of ``contentment".

\noindent{\bf Communication is about recreating circuits}

Communication is about transferring mind states. Its about recreating an experience from the speaker to the listener. This is done by creating the final concept hierarchically in the listener. If the listener lacks many of the underlying layers of concepts then these need to be created bottom up. This is how we teach children -- we communicate concepts gradually one by one starting from ground zero.

\subsection{Emotions}
Each experience may be associated with one or more emotions. There are specific circuits output emotions based on the type of experience. For example:
When an experience matches the template ``Another persons actions led to pain for me" it triggers the emotion of ``anger".

Observe that here ``person", ``action", ``led", ``pain", ``me" are all prior existing concepts. The above template thus identifies a certain sub-structure in the circuit representing the experience.

``tried hard to get a certain pleasure but failed repeatedly" triggers "frustration".

Similarly, some circuit perhaps maps experiences to ``funny".
There are certain primitive functions that map the space of emotions to pleasant or painful feelings of different magnitudes. Concepts are described as pleasant or painful depending on their association with the two primitive concepts of ``pain" and ``pleasure". This could be based on association or based on proximity in the concept graph.

Some experiences may be described as ``smooth or soft". For example the touch of petals, or more metaphorically soft music, or a smoothly-flowing story. A certain circuit distills this common feature from these apparently diverse experiences. Such a circuit may simply be looking for the absence of a discontinuity in the derivative in the intensity of the underlying feelings as a function of time. For example, touch is smooth if the surface doesn't have sharp bends or if the resistance felt on applied pressure doesn't have a discontinuous derivative. A soft story may be one where the stream of emotions produced there is no wild or sharp changes.

Emotions are a key component in the formation of a concept. For example the concept of ``getting fired from a job" is more than just termination of employment. The experience of the feeling of rejection and the fear of financial instability are really the most important part of this concept. It is often the emotional component that attracts the minds attention to the concepts. Concepts without a strong emotional content will fail to grab attention and thus will not be repeated enough to be ingrained in memory.

Sometimes, instead of building a new circuit, we simply uncover a circuit that is implicit in the production of a certain emotion. For example there is pre-existing circuit that governs the production of the emotion ``anger". The circuit implicitly encodes the concepts of ``hurt" and ``another persons actions". As we experience anger, we observe the patterns we explicitly are able to construct these concepts and their corresponding circuits. Thus this construction can be viewed as not really constructing a new circuit, but uncovering the black box circuit implicit in the production of ``anger".

These circuits process not only discrete concepts but also continuous ones. Consider for example how one would teach a child about real numbers. A child is told to observe a ball rolling a notice that it does not move in steps but continuously where the distance travelled ``smoothly" increases over time. This simple observation provides a rich intuition for real numbers which forms the basis for other advanced mathematical concepts such as co-ordinate geometry, vectors and calculus. These tools are used not only in situations involving continuous concepts but also discrete ones: for example to understand solutions to the discrete problems of TSP or Graph-Coloring one may make use of linear programming, a method that uses the concept of real numbers.

The circuits process concepts that cannot simply be described as discrete or continuous phenomena. Consider for example the reaction of a person when she first sees turbulent waves at the sea shore. While some features may be extracted to find similarities to previous concepts, perhaps much of the experience is stored as ``raw experiential data". This new concept may later be used to describe other seemingly unrelated experiences. For example one may experience some ``turbulent emotions" and may see the similarity between the ``turbulent state of mind" and the ``turbulent waves in the ocean".

Consider a tumbler containing a mixture of various chemicals subject to heat and light. The way the chemicals react under different amounts of heat and light may be modeled using a circuit (perhaps analog circuit) that captures the rules according to which the chemicals react to produce new ones. Thus a chemical reaction may be represented using a computational node that takes the reactants as inputs and outputs the resultant compounds. The circuits in the mind are certainly at at least as complex as the ones needed to model chemical reactions.

Sometimes complex pathways of circuits can be formed by a sequence of instinctive emotions lined up that cause an individual to behave in a certain way. Consider for example the computations involved in a baby trying to suckle for milk. The circuits for searching for the nipple, inserting into the mouth, sucking on it need to be formed or ``uncovered". Even though the child may not be initially aware of the full circuit of concepts leading to the satisfaction of milk, at each step it feels an instinctive urge to perform each step feeling some kind of a gradual reward culminating in the final big reward of food that results in a pleasant feeling. This reinforces the final circuit that the child needs to suckle for milk when it is hungry. Thus the carefully aligned sequence of instincts, the different feelings, the warmth of the skin, the feeling from latching on to the nipple, suckling, and the satisfaction gushing of milk are lined up in perfect order to create the complex circuit of concepts needed to derive milk.

