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Creatures of Thought
The Electronic Age
Posted on June 21, 2017 January 3, 2019 by technicshistory
We saw last time how the first generation of digital computers were built around the first generation of automatic electrical switch, the electromagnetic relay. But by the time those computers were built, another digital switch was already waiting in the wings. Whereas the relay was an electromechanical device (because it used electricity to control a mechanical switch), this new class of digital switches was electronic – founded on the new science of the electron, a science born around the turn of the twentieth century. This science concretized the carrier of electrical force as not a current, wave, or field, but as a solid particle.
The device that gave birth to an electronic age, rooted in this new physics, became known (at least in the U.S.) as the vacuum tube. Conventionally, two men figure in the story of its creation: the Englishman Ambrose Fleming, and the American Lee de Forest. In fact, of course, its origins are more complex and woven from many threads, which criss-cross Europe and the Atlantic, and stretch back as far as the early Leyden jar experiments of the mid-eighteenth century.
For the purposes of our story, however, it's convenient, and illuminating (so to speak) to begin with Thomas Edison. Edison made a curious discovery in 1880s as part of his work on a new kind of electric light, a discovery that sets the stage for our story. From there, further development of the vacuum tube was spurred by the demands of two other technological systems: a new form of wireless communication, and the ever-expanding long-distance telephone networks.
Prologue: Edison
Edison is, in the popular imagination, the inventor of the electric light bulb. This gives him both too much credit and too little. Too much credit, again, because Edison was not the only one to devise an incandescent bulb. In additional to a variety of pre-commercial predecessors, Joseph Swan and Charles Stearn in the U.K. and fellow American William Sawyer brought lamps to market around the same time as Edison. All consisted of a sealed, glass bulb containing a resistive filament. When placed in an electrical circuit, the heat generated by its resistance caused the filament to glow. The bulb was evacuated of air to prevent the filament from burning. Electric light was already commonplace in large cities in the form of electric arc lamps, used to illuminate large public spaces. All these inventors were trying to "subdivide the light," drawing from the flaming arc a spark small enough to enter the home and replace gas lamps with a light source that was safer, cleaner, and brighter.
What Edison — or, more correctly, the industrial lab which Edison headed — did, however, was more than merely to create a light source. He – it – built an entire inter-operable electrical system for home lighting – generators, transmission wires, transformers, and so forth, of which the bulb was only the most obvious and visible component. The presence of Edison's name in his power companies was not a mere genuflection to the great inventor, as was the case with Bell Telephone. Edison proved himself not only an inventor strictly speaking, but also an able system builder.1 To that end, his lab continued to tinker with the various components of electric lighting even after their early successes.
Early Edison lamp
As part of these researches, some time in 1883, Edison (or perhaps one of his employees) decided to seal a metal plate into the incandescent lamp, along with the filament. The accounts of why he did this do not present a clear and unambiguous picture. But it was probably an attempt to alleviate the problem of lamp blackening: the tendency of the the glass interior of the bulb to accumulate a mysterious dark substance over time. Edison (if it was him) probably hoped that the blackening particles could be drawn off onto the electrified plate. To his surprise, however, he found that when the plate was wired into a circuit with the positive end of the filament, a current flowed that was directly proportional to the intensity of the filament's glow. When it was connected to the negative end of the filament, nothing happened.
Edison believed this effect, later dubbed the Edison effect, could be used to measure or even regulate the "electro-motive force," or voltage, in an electrical power system. As was his habit, he filed a patent for this "electrical indicator," then returned to other, more pressing matters.2
We now skip forward twenty years, to 1904. At this time, In England, a man named John Ambrose Fleming was working on behalf of the Marconi Company to develop a better receiver for radio waves.
It's important, before we proceed further, to explain what the radio was and was not at this time, both as an instrument and as a practice. In truth, the radio wasn't even yet radio – it was wireless. (Not until the 1910s did the former term supersede the latter in American English.) Specifically, it was the wireless telegraph – a means of conveying signals in the form of dots-and-dashes from a sender to a recipient. Its primary application was in ship-to-ship and ship-to-shore communication, and as such it was of special interest to the navies of the world.
Some few inventors, notably Reginal Fessenden, were by this time experimenting with the notion of a radio-telephone: point-to-point speech communication over the air via a continuous wave. Not for another fifteen years, though, would broadcasting in the modern sense emerge: the intentional transmission of news, stories, music, and other programming to a wide audience. Until then, the omni-directional nature of radio signals was mainly a problem to be overcome, not a feature to be exploited.
The radio equipment that existed at this time was well-adapted to sending Morse code, and ill-adapted to anything else. Transmitters generated "Hertzian" waves by sending a spark across a gap in a circuit. The signal thus propagated through the ether was accompanied by a dirty burp of static.
Receivers detected this emission via a coherer: a collection of metal filings in a glass tube that cohered into a contiguous mass, thus completing a circuit, when stimulated by radio waves. The glass then had to be tapped to decohere the filings and reset the receiver for the next signal – at first by hand, but it did not take long to come up with automated tapping devices.
Just coming into use in 1905 were crystal detectors, also known as "cat's whisker" detectors. It turned out that by simply touching a wire to certain crystals such as silicon, iron pyrite, and galena (lead ore), one could pull a radio signal from the air. The resulting radio receivers were cheap, compact and very easy for anyone to try, and they stimulated a widespread amateur wireless movement, primarily among young men. The sudden surge in traffic that resulted raised a problem because of the shared nature of the radio commons. Not only did the innocent chatter of amateur "hams" accidentally interfere with naval communications, but some miscreants went so far as to send out false naval orders and distress signals. It became inevitable that the state would intervene. As Ambrose Fleming himself wrote, (no, we haven't forgotten about him), the introduction of crystal detectors3
…was followed at once by an outburst of irresponsible radiotelegraphy at the hands of innumerable electrical amateurs and students which required the firm intervention of National and International legislation to keep it within the bounds of reason and safety.
From the peculiar electrical properties of these little crystals would emerge, in due time, yet a third generation of digital switch to follow the relay and the tube, the switch that dominates our world today. But everything in its proper place. We have surveyed the stage, now let us return our attention to the actor who has just stepped into the footlights: Ambrose Fleming, England, 1904.
In 1904 Fleming was a professor of electrical engineering at University College, London, but also a consultant for the Marconi Company. Marconi's initial interest in recruting him was to get his expert advice on the construction of the power plant at a new shore station, but soon after he took on the problem of building a better detector.
Fleming in 1890
Everyone knew that the coherer was a poor detector in terms of sensitivity, and the magnetic detector that Marconi had devised was not much better. In order to help him find a successor, Fleming set out in the first instance to build a sensitive circuit for detecting Hertzian waves. If not a practical detector itself, such a device would be a useful for further investigations.
To build such a thing, he needed a way to continuously measure the strength of the current generated by the incoming waves, in contrast to the discontinuous coherer (it was either on – with the filings cohered – or not).4 But known devices for measuring current strength – galvanometers – required a direct (unidirectional) current to operate. The alternating current induced by radio waves reversed directions so quickly that it would produce no measurement at all.
Fleming then remembered a handful of curiosities he had sitting in a closet – Edison indicator lamps. In the 1880s, he had been a consultant for Edison Electric Light Company of London, and worked on the lamp blackening problem. During that time he received copies of Edison's indicator, probably from William Preece, chief electrical engineer of the British Post Office, who had just come back from an electrical exhibition in Philadelphia. (Remember that it was the norm at this time, outside the United States, for post offices to control the telegraph and telephone, and therefore to be centers of electrical engineering expertise).
Later, in the 1890s, Fleming did his own studies on the Edison effect using the lamps acquired from Preece. He showed that the effect consisted in a unidirectional current flow: negative electrical potential could flow from the hot filament to the cold electrode, but not vice versa. But not until 1904, when presented with the problem of radio wave detection, had he realized that this fact could have any practical use. The Edison indicator would allow only the forward surges of alternating current to crash over the gap between filament and plate, creating a steady one-way flow on the far side.
Fleming grabbed one of the bulbs, attached it in series with a mirror galvanometer, and switched on a spark transmitter – et voila, the mirror turned and the light beam moved on the scale. It worked. He could precisely measure the incoming radio signal.
Prototype Fleming valves. The anode is set in the middle of the loop of filament (the hot cathode).
Fleming called his invention a "valve", since it acted as a one-way gate for electricity. In more general electrical engineering terms, it was a rectifier – a means of transforming an alternating current into a direct one (rectifying it, i.e. straightening it out). Finally, it was called a diode, since it contained two electrodes: the hot cathode (the filament) which emitted electricity and the cold anode (the plate) which received it. Fleming made several refinements to the design, but in its essence it was no different from the indicator lamp built by Edison.5 Its transformation into a new kind of thing was, as we have seen before, the result of a change in mental state. A change in the world of ideas inside Fleming's head, not in the world of stuff, outside of it.
By itself, Fleming's valve was a useful object. It was the best field test device yet found for measuring radio signals, and a reasonable detector in its own right. But it did not shake the world. The explosive growth of electronics came only after an American, Lee de Forest, added a third electrode, making the valve into a relay.
Lee de Forest had an unusual upbringing for a Yale man. His father, the Reverend Henry de Forest, was a Civil War veteran from New York, a Congregationalist pastor, and a fervent believer in his mission as a man of God to spread the light of knowledge and justice. As such, he dutifully took up the call when invited to the presidency of Talladega College in Alabama. Talladega had been founded by the New York-based American Missionary Association after the Civil War, with a mission to educate and edify the local black population.6 There young Lee found himself caught between two stones: picked on by the local black boys for being a homely and cowardly weakling; shunned by the local white boys for being a Yankee meddler.
Nonetheless, the younger de Forest developed a firm confidence in himself. He found that he had more than a little skill as a mechanic and a tinkerer – his scale-model locomotive became a local wonder. Already as a teenager in Talladega he knew that he would make his way in the world through his inventions. Later, as a young man about town in New Haven, the religious convictions of this pastor's son fell away — worn away by exposure to Darwinism, then shorn off in one fatal blow by the unexpected death of his father. But the core, unshakable sense of his own destiny remained – de Forest believed himself to be a man of genius, and aimed to make himself another Nikola Tesla – a wealthy, famous, and mystical magician of the electric age. His classmates at Yale, on the other hand, believed him to be a conceited windbag. He may well be the least likable human being to feature in our story thus far.7
De Forest ca. 1900
