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At the Water's Edge: Fish with Fingers, Whales with Legs, and How Life Came Ashore but Then Went Back to Sea
Автор: Carl Zimmer
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Everybody Out of the Pond
At the Water's Edge will change the way you think about your place in the world. The awesome journey of life's transformation from the first microbes 4 billion years ago to Homo sapiens today is an epic that we are only now beginning to grasp. Magnificent and bizarre, it is the story of how we got here, what we left behind, and what we brought with us.
We all know about evolution, but it still seems absurd that our ancestors were fish. Darwin's idea of natural selection was the key to solving generation-to-generation evolution -- microevolution -- but it could only point us toward a complete explanation, still to come, of the engines of macroevolution, the transformation of body shapes across millions of years. Now, drawing on the latest fossil discoveries and breakthrough scientific analysis, Carl Zimmer reveals how macroevolution works. Escorting us along the trail of discovery up to the current dramatic research in paleontology, ecology, genetics, and embryology, Zimmer shows how scientists today are unveiling the secrets of life that biologists struggled with two centuries ago.
In this book, you will find a dazzling, brash literary talent and a rigorous scientific sensibility gracefully brought together. Carl Zimmer provides a comprehensive, lucid, and authoritative answer to the mystery of how nature actually made itself.
Carl Zimmer is the author of three well-received books on evolution. A Guggenheim fellow in 2002, he writes regularly for magazines, including National Geographic, Science, Newsweek, and Natural History.
Соответствующие авторы
Alisa Vitti
Thomas Waugh
Eric Mantle
Darin Olien
Scott G. Halford
Steve Brusatte
Stephanie Storey
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At the Water's Edge - Carl Zimmer
Praise for At the Water's Edge
A fascinating story, which Zimmer unfolds as a tale of high-stakes scientific sleuthing . . . thanks to marvelously lucid writing. —Booklist
More than just an informative book about macroevolution itself, this is an entertaining history of ideas written with literary flair and technical rigor. —Publishers Weekly
Zimmer is a born storyteller and succeeds in giving us pure pleasure while at the same time teaching us up-to-date science. —Ernst Mayr, Museum of Comparative Zoology, Harvard University
Zimmer, an honored science journalist . . . leaves life among the fossils agreeably bright. —The Atlantic Monthly
Anyone with an interest in evolution should pick up this book to get on the cutting edge of discovery. —Kevin Padian, Professor and Curator, Department of Integrative Biology and Museum of Paleontology, University of California, Berkeley
"From the first page Carl sets his book apart by diving straight into the most neglected, least understood mystery of all: how wholly new body plans and parts could have been created by natural forces that at first glance would seem to work to destroy innovation. Macroevolution is adaptation without a net. Carl's lucid, often lovely prose is making me finally understand how a species could pull it off without plunging into extinction. He is also very deft at crafting quick-beat narrative out of the lives, inspirations, foibles and occasional dastardliness of the scientists who have pursued this question, both historically and in modern times. I fully expect that At the Water's Edge will do for macroevolution what Jon Weiner's The Beak of the Finch did for microevolution or David Quammen's The Song of the Dodo did for extinction. I'm sure the book is going to really soar."—James Shreeve, author of The Neandertal Enigma
Zimmer is an accomplished popularizer of scientific subjects. This book provides a strong basis for the public understanding of evolutionary patterns and processes —Robert L. Carroll, McGill University, author of Vertebrate Paleontology and Evolution
This most compelling of evolutionary episodes is told with grace and style. Zimmer's book is a rock hammer blow to those who doubt that evolution is an understandable law of nature. —Peter Ward, University of Washington, author of The End of Evolution
"It is wicked, I know, but I have the habit of turning over the corners of pages whenever I chance upon something unexpectedly interesting, exciting or informative. Zimmer's At the Water's Edge quickly became the most dog-eared book on my shelves."—Harry Miller, The Times (London)
Zimmer . . . presents an excellent discussion of macroevolution. —Library Journal
The story Zimmer tells is a fascinating one, and not only because it is so skillfully written and so readably presented. —Audubon magazine
Zimmer has done a great job, bringing to life two of the great events in the history of life. —Mark Ridley, Oxford University, author of Evolution
With lively style, fascinating portraits of biologists at work, and splendid command of the evidence, Zimmer tells some of the most gripping stories in the history of life. I recommend it heartily. —Douglas J. Futuyma, State University of New York at Stony Brook
Richard Dawkins and Stephen Jay Gould, move aside. Carl Zimmer brings evolutionary biology to life more vividly than any author in recent memory. This is a marvelous book by one of our best young science writers. Carl Zimmer has persuaded me that evolutionary biology remains a vital, even thrilling field. —John Horgan, author of The End of Science
Introduction: Life's Warps
1. After a Lost Balloon
2. Limitless Air, Ho!
3. How to Make a Hand
4. Darwin's Saplings
5. The Mind at Sea
6. The Equation of a Whale
7. Along the Tethyan Shores
8. Walking to Swimming
9. A Voyage Out
10. On the Trails of Macroevolution
Evolutionary Chronology
To my family
Taken by leaping madness or by fear
The men jumped to the sea. First Medon's body
Changed color to darkest blue and hunched its back;
Lycabas turned to say, What monster are you?
And as he spoke, his nose became a hook,
His mouth grew wide, skin tough, and scales
Ran down his sides, and Libys while he struggled
With leaf-grown oars saw his hands diminish
From claws to fins; another clinging fast
To twisted ropes fell backwards to the sea,
Arms gone and legless, his tail crook'd and pointed
As a third-quarter moon. The creatures lashed
At the ship's side, plunging through spray, now up,
Now down to the sea's floor, swaying like dancers
At a drunken feast, their bodies flashing,
Lips and nostrils pouring spray, they clipped and spawned.
—OVID, THE METAMORPHOSES (TRANS. HORACE GREGORY)
Our ancestor was an animal which breathed water, had a swim bladder, a great swimming tail, an imperfect skull, and undoubtedly was an hermaphrodite! Here is a pleasant genealogy for mankind.
—CHARLES DARWIN, LETTER TO THOMAS HUXLEY
LIFE'S WARPS
Near my left side a yellowtail snapper hovered, breathing water, stammering its fins gently, and flicking its sulfur-striped tail. I was kneeling in the sand at the bottom of the ocean, water piled fifty feet overhead. All I could hear was the static when I sucked air from my scuba regulator and the swarm of my exhaled bubbles as they rose in a confetti column. A long gray shape moved overhead, wheeling and bending, and it took me a moment to recognize it as an Atlantic bottlenose dolphin. The yellowtail snapper and I watched it swim, raising and drawing down its tail a few times, and then gliding, moving like an iron ingot pulled invisibly by a magnetic field. Then suddenly it swept upward, kicking a bit to rise to the wrinkled ceiling of the ocean. When it leaped out of the water its head vanished and then its fins and flukes. For a moment it didn't exist, and then it was drilling down through the water again.
I had come to this place off the coast of Grand Bahama Island to watch how scientists study dolphins. A group of zoologists had piggybacked their research on the dives of a tourist outfit that offered its customers the chance to be entertained by trained dolphins. The customers were ferried out a mile from shore, dove underwater, and formed a circle around two trainers, who carried white drums of dead herring slung on their shoulders—the smell of which had brought the yellowtails here. At the command of the trainers, the dolphins delivered hoops to the customers, pushed against their outstretched arms to wheel them around like turnstiles. The scientists, who wanted to understand how dolphins swim, filmed the animals, and from time to time the trainers would measure the heat flowing from their bodies by pressing a sensor to their flanks. I could sense intelligence, even personality in the dolphins, but their gray masks, their rigid smiles wouldn't reveal how much they enjoyed the process. They seemed to know the rules of this game. If they played along, they got fish; if they decided to break away and explore the water for a while, it was no great loss.
As I knelt there, fish beside me, dolphin overhead, an appreciation of my place in evolution hit me. This was the first time I had dived in the open ocean, and I couldn't stop thinking about how I didn't belong underwater. I needed a steel tank to carry my air, a mask to see, a wetsuit to trap my heat, weights to sink, an inflatable vest to rise, fins to swim. The yellowtail next to me was beautifully designed for living in the ocean: it gulped down water, a squirt of the ocean flowing through its mouth and into its basket of gills, where thin-walled blood vessels traded carbon dioxide and ammonia for oxygen. Flaps over the gills opened, its mouth closed, and the stale water flushed out. Its body had nearly the same buoyancy as water, so that gravity meant little to it. To swim it needed only to flick its body, its knife-shaped profile barely making itself known to the oncoming water. If I reached out toward the yellowtail, it could see my hand, but with lines of pressure-sensitive hairs it could also feel the slush of water that preceded it, and flick away to safety.
Although the dolphins were profoundly different animals from fish, they were manifestly at home in the water as well. They had no gills; to breathe, the dolphins would rise to the surface, open the blowhole at the top of their heads, and suddenly exhale and inhale air. Returning underwater, they would play for a few minutes, all the while holding their breath, kicking their tail up and down rather than side to side like the fish. The dolphins could see the divers about as well as the divers could see them, but they could also visualize the ocean with sound. They emitted high-pitched clicks from their foreheads and listened for the echoes. In their oversized brains the dolphins used the sound to build a picture more precise than their eyes could offer, actually seeing the interior of the fish and humans around them, seeing yellowtails swimming a hundred yards away. The dolphins may have also been communicating to each other with the same kind of sounds, and I wondered what they might be saying. They had been harassing each other the night before in their pen, their flanks covered by raked tooth marks, and so maybe they were trading insults. Maybe they were trying to guess why exactly these humans would give them so much fish for doing these minor rituals.
I can only visit this place. If I were foolish enough to try to stay even an hour here underwater the needle on my tank's gauge would incline to zero and I would pull pointlessly for air. I'd probably panic and flail, my regulator flying out of my mouth, water rushing in. The salt would make me gag, drawing the water down into my lungs. Although there's oxygen in seawater, lungs are unequipped to extract it. Instead, the water tears apart their microscopic pouches braided with blood vessels, makes them swell shut. Unable to unload carbon dioxide into my lungs, my blood would turn vinegarish and my kidneys would burn out trying to neutralize the acid. Meanwhile my circulation would break down, blood sloshing backward in all the wrong directions, my heart beating like a snare drum until it could no longer get the oxygen it needed and stopped altogether. I might try to save myself by speeding to the surface like a dolphin, but my haste would kill me. At the ocean bottom, nitrogen gas dissolves into pressurized blood, but as I rose my veins would bubble like a just-opened bottle of beer. The nitrogen bubbles that formed as I ascended would rove my body, blocking up vessels in my heart, in my brain.
Like all humans, I function best on land. We stand and our weight settles onto our skeletons comfortably, cushioned by pads and sacs. We push our feet down against earth and walk. Our interiors are a set of moist pouches, loaves, and tubes, and our skin does a magnificent job of keeping most of the water from escaping. We draw air into our bodies and extract the oxygen in the nest of alveoli in our lungs, kept from clumping by soapy films, and our blood vessels dump out carbon dioxide in the exhale. We hear ripples in the air millions of times too faint to feel, and create ripples of our own to speak to one another.
The yellowtail's gills can breathe only if they are fanned out underwater like the hair of a swimmer, so that each vessel gets enough room to mingle individually with the chemistry of seawater. If a fish is hauled out of the ocean and dropped in the bottom of a boat, its gills, like the swimmer's hair, fall into a matted clump. Carbon dioxide and ammonia build up in its body, vying for the distinction of poisoning the fish. Its fins and tail, so efficient at pushing water to move its body forward, can only wave to the sun.
If a dolphin beaches, it can survive only a few hours longer than a fish. It still pulls air through its blowhole into its lungs, but its long legless body settles helplessly into the sand. Its overburden of blubber and bulky back muscles crushes down on its lungs and blood vessels. In the water it can carefully manage the heat of its warm-blooded body, but lying on the shore, it can chill or bake depending on the temperature of the air. Before long its entire circulation collapses, veins tear, blood drains downward and pools in its guts. A dolphin's heart can sustain the brain for a time after the rest of its body has shut down, and so it surveys the destruction before it shutters itself as well.