\section{Experiences as learning an ensemble of functions}
Concept formation can be compared to learning an ensemble of functions. Say there are many functions -- and we are given certain input, output pairs for each of these functions. Our goal is to learn these functions. To distinguish these functions we will say these functions have different colors -- say the red function maps input (1,3) to output 4 input (2,3) to 5, the green function maps input (2,4) to 8 (3,4) to 12. These functions could be interpreted as experiences in different contexts. The input output pairs of the different functions may arrive interleaved in arbitrary order. An individual function may be complex and thus one may not be able to learn the function from its examples. But if these functions form a hierarchy where function can be expressed as a simple composition of a few lower functions in the hierarchy then over time, a simple algorithm can be used to learn all these functions. First one can explain the leaf level functions. Having learn't these concepts, one can explain the functions at level 2 and so on and so forth till one has learnt all the functions. Note that if one is given only instances of one function in isolation, then it would be much harder to learn the function.

Similarly, as we interact with the world, it presents us several functions in different in different contexts that we visit. First we learn the easiest concepts and then build the higher level concepts. There is a pre-existing algebra over the universe of concepts that allows one to compose a number of concepts resulting in another compound concept. This algebra is used to construct the concept hierarchy from experience. The external world provides us with several instantiations of functions built upon each other hierarchically. For example the sight of  ``leaves" are a common pattern that we recognize. ``A collection of leaves on top of a trunk" is the next higher level pattern that we identify as a tree. We notice flowers and fruits on trees. We notice seeds in the fruits and the seeds falling in the ground and giving rise to small plants that grow into big trees. Thus the final high level complex pattern is built upon several lower level patterns. Of course, this continues endlessly into the learning more advanced concepts. For example, we notice that the notion of the seed reproducing a tree is similar to an egg producing an animal which informs us about the concept of ``reproduction of living things". Perhaps all of our thought process can be understood in this way.

\subsection*{Acknowledgements}
We would like to thank Alexander Andoni, Ollie Williams and Aviv Zohar for insightful discussion.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaArXiv


will it work as watch/timepiece device stand alone? not connected to any Android smartphone?
Unfortunately, it won't. It needs an Android device to function, even the clock is a function of the phone/tablet, not the watch itself.


Avicii's "Wake Me Up" is now the most-played song of all time on Storify � streamed more than 200 million times. The song by Swedish superstar Avicii passed over "Radioactive" by Imagine Dragons, which is now the second-most played track on the service with 183 million streams.
On the first ever "Tonight Show" lip sync battle, Paul Rudd took Jimmy Fallon down with Tina Turner's "Better Be Good To Me," followed by an epic version of Queen's "Don't Stop Me Now."


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Home › Letters › Merkley can't see link between joblessness and immigration
Merkley can't see link between joblessness and immigration
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StatesmanJournal.com
Letter author:
Elizabeth Van Staaveren
Letter link:
Read the original letter
Letter body:
In Sen. Jeff Merkley's April 14 guest opinion, he commiserates with poorly paid workers and those unemployed, and advocates raising the federal minimum wage to help them.
He misreads the causes of falling wages and shrinking job opportunities for citizens and appears blind to his own complicity.
When the labor market is overcrowded with workers, their job opportunities diminish and wages decline.
In Congress, Sen. Merkley has voted repeatedly for measures that increase immigration and foreign worker employment by businesses in the U.S. Even more hurtful, he has opposed measures to control illegal immigration.
Such actions have caused large increases in numbers of available low-wage workers. Through employer fraud and abuse of visa programs, professional workers are also affected.
U.S. employers have had virtually unlimited access to illegal labor for many years. This began with farmers; then other industries, seeing that immigration laws are minimally enforced, realized they too could profit by using illegal labor.
Illegal aliens' status makes them fear to complain about working conditions. Sometimes employers fail to pay the illegal aliens anything at all for work performed.
See Sen. Merkley's immigration voting record on NumbersUSA's website, where it's graded "F."
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redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


text:
Q: Payment method wont show me form in backoffice order I've installed a new payment method from nps in magento 1.9.3.6 .
The problem is that I need to use it for backend orders. But when i select it, it doesn't show the payment form.
Here's an image.

I don't know if there's any display that is set to false or something similar in the code.
PD: In the frontend of the page NPS works ok.
This is the link of the module: NPS MAGENTO

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


text:
Parliamentary question on use of the Italian language by crew on airplanes served by Ryanair in Italy
Rome, Italy - By Senator Marco Perduca (PD)
"The Italian Senator Marco Perduca (Partito democratico) asks to the Infrastructure and Transports Minister, granted that: last February 25, 2010 on the scheduled domestic flight by Ryanair from Cagliari to Rome a notice was given to the passengers for a change of route and airport destination from Ciampino to Fiumicino only in English language because none of the crew spoke Italian; the most...