By the time he completed his Ph.D. at Yale in 1899, de Forest had set his heart on the emerging art of the wireless as his path to fame and fortune. Over the coming decades he pursued that path with great determination and resolve, but rather less scruple. It began with de Forest and a partner, Ed Smythe, working together in Chicago. Smythe kept de Forest in room and board with regular five-dollar payments, and together they developed their own radio detector, consisting of two metal leads connected by a paste that de Forest called "goo." But De Forest was impatient for the rewards of his genius. He ditched Smythe and teamed up with a shady New York financier named Abraham White (nee, ironically, Schwartz), to form the De Forest Wireless Telegraph Company.
The actual operations of the company were incidental to both protagonists: White concentrated on using the public's ignorance to line his pockets. He flogged the stock of the new company relentlessly, and brought in millions from wide-eyed investors afraid of missing out on the radio boom. Meanwhile De Forest, amply funded by the "suckers"8, focused on proving his genius through the development of a new American system of wireless (in contrast to the European systems developed by Marconi and others).
Unfortunately for that American system, however, de Forest's "goo" detector didn't actually work very well. He solved that problem in the short term by borrowing the design of Reginald Fessenden's (patented) "liquid barretter" detector – two platinum wires immersed in a sulfuric acid bath. Fessenden soon filed suit for patent infringement – a suit he would clearly win. De Forest could not rest until he had devised a new detector that was unequivocally his own. In the autumn of 1906, he announced that he had done so. Before two separate meetings of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers, de Forest described his new wireless detector, which he dubbed the "Audion." Its actual provenance is, however, rather dubious.
For some time, much de Forest's effort to build a new detector had centered on passing a current through a Bunsen burner flame, which he believed could act as an asymmetric conductor. As far as can be told, this idea had no merit.9 Then, at some point in 1905, he learned about Fleming's valve. De Forest convinced himself that the valve and his Bunsen burner devices were in principle the same: simply replace the flame with a hot filament, encase it in glass bulb to contain the gas, and you had the valve. He then developed a series of patents that recapitulated the ancestry of the Fleming valve via his gaseous flame detectors. In this way he evidently thought to give himself priority of invention over Fleming's U.S. patent, since his Bunsen burner work predated it (going all the way back to 1900).
Whether this was self-delusion or simple fraud is impossible to tell, but it all culminated in de Forest's patent of August 1906, for: "an evacuated vessel of glass… having two separated electrodes, between which intervenes the gaseous medium which when sufficiently heated or otherwise made highly conductive forms the sensitive element…" The equipment and behavior described is Fleming's; the explanation for its function, de Forest's. De Forest would lose this patent suit, too, though it would take ten years.10
The impatient reader may began to wonder: why are we spending so much time on this man, whose self-declared genius seemed to consist largely in passing off the ideas of others as his own? The reason is the transformation that the Audion underwent in the last few months of 1906.
De Forest, by this point, was out of a job. White and his partners had avoided responsibility for the Fessenden suit by creating a new company, United Wireless, and leasing the assets of American De Forest to that new company for $1. De Forest was cast off with $1000 in severance pay and a few apparently useless patents, including those for his Audion. Having accustomed himself to a fairly lavish lifestyle, he now found himself in serious financial difficulty, and was desperate to turn the Audion into a big success.
To understand what happened next, it's important to realize that De Forest believed that, in contradistinction to Fleming's rectifier, he had invented a relay. He had set up his Audion by hooking a battery to the cold plate of the valve, and believed that the signal in the antenna circuit (connected to the hot filament) was modulating the more powerful current in that battery circuit. In fact he was quite wrong: there were not two circuits at all, the battery simply shifted the signal from the antenna, it did not amplify it.
However this false belief proved critical, because it led de Forest to start experimenting with a 3rd electrode in the bulb, to more completely separate the two circuits of his "relay". At first he added this second cold electrode side-by-side with the first, but then, perhaps inspired by the sort of control mechanisms used by physicists to channel the rays in cathode-ray tubes, he moved it between the filament and the original plate. Concerned that this would block the flow of electricity, he then changed the third electrode's shape from a plate to a wiggly piece of wire that resembled a gridiron – he called this the grid.
1908 Audion triode. The (broken) filament on the left is the cathode, the wiggly bit of wire is the grid, and the rounded sheet of medal the anode. Note that it still has a screws for a socket like an ordinary light bulb.
Here we have a true relay. A weak current (such as that from a radio antenna) applied to the grid could control a much more powerful current between filament and plate, by repelling the charged particles trying to pass from one to the other. This would allow it to act as a much more powerful detector than the valve, since it could not just rectify but also amplify the radio signal. And like the valve (and unlike the coherer) it could produce a continuous signal, allowing not only radio telegraphy but also radio telephony (and later the broadcasting of voice and music).
In practice, however, it didn't actually work very well. De Forest's Audions were finicky, prone to burn out quickly, lacking in uniformity of manufacture, and generally ineffective as amplifiers. It required bespoke electrical tuning to find the right parameters to get a given Audion to function at all.
Nonetheless, de Forest believed in his invention. To promote it, he formed a new venture, the De Forest Radio Telephone Company, but managed only a trickle of sales. His biggest prize was a sale of equipment to the Navy for intra-fleet telephony during the cruise of the Great White Fleet – but the fleet commander, unable to take the time to get de Forest's receivers and transmitters working and to train his crews in their use, had them packed up and put in storage. Moreover, De Forest's new company, presided over by a disciple of Abraham White, was no more scrupulous than his last; and so to add to his troubles he soon found himself under indictment for fraud.11
So, for five years the Audion went nowhere. Once again the telephone would play a critical role in the development of a digital switch, this time to rescue a promising but unproven technology from the brink of obscurity.
The Telephone, Again
The long-distance network was the central nervous sytem of AT&T. Tying together its many local operating companies, it provided a crucial competitive advantage after the expiration of the core Bell patents. By joining the AT&T network, a new customer could, in theory, reach any of his or her fellow subscribers, hundreds or thousands of miles away – though in practice long-distance calls were rare. The network was also the material basis for AT&T's all-encompassing ideology of "One Policy, One System, Universal Service."
But as the second decade of the twentieth century began, that network was reaching its physical limits. As telephone wires stretched longer and longer, the signal that passed through them became weaker and noisier, until speech became entirely incomprehensible. Because of this, there were in fact two AT&T networks in the United States, divided by the continental ridge.
For the eastern network, New York City was the stake in the ground, mechanical repeaters and loading coils the leash that defined how far the human voice could roam. But these technologies could only do so much. Loading coils altered the electrical properties of the telephone circuit in order to reduce attenuation at voice frequencies – but they could only reduce it, not eliminate it. Mechanical repeaters (nothing more than a telephone speaker coupled to an amplifying microphone) added noise with each repetition. A 1911 New York to Denver line tensed this leash to its absolute limit. To span the entire continent was beyond consideration. Yet in 1909, John J. Carty, AT&T's Chief Engineer, had publicly promised to do exactly that. And he promised to do it within five years: in time for the Panama–Pacific International Exposition set to take place in San Francisco in 1914.
The first to make such a venture conceivable, with a new electronic telephone amplifier, was not an American, but the scion of a wealthy Viennese family with a scientific bent. As a young man, Robert von Lieben bought a telephone manufacturing company with aid of his parent's wealth, and set out to develop an amplifier for telephone conversations. By 1906 he had built a relay based on cathode-ray tubes, a common device by that time in physics experiments (and later the basis for the dominant video screen technology of the twentieth century). The weak incoming signal controlled an electromagnet that bent the cathode ray beam, modulating the stronger current in the main circuit.
By 1910 von Lieben and his colleagues, Eugen Reisz and Sigmund Strauss, learned about the de Forest Audion, and replaced the magnet with a grid inside the tube to control the flow of cathode rays – this was a much more effective design, and surpassed anything developed in the U.S. to date. The German telephone network soon adopted the von Lieben amplifier. In 1914, it enabled a nervous call from the East Prussian army commander to German staff headquarters, 1,000 kilometers away in Koblenz. This in turn led the German Chief of Staff to dispatch Generals Hindenberg and Ludendorff to the East, to enduring fame, and with weighty consequences. The same amplifiers later connected German headquarters with field armies as far south and east as Macedonia and Romania.12
Replica of the mature form of von Lieben's cathode-ray relay. The cathode is at bottom, the anode is the coil at top, and the grid is the circular metal foil in the middle.
But the barriers of language, geography, and war prevented this design from reaching the U.S. before it was overtaken by the developments that follow.
De Forest, meanwhile, had left his failing Radio Telephone Company, in 1911, and fled to California. There he took a position at the Federal Telegraph Company in Palo Alto, founded by Stanford graduate Cyril Elwell.13 Nominally, de Forest was assigned to work on an amplifier in order to generate a louder output signal from Federal's radio receiver (called a "tikker"). In practice, he, Herbert van Ettan (a skilled telephone engineer), and Charles Logwood (designer of the tikker) focused instead on building a telephone amplifier to secure for themselves (not Federal) a rumored $1 million prize from AT&T.
To this end, De Forest brought the Audion out of cold storage, and by the summer of 1912 he and his colleagues had a device they were ready to show to the phone company. It consisted of several Audions in sequence, to create multiple amplification stages, plus several other auxiliary components. It worked, after a fashion – it could amplify an audio signal well enough to hear the drop of a handkerchief, or the tick of a pocket watch. But only at currents and voltages too low to be at all useful for telephony. When pressed harder, a blue glow appeared inside the Audions and the signal turned to noise. The telephone men were sufficiently intrigued, however, to bring the device in to see what their engineers would make of it. It so happens that one of them, a young physicist named Harold Arnold, knew exactly how the amplifier from Federal Telegraph could be set to rights.
The time has come to discuss how it is that the valve and Audion actually worked. The crucial knowledge for explaining their function came from the Cavendish Lab in Cambridge – the intellectual center of the new electron physics. There, in 1899, J.J. Thomson had shown convincingly via experiments on cathode ray tubes that a particle with mass, later known as the electron, carried the current from cathode to anode. Over the next few years, Owen Richardson, a colleague of Thomson's, developed this basic premise into a mathematical theory of thermionic emission.14
Ambrose Fleming, an academic engineer who worked just a short train ride away from Cambridge, was familiar with this body of work. Therefore it was clear to him that his valve functioned by thermionic emission of electrons from the heated filament, which then crossed the vacuum gap to the cold anode. But the vacuum in the indicator lamp was far from complete: an ordinary light bulb did not require such a thing; it was sufficient to remove enough oxygen to prevent the combustion of the filament. Fleming therefore realized to make the valve work as well as possible, it should be evacuated beyond normal levels, in order to prevent residual gas from interfering with the passage of electrons.