We three animals live in separate countries divided by a fatal boundary. Yet a dissection would show that we are not complete strangers. I volunteer as the human specimen: crack my ribs open and a pair of lungs hangs alongside my esophagus, and they match the pair inside the dolphin. The dolphin and I have giant brains wrinkled with neocortex. We keep the cores of our bodies around ninety-nine degrees. We both fed on mother's milk. And while the dolphin maneuvers with what are called fins, they are actually not like those of the yellowtail. They are in fact camouflaged hands: take away the blubber and gristle and you find five fingers, wrist, elbow, and shoulder.
The similarities between humans and yellowtails are of a more basic sort—we both have skulls and spines, muscles and eyes; we burn oxygen and build our tissue with the hydrocarbons we eat. And some subtler clues reveal that we humans are not the perfect land creatures we might imagine ourselves to be. Look again inside my opened ribs: nestled between my lungs is my heart, and sprouting from it is an aorta that rises upward, sending smaller arteries off toward my head before hooking around and down toward my legs. An engineer presented with a beating heart might have come up with a more rational solution: build two arteries, one to supply blood above the heart, one below.
To understand this tortuous layout, it's necessary to shrink me back down to a seven-week embryo, when my arms and legs were paddles rooted on a body that looked like a pot-bellied, hunchbacked minnow. Just below my eyes and what passes for a brain, six pairs of pouches have formed that look very much like the pouches that house the gills of a fish. My aorta looks far different at this stage: it rises up to my throat and then branches, each branch running through a pouch and then looping back to join another vessel running back down away from my throat. As an embryo, the yellowtail had the same design, but it retained much of it as an adult. The heart pumps oxygen-poor blood into the pouches, which have become bony gills, and then it returns to the vessels that will carry it to the rest of the yellowtail's body. In my case, however, the pouches disappeared into my head and neck as I developed. The cells destined for gill-supporting arches became my voice box and ear bones. The tree of vessels was pared away, a few merging together. And the lowest loop in the primordial set became the hook of my aorta.
The only way to begin to make sense of all these patterns is to understand this meeting underwater—the yellowtail hesitantly hoping to grab some of the dead herring, me kneeling in the sand, the dolphins rolling and flapping—as a family reunion. A little over half a billion years ago the first vertebrate appeared on earth, a jawless, armor-coated, bottom-swimming creature that could fit on your palm. Its descendants diverged into dozens of major lineages that swam through the oceans, including a widespread group called the ray-finned fish, whose twenty-three thousand living species include sturgeons, perch, goldfish, and the yellowtail.
A closely related lineage went through a fabulous shape-shifting: between about 380 and 360 million years ago they evolved legs and feet, lost gills, hooked their aortas, adjusted their bodies in countless other ways, and emerged out of the water to live on dry land. We are descended from these altered fishes, as is every vertebrate that lives on land, be it a skink, a hawk, a tortoise, or a tree frog. We all have our individual names, but we all also share the title Tetrapod. The name means four feet. Among many tetrapods these four feet have gone through some drastic changes—snakes lost them altogether and birds turned their forelegs into wings, while we stopped walking on our front pair and named them hands. But changed names can't hide the fact that we and all other tetrapods that have overrun dry land owe our existence to one of the most remarkable evolutionary transitions of all. How our ancestors made it through determined much about us humans today.
Blood vessels running from a fish's heart branch into its gill pouches. They pick up oxygen there and then join together in a vessel that runs along the fish's back, carrying the blood to the rest of its body. A human embryo forms the same structures, but later pares them down to a form suited for our own air-breathing existence.
The reason that dolphins and humans have so many hidden similarities is that dolphins are also tetrapods, not fish. In fact they are mammals like ourselves, with a common ancestor perhaps 80 million years old. The lineage that gave rise to dolphins, whales, and porpoises went through a transformation just as staggering as the one that brought vertebrates on land in the first place: about 50 million years ago a race of wolflike mammals began to adapt themselves to water. They lost their hind limbs altogether and turned their back on the place that had been their ancestors' for over 250 million years.
From water to land, and from land back to water: in the history of life, organisms have crossed such seemingly impenetrable boundaries many times. Some tetrapods have moved to the sky by evolving wings; microbes have left boiling hydrothermal vents where they survived on a diet of hydrogen sulfide and then learned to live on carbon dioxide in the open ocean; other organisms have traveled from swamp to desert, from salt water to fresh, from underwater volcanoes to the cold deep sea, from the cold deep sea to the warm gut of a pig. Every transition demanded the creation of some of nature's most elaborate structures—wings, roots, brains.
Still, the line that divides water and air is a barrier that has particularly fascinated biologists for over two thousand years. When Aristotle walked along the beaches on the island of Lesbos and classified animals, the split between marine and terrestrial was one of his most important divisions. There were exceptions to his rule—animals that took in air but lived in water, and others that took in water (through gills) but could get their living on land. The only offenders that Aristotle named were certain salamanders that had gills instead of lungs, and dolphins and whales, who used lungs to breathe far at sea. In the case of all these animals their nature appears in some kind of a way to have got warped, he declared.
The properties of air and water are so different, and pose such different challenges to a vertebrate trying to survive, that you might as well be comparing life on two different planets. Water has only a thirtieth of the oxygen found in the same amount of air, and while atmospheric levels of oxygen are almost always steady, they can fluctuate wildly in water. A warm-blooded animal will lose heat to water twenty-four times faster than air—and yet in an entire year water may never experience the swings of temperature that air does in a single day. Sounds race through water four times faster than through air, and it conducts electricity well, but light can only travel a few yards before it fades. Given that water is eight hundred times denser than air, it's far harder to move through in some respects, but if an animal matches its buoyancy to water it is freed from the gravity that tethers animals on land. In the water you want to slip forward. On land you want to fly, if only for a moment.
The place to begin understanding these transformations is with Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species. Evolution, Darwin realized, is always going on around us. Every generation of a species is a lineup of variants, and natural selection, picking and choosing among those variants, allows fitter ones to leave behind more of their offspring. Generation by generation, this skewed reproduction adapts life to its circumstances. Biologists understand this kind of evolution so well that they can now track the success of good genes and understand why not-so-good ones hang on as well. They can predict how droughts will change the beaks of birds; they can measure how long it takes for a moth to adapt to a new pesticide; they can reconstruct the spread of HIV from monkey to man; they can watch evolution happen among the competing cells inside a tumor.
At this generation-by-generation pace, evolution makes teeth thick and tail feathers like lyres. But it also works on longer, grander scales—after all, evolution invented the teeth and the feathers in the first place. To distinguish between these two scales, biologists often used the terms microevolution and macroevolution. Microevolution has been so well studied that it's changing from a frontier discipline to an applied science, the province of conservation biologists and genetic engineers. But macroevolution has been far harder to tame. There are many things that happen in the history of life beyond the generation-by-generation world of microevolution: continents crash into each other and climates change; dinosaurs go extinct and mammals thrive; new kinds of bodies are built for new kinds of lives.
This book is about the transitions from fish to tetrapod, and from land mammal to whale—two of the most beautiful opportunities for studying macroevolution. Is it, as some have suggested, nothing more than microevolution writ large, or does it call for an expanded conception of evolution? For 140 years the gaps in the fossil record between fish and tetrapods, and between land mammals and whales, were embarrassingly huge, but in the 1980s and the 1990s, a series of discoveries have filled them in. At the same time, other scientists have learned how to look back at these transitions through other evolutionary telescopes—in the comparison of genes, of development from eggs, of locomotion and neurology. Now the twin stories of how vertebrates came ashore and returned to the sea have changed from two of the worst to two of the best documented transitions. There's something telling in the speed of this scientific turnaround. It suggests that macroevolution is on the verge of coming into its own—a rigorous science like microevolution, but in its sweep something far more majestic.
Armed with this knowledge, you may feel a certain kinship with the rest of creation if you happen to find yourself at the ocean floor surrounded by yellow tails and dolphins. At least until your tank runs low.
AFTER A LOST BALLOON
In a basement laboratory in London a man contemplated a carcass. It was roughly the size and shape of a rolling pin, with a knife-edged tail, with fins like whiskers. Its eyes were the dark heads of pins, and its lips were full and sinful. The man stood tall and a little stooped, and although in 1839 he was only thirty-five, he had the kind of brown-eyed glare on which old failed prophets usually have a monopoly. He had seen the skin, guts, and bones of hundreds of animals that no Englishman had seen before, but few had irritated him more than this one.
His name was Richard Owen—not yet Sir Richard, but on his way there. He had grown up in Lancaster, and in boyhood his prospects had not seemed so good. His father, a ruined merchant, had died in the West Indies when Richard was five. A lazy, impudent boy, he joined the navy at fourteen, working as a surgeon's apprentice, but after the end of the War of 1812 peacetime offered little hope of a career, and so he returned to Scotland. He had loved heraldry, and it may have been while drawing unicorns and griffins that he first became interested in animal form. Again employed as a surgeon's apprentice, he began collecting skulls, beginning with dogs, cats, deer, and mice. But he wanted more bones. For a time he worked for a surgeon who performed autopsies on the dead prisoners at Hadrian's Tower. On a cold day in January the two of them paid a call to the prison, and after the autopsy the surgeon left Owen to clean up. This time Owen did not pack all the instruments. He left a few blades alongside the opened corpse, and handing the guard some coins, he told him that he needed to come back later. There was some extra business to attend to before the coffin was screwed shut.
He returned in the frozen moonlight up the icy hill to the tower, bringing with him a strong brown paper bag. He nodded to the guard, who nodded back, and he climbed up the stairs to the autopsy room and shut the door as he went in. Before long he opened the door again, his paper bag full. He passed the guard again and told him that the inmate was ready. As he left the tower and began to walk back down the hill, his mind was filled with thoughts of facial angles and osseous tissues. The more he thought about the work he would enjoy at the surgery that night, the faster he walked. Suddenly his feet kicked out from under him. The bag swung away as he fell on the ice, its contents rolling free. He ran after it, down toward a cottage at the bottom of the hill, but he was too late. A woman inside heard a thump at the base of her front door. She opened it and before her was a disheveled, owl-eyed boy trying to stuff a freshly severed head into a bag. He ran with it all the way to the surgery, her screams flying after him.