One long-ago Christmas, Earl Gibson lost the two things most precious to him: his wife and daughter. Angry and heartbroken, he ended up living on the streets and abandoned any belief he'd once had in God.
Ten years later Big Earl meets Gideon, a seven-year-old leukemia patient who believes with all her heart that "Christmas means never having to ask God how much he loves us." Gideon is determined to reach this lonely and hurting man who hates Christmas–and he is just as determined to rebuff her. It will take a miracle for Earl to come to understand the true meaning of Christmas. But if he can accept what Gideon wants to give him, he might find that he can return the favor with a precious gift of his own.


text:
Webasto Extends Home Office Regulation for Staff at Headquarters
After Cases of Illness with Coronavirus: Webasto Extends Home Office Regulation for Staff at Company Headquarters.
Antje Zientek
Corporate Communication Manager / Spokeswoman Corporate Topics
Phone: +49 (89) 8 57 94-55832
Press Release Webasto Extends Home Office Regulation
Stockdorf / Munich – February 3, 2020 – Due to current developments, the headquarters of Webasto, global innovative systems partner of the automotive industry, in Stockdorf will remain closed until February 11, 2020. "In the meantime, a total of seven of our employees in Germany have been tested positive for the coronavirus. We take this very seriously. The health of our colleagues is our top priority. We have therefore decided that the majority of our more than 1,000 employees will work at home for another nine days. That makes a total of two weeks since our closure. This is in line with the longest incubation period of 14 days assumed by experts for the virus," explained Dr. Holger Engelmann, CEO of Webasto SE.
Up to now, Webasto has not experienced any restrictions in day-to-day operations due to the increased mobile work of the employees of the administration and development center. Many central functions of the Webasto Group are located in Stockdorf, such as development, purchasing, project management, sales, controlling, human resources, IT or communication. However, there are also tasks that cannot be done from home. Engelmann: "In order to be able to continue to meet the requirements of our customers in this special situation reliably and at the highest quality level, around 20 colleagues in our testing and prototype construction for roof systems will resume their work in Stockdorf on a voluntary basis as of February 4. We have made this decision together with the works council after consultation with the responsible health authority."
After the first cases of coronavirus infection in the company became known, Webasto closed its headquarters in Stockdorf near Munich on January 29, 2020 on its own initiative in order to protect its employees. "We were able to interrupt the chain of infection by taking the following steps as a precaution: closing down the site early on quickly narrowing down the risk groups and asking the employees to work in their home offices. The fact that we have not yet had a case of coronavirus at any of our other German Webasto sites speaks for the effectiveness of our measures," says Engelmann.
The extension of mobile working for employees is a preventive measure of the company. Working while maintaining the high hygiene standards at the Stockdorf site was and is possible at any time from a health point of view according to information from the responsible authorities, with whom Webasto is in constant communication. All buildings on the site have been professionally cleaned and disinfected by specialist staff in recent days.
Back to listNext article
The following news that could also interest you
Webasto is "Top Employer 2023"
Webasto Foundation: Engagement for a better future mobility
Cinema at its most: BMW honours Webasto with the Supplier Innovation Award
Webasto continues management board restructure
Webasto broadens footprint in Asia


text:
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redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


text:
Q: How to do retry function with class methods, while keeping typing I have a class which is basically accessing spotify data, and it needs some retry mechanism, i made a callWithRetry  method, which calls a method with the passed args and does the retry's on every method from the class.

export default SomeClass {
  ...
  private async callWithRetry < T > (functionCall: (args: any) => Promise < T > , args: any, retries = 0): Promise < T > {
    try {
      return await functionCall(args);
    } catch (error) {
      if (retries <= this.MAX_RETRIES) {
        if (error && error.statusCode === 429) {
          const retryAfter = (parseInt(error.headers['retry-after'] as string, 10) + 1) * 1000;
          console.log(`sleeping for: ${retryAfter.toString()}`);
          await new Promise((r) => setTimeout(r, retryAfter));
        }
        return await this.callWithRetry < T > (functionCall, args, retries + 1);
      } else {
        throw e;
      }
    }
  };
  public async getData(api: Api, id: string, offset: number = 1): Promise < string[] > {
    const response = await api.getStuff(id, {
      limit: 50,
      offset: offset
    });

    if (response.statusCode !== 200) {
      return []
    }

    const results = response.body.items.map(item => item.id);

    if (response.body.next) {
      const nextPage = await this.getData(api, id, offset + 1);
      return results.concat(nextPage);
    }
    return results
  }

  public async getOtherData(api: Api, offset: number = 0): Promise < string[] > {
    let response = await api.getOtherData({
      limit: 50,
      offset: offset
    });

    if (response.statusCode !== 200) {
      return []
    }

    const results = response.body.items.map(item => item.id);

    if (response.body.next) {
      const nextPage = await this.getOtherData(api, offset + 1);
      return results.concat(nextPage);
    }
    return results
  }
}