De Forest, on the other hand, did not realize this. Because he came to the valve and Audion by way of his Bunsen burner experiments, he believed exactly the opposite – that hot, ionized gas was the working fluid of the device, and that too-perfect evacuation would destroy its function. This was the reason for the Audion's inconsistent and disappointing performance as a radio receiver, and for the fatal blue glow.15
AT&T's Arnold was perfectly placed to correct de Forest's error. A physicist who had studied under Robert Millikan at the University of Chicago, he was recruited specifically to apply his knowledge of the new electron physics to the coast-to-coast telephony problem. He knew that the Audion tube would function best at a near-perfect vacuum, knew that the newest pump designs could achieve that, knew that a new kind of oxide-coated filament along with a larger plate and grid would also help increase the electron flow. In short, he transformed the Audion into the vacuum tube, wonder-worker of the electronic age.16
AT&T now had the powerful amplifier it needed to build their transcontinental line, it lacked only the legal rights to use it. Their representatives remained diffident in the conversations with de Forest, but opened separate negotiations through a third-party lawyer, who managed to acquire the rights to the Audion as a telephone amplifier for $50,000 (roughly $1.25 million in 2017 dollars). The New York-San Francisco line opened right on time17, though as a triumph of technical virtuosity and corporate publicity rather than of human communication; rates were so exorbitant that hardly anyone would use it.
An Electronic Age
The true vacuum tube formed the root for a whole new tree of electronic components. As with the relay, so too did the vacuum tube diversify and diversify again, as engineers found ways to tweak the design just so to suit the needs of a particular problem. The growth of -odes did not end with diodes and triodes. It continued with the tetrode, which added an additional grid to sustain amplification as the number of elements in the circuit grew. Pentodes, heptodes, even octodes, followed. There were thyratrons filled with mercury vapor, which glowed an eerie blue; miniaturized tubes as small as a pinky finger, or even (eventually) an acorn; indirectly heated tubes to prevent the hum of an alternating current power source from disturbing the signal. The Saga of the Vacuum Tube, a book describing the growth of the tube industry to 1930, references on the order of 1,000 different models by name in its index, though many were bootleg knock-offs from fly-by-night independent brands: Alltron, Perfectron, Supertron, Voltron, etc.18
Tubes of all shapes and sizes: diodes, triodes, pentodes, etc. Contrast the now-standard pins with the connections on the early Audion.
Even more important than diversity of forms was the diversity of applications enabled by the vacuum tube. Regenerative circuits transformed the triode into a transmitter – a transmitter that generated smooth, continuous sine waves, with no noisy spark, and thus able to transmit sound perfectly. With coherer and spark in 1901, Marconi was barely able to heave the smallest fragment of Morse code across the narrowest part of the Atlantic. In 1915, with the vacuum tube as transmitter and receiver, AT&T was able to project the human voice from Arlington, Virginia to Honolulu, over twice the distance. By the early 1920s they were combining long-distance telephony with high-quality sound broadcasting to create the first radio networks. By such means would entire nations soon bend their ear to a single voice, be it that of a Roosevelt, or a Hitler.
Moreover, the ability to create transmitters tuned to a precise, stable pitch also allowed telecommunications engineers to finally realize the dream of frequency multiplexing, which had lured Alexander Graham Bell, Edison, and others forty years before. By 1923, AT&T had a ten-channel voice line from New York to Pittsburgh. The ability to carry many voices on a single copper wire would greatly reduce the cost of long-distance calling, which had always been too expensive to use for all but the wealthiest of individuals and businesses.19 Once they saw what vacuum tubes were capable of, AT&T sent their lawyers back to buy more rights from de Forest, and then still more – to secure the rights to the application of the Audion in all imaginable fields, they paid him a total of $390,000, roughly $7.5 million today.20
Given their evident versatility, why did vacuum tubes not dominate the first generation of computers in the same way they dominated radio and other telecommunications equipment? It was obvious that a triode could act as a digital switch in the same fashion as a relay[^22]; so obvious that de Forest was convinced that he had built a relay before he actually managed to do so. And the triode was far more responsive than the traditional electromechanical relay, because there was no need to physically move an armature. Whereas a relay typically took several milliseconds to switch on or off, the effect on the flow from cathode to anode from a change in the electrical potential on the grid was nearly instantaneous.
However tubes had a clear disadvantage vis-a-vis relays: their tendency, like their ancestor the incandescent bulb, to burn out. The lifetime of de Forest's original Audions was so poor – a mere 100 hours or so – that he had a back-up filament placed in the bulb to be wired up after the first inevitably failed. This was exceptionally bad, but even later, high-quality tubes could not be expected to last for more than a few thousand hours of normal use. In a computer with thousands of tubes, whose computations might take hours to complete, this was a serious problem.
Relays, by contrast, were, in the words of George Stibitz, "awesomely reliable." So much so, that he claimed that21
if a set of U-type relays had started in the year 1 A.D. to turn a contact on and off once per second, they still would be clicking away reliably. Their first contact failure, or misfire, would not be due until more than a thousand years from now, around the year 3000.
Moreover, no experience existed with large electronic circuits comparable to that of telephone engineers with large electromechanical circuits. Radio receivers and other electronic equipment might contain five or ten tubes, but not hundreds or thousands. No one knew whether a, computer with, say, 5,000 tubes, could be made to work. By going with relays over tubes, computer designers made the safe, conservative choice.
In our next installment we will see how, and why, these doubts were overcome.
Hugh G.J. Aitken, The Continuous Wave (1985)
J. A. Fleming, The Thermionic Valve (1919)
Anton A. Huurdeman, The Worldwide History of Telecommunications (2003)
Paul Israel, Edison: A Life of Invention (1998)
Tom Lewis, The Empire of the Air (1991)
Gerald F. J. Tyne, Saga of the Vacuum Tube (1977)
Paul Israel, Edison: A Life of Invention (1998), 167-190. ↩
Some accounts report that it was in fact another member of Edison's lab who found "his" effect, which is far from improbable, given the scope of the operations for which Edison was by then responsible. Other accounts confuse the Edison effect with lamp blackening itself, and the absence of blackening that sometimes appeared in the plane of the filament. This line was indeed related to the same underlying phenomenon of thermionic emission as the Edison effect. But it required no special perspicacity to notice it, it was obvious from just looking at burnt out lamps. Explaining it was another matter. ↩
J. A. Fleming, The Thermionic Valve (1919), 4. ↩
In this sense the coherer was in fact a digital switch, but a very poor one. ↩
Fleming was nonetheless able to secure an American patent easily; Edison's patent had since expired, and in any case did not foresee applications to radio. ↩
A number of other black colleges of the South, such as Howard, Fisk, and Hampton Universities, were also founded by the AMA. For the most part, southern whites had no interest in educating southern blacks. ↩
Tom Lewis, The Empire of the Air (1991), 29. For instance, at the outbreak of the Spanish-American war, he was all patriotic bluster, but only enlisted after waiting long enough to be certain the war would be short and easy for the United States – "I will get the benefits–and the glory (!) of the campaign without the danger. I do not risk my destiny," he wrote. Lewis, 33. ↩
Hugh G.J. Aitken, The Continuous Wave (1985), 186. ↩
The idea originated an experiment done in 1900 when working with Smythe, in which a sparking transmitter seemed to affect the brightness of a burner flame. It turned out the effect was due to the sound of the spark, but the idea of some kind of connection between hot gases and wireless reception stuck with De Forest. Hugh G.J. Aitken, The Continuous Wave (1985), 196-199. ↩
De Forest pulled the same trick with the regenerative circuit, which allowed a triode to generate oscillating waves, and become a radio transmitter. Exactly as with the Fleming valve, de Forest convinced himself after hearing of the invention that he had already invented it. Unfortunately, in this case the Supreme Court eventually found in his favor, to the shock of most of the engineering community. Lewis, Empire of the Air, Chapter 8. ↩
De Forest escaped with a stern warning from the judge, but three of his co-defendants were found guilty. ↩
Gerald F. J. Tyne, Saga of the Vacuum Tube (1977), 239-240; On the fateful telephone call see Winston S. Churchill, The World Crisis, vol. 5 (2015 [1931]), 122-128. ↩
Thus what follows is (to my knowledge) the first event significant to the history of computing to take place in the future Silicon Valley, or indeed in the Western U.S. generally. ↩
Richardson would later receive the Nobel Prize for this work. ↩
Hugh Aitken has made the case that De Forest was not wrong, and in fact his Audion worked in a different mode from later "hard vacuum" tubes, a mode based on the conductivity of ionized gas: Hugh G.J. Aitken, The Continuous Wave (1985), 221. I am neither a physicist nor an electrical engineer, but I find this hard to credit for two reasons: 1) There's no reason I know of that ionized gas would have one-way conductivity – which means there could be no rectification or amplification through such a medium. 2) It seems clear from the 1912 telephone amplifier work at Federal that the Audion began to break down as an amplifier exactly when the gas began to ionize (the blue glow), i.e the ionized gas mode was dysfunctional. ↩
At around the same time, in 1913, a General Electric research physicist named Irving Langmuir also came into contact with the Audion, and reached the same conclusions about how to improve it as Arnold. Fritz Lowenstein, a former co-worker of de Forest's, and former assistant to Tesla, had been doing his own experiments with building a telephone amplifier from the Audion. His prototypes came to Langmuir's attention via another GE engineer, Ernst Alexanderson. GE thus developed its own high quality vacuum tube technologies in the lab, but was constrained from employing them by lack of patent rights. ↩
The Panama–Pacific International Exposition, on the other hand, did not – it was delayed to 1915. ↩
Gerald F. J. Tyne, Saga of the Vacuum Tube (1977), 331-366, 471-480. ↩
John Bray, Innovation and the Communications Revolution: From the Victorian Pioneers to Broadband Internet (2002), 58. ↩
By the end of World War I, the importance of radio as a military and commercial technology was evident, and virtually all of the important patents in the field of radio fell under the control of such corporate giants, closing the era of independent invention. In the U.S. that meant primarily AT&T, General Electric, and the American Marconi Company. The last was transformed into the Radio Corporation of America (RCA) shortly after World War I, under pressure from the U.S. Navy. American Marconi was subsidiary to its British parent company, and the Navy wanted to ensure that American radio technology, which had become central to naval operations, was under wholly American control. For all the gory details, see Aitken, The Continuous Wave. ↩
Quoted in David Ritchie, The Computer Pioneers, 44. ↩
It's actually possible to build limited forms of logical circuits strictly from diodes (i.e. Fleming valves), see https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Diode_logic on the limitations.
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3 thoughts on "The Electronic Age"
elkement (Elke Stangl)	 June 26, 201710:09 pm	 Reply
Thanks for writing this blog – I read it cover-to-cover now! I am impressed by the level of detail and how you weave together the development of technologies, human stories, and over-arching trends in politics and society. Your blog a high-quality book!
As a physicist and engineer I am very interested in the history of science and technology. What I find most fascinating is how difficult it sometimes is to really understand dated publications on things that 'we know' today, because you need to translate the language and concepts used in earlier times to their modern counterparts first before you can try to understand the actual science.
technicshistory	 June 30, 20172:25 pm	 Reply
Thank you for the kind words!
Ashok Deobhakta	 April 15, 20181:17 pm	 Reply
Very interesting. Amazing to see so much efforts went in to discovery of vacuum tubes, starting from an incandescent lamp.
ARPANET, Part 3: The Subnet July 10, 2019
ARPANET, Part 2: The Packet June 2, 2019
ARPANET, Part 1: The Inception May 8, 2019
The Unraveling, Part 2 March 23, 2019
Extending Interactivity January 24, 2019
The Backbone