Owen went to the University of Edinburgh at age twenty, but he soon outstripped their classes—within a year he was traveling to London with letters of introduction from his private tutors and got a position as a surgeon at a hospital. To be a doctor in London in the 1820s was as much a political act as a profession. The medical establishment—including the city's hospitals and medical journals—was controlled by physicians who generally had Tory sympathies. Allied with the physicians were the surgeons who performed dissections and held a lower position on the social ladder. Opposed to them were the general practitioners who were educated at small private colleges and were of a more radical egalitarian bent. Set on reforming medicine, they lambasted the elitism of physicians and surgeons wherever they could, in renegade medical journals or newspapers or Parliament. They fought fiercely for access to the library and museum of the Royal College of Surgeons. A famous British surgeon named John Hunter had amassed thousands of books and a collection of thirteen thousand pickled animals, disembodied hearts, limbs, bladders, spines, and other materials that laid out the patterns of anatomy, but after his death in 1793, the collection languished for years. The government bought it and entrusted it to the Royal College of Surgeons on the understanding that they would publish catalogs, keep a lecture series, and open the museum and library to the public. But for over twenty years the college had let in only its own, and the GPs crowed loudly until Parliament took notice. The college agreed to let licensed doctors in and to draw up an official catalog.
Owen was hired to assist on the job, and when his superior died, the work became his alone. It was a labor that would keep him occupied for decades. At the same time he struggled to advance his own career as an anatomist, lecturing to medical students and winning the right to dissect the animals that died at the London zoo. It wasn't out of the ordinary to walk into Owen's house and find a freshly dead rhino parked in the hallway.
In 1830 a sixty-one-year-old French baron, ailing yet imperious, came to the Hunterian Museum. Because Owen was the only one there who spoke French, it fell to him to tour the man around. His name was Georges Cuvier—a professor at the National Museum of Natural History in Paris, and to Owen the sun in the sky. Like Owen, Cuvier had started as a shabby-genteel outsider, a German Protestant who wandered the hills around Montbéliard as a boy, picking plants that he would take home. There he would classify them according to the scheme of the eighteenth-century naturalist Carl Linnaeus, who had constructed the hierarchy of species, genus, family, order, class, phylum, and kingdom. Cuvier was supposed to become a bureaucrat in the Prussian government after he graduated, but he emerged out of the Stuttgart Academy among a huge bolus of aspiring bureaucrats. A job came his way only when a friend returned home to Montbéliard after finishing a stint as a tutor to a family in Normandy. He arranged for Cuvier to take his place.
In Normandy Cuvier was treated more like a family servant than a tutor. He tried to console himself by thinking about the tour of Europe he was going to take his student on, and by studying whatever life he could find—the plants in the town garden, a private store of exotic fish, another of oriental birds. But before his tour could begin, the French Revolution overran Paris and spread out into the countryside. His family fled to a village on the coast where Cuvier, now twenty-one, fell into almost complete solitude. He would walk the beach alone, collecting the animals that washed ashore, picking through the guts of skates that the fishermen would sell him. He wrote learned letters to the leading zoologists in Paris, and his reputation as a homegrown naturalist increased. After the revolution cooled, Cuvier visited Paris, where he stunned the scientists at the new National Museum with the knowledge he had taught himself. They were desperate for skilled help and hired him instantly. He was only twenty-three when he joined, but then again the man who invited him, a professor of zoology named Etienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire, was only twenty-one. Come to Paris, Geoffroy wrote to him. Come play among us the role of another legislator of natural history. It was a parliament founded by boys.
CLASSIFICATION ACCORDING TO LINNAEUS
By the age of thirty Cuvier had invented modern paleontology. People had collected fossils for centuries, yet even in the 1500s Europeans thought of them not as real skeletons but as some of the many forms a rock could take: some became emeralds, other became imitations of snail shells. Gradually naturalists recognized too many similarities between these stones and the bones of living animals, mineralogists realized how bone could be transmuted to rock, and the traditional view of fossils began to buckle. By the 1700s naturalists had found bones of everything from elephants to giant spiraled shellfish in the earth. Noah's flood, many of them decided, must have cast them to the tops of mountains.
Cuvier studied fossils as seriously as living animals. Bringing a steady flow of bones to Paris from the limestone quarries outside the city, he prised them free of the rock and found among them elephants that were different from the species alive today. He could only conclude that they belonged to a species that was gone from the world. No one had seriously thought that an entire species could become extinct, but within a few years Cuvier had found rhino-sized sloths and tapirs that had also vanished. He realized that a single flood couldn't have washed away all the creatures he was finding: their fossils disappeared at different points in geological time, demonstrating that life had shuddered over and over again with violent revolutions. Each time a new kind of life had somehow come into existence.
Whenever Cuvier looked at an animal, extinct or alive, he was overwhelmed by how all the parts fit together in a whole—a single, unified organism. A bird was dedicated to flight in every aspect, from the fan of its tail feathers to its enormous lungs to its thin hollow bones. Substitute a bone from a barracuda into a bird skeleton, and the whole creature would be ruined. It was this dedication to function that could account for how different animals were similar to one another and could be fit into Linnaeus's classification. Since function dictated form, animals that functioned similarly looked alike. He divided animals into four major groups, based on how their nervous system—to Cuvier the essence of an animal—was laid out. Vertebrates had a brain and a spinal cord, the mollusks had a brain but no cord, others had barely a nervous system to speak of, and still others had systems that radiated out from a central nerve cluster. With such different architecture, each group could share no connection with the others, and the only reason that animals fell into a given category was that they happened to function in similar ways.
It's no wonder then that Cuvier scorned the ideas of another scientist at the museum named Jean-Baptiste Lamarck, who argued that species actually changed over time—that they evolved. When Lamarck looked at fossil mollusks he found that he could arrange some of them into a smoothly graded sequence through successive layers of rock. He claimed that in coping with a changing environment, a generation of creatures would undergo changes that they would pass on to
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devil_llama
The author doesn't disappoint, but delivers his usual high quality explanation of the evolution of species.
setnahkt
A popular-level book covering two evolutionary events: water to land by tetrapods, and land to water by whales. The first half covers the same transition as Gaining Ground, but in much less technical language; you don't have to know the ectopterygoid from the quadratojugal. On the other hand, the lack of technical precision can be misleading; lay people don't like it when scientists use a lot of qualifications when describing things. An example is the Devonian animal Elginerpeton; in At the Water's Edge this is "the oldest tetrapod known", and author Carl Zimmer shows it as such on a neat little cladogram. In fact, all that's known of the animal is the lower jaw, the proximal parts of two legs/fins, part of one shoulder, and some miscellaneous odd bits. There isn't really enough to decide if it's a "tetrapod" or a "fish" – which, of course, is the whole point of "transition fossils"; you really can't put them in a nice Linnaean taxonomic pigeonhole.
Zimmer goes to considerable length to explain homeotic genes and why they are important in evolution – it's a fairly clear explanation of a complicated subject. He allows himself to speculate on what the early tetrapods were doing with their legs, dismissing the possibility that they were walking on land with them. He also, a befits somebody who's a journalist (albeit a technical one), goes into quite a bit of detail on the personalities of people in the Devonian vertebrate business. Thus we learn about the lives of Jenny Clack, Per Ahlberg, and Gunnar Save-Söderbergh.
The second half deals with the opposite transition; land to water, as in whales. This particular sequence has always been a favorite with Creationists, because for a long time there wasn't very much in the way of transitional fossils. The relatively recent discovery of Pakicetus and Ambulocetus finally provide some. Maybe. The "maybe" here is that paleontologists have always thought the ancestors of whales were an interesting mammalian group, the mesonychids (one of the reasons mesonychids are interesting because they have carnivore-type jaws but hooves), while molecular geneticists find whales most closely related to artiodactyls, specifically hippopotami. Zimmer sides with the mesonychids, even while some of the paleontologists have now reversed their positions, and now go with the artiodactyls. The jury is still out, I think; the teeth of early whales, the archeocetes, look an awful lot like mesonychid teeth and there's a few dubious things about molecular genetics.
Thus this is a interesting book but just may be dated; that's the trouble with science. It's a good read nevertheless.
martinbodek
This was a man's first book? Now that's impressive. However, this is most decidedly not for the layman, a lesson the author learned because his books that followed are much more readable. He's brave too, selecting as a salvo the one topic most murky with incompleteness and conjecture. It's as if he was saying with his endeavor: "Here's a subject with the most gaps in the field. I'll start with this, write several more interesting books, and see where we stand after I establish an interesting career." It's quite possible he could soon offer a followup version that is more fossil-y complete. After all, there are dozens more dinosaurs roaming the earth now than there were when I was a child.
markberonte
At the Water's Edge will change the way you think about your place in the world. The awesome journey of life's transformation from the first microbes 4 billion years ago to Homo sapiens today is an epic that we are only now beginning to grasp. Magnificent and bizarre, it is the story of how we got here, what we left behind, and what we brought with us.We all know about evolution, but it still seems absurd that our ancestors were fish. Darwin's idea of natural selection was the key to solving generation-to-generation evolution -- microevolution -- but it could only point us toward a complete explanation, still to come, of the engines of macroevolution, the transformation of body shapes across millions of years. Now, drawing on the latest fossil discoveries and breakthrough scientific analysis, Carl Zimmer reveals how macroevolution works. Escorting us along the trail of discovery up to the current dramatic research in paleontology, ecology, genetics, and embryology, Zimmer shows how scientists today are unveiling the secrets of life that biologists struggled with two centuries ago.In this book, you will find a dazzling, brash literary talent and a rigorous scientific sensibility gracefully brought together. Carl Zimmer provides a comprehensive, lucid, and authoritative answer to the mystery of how nature actually made itself.
Fabulous. This explication of macroevolution is dense but very clear. There are passages that simply sing. Zimmer is getting to be one of my very favorite science writers. If you have any interest in cetaceans, you should read this book. Highly recommended.
Here's a bit I loved:
"The seeds of a more surprising redemption of some of Haeckel's ideas came from the work of a mathematician named Alan Turing. Scientists who live on the harsh, lifeless plains of the physical sciences sometimes look at biology as a vacation spot - a lush green island they can visit, make a few groundbreaking discoveries, then head back to the quantum steppes. After all, they say to themselves, if you know the laws of electrons and protons, if you can solve differential equations, you already know how Life works. Most of these scientists barely get off the plane before they discover that they were wrong - that biology's island paradise is a sweet-smelling swamp - and they either sink out of sight or catch the next flight out. But a few, such as Alan Turing, have managed to discover some original biological principles."
quantum_flapdoodle
yapete
Great science journalism and writing. Highly recommended.Just a few years ago one of the Intelligent Design people (Behe) claimed that they will never find an intermediary between land animals and wales. Read this book and see what a bunch of losers the ID creationists really are. They can only thrive on denying the progress of science.
amandrake_1
Intelligent, precise, and explains the Sonic the Hedgehog gene. Also very good on intermediate forms.
co_coyote
If Zimmer would write books with shorter titles and larger print, he might well become my new favorite author. I don't know how many times I stopped reading and shouted out to my wife, "Hey, did you know this?," but it was a lot. (Of course, she did already know it, since she is a biology teacher, but it made me feel better about myself that now I knew it, too.) This is a fascinating book about how life dragged itself out of the oceans, got started in God knows how many different directions, and eventually how mammals found their way back to the sea as whales and dolphins. It is a complicated story of fossils and genetic evidence, still not completely pieced together, but Zimmer tells it with a storyteller's gift. If you spurned biology for physics classes like I did, here is a book you really don't want to miss reading.