My problem here is that I can not use different length argument list functions, i would have to put the argument list of the functions in an object and have it typed as any, which makes me loose type safety.
My idead was to make an interface for it for the call signatures of every function and go from there. What could work in your opinion?
EDIT:
I the first answer worked like a charm, the problem was that when i passed a function of a specific class it lost the scope and the properties of the class that were already initialised lost their values.

private async executeWithRetry < T > (command: ICommand < T > , policy: RetryPolicy, api: WebApi) {
  while (true) {
    try {
      policy.incrementTry();
      return await command.execute(api);
    } catch (err) {
      if (policy.shouldRetry(err)) {
        console.log("Request failed: ", command.fnName, ", retry #", policy.currentTry())
        await new Promise((r) => setTimeout(r, policy.currentWait()));
      } else {
        console.log("Out of retries!!!")
        throw err; // Tell the humans!
      }
    }
  }
}

class PaginatedCommand < T > implements ICommand < T > {
  constructor(private fn: (options ? : {
    limit ? : number,
    offset ? : number
  }) => Promise < T > , private options: {
    limit: number,
    offset: number
  }) {}

  public async execute(api: WebApi): Promise < T > {
    //@ts-ignore
    return await api[this.fn.name](this.options);
  }

  public get fnName(): string {
    return this.fn.name;
  }
}

class PlaylistPaginatedCommand < T > implements ICommand < T > {
  constructor(private fn: (Id: string, options ? : {
    limit ? : number,
    offset ? : number
  }) => Promise < T > , private Id: string, private options: {
    limit: number,
    offset: number
  }) {}

  public async execute(api: WebApi): Promise < T > {
    //@ts-ignore
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  }

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A: You must extract actual types from passed function type.
This works for me:
async function callWithRetry<T extends (...args: A) => Promise<R>, R, A extends Array<any>>(
    functionCall: (...args: A) => Promise<R>,
    args: Parameters<T>,
    retries = 0
): Promise<R> {
    try {
        return await functionCall(...args);
    } catch (error: any) {
        if (retries <= 10) {
            if (error && error.statusCode === 429) {
                const retryAfter = (parseInt(error.headers['retry-after'] as string, 10) + 1) * 1000;
                console.log(`sleeping for: ${retryAfter.toString()}`);
                await new Promise((r) => setTimeout(r, retryAfter));
            }
            return await callWithRetry(functionCall, args, retries + 1);
        } else {
            throw error;
        }
    }
};

And TS recognizes, that args must be proper type:
async function getUser(id: string) {
    return { id, name: "dummy" };
}

const x = callWithRetry(getUser, ['id']); // ok
const y = callWithRetry(getUser, ['id', 5]); // error