The Mediterranean decor is based on Mediterranean coastal areas of Spain, Greece, Italy, Turkey and North Africa and what they have in common all these areas are brightness, color and freshness. A style where prevail the colors ranging from white to blue and brown.
The Mediterranean is a very connected with nature style, so that materials such as wood, stone and wrought iron are those indicated for use in this type of decorative plan.
For walls, stone and plaster. For the latter can enhance the lighting stays thanks to the effect of the color of the walls, they must be mostly white, but if you want desmarcarte a little you can opt for a gray or a very light blue, tending nearly white. This color will enhance not only light, but will provide freshness to the environment.
The floors of the house in a Mediterranean style can be clay or ceramic, but should not be excluded alternatives such as wooden floors. In the Mediterranean style it is common to use tiles and mosaics, both in the bathroom and the kitchen, as in other parts of the house. The tiles can be simple but make sure that match the rest of the decor.
The furniture tends to be simple, unadorned, remember that, above all, the Mediterranean style is simple and minimalist trends, so the furniture in this type of decoration to be little overdone. Opt for simple furniture, low designs, wood and wicker, with light colors.
As for fabrics common colors are white, olive green, blue, ocher and brown. The last two especially for the living room, the blue in the bathroom since it is perfect because it reminds us of the color of the sea, and green can be used for cooking.
As you can put details of wrought iron, lamps, mirrors, furniture legs, frames, etc. This material includes details in the bathroom and kitchen, as well as in furniture, chair backs or details in the corners of the tables. Wrought iron will help to give contrast to the natural elements.
Fresh flowers and colorful houseplants are also essential elements in this decorative style.
Diseño de Jardines. Interiorismo Locales y Retail.