text:
The Bertrand Russell Research Centre
Mills Memorial Library
1280 Main Street West
Hamilton, ON L8S 4L6, Canada
Telephone: (905) 525–9140 x24896
(For general enquiries contact Arlene Duncan)
Brixton Letters
New and of Note
The Collected Papers of Bertrand Russell
The Collected Letters of Bertrand Russell
Russell: the Journal of Bertrand Russell Studies (now digitized)
History of Analytic Philosophy Seminar Fall 2020
Russell and Women Workshop, March 2021
45th Annual Meeting of the Bertrand Russell Society, 2018
Principia Mathematica at 100 monograph
After "On Denoting" monograph
Exhibition Handlist
Intellect and Social Conscience monograph
Bertrand Russell:
Chronology of Russell
Last Essay: "1967"
The Bertrand Russell Gallery
Russell at McMaster
History of Analytical Philosophy at McMaster
Bertrand Russell Society
The reputation of Bertrand Russell (1872–1970), the third Earl Russell, as one of the greatest thinkers of the twentieth century has only increased with time. In a massive and seminal series of publications in the early years of the last century Russell transformed logic and placed it at the centre of philosophic inquiry. The impact of these, and later works in which he confronted other fundamental problems of philosophy, has been profound, even on scholars who have disputed his conclusions. In a parallel intellectual life as social critic, political thinker and humanist, meanwhile, Russell addressed many issues of vital import to the history of the twentieth century: nationalism and imperialism, modern industrialism, Soviet Communism, and the nuclear peril, to name but a few.
When Russell's papers came to McMaster in the late 1960s, it was inevitable that the university would become the main centre for research on Russell's life and work. The collection was not only the largest available on Russell anywhere, it dwarfed all the other collections put together. Its contribution to international scholarship started immediately and has continued ever since. Scores of books and hundreds of articles have been published using material from the Russell Archives.
In addition to all this independent scholarly activity, many things have been done at McMaster to enhance and enlarge the collection, to make it more accessible, to publish material from it, and to foster Russell studies around the world. Russell: the Journal of Bertrand Russell Studies (now in its 49th year of publication) and the McMaster Edition of The Collected Papers of Bertrand Russell will be the best known to people who do not use the Archives on a regular basis. The Centre has also launched another major scholarly enterprise, an electronic edition of all Russell's correspondence.
The creation of the Bertrand Russell Research Centre in 2000 has given all three a permanent home within McMaster's Faculty of Humanities. The McMaster University Library remains responsible for the running of the Archives and for the care and preservation of the papers, while the Centre takes responsibility for the publication of Russell material and for fostering Russell research. Russell is now published by the Centre, which has also taken over the work of the former Bertrand Russell Editorial Project. And the Centre has become the official home of the Collected Letters project.
The official opening of the Centre took place on 16 November 2000 with Ray Monk giving a public lecture, "The Continuing Importance of Bertrand Russell", in McMaster University's Convocation Hall. The opening coincided with a major exhibition of Russell material at the McMaster Museum of Art. Among other art works, the exhibition included the Epstein bust and the Augustus John drawing of Russell, as well as photographs, political cartoons, and many other Russell memorabilia. The Exhibition Handlist is available for purchase.
The text for this page was prepared at McMaster University.
Page maintained by Arlene Duncan. Last modified 30 September 2020.