Typescript playground


text:
Hugh Lawson White.
Inconsistency and hypocrisy of Martin Van Buren (Volume 1) online
. (page 1 of 3)
Online Library → Hugh Lawson White → Inconsistency and hypocrisy of Martin Van Buren (Volume 1) → online text (page 1 of 3)
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INCONSISTENCY AND HYPOCRISY
MARTIN VAN BUREN.
QUESTION OF SLAVERY.
No event in the history of political parties in this country since the establish-
ment of the government, has excited more surprise, than the recent nomina-
tion of Martin Van Buren by the Buffalo Convention, as the Free-Soil, or
Anti-Slavery Candidate for the Presidency.
If all the public and private records which compose the political history of
this fortunate partisan had been burned up in a general conflagration, and the
recollection of his intrigues and corruptions, blotted forever from the memory of
men, or if a lapse of two, or three generations had intervened, and a new order of
things, and a new race of men had sprung up, the position which Mr. Van
Buren now occupies as the representative of the abolition sentiment of the
North, no man might think proper to attack.
But when we find on every printed page, and in the memories of our women
and children, even, the record and the recollection of his former corrupt opin-
ions and practices, of what Martin Van Buren was, in contrast with what hc
now pretends to be, it is impossible to forbear exposing the glaring effrontery
inconsistency, and hypocrisy manifest in the declarations which he has so re-
cently promulgated. Mr. Van Buren, ever since he came upon the stage of
public life, has been remarkable for nothing so much as the uniform success
with which he has employed the machinery of party in the acquisition of power.
Introduced early into public station in the State of New York, first as Surrogate
of Columbia County, and sub>;equently, by gradual steps, ascending to be Judge
Advocate, State Senator, Dtlcgntc to the Constitutional Convention, Governor,
Secretary of State of the United States, Minister to England, Vice President,
and finally to the Presidency, — on every round of this ladder, to the pinnacle
of power, we find him the same unscrupulous, intriguing, partisan leader, pre-
serving, and perpetuating his succession to power, and eminence, by a distribu-
tion of the public patronage, and the public treasure, among the greedy and
misguided creatures of his cupidity, and ambition.
Never rising to the dignity of the Statesman, by any broad and comprehensive
views, or commanding even the respect of his associates in the public service,
he has never had the assent of tJie people to the principles of hia political life,
or the confidence of those through whose exertions his elevation has been accom-
plished.
Honest and sagacious men have always mistrusted him, while those of his
own party who were acquainted with his secrets, have used and despised him.
The evidences of this want of respect, and confidence, on the part of those who
professed to be his friends, and of their thorough knowledge of his character for
chicanery and duplicity, are to be found every where. M. M. Koah in 1834,
speculating upon the then impending Presidential election, writes as follows,
"every paper almost that we open, speaks contemptuously of Van Buren's pros-
pects for the Presidency ; but they speak without knowledge of the labors of
the man, and the vast machine of intrigue, and corruption that he has set in
operation in every part of the Union they do not see
the fox prowling near the ham; the moh hurroicing near the ground; the
pilot fish who plunges deep in the ocean in one spot, and comes up at another to
breathe the air.
" If it were the free, unbought, unthreatened voice of public opinion, his chance?
could not be counted ; but Van Buren trusts nothing to the good opinion of the
people ; their will, their wishes, their desii'es, their frank and unbiassed suffrages,
he rejects and repudiates ; his appeal is to the interests and the /ears of men, he
secures those whom he imagines controls public opinion, he buys the leaders,
and makes them accountable for the rank and file. ^^
And again, a more truthful a'-id graphic portrait of the man, was never pen-
ned, than that which appearec"! In the New York Evening Post in 1841, (a pa-
per devoted to his interests.)
" Mr. Van Buren has little moral faith of any kind, barely enough to need no
artifical excitation of body or mind. This deficiency drives him into an artificial
code of political pi'actice, in which he refers all social actions to individual inter-
ests, and all political actions to combinations of those interests. He believes
firmly in the force of management He belongs wholly to
the present time, and may be said to represent trading or business politics. He
is the very impersonation of party in its strictest features of formal discipline
and exclusive combination."
Mr. Brownson, also, in the January number of his Review, of 1844, uses the
following language with reference to Mr. Van Buren's probable nomination by
the Baltimore Convention; — "But the reappearance of Mr. Van Buren on the
stage, changes the whole aspect of affairs. He comes not alone, but as the chief
of a band, which the country had devoutly hoped was dispersed^ never to be
collected again. He comes as the representative of the same old corrupt, and
corrupting system of party tactics, followed by the same swarm of greedy spoils-
men, with their appetite for plunder sharpened by the few years' abstinence
they have been forced, through the remains of the original virtue and patriotism
of the country, to practice."
But it is not worth while to accumulate proofs of the general profligacy of
Mr. Van Buren's character, and career, as a politician. The good, or evil, which
may have resulted from his identification with the administration of the govern-
ment, must be left to the judgment of impartial history. We have never had
but one opinion of the man, and we must do him the credit to say, that we have
always believed him consistent.
By means of his pro-slavery principles, and declarations, he secured the influ-