text:
Frosh joins national lawsuit over census question
By: Associated Press	Larry Neumeister	April 3, 2018
Attorney General Brian Frosh.
NEW YORK — Seventeen states, the District of Columbia and six cities sued the U.S. government Tuesday, saying the addition of a citizenship question to the census form is unconstitutional.
The Trump administration's decision to ask people about their citizenship has set off worries among Democrats that immigrants will dodge the survey altogether, diluting political representation for states that tend to vote Democratic and robbing many communities of federal dollars.
Supporters of the plan for the 2020 census argue that enforcing voting rights requires more data on the voting-age population of citizens than current surveys are providing. It would be the first time in 70 years that the government uses the census form sent to every household to ask people to specify whether they are U.S. citizens.
New York Attorney General Attorney General Eric Schneiderman, a Democrat who announced the new lawsuit in Manhattan federal court, said the plans would have a "devastating effect on New York, where we have millions of immigrants."
"It's unlawful. It's unfair," Schneiderman said at a news conference. He added that it would end a longstanding bipartisan effort to have the Bureau of the Census conduct a full and fair count of the population, including citizens and non-citizens.
Maryland Attorney General Brian E. Frosh said in a statement the administration's move "will not withstand constitutional scrutiny."
"The Trump Administration's decision to demand citizenship information is an attempt to intimidate voters and to suppress the vote," said Frosh. "It will undermine the accuracy of the census, result in the loss of federal funds for Maryland and deprive our state of fair representation in Congress."
The Census Bureau hasn't included a citizenship question in its survey of all U.S. households since 1950, well before passage of a 1965 law meant to ensure minority groups are fully represented in the once-a-decade count.
The lawsuit, which also included the bipartisan U.S. Conference of Mayors as a plaintiff, said adding the citizenship question was arbitrary and will "fatally undermine the accuracy of the population count." It asked for a ruling that the citizenship demand is unauthorized and unconstitutional.
According to the lawsuit, nearly a quarter of households in New York state did not return their 2010 census questionnaire, requiring an in-person follow-up. It noted that one-in-five New York residents were born in another country. The NAACP has also said the new plan will also lead to a massive undercounting of blacks.
A government spokesman did not immediately comment. The Justice Department has said it "looks forward to defending the reinstatement of the citizenship question." The Commerce Department has said the benefits of obtaining citizenship information "outweighed the limited potential adverse impacts."
The decennial census is required by the Constitution and used to determine the number of seats each state has in the House, as well as how federal money is distributed to local communities. Communities and businesses depend on it in deciding where to build schools, hospitals, grocery stores and more.
Several states that have slowing population growth or high numbers of immigrants such as California, New York, Illinois, Massachusetts and Ohio are typically at risk of losing U.S. House seats when their congressional districts are redrawn every 10 years — depending on how fully their residents are counted.
The defendants in the lawsuit are the U.S. Department of Commerce, responsible for the census, and the Bureau of the Census. Plaintiffs include New York, Connecticut, Delaware, Illinois, Iowa, Massachusetts, Minnesota, New Jersey, New Mexico, North Carolina, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Rhode Island, Virginia, Vermont, Washington, the District of Columbia, New York City, Chicago, Philadelphia, Rhode Island, San Francisco, Seattle and Providence, Rhode Island.
California's attorney general filed a separate lawsuit last week that seeks to block the citizenship question from being added to the census questionnaire.
Attorney General Brian E. Frosh census citizenship lawsuit 4:30 pm Tue, April 3, 2018 Maryland Daily Record
Tagged with: Attorney General Brian E. Frosh census citizenship lawsuit
To purchase a reprint of this article, contact reprints@thedailyrecord.com.
LEROY ANTONIO AUSTIN v. STATE OF MARYLAND
FIRST HORIZON HOME LOAN CORPORATION v. KEVIN P. JAY, ET AL
ANTHONY BOWARD v. STATE OF MARYLAND
ERNEST ELSBERRY, ET AL. v. STANLEY MARTIN COMPANIES, LLC
DELONTE SINCLAIR v. STATE OF MARYLAND
More Law News
Do Minnesota cases show it's getting easier to convict cops?
Attorney for indicted Baltimore prosecutor Mosby outlines defense
MSBA nominates Paley Rothman partner David Shapiro as president-elect
by Daily Record Staff | Jan. 18
Maryland jury trials on hold until March amid COVID-19 wave
by Madeleine O'Neill | Jan. 18
Find out what attorneys think of the economics of the business in our Maryland Lawyers Confidence Index
Find a legal job in our classified ads
Get assistance for your case with litigation support
Read lawyer-to-lawyer referrals
Submit a verdict or settlement
See digested appellate court opinions in Law Digest
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U.S. Labor Department says company lacked good cents