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By Deb Fischer
U.S. Senator
The Highest Virtures of Men and Citizens
Memorial Day began in the years after the Civil War, when it was originally called "Decoration Day." At the first official celebration of this holiday in 1868, then-Congressman James A. Garfield, who would become our 20th president, said in a speech at Arlington National Cemetery that those who gave their lives for our country "summed up and perfected, by one supreme act, the highest virtues of men and citizens."
That is as true today as it was 150 years ago. Memorial Day honors the sacrifices of people like Charles Alan Jones, a Nebraskan who was killed during the attack on Pearl...
Choosing Educational Excellence Over Ideology
Nebraska's Growth: Routed in Agriculture
Straight Talk With Steve
Times They Are A Changing
Straight Talk From Steve:
Jordan Cook Among Seni...
Procedure Denies Gun S...Forrest Hershberger
Keith E. Onken


An increased Australian presence can be felt at the Precious Metals Summit in Beaver Creek, said Joe Mazumdar, co-editor of Casey Research.
"I personally think that these Australians might be thinking the growth is not in Australia Pacific, maybe Australia's got some advantages but I don't think they're too keen on the Pacific," Mazumdar told Kitco News on the sidelines of Beaver Creek.
Your browser does not support inline frames or is currently configured not to display inline frames. Content can be viewed at actual source page: /news/video/latest?show=Precious-Metals-Summit-2018.
Precious Metals Summits provide a one-stop destination for institutional investors, sell-side representatives and corporate development executives from senior precious metals companies who want to be ahead of the pack in identifying the most prospective explorers and developers from around the globe. Our unique, by-invitation Summits offer delegates the opportunity to attend corporate presentations, meet one-on-one with senior management and to network in an exclusive yet warm and relaxed atmosphere.