ence and votes of the South, and. thus crept into the Presidential Chair; and
when in 1844, that influence, and those votes, were given to a genuine southern
man with southern principles, and were not to be had for the highest bid of any
northern dough-face, Mr. Van Buren turned his back upon the South, to court th^
abolition party of the North, upon which he had heaped every degree of insult and
opprobrium. It was no exaggeration of the truth for Mr. J. R. Giddings, of
Ohio, to speak of his new poHtical high priest and exemplar, in the following
strain : " I may be led to confide in the honor of a ."lave-holder ; but a • SER-
VI LE DOUGHFACE ' is too destitute of that article to obtain credit with me.
MR. VAN BUREN has placed the evidence of HIS SERVILITY
CONSPICUOUSLY upon the records of his country. There it will remain,
AND BE REGARDED AS AN ENDURING MEMENTO OP THE DEGENER-
ACY OF THE MAN WHO FILLED OUR PUBLIC STATIONS.
"Although a Northern man, it became the boast of his friends that he pos-
sessed " Southern principles," and he soon gave SATISFACTORY EVI-
DENCE of his devotion to the interests of his employers (slave merchants.)
Indeed, had he been bred up in the business, he would scarcely have discovered
MORE ATTACHMENT to the INTERESTS OF SLAVE GROW-
ERS and SLAVE DEALERS ANXIETY FOR
THE SUCCESS of that « execrable commerce," appears to HAVE BEEN
UPPERMOST IN HIS MIND, and to have superseded ALL OTHER
MATTERS of State policy."
We are not disposed to make any extended comment upon the change
which has come over the spirit of Mr. Giddings's dream, otherwise than
to remind him that he stands in very much the same relation to Mr. Van Buren,
that Dr. Faust did to the Devil.
Faust. — Who does what no one ever told him,
Must thank himself for what himself has wrought,
Who has the devil, let him, hold him.
Another time he may not so be caught.
Mephistopheles. — Oh .' if you wish, I make the composition,
.^nd from this very instant join ijour train.
Without a salary ; but on one condition,
Your soul with my slight art to entertain.
But Mr. Giddings's opinion, with whatever increased value that opinion may
have at the present moment, is not necessary to Mr. Van Buren's conviction on
the grounds which we have alleged against him ; we choose rather that his own
acts should speak for themselves, and we doubt not they will be sufficient to sat-
isfy every discriminating reader, of his complete recklessness and dishonesty, in
parading himself as opposed to the extension of slavery in the territories, and as
favorable to its Abolition in the District of Columbia.
Mr. Van Buren's first declarations upon the subject of Slavery, reach as far
back as the date of the Missouri Compromise. During the agitation of that
question, in 1819, a meeting was held at Albany, to consider the propriety of
restricting the extension of Slavery beyond the Mississippi. It was a meeting
composed of gentlemen of both political parties ; Mr. Van Buren's name had
been used in the call, and had been placed upon the Committee, appointed to
draw up a Memorial to Congress.
When the meeting was held Mr. Van Buren was absent from the city. The
Memorial which was adopted, expressed the sentiments of the agitators. A
single paragraph will show its scope, and spirit.
" With all due submission to the superior wisdom and intelligence of Con-
gress, your memorialists respectfully suggest, that since the expiration of the
time limited in the Constitution (1800) the Legislature (Congress) has pos-
sessed the poioer of prohibiting the introduction of Slavery into any State there-
after to be admitted into the Union, whether that State was formed from Terri-
tory comprised within the original limits of the United States, or from Terri-
tory acquired hy treaty beyond those limits ; and consequently, that it now pos-
sesses indisputable power to render the prohibition of the further extension of
Slavery in such neiv State, a condition of its admission into the Union. That
there was nothing contained in the treaty by which the Missouri Territory was,
with the rest of Louisiana, ceded to the United States, to restrain the exercise
of such power in regard to the State now proposed to be erected therein ; and
that it is highly just and expedient that Congress should on the present occasion,
as well as in all other future cases, in the admission of new States into the
Union, interpose to prevent, in the most effectual manner, the further increase of
Slavery in this Nation."
Before despatching this paper to Congress, Mr. Van Buren was invited to
co-operate with the Committee, and sign the document which had been prepared.
lyiis he refused to do, and for the following reasons:
" He sincerely deprecated the existence of Slavery in the United States, and
was willing to concur in any measure to prevent its extension West of the
Mississippi, consistent with the Constitution, and not calculated to disturb the
settlement of the question of Slavery, made by that instrumc7it, nor to endanger
the rights and securities of Slave-owners. But he was not willing to unite in
any course of proceedings from which such results might be apprehended ; nor
to join in any denunciation, political or otherwise, against the people of the
South. Notwithstanding his great personal respect for the other members of
the Committee, as well as those whose names appeared in the proceedings of
the meeting, he could not approve the spirit by which the resolutions adopted
by it were characterized."
Being further importuned, he addressed the following letter to the Committee:
" Sir : — You had permission to use my name as a Committee to call a meet-
ing of our citizens to express their opinion on the Missouri Question, and the
propriety of your doing so has not been questioned by me. You surely cannot
suppose, that the use of my name for that purpose, imposed on me an obligation
to sign whatever Memorial might be agreed upon by the meeting. Being out
of town when it M'as held, and having had no hand in forming or adopting the
Memorial, I declined signing it. My reasons for doing so, further than you are
concerned in calling the meeting, I presume it is not your intention of inquiring