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


Buds Garage is in the top 40% of cannabis retailers in WA.
They had 263 sales in Oct 2017. The average transaction was $921.92, for 29.5 items.
Their top product in Oct 2017 was "White Wreck (3.50g)." They purchased it wholesale for $9.63/unit from Mno, and sold it on average for $20.03 (pre-tax), a markup of 3.0x.
Businesses like theirs include Budhut, Mari J's Highway Pot Shop, The Kushery, and more.
In Oct 2017 they had about 25 suppliers, of whom 6 also sell to Budhut.
They had sales of $195k in Feb 2019, which is 9% higher than the previous month.
The shop does the most sales at 8am on Tuesdays.


text:
La Unión Canadiense de la Orden de Santa Úrsula (en latín: Unio Canadense Ordinis Sanctae Ursulae; en francés: Union Canadienne des Moniales de l'Ordre de Sainte-Ursule) es una congregación religiosa católica de ursulinas de derecho pontificio, erigida el 7 de junio de 1953, bajo el gobierno de una superiora general con sede en Quebec, Canadá. A las religiosas de la congregación se les conoce con el nombre de Ursulinas de Unión Canadiense, o también como, Ursulinas de Québec, y posponen a sus nombres las siglas O.S.U.

Historia

Origen
Como todas las ramas de religiosas, monjas y vírgenes ursulinas, su origen se haya en la antigua Orden de Santa Úrsula fundada por Ángela de Mérici en Brescia, en 1535.

Fundación del monasterio de Quebec
El primer monasterio de ursulinas en Quebec fue fundado en 1639 por una comunidad de monjas francesas guiadas por María de la Encarnación Guyart. Debido a que algunas de estas provenían de la Congregación de las ursulinas de Tours y seguían la Regla de las ursulinas de Bordeaux; y otras observaban la Regla de las ursulinas de París, ya que provenían de la Congregación de Dieppe; María de la Encarnación redactó unas nuevas constituciones, que preveían la observancia de la Regla de París y el hábito de las religiosas de Tours. Dichas constituciones fueron aprobadas en 1622 por el obispo François de Montmorency-Laval, entonces Vicario apostólico de Nueva Francia. El mismo obispo les obligó a observar la Regla y Constituciones de la Congregación de París el 17 de marzo de 1661, luego de la muerte de María de la Encarnación.

Del monasterio de Quebec surgieron numerosas filiales en Canadá, cada uno independiente por ser monasterios de clausura. Cuando en 1900 se creó la Unión Romana de la Orden de Santa Úrsula, alguno monasterios canadienses se adhirieron a ella.

Unión Canadiense

Los monasterios que permanecían autónomos en Canadá, decidieron hacer una propia congregación. En 1930 se dio una primera unión, llamada la «Unión de Québec», formada por los conventos de Quebec, Roberval y Stanstead. El 7 de junio de 1953, se erigió oficialmente la Unión Canadiense de las Monjas de la Orden de Santa Úrsula. En 1966 las Ursulinas de dicha Unión adoptaron los votos simples, dejando de ser monjas de clausura y se convirtiéndose en Congregación religiosa.

El fin específico de la nueva congregación era, siguiendo las normas educativas de Ángela de Mérici, la educación de las jóvenes indígenas y de las hijas francesas. Con el tiempo se abrió también la educación para los adultos.

María de la Encarnación fue beatificada por el papa Juan Pablo II el 22 de junio de 1980 y canonizada por el papa Francisco el 3 de abril de 2014.

Organización
La Unión Canadiense de la Orden de Santa Úrsula es un instituto religioso de derecho pontificio y centralizado, cuyo gobierno es ejercido por una superiora general, que actualmente es la religiosa canadiense Cécile Dionne. La sede central se encuentra en Quebec (Canadá).

Las ursulinas de Quebec se dedican a la educación y formación cristiana de la juventud. En 2017, el instituto contaba con 306 religiosas y 32 comunidades, presentes presentes en Canadá, Filipinas, Japón y  Perú.