text:
Pliska (bulgariska: Плиска) är ett distrikt i Bulgarien.   Det ligger i kommunen Obsjtina Kaspitjan och regionen Sjumen, i den nordöstra delen av landet,  km öster om huvudstaden Sofia.

Under det osmanska styret hade by namnet Aboba fram till 1925, då namnet ändrades till Pliskov. Det ändrades 1947 till det nuvarande namnet.

Trakten runt Pliska består till största delen av jordbruksmark. Runt Pliska är det ganska tätbefolkat, med  invånare per kvadratkilometer.  Trakten ingår i den hemiboreala klimatzonen. Årsmedeltemperaturen i trakten är  °C. Den varmaste månaden är juli, då medeltemperaturen är  °C, och den kallaste är december, med  °C. Genomsnittlig årsnederbörd är  millimeter. Den regnigaste månaden är maj, med i genomsnitt  mm nederbörd, och den torraste är augusti, med  mm nederbörd.

Källor

Indelningar i Sjumen (region)

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


Let the vacation fiesta begin! When you buy a Fiesta Americana Vacation Club membership, you become a vacation club member in the Fiesta Americana network of beautiful, beachside Mexico timeshares. These spectacular properties are located at the most popular resort destinations, where the beaches are sugary white and the water is azure blue.
Sell Fiesta Americana Vacatin Club NOW!!
Owning Mexico timeshare means you never have to plan your vacation getaway around the weather—it's always summertime at these sun-soaked destinations. Lounge by the pool, parasail on the beach, or spend the day on the golf course. Enjoy the warm weather and balmy breezes no matter how cold it is back home.
Sold as timeshare resale points, your Fiesta Americana Vacation Club ownership has a fixed expiration date, meaning you buy it, love it, save money with it, and when it expires, you move on to the next vacation experience in your life.
When purchased from the developer, Fiesta Americana Vacation Club memberships are good for 40 years of vacationing. As a resale buyer, however, your commitment will be shorter. The current owner will be selling you (at a discounted price) the balance of the years still on their vacation club membership, which allows you to spend less with fewer years of commitment on your part.
You'll find beautiful Fiesta Americana resorts located in high-demand beachside locations throughout Mexico.
Fiesta Americana Villas Los Cabos, the flagship resort of Fiesta Americana Vacation Club in spectacular Cabo San Lucas.
Fiesta Americana Villas Cancun is located on Punta Cancun, the luxury hotel section of the beach.
Fiesta Americana Villas Acapulco is situated in the heart of the Condesa, in Acapulco.
The Explorean Kohunlich Immerse is in the Quintana Roo jungle, near some of Mexico's most fascinating Mayan ruins and historic sites.
And this is only the beginning of the vacation opportunities you can enjoy with your resale club membership. Through its affiliation with Hilton Grand Vacation Club, you'll have access to the exchange network of Hilton timeshare properties located in the United Sates, (including Hilton Hawaii timeshare), Scotland, Ireland, and other exciting destinations.
Hotel properties within the Grupo Posadas Mexico network are also available to you as a Fiesta Americana Vacation Club member. These include Fiesta Americana hotels, Fiesta Inn resorts, Mexican chain of hotels within The Explorean brand, and the Caesar Park and Caesar Business chains in South America. With your paid RCI timeshare exchange membership, you can even expand your options further to include all the extensive Resort Condominiums International network of properties.
When you vacation in the elegant resorts that are part of the Fiesta American Vacation Club, you'll be staying at properties that are elegant by design and purposefully planned to help you achieve that perfect balance of vacation fun and relaxation. Although not all of these amenities are available at every resort, generally, you can expect to enjoy expansive swimming pools, water features, indulging spa services, onsite restaurants, and golf courses designed by legends in the game.
You can also choose the accommodations that are just right for each relaxing getaway, whether it is a short-stay holiday or a multi-week retreat. Your villa awaits you at a Fiesta Americana Vacation Club resort, with choices that range from a spacious studio to 3-bedroom luxury suites.
Studio units are designed for two to four adults, and include one room with either a king bed or a two full size beds, and a microwave, coffeemaker, and minibar. Studio Plus units offer all of the features plus a prime location within the resort.
1-bedroom timeshare villas are also designed for two to four adults, and include a private bedroom plus a full kitchen and a separate living and dining area.
2-bedroom timeshare villas at Fiesta Americana Vacation Club resorts comfortably accommodate from six to eight adults, and include two private bedrooms plus a full kitchen and a separate living and dining area.
3-bedroom villas are planned to accommodate eight to ten vacationing adults. With three private bedrooms, a full kitchen and a separate living and dining area, you'll enjoy accommodations that rival a private vacation home. The 1-, 2-, and 3-bedroom plans are also available as "Plus" units with an upgraded location or view.
Ready to find out more about vacation club resales offered here on our website? We are ready to help! BuyaTimeshare.com is your best choice when you want to confidently and safely buy, rent, or sell Fiesta Americana Vacation Club points.


text:
EDA reviewing tax credit awards to Teva, Norcross-linked firms
Tim Sullivan, CEO of the Economic Development Authority, speaks during a recent event. — file photo
A state agency is looking into six companies that were awarded tax credits under New Jersey's beleaguered incentive programs, including a global drug manufacturer and several firms with ties to George E. Norcross III, the powerful South Jersey Democratic leader.
The Economic Development Authority announced Wednesday that it has formally requested additional information from the organizations: Conner Strong & Buckelew, Cooper Health System, Holtec International, NFI, Teva Pharmaceuticals USA and The Michaels Organization. The entities have been awarded tax credits totaling $585 million over 10 years under the six-year-old Grow New Jersey program — which is set to expire on June 30 — but are now caught up in the growing scrutiny of the tax incentives under Gov. Phil Murphy.
In its announcement, the EDA said the requests are meant to give the companies a chance to respond in writing to a range of recent developments. Teva is ensnared in a lawsuit over alleged price-fixing, while a task force appointed by Murphy has raised concerns that Norcross and his allies influenced the legislation that created Grow New Jersey.
"We have no higher obligation than to serve as stewards of taxpayer dollars, and the process we are initiating today will enable our team to make a determination of appropriate next steps with regard to these specific companies," said Tim Sullivan, EDA's chief executive. "Transparency and accountability should be the hallmark of any public investment program, and we take any allegations of wrongdoing very seriously."
The announcement comes a week after the task force issued a scathing report about the programs, alleging mismanagement and a lack of due diligence by the EDA as it awarded billions of dollars in tax credits. The report also raised several "red flags" about applications by three of the companies linked to Norcross — Conner Strong, NFI, Michaels and Cooper Health — and whether they ever considered moving out of state.
Norcross is the executive chairman of Conner Strong, an insurance brokerage, which recently moved to a new waterfront office tower in Camden alongside NFI and Michaels. The companies jointly developed the 375,000-square-foot building with the help of a combined $245 million tax credit package under Grow New Jersey.
Cooper Health, of which Norcross serves as board chairman, was awarded a 10-year, $39.9 million tax credit package in 2014 to consolidate operations in Camden.
Teva, in a 42-state lawsuit unsealed earlier this week, is accused of illegally hiking drug prices along with 20 other manufacturers. The EDA last year awarded the Israel-based generics maker a 10-year, $40 million Grow New Jersey package to compel it to move its U.S. headquarters from Pennsylvania to Parsippany, where it has signed a lease for 345,000 square feet.
The EDA noted that any significant change to a company's Grow New Jersey award — including a reduction in the amount, a suspension or termination — may require an action of the authority's board. The letters sent this week will initiate a process to allow its staff "to make informed decisions, which may include recommendations to the board for any potential actions, if warranted," agency said.
Teva, P3 Properties complete 345,000 sq. ft. lease in Parsippany, JLL says
Tags Conner Strong & Buckelew Cooper Health System economic development authority grow new jersey Holtec International NFI Pharmaceuticals USA Teva The Michaels Organization
Valley National to acquire Oritani for $740 million
Prologis eyes late summer delivery for 913,000 sq. ft. industrial project in Burlington