into.
Yours, respectfully,
M. VAN BUREN.
January 2Qth, 1820.
Henry T. Jones, Esq."
Such was Mr. Van Buren's position at one of the most important periods of
our history. Thus he stood in 1819, before the admission of Missouri, upon the
miserable pretext that to memorialize Congress upon the subject of the further
extension of Slavery into new Territories, was to " endanger the rights and securi-
ties of Slave-oivners." It is upon this very ground that Mr. Calhoun and his
adherents of the South claim a share in the soil of California and New Mexico, for
the uses of Slavery. To no other man could the remark of John Randolph be
more appropriately applied, than to Martin Van Buren, — '• We do not govern
you of the North by our black Slaves, but by your white Slaves."
All Mr. Van Buren's subsequent letters and speeches, sustain the grounds
which he assumed on the question of the Missouri Compromise. This was the
creed of his party, and to it he hung, as long as his party would hang to him.
In 1834, commenced the great Abolition excitement. In the early part of
that year inquiries were made of Mr. Van Buren, for his opinions upon the
Slave agitation, and these were given in substance, as follows :
"The subject is, in my judgment, exclusively under the control of the State
Governments ; and I am not apprised, nor do I believe that a contrary opiriion,
to an extent deserving consideration, is e7itertained in any part of the United
States! .... "I do not see on what authoi'ity the General Government
could interfere, without a change in the Constitution, even at the instance of
the Slave-holding States."
Mr. Wright, then a Senator in Congress, being appealed to by several
members of the Virginia Legislature for Mr. Van Buren's sentiments, replied :
" The Constitution of the United States does not, in the opinion of Mr. Van
Buren, give to Congress the right to interfere with the relations between master
and slave iii any of the States ; and he would consider it highly impolitic for
that body to pass a law abolishing Slavery in the District of Columbia"
Mr. B. F. Butler, Mr. Van Buren's principal manager, throughout his polit-
ical career, and the friend by whose consummate tact the Abolition Delegates
were duped into his nomination at Buffalo, was then Attorney General of the
United States, and in reply to a note addressed to him by Mr. Garland of Vir-
ginia, re-affirmed the statements made by Mr. Wright, fortifying his lucid and
unanswerable exposition by facts, showing that there is scarcely a shadow of
difference among the great mass of the intelligent and reflecting people of the
Middle and Southern States.
Later in the same year, it was found that the abolitionists were circulating in
great numbers, their incendiary publications through the Southern States, and
matters had reached such a pitch of excitement, that the interference of Congress
was loudly called for. A bill was accordingly introduced in the Senate, which
provided that Postmasters should be allowed to open mail bags, and if any incen-
diary documents were found, to destroy them.
When thfs bill came to a vote, it resulted in a tie, and Mr. Van Buren, a$
Vice President in the chair, gave his casting vote in its favor. This vote was
perfectly consistent with his avowed principles, and only shows that he was pre-
pared by one of the most questionable acts to be found anywhere on the public
records, to play the subservient tool of the South, in order to secure its Presi-
dential votes.
We have evidence of the successful manner in which he managed his part, in
his nomination, which followed soon after, as the Democratic candidate for the
Presidency.
In his letter of acceptance of that nomination, he re-afiirms, and strengthens
his former opinions, and acts.
He says; — "Thoroughly convinced that the overthrow of our present Con-
stitution, and the consequent destruction of the confederacy wliich it binds to-
gether, would be the greatest sacrifice of human happiness and hopes that lias
ever been made at the shrine of personal ambition, I do not hesitate to promis(^
you, that every effort in my power, whether in public or private life, slinll be
made for their preservation. The Father of his Country, foreseeing tliis danger,
warned us to cherish the Union as the palladium of our safety; and the great
exemplar of our political faith, Thomas Jefferson, has taught us, that to preserve
Hiat common sympathy between the States, out of which the Union sprang, and
which constitutes its surest foundation, we should exercise the powers which
of right belong to the General Government, in a spirit of moderation and
brotherly love, and religiously abstain from the assumption of such as have not
been delegated by the Constitution."
The Hon. Andrew Stevenson, presided over the National Convention.
On a motion of Hon. Silas Wright, a Committee was appointed to draft an
address, expressive of the views of the Convention, and Mr. Wright was placed
upon the Committee as its Chairman : at his request the President of the Con-
vention was added, and the address was written by Mr. S.
It was sent to Mr. Wright, and not only signed by them, (Mr. S. and him-
self,) and published with their signatures, but Mr. Van Buren, and Mr. Wright,
in letters to Mr. Stevenson, expressed their cordial approval of it.
It must therefore be taken, as the public, explicit, and carefully considered
opinion of Mr. Van Buren, on the subjects embraced in it. Parties stand in
very much the same relation to each other now, that they did in 1835,
and most of the passages which we have marked for quotation, are equally
applicable.
" We come now, fellow citizens, to another objection to the convention, or
rather one of its nominations, and to another effort at discussion of a \ery dif-
ferent character, and probably one of the most mischievous and vv^icked
THAT HAS EVER BEEN MADE AGAINST THE PEACE AND HAPPINESS OP
ANY country! it is the ATTEMPT TO CREATE SECTIONAL
PARTIES AND DISUNION, and to alienate one portion of our country
from the rest, by charging upon the supposed defects of our complicated politi-