Enlaces externos

Página web oficial de las Ursulinas de la Unión Canadiense

Referencias

Bibliografía

Ursulinas
Congregaciones religiosas católicas femeninas
Organizaciones católicas fundadas en Canadá
Organizaciones religiosas fundadas en 1953

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


I've been experiencing an exceptional amount of lag recently.
If you're experiencing lags with FPS, try running Tanki as a separate application. If the problem is with PING, check the following page for possible solutions: High ping.


Tom Brady has taken less money for years, but maybe his attitude has changed.
ESPN.com reports that Tom Brady has yet to commit to playing the 2018 season, though those close to him expect him to in fact return.
"I believe he's going to be there", a source said, as reported by ESPN. "I think the people around and the people inside that organization think that he'll play, but they don't know that he will play".
So New England find themselves in a spot where they now have one of the league's best-ever quarterbacks under contract for next season, but also the required capital needed to draft an elite quarterback that could replace Tom Brady. This year could be more important than usual given that they don't have Danny Amendola nor Brandin Cooks in the mix. "I didn't like practicing in the snow, I didn't like practicing in the rain, but that was going to make us a better football team, and that was going to make me a better football player".
Another star Patriots player, tight end Rob Gronkowski, also hasn't indicated positively whether he'll return. The action added fuel to the fire that there may be discord between the quarterback and coach Bill Belichick. perhaps stemming from Brady's relationship with body coach Alex Guerrero.
Moorfields has been managing the administration of the bust company, after it was unable to pay a 15 million pound tax bill. Failed US toy-store chain Toys'R'Us reportedly plans to sell its Asia business for more than one billion dollars.
Bayless said he's convinced that Brady wants to play three or four more years with the Patriots, but not under Belichick.
Tom Brady hasn't committed to playing the 2018 National Football League season, according to a report.
Amendola and Lewis both said the contract offers they received from the Patriots were not in line with what others offered, and they didn't feel particularly wanted.
This will certainly be something to monitor, but it would be shocking not to see Brady as the quarterback for the Patriots next season.
The charge will be a concern to organisers of the World Cup, with the start of the competition in less than two months' time. StubHub said it fully complies with applicable laws and does not allow the resale of World Cup tickets.


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There's a candle holder with a small candle that sits on a shelf on a bookcase in our great room. That particular shelf sits closer to the floor and every now and then our daughter will play with it and I'll find the candle under the loveseat or dining room table. Then, I'll place the candle back in it's spot and straighten the holder itself on the shelf next to a family photo from a wedding.
There's a devotional on my side table next to my reading chair in my room. It's a devotional I don't pick up anymore. It's a devotional I only completed one third of the way. It's stacked on a shelf with a Harry Potter book, empty journal, scribbled in journal and another devotional I regularly read. Some days when our daughter wanders into our room she'll pull those books onto the floor and sit among them and flip through the pages. There's a copy of an image in that devotional (that I never finished) and she's never been intrigued with it.
Read more on the St. Louis Moms Blog.


Location New Forest. Holgate How. Summit.
Record Name New Forest.Holgate How. Summit round barrow and associated prehistoric landscape.
Record Description Very large, 20m diameter, and rather low,1.5m high,summit round barrow. Turf covered and slightly disturbed. This round barrow is the focal point of a prehistoric landscape which includes; 1) A second but much smaller round cairn approximately 5000m to the NE (see photo below),2) a group of rock art sites on the SW slopes (see photos below) an unenclosed settlement (unsurveyed) on the lower slopes to the South and a burnt mound at NZ06467 04676, 388m.
Additional Notes These late neolithic and bronze age sites are located on the line of an easy approach across the Swale-Tees-Greta Interfluve to the Pass of Stainmore. Penny Spikens, in her paper titled 'Rivers Boundaries and Change' (Spikens 1996) suggested that Mesolithic Communities occupied territories based on river catchments and that the concentrations of Hunter Gatherer Occupation Sites at Springs on the interfluve wer located for purposes of exchange and marriage. The concentration of Mesolithic Hunter Gatherer Occupation Sites some 2km tothe north of Holgate How, see photos below, which are clustered at the watershed springs at the head of Marske Beck provide support for this idea.
Image 1 Description Holgate How Round barrow. View to the south.
Image 2 Description Holgate How Summit Round Barrow. Photographed during Reeth Museum Friends Field Walk 26.03.2007.
Image 3 Description Holgate How Round barrow.
Image 4 Description Holgate How Round barrow.
Image 5 Description Holgate How Round barrow.
Image 6 Description Holgate How South Slope.Cup and ring marked rock. Beckensall and Laurie, 1998, p.94 Holgate Site 6. Historic photo.
Image 7 Description Holgate How South Slope. Cup and ring marked rock. Beckensall and Laurie 1998 Site 6. Recent photo.
Image 8 Description Holgate How South Slope.Cup and ring marked rock. Beckensall and Laurie,1998, Holgate Site 7. Historic photo.
Image 9 Description Holgate How South Slope.Cup and ring marked rock. Beckensall and Laurie, 1998, Holgate Site 7. Historic photo.
Image 10 Description Holgate How South Slope. Cup and ring marked rock. Many rocks here have been quarried away for stone gate posts.
Image 11 Description Barningham High Moor. Late neolithis arrowpoint made from black chert, and mesolithic toolkit.
Image 12 Description Late Mesolithic lithic finds from High Moor with narrow blade microliths.
Image 13 Description Flint cores of Late Mesolithic character from a High Moor site.
Image 14 Description Holgate How from Helwith.
Image 22 Description Small 8m dia round cairn 500m NE of Holgate How Summit Cairn.
Image 23 Description Small 8m dia round cairn 500m NE of Holgate How Summit Cairn.


The Diadora B Elite x Social Status Beige is one of the final collaborations of the year. It's the pain-staking attention to detail and ultra premium detailing which makes these exclusives from the Italian sneaker brand so appealing.
If you're on the many sneakerheads hoping for a win on these, be sure to hit that bell icon above. We'll send you an email alert as soon as these go live!
Soft and premium suede covers the upper in a deep shade of beige. This sandy colourway looks especially stylish across the iconic lines of the Diadora B Elite. The OG stripe features across the sidewall and unique stitched detailing further sets this release apart as an exclusive.
To complete the look, a unique lacing system features complete with leather-crafted laces that weave into the shoe and tighten across the heel. A set of colourful beads feature in the Italian flag colours and iconic Diadora branding is stamped to the tongue. A chunky, white midsole sits underfoot which is the classic logo across the heel.
The Diadora B Elite x Social Status Beige is scheduled to release on 22nd December via the retailers listed.


Otto Hulst is Innovation Lead at the KAS BANK, the custodian bank for professional investors, he heads the organisation's innovation hub: KAS LAB. Hulst is responsible for developing the bank's innovation agenda together with the board. Within the lab, he stimulates the exploration of new business models and emerging technologies. Currently lab teams of experts and entrepreneurs are working on solutions driven by blockchain and data management technologies.
He has a deep interest in innovation within the pension world and participates in several boards and a national think-tank. Due to his dedication to this subject, Otto was elected Young Pension Fund Board member of the year.