text:
Q: Strange Border on UICollectionViewCell - Swift I have created a subclass for a UICollectionViewCell, which looks like this...
import Foundation
import UIKit
class GroupCollectionViewCell: UICollectionViewCell {
    @IBOutlet weak var name: UILabel!
    @IBOutlet weak var subject: UILabel!
}

As soon as I override the drawRect function like this...
override func drawRect(rect: CGRect) {
    self.layer.cornerRadius = 4
}

I get a strange border/shadow on the top and right of each cell (background colour set in storyboard)...

Note that even if I take out the self.layer.cornerRadius line, the borders still appear, so presumably I've missed something out at the drawRect function - I'm just not sure what.
What makes this especially peculiar, is that when I run the code on a iPhone 6+ or wider device, the problem goes away.
The only other (presumably) relevant code, is that which I use to size the cells appropriately in the view controller:
func collectionView(collectionView: UICollectionView, layout collectionViewLayout: UICollectionViewLayout, sizeForItemAtIndexPath indexPath: NSIndexPath) -> CGSize {
    let size = collectionView.frame.width
    return CGSize(width: (size/3)-8, height: (size/3)-8)
}

What is the grey border/shadow, and how can I get rid of it? Many thanks in advance!

A: I suspect this is probably just an implementation quirk that appears because you're not quite doing things the way Apple wants. Unless you're subclassing UIView, you should call super.drawRect() in your own drawRect() method. Furthermore, drawRect() isn't really the right place to set cornerRadius: you should set that once, perhaps when the cell is created, then forget about it.
You might find Apple's reference for UIView and drawRect useful:

If you subclass UIView directly, your implementation of this method does not need to call super. However, if you are subclassing a different view class, you should call super at some point in your implementation.

One more thing: if you can avoid overriding drawRect() you should; it does have a performance impact.

A: I can only suggest to make a little hack:
Adding this lines to drawRect
        self.layer.borderWidth = 1
        self.layer.borderColor = COLOR_OF_GRPUP_CELL

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


Bought the Clover to replace a Valuechill that underperformed then died. We had the Valuechill for 3 years and we were never quite satisfied with its performance. The Clover is a good size block but you can store things on top of it. It does require a 1/4 inch adaptor for the water lines so plan a trip to the hardware store. Other than that it performs wonderfully and has an adjustable thermostat. Water is ice-cold! I may have to turn it up a little. I would recommend this item compared to what we had. It does function like a refrigerator which cycles on and off depending on water temp. And, it is a little louder even in the cabinet. All-in-all, we're very satisfied with the product and fast delivery.
Great price, great unit. Love this product.
We have the chiller for about 2 months now and everything is great. I bought a couple of 24oz stainless steel water bottles and fill them every morning for work. No more buying water or polluting with plastic bottles.
Lets start from the beginning....We used to have the that big ugly water cooler in the kitchen, paying every month for WATER. So we decided to go with an under counter filter and chiller. We found air-n-water on the internet and decided to give them a try. First the web info was great, the shipping was inexpensive and super fast. The unit installed with ease, works great and unlike one of the reviews I read the unit is reasonably quiet, quieter than the water cooler we had.
I recommend it to any water drinker!
First let me say dealing with Air-n-water was great. Fast shipping, excellent customer service. The cooler is super. It works very well, installed in minutes and for the price, could not ask for more.
Shipping was super fast. The cooler is well built and installed in record time. It runs very little and cools quickly. I am thoroughly impressed.
Not only is the air chiller more than I expected but the customer assistance is top notch. I highly recommend any purchases from this company.
Easy installation and finally we have cold tap water.
We are very happy with our chiller. It constantly puts out cold water and rechills in minutes. It fits perfectly under our kitchen sink.
It's great...a bit noisier than our previous one but so far it's working just great. It fits perfectly under our sink and the water is always ice cold.
Very happy to find them. Delivery was fast and the products are fantastic.
Do you want to have access to clean fresh drinking water at just the right temperature any time of the day or night? If so, then you are sure to love the durable, compact design of the Clover C12E High Efficiency Under Counter Water Chiller. This top of the line water chiller is designed to mount under the counter and connect directly to a faucet to provide you with convenient seamless use.
The Clover C12E High Efficiency Under Counter Water Chiller will save your precious counter space by providing you with a way to enjoy cool, clean fresh water with under the counter mounting. The small size of the Clover C12E High Efficiency Under Counter Water Chiller makes it easy to mount under the counter or sink with ease.
No need to worry about the taste of your water being anything but perfect with the Clover C12E High Efficiency Under Counter Water Chiller. The hygienic stainless steel water tanks make the taste of the water that is dispensed by the Clover C12E High Efficiency Under Counter Water Chiller top quality. Enjoy the fresh clean taste of bottled water right from the comfort of your home.
With the Clover C12E High Efficiency Under Counter Water Chiller you don't have to worry about the safety and efficiency of the compressor. This top of the line under the counter water chiller features overload protection. This means that if the unit reaches abnormal temperatures it will automatically shut off to protect the internal components of the unit.
Product Dimensions: L: 8.20" x W: 16.10" x H: 11.40"
I am a retired union plumber and have this product on several jobs. Customers were well satisfied and had no problems. The price range is good for everyone.
I need something to chill my water that fits under my kitchen sink.


Good news! Minnesotans filing their taxes this year electronically through a state-approved vendor, such as H&R Block or TurboTax, will now see a new message prompting them to register to vote online at mnvotes.org!
While Minnesota has over 3.2 million registered voters, an additional 700,000 citizens are eligible, but have not yet registered to vote. Read more at Minnesota Public Radio, "Doing your taxes? Why not register to vote, too?"


At ATÖLYE, we believe in order to lay down solid foundations for a visionary project we need to be invested in research and strategy. We use creative tools and methods to land on the correct design question to turn design problems into strategic opportunities that will generate long-term value.
We're working on exciting projects in Turkey and beyond that has societal and economic impact at large. We're looking for a team member who is curious about the ways people, businesses, design, culture, data, and technology interact. If you are passionate about combining strategy with action, people with businesses, numbers with emotions, and the present with the future we would love to hear from you.
High written and verbal proficiency in Turkish and English.