cal system, the calamities which evil men are endeavor'.ng themselves to bring
about. This is a subject of transcendent and universal interest, and one that
demands to be well weighed and considered by all parties and all men ! And
here we will take occasion to remaik, that it is on this weak side of human na-
ture, in appeals to the most degrading and dangerous purposes of the human
mind, that those who seek to betray nations to their purposes, and to kindle the
torch of discord, cdwa.ys resort. It is here, that ambition as well as fanati-
cism (always prolific in the allurements and delusions necessary to accomplish
their purposes) direct their batteries. It is the point, moreover, in which not
only free governments, but our own peculiar system, can be most effectually
assailed. Hence it is, that in different parts of the country, we see mischievous
and misguided men, attempting to weaken the bond of union, and exciting the
North against the South, and the South against the North. The peculiar dif-
ferences in the social organization of those two sections of our country, is ever a
ready and fruitful object to create those jealousies and dispositions. It has ever
been a fundamental article in the I'epublican creed, that those relations were
not, by our constitutional charter, brought within the scope of federal powers,
and that Congress has as little right to interfere with the domestic relations and
local institutions of the United States, with the relation of master and apprentice
in Massachusetts, or master and slave in Virginia, as they have to meddle with
similar social relatioyis in Great Britain, France, and Spain. So deeply rooted
is this conviction not only in the minds of our brethren of the Northern and Mid-
dle States, but in the minds of the whole republican party of the Union, that it
is incorporated in the democratic creed, and constitutes one of the broad lines of
separation between the strict constructionists of the Jeffersonian school, and the
latitudinarians and consolidationists under the Protrean colors. Republicanism
is the safest guaranty of the stability of our Union. No man or set of men can
interfere, or even wish to interfere with the reserved rights of states, embracing
their domestic institutions and social relations, and call himself a democratic re-
publican, or a friend to union."
" True republicans can never lend their aid and influence in creating
GEOGRAPHICAL PARTIES in the East, West, North, or South. They can
never engage in such schemes without violating their principles ; principles
which tell them they are all brothers, each left a rich inhei-itance by their fath-
ers, never to be cancelled, while they forbear to meddle with the local feelingg
and domestic relations of each other."
" Under such circumstances, how wicked as well as unfounded are those sA-
tempts to excite and influence the South, and create sectional parties on such a
basis! Who can look to such a state of things without dismay and horror?
Was it not, fellow citizens, against the danger of indulging such ieelings, and on
the importance of discouraging them, and preserving harmony and union, that
our revolutionary fathers endeavored so deeply to impress their countrymen ?
Will you pardon us, while we ask you to read and listen to their eloquent and
pathetic exhortation !
"' But this DETESTABLE EFFORT TO ALIENATE ONE PORTION OP OUR
COUNTRY FROM THE REST, and enfeeble the sacred ties that now li)ik together
its various parts, can never succeed. The people of America have too much
good sense to enter into the perilous and gloomy scenes, into which these Advo-
cates of Disunion would lead them. They will not harken to the unnatural
voice xohich tells them, knit together as they arc, by so many cords of affection,
they can no longer live together as members of the same great family ; can no
longer be mutual guardians of their mutual happiness ; can no longer be fellow
citizens of our great and flourishing empire. They will shut their ears against
this unhallowed language. They will shut their hearts against the poison it
contains. The kindred blood which flows in their veins ; the mingled blood
which they have shed in defence of their sacred rights ; consecrate their union,
and excite horror at the idea of their becoming aliens, rivals, enemies!^ "
" This was the admonition of a man of the soundest and most experienced
head, and the purest and most patriotic heart. Need we say, it was that of
JAMES MADISON, one of the most distinguished founders of our Constitu-
tion. Hear, too, the solemn warning of WASHINGTON, the great Virginian
and Savior of his country, against the dangers of GEOGRAriiiCAL discrim-
inations and these insidious and daring attempts at disunion and disaffection.
In his valedictory, and affectionate admonition, at the moment he was retiring
from public life forever, he too, warned his countrymen :
" ' Union, which constitutes you one people, is also now dear to you — it is
justly so — it is the main pillar in the edifice of real independence ; the support
of your tranquillity at home ; of your peace abroad ; of your safety ; of your
prosperity ; and of that very liberty which you so dearly prize. That is the
point of our political fortress, against which the batteries of internal and exter-
nal enemies will be most constantly and actively (though often covertly and
insidiously) directed. Frown, therefore, indignantly, upon the first
dawning op any attempt to alienate one portion of our country
from THE REST; OR TO ENFEEBLE THE SACRED TIES WHICH NOW LINK
TOGETHER ITS VARIOUS PARTS.' "
These thoughts, it will be recollected, were expressed at a time when southern
votes were deemed necessary to the election of Martin Van Bureu to the
In September, 1835, a meeting of the citizens of Albany M^as held in that
city, "to embody and express the predominant sentiments in relation to the un-
constitutional and incendiary movements of the abolitionists, and their agents,
&c." The call was signed by A. C. Flagg, John Van Buren, John A. Dix,
James Vanderpoel, John Hermans, John Keyes Paige, Jeremiah Osborn, Cor-
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