InCommon Federation provides federated identities for academic communities. As an identity administrator for an educational institution that is a member of InCommon Federation, you can configure your enterprise to accept login for access to Adobe applications using an InCommon Federated ID.
When the user tries to sign in with Federated ID, Adobe sends a request to your IdP, which attempts to authenticate the user. After authentication, the IdP sends a response message to sign the user in and Adobe grants authorization for its services to the user.
Each IdP stores identity information differently, which means that you must create a mapping between the specific fields that your IdP uses, and the fields that are required for the corresponding Adobe ID. The mapping must go both ways. You must configure your Adobe organization with your IdP contact and mapping information, and you must configure your IdP with contact and mapping information for your Adobe organization.
A working SAML 2.0 compliant IdP. InCommon Federation members typically use Shibboleth 2.x or 3.x as their IdP, but that is not required.
Administrative access to both the Adobe Admin Console and the InCommon Federation Manager.
Administrative access to your IdP metadata.
An approved domain claim for your Adobe organization account.
Use the Adobe Admin Console to configure your organization with the security details of the IdP that you use to authenticate your InCommon Federation IDs.
Use the InCommon Federation Manager to configure a Service Provider entry for Adobe connections.
To Configure Single Sign-On for your domain, enter the required information using the Set Up Domain wizard in the Adobe Admin Console.
You must fill in these fields to enable Adobe to connect to your service provider and allow users to log in with their InCommon Federated IDs.
IDP binding: HTTP-POST or HTTP-REDIRECT.
User login setting: Choose whether users log in with an email address or a simple username.
IDP issuer: The entity ID of your IdP.
IDP Login URL: The SAML login endpoint, as required for the Binding you specify.
To access the metadata file for the new service provider, click Download Metadata. Use this file to configure your SAML integration with the Identity Provider. Your Identity Provider requires this file to enable Single Sign-On.
A connection to Adobe requires a custom Service Provider in the InCommon Federation Manager. The Service Provider entry maps identity information between the Adobe Federated ID format and the InCommon Federated ID format used by your IdP. You find the Adobe values in the service-provider metadata file you downloaded from Admin Console.
To create a Service Provider entry, use the following steps.
In the InCommon Federation Manager UI, choose New Service Provider.
Fill in the Entity ID from the entityID field in your Adobe metadata.
Under User Interface Elements and Requested Attributes, set SP Display Name to a name that you will easily recognize.
To fill in Requested Attributes, you must first configure the IdP for the custom attributes that Adobe requires as described below. Skip it for now.
Under Assertion Consumer Service, fill in the corresponding values from the Adobe metadata. For Location URL, use the SAML HTTP-POST binding value.
Single Logout Services are not currently supported. Leave blank.


Visa is required for traveling to Bhutan and it is processed in Thimphu through a local tour operator such as Exodus Bhutan Tours. No foreign missions / embassies abroad grants tourist visa.
Scanned copy of your Passport (color scanned if possible in JPEG file) should be sent to Exodus Bhutan at least 1 month prior to date of travel for visa processing. On receiving the tour payment, Exodus Bhutan shall process the visa. Visa approval will be issued which the Exodus Bhutan shall fax/email to the agent abroad.
Actual visa is stamped only on arrival in Bhutan with the support of visa clearance, which will be sent to you in advance.
For all Travellers, entering Bhutan via Druk Air, visa clearance number is forwarded to the concerned overseas Druk Air Stations and without this clearance number the passengers are not allowed to board the flight.
For Travellers entering the country by surface through Phunstholing (The border town in the Southern Bhutan ), visa Clearance number is forwarded to the Local Authority and the actual visa is stamped on arrival. Two copies of passport size photographs are required on arrival.
Visa fee is USD 40 per person and it should be paid along with the Tour payment.
A valid passport is required for all nationals except Indians. For travel to Bhutan , the validity of the passport should be minimum 6 months.
The rates given above are applicable per tourist per night halt in Bhutan . The Tariff is same for Trekking too. On the day of departure, the local agents host obligation shall be limited to breakfast only and any extra requirements shall be payable on actual basis. The rates shall apply uniformly irrespective of locations and the type of accommodation provided/asked for. List of hotels and lodges approved for international tourist accommodation updated from time to time shall be issued by the Department of Tourism.
The surcharge will not be applicable to representatives of foreign travel agents on business study or promotion visit duly approved and cleared by DOT.


text:
Blog Categories feature Hellz Abyss - Pottymouth - Featured At Pete's Rock News And Views!
Hellz Abyss - Pottymouth - Featured At Pete's Rock News And Views! Sunday September 19 2021, 11:27 AM
Hellz Abyss - Pottymouth - Featured At Pete's Rock News And Views ! Check it out here at this link: http://petesrocknewsandviews.com/hellz-abyss/
FFO: In This Moment, Halestorm, The Pretty Reckless
It's no secret that the world is currently stuck in some sort of crazy bad dream.. Bad moods, confusion and frustration is everywhere. Some choose to lay down and give in., Hellz Abyss thrives on the twisted, sick game of life. Choosing to accept the challenge by damning the negative taboo to Hell, going bat shit crazy and releasing some great new hard rock and signing some amazing contracts while they are at it.
The Devil from down-under, Hellz Abyss is back and there has been lots to celebrate in Hellz with their brand new EP. POTTYMOUTH . Officially released on the 12th of September 2021 through Revenge of Eve Records , the EP takes hold of this current fragile atmosphere and summons the elephant in the room to come forward and be dealt with. The EP consists of 5 brand new releases from the same writers and collaborators of Hellz Abyss that brought you this year's earlier cult favorite album N1FG.
Australia's Lisa Perry and Daryl Holden are known for their dark rock anthems and this time they have added some extra saltiness to match the current mood. The EP POTTYMOUTH speaks to everyone who needs some much needed stress release in 2021. With an eccentric smorgasbord of powerful vocals, melodies and lyrics from Lisa Perry, Daryl Holden 's superb production skills and guest guitar solos from Stephen Brogan. This EP is something to get excited about. With the dust slightly settling Hellz Abyss is looking forward to joining band members Mick Jones (Bass), Mark McLeod (Drums), Dean Fistlord (Guitar) to tour the UK and Europe in June 2022 with the HELLCATS on the Hotter than Hell Tour, International women of rock.
Hellz Abyss has also recently celebrated signing with Established Global Artist Management Distilled Entertainment , USA.
Distilled artists have performed alongside Soulfly, Metallica, Slayer, KORN, Slipknot, Lamb of God, Rob Zombie, POD, Disturbed, Five Finger Death Punch, Machine Head, Hatebreed, Atreyu , and All That Remains to name a few!. Distilled artists also play major traveling festivals including Rockstar Mayhem Festival , Ozzfest, Jägermeister Music Tour, Vans Warped Tour, Rockstar Mayhem Uproar , and Aftershock Festival .
Check out these videos!
POTTYMOUTH by Hellz Abyss is available for download and streaming on all major digital streaming services from September 12th.
Follow the band at these links:
https://linktr.ee/HellzAbyss
https://www.houseofhellz.com
https://www.facebook.com/hellzabyss/
https://www.youtube.com/hellzlive
https://open.spotify.com/artist/04nZIFZelL4pHveSoLJZQC
https://music.apple.com/au/artist/hellz-abyss/1553655529
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