AFJROTC Bob Heim 5066 Develop citizens of character dedicated to serving their nation and community, instill values of citizenship, service to the United States, personal responsibility and a sense of accomplishment.
Band Ronald Andre 8600 Promote music education and performance in our community.
Baseball Bryan Scott Promote and support Boys Baseball.
Baseball Club Matt Gutierrez 1603 Promote the game of baseball and support the Tiger baseball program.
Basketball (Boys) Jay Caserio Athletic Office Promote the game of basketball and support the Tiger Boy's & Girl's Basketball programs.
Cross Country (Boys/Girls) James Bracken Promote the Cross Country team and support the Tiger Cross Country program.
Culinary Club/ Hero FCCLA Sherrie Hinton 1102 Provide an opportunity for students to further their education by working and meeting with professionals in the food and hospitality industry .
Culture Club Geoffrey Baldwin This club is for the group of students that will be travelling internationally through Explorica and GHS.
Dance Dara Henning 4201 Provide an opportunity to perform for the community and emphasize an appreciation for the art of dance.
Family, Career and Community Leaders of America (FCCLA) - TOYBOX Connie Rowley 1306 Promote personal growth and leadership development through family and consumer sciences education.
Fashion Club Sara Lazar 1106 Provide an opportunity for students to further their education with professionals in the fashion industry.
Future Educators/Educators Rising Diane Wright 1105 To provide students with an opportunity to explore teaching and gain a realistic understanding of the nature of education.
Golf (Boys) Joseph Fraher Promote and Support the Boys Golf Team.
Golf (Girls) Richard Swanson Promote and Support the Girls Golf Team.
Math Club Meghan Gray An organization whose purpose is to stimulate the interest in mathematics by promoting various mathematical activities.
National Honors Society Chrisa Florio The Hub Every 1st and 3rd Thursday of each month. 7:05 and 2:35.
Soccer (Boys) Jeff Perry Promote and Support Boys Soccer.
Sports Medicine Club Mark Sherlock 4303 To provide opportunity for students to learn the basics in first aid, injury prevention and rehabilitation.
Tennis (Boys) Richard Swanson Promote and Support Boys Tennis.
Tiger Buddies Barb Streit & Camela Cooper To allow students with special needs to be active members in the school setting.
Tiger Town Christopher Mack The HUB The process of peers working with peers to create a positive environment and role models through developing leadership skills.
Track Mark Sullivan Track and field club provides opportunities for athletes to compete and train.
Tri-M Music honor society Laura Reed Orchestra Room Create enthusiasm, promote leadership and develop character through Music.
Yearbook Club Ellen Fluegel 1314 Create a yearbook by reporting accurate records of the students and major events at G.H.S.
Young Democratic Socialists of America (YDSA) Colleen Swanson 1702 We are students organizing to fight for the immediate needs of workers and students while building our capacity to fight for more radical and structural changes.


text:
NYPD: Hours after early morning homicide, man shot in Clifton
Updated: Jul. 26, 2020, 5:42 p.m. | Published: Jul. 26, 2020, 5:28 p.m.
The NYPD cordoned off a section of Park Hill Avenue following the shooting. (Staten Island Advance/Joseph Ostapiuk)
By Joseph Ostapiuk | jostapiuk@siadvance.com
STATEN ISLAND, N.Y. -- Hours after a fatal early-morning shooting in Clifton on Sunday, a second shooting in the same area left a 43-year-old man injured, police said.
The shooting took place at approximately 3:33 p.m. outside of 225 Park Hill Ave., an NYPD spokesman said, when an unknown man approached the victim and shot him before fleeing the scene.
Police said the victim was transported to Staten Island University Hospital in Ocean Breeze following the incident and is expected to survive.
A section of Park Hill Avenue, near Sobel Court, was cordoned off following the shooting as the NYPD investigated the area.
Juan, who was visiting a friend and only provided his first name, said he heard three gunshots while he was inside one of the Park Hill apartments Sunday afternoon. "It was loud," Juan said. "It's scary."
The shooting took place close to the location where a man was shot and killed in the rear of 260 Park Hill Ave. at approximately 12:40 a.m. Sunday morning.
The victim in that incident — a 32-year-old man whose identity has not yet been released — was initially transported to Staten Island University Hospital, Ocean Breeze, with a gunshot wound to the right leg. He was pronounced dead at the hospital, an NYPD spokesman said.
It is unclear if the shootings are related.
No arrests have been made in either incident, according to the NYPD.
As of July 20, the NYPD responded to 21 shooting incidents on Staten Island, compared to 10 at the same time last year. Citywide, shootings are up nearly 69%, according to the department's CompStat figures.


text:
// Copyright 2013 The Flutter Authors. All rights reserved.
// Use of this source code is governed by a BSD-style license that can be
// found in the LICENSE file.

package io.flutter.embedding.engine.plugins.contentprovider;

import androidx.annotation.NonNull;

/**
 * A {@link io.flutter.embedding.engine.plugins.FlutterPlugin} that wants to know when it is running
 * within a {@link android.content.ContentProvider}.
 */
public interface ContentProviderAware {
  /**
   * Callback triggered when a {@code ContentProviderAware} {@link
   * io.flutter.embedding.engine.plugins.FlutterPlugin} is associated with a {@link
   * android.content.ContentProvider}.
   */
  void onAttachedToContentProvider(@NonNull ContentProviderPluginBinding binding);

  /**
   * Callback triggered when a {@code ContentProviderAware} {@link
   * io.flutter.embedding.engine.plugins.FlutterPlugin} is detached from a {@link
   * android.content.ContentProvider}.
   */
  void onDetachedFromContentProvider();
}


See how much you may gain if you invest $1 000 at 8.8% over 144 months period.
An investment of $1 000 at 8.8% interest rate with monthly payment $200 over 144 months will bring you $22 963 in return. The final equity will be $52 763.


text:
Q: When a meeting comes to end and you want to conclude from it Imagine at a meeting all the participant come to an agreement over something, but there were some other subjects under discussion during the session. The meeting finishes and prior to announcing it, the presenter / meeting leader decides to summarize all the matters and tells and "make a conclusion from all the discussed matters", well. What shall he normally say? Does my sentence bellow make any sense to you:

Let's conclude from these matters.

If there is a better way, then please let me know about it.
P.S. I need to use the verb "conclude" or the noun "conclusion" in my sentence.
Added: A university professor in my country can use the same sentence before ending the session.

A: If you check the dictionary, you will find that it isn't really appropriate to use the word conclude in the way that you suggested: it means either to end a speech, meeting, or piece of writing or to judge or decide something after thinking carefully about it: note that, for the second meaning it must be followed by that.
A university professor could say something like this:

Let's conclude this session by summarizing the points that we have discussed

For a meeting where evidence has been presented and then a judgement made, the second meaning could be used like this:

We can conclude from the evidence presented that...

conclusion can mean the final part of something or the opinion you have after considering all the information about something. A university professor could use the first meaning like this:

In conclusion, let's summarize the points that we have discussed

For a meeting where something has been decided, the second meaning could be used like this:

Let's summarize the conclusions that we have reached in this meeting.

A: In a formal meeting, the term used to end it is adjourn. What would normally be said:

*

*(possible, if it seems like all business is complete -- chairman) Do I hear a motion to adjourn?

*(any voting member) I move we adjourn.

*(any other voting member) Second!

*(a vote is taken; a motion to adjourn is almost always "in order")

*(chairman, on successful vote) The meeting is adjourned.

(Robert's Rules for Adjourning a Meeting)
Or, in a not so formal meeting:

Let us adjourn.

Technically, adjournment is a temporary act. But as long as a group exists, it is expected that they will meet again. It may be tomorrow or the first Tuesday of next month, but the group likely has a next scheduled meeting before the call to adjournment was made. A temporary break within a single meeting is called a recess.