Today's cultural tussle over who gets to call themselves "Christian" reminds me of the Vietnam-era battle over "patriotic"
The fault line then was both generational and cultural. An older generation came out of World War Two believing that, when the nation went to war and the cause was just, patriotism required people to back the leaders and do their part.
Vietnam was different. Many of military age considered the war unjust and harmful to the nation. In their minds, patriotism required them to resist the war, not fight in it.
Also, the Vietnam era echoed the 1860s, when wealthy New Yorkers bought their way out of serving the Union, leaving duty to immigrants, mainly Irish, and leading eventually to terrible draft riots. Many young men in the 1960s avoided military duty by turning entitlement to their advantage.
"Patriotism," in other words, was complicated.
Same is true now of the label "Christian." To conservative believers and the politicians who crave their financial and electoral support, "Christian" is synonymous with a set of cultural attitudes: anti-abortion, anti-gay, anti-same-gender-marriage, anti-immigrant, anti-affirmative-action, and pro-guns.
Progressive Christians say that these cultural values have nothing to do with being a follower of Jesus Christ. Either he said nothing about them, or he taught exactly the opposite. In fact, progressives say, an honest Christian moral theology would affirm tolerance, diversity, freedom, inclusion of minorities, and opposition to violence.
Neither side has it all right or all wrong, of course. But one thing is clear: the term "Christian" is far more complicated and diverse than some religious folks want us to believe.
We are all partisans to some extent, and we want to use whatever tools we have to promote our cause. Some tools, however, need to be off-limits.
Turning "gay" into a slur, for example, doesn't just express a considered belief that homosexuality violates God's desire, it also demonizes persons and incites repression.
Using "Christian" to mean a certain set of moral and political absolutes empties the term of faith and makes it ideology. That is a troubling loss that all sides of these debates should regret. For we believe Jesus is Lord of all, not just the champion of our cause and friend to our kind. When we treat Jesus as a political ploy, we all lose.


The classic word game Scrabble has been played since the 1940s and has spawned a variety of other word games similar to it. One of these is Angry Words, and yes, letters and words are used in this game, not birds and pigs.
The game was developed by the Argentinian studio Etermax, known for creating various social games. Angry Words is also called Apalabrados, which comes from the Spanish word "apalabrar" that means "to arrange beforehand." And arranging letters to form valid words is what you mainly do in Angry Words. Instead of a physical game board and letter tiles like those used in Scrabble, Angry Words is played online through Facebook or a mobile device like a smartphone or tablet. It can be played on both iOS and Android devices. It was chosen as the best game in the Apple Store in 2012 and has been downloaded more than 8 million times. You can play it any time against your Facebook friends or random opponents online. You can play an unlimited number of games at the same time, so you won't get bored while waiting for your other opponents to make their move. The game can be played in a variety of languages including English, Spanish, French, Dutch, Italian, German, and Portuguese.
Just like in Scrabble, you are provided with seven letters during most of the game. The letters you use to spell out words will be immediately replaced with fresh tiles until no more tiles remain in the mother pile or if you or an opponent quits the game.
You begin to form a word at the center of the board, utilizing the square marked with a star. Words can be formed horizontally or vertically, and you and your opponent take turns in playing. Additional words can be formed by attaching them to the words that are already on the board. Every time you play a word, press the play button, symbolized by the triangle with its tip pointing to the right.
There is an exchange button, symbolized by two encircling arrows. Use this to exchange tiles you dislike or those that you find difficult to dispose of. However, using this button is also considered a turn, so you will have to wait for your next turn to form a word.
Waiting for your opponent to play can take some time, but you can give him or her a reminder by sending a message. In fact, if you are both online, you can chat with each other while playing! If you don't feel like chatting with anyone, you can also start a new game with another opponent by tapping the button with the plus sign. As mentioned earlier, the number of simultaneous games you play is infinite, so there are more chances for you to get your Angry Words fix and improve your game.
Every letter tile carries a certain point value. This point value depends on the frequency by which a letter is used, so the most common letters like the five vowels are worth a point each, while less frequently used letters have higher values. For example, C is worth 3 points, Y is worth 4, K is worth 5, while J is worth 8. The values of every letter used in a word will be added up, so the longer a word, the bigger your score may be.
However, short words can still result in high scores as long as the placement of your higher-scoring letter tiles is good. On the board, there are special squares that can double or triple the value of a letter or a word. For example, you play the word "jet." If placed on regular squares, the word is worth 9 points. But if you are able to place the letter J on a triple letter square, its value becomes 24, and the total value of the word becomes 26. Or if any of the letters fall on a triple word square, the total word square will be 36 instead of just 9 points! You'll also score more if your letters land on more than one special square!
You can also earn extra points if you are able to use all of your 7 letters in just one move! You will receive an extra 40 points for this, so better start learning many 7-letter words! Moreover, when the game ends and you win, you can even have additional points if your opponent has tiles remaining.
What are you waiting for? Go mad over Angry Words now!


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> Knowledge > Materials > Silver
Silver is a noble metal that has been used in jewellery and cutlery for hundreds of years. In the electronic industry it is used for its high electrical conductance capacity and in the medical industry, the antibacterial activity of silver is utilized in wound plasters and bandages, implants, creams and lotions. Nano-scaled silver is more effective compared to coarse silver as it has a higher surface area and can be more easily distributed in the various media. The clothing industry is using silver in textiles for its anti-bacterial properties and when applied into plastic packaging materials it helps to keep the food fresh for longer periods of time. Other applications of the noble metal silver are paints, cement and carpets.
How can I come into contact with this material?
silver cutlery © ninell / fotolia.com
Only small amounts of silver are released from silver cutlery and taken up through the food. The wearing of silver jewellery presents no reason for any health concern as normal healthy skin is a good barrier preventing any uptake. Silver inhibits effectively the growth of bacteria making it an excellent ingredient for medical applications. It supports the healing process of the skin e.g. in case of wound dressings for burns or creams used to treat certain skin conditions such as neurodermatitis or skin eczema. It has been shown that silver particles can be taken up by the skin via this route. The usefulness of silver in clothing items (e.g. socks) is controversial. A major question is whether it makes sense to invest the limited silver reserves in low-odour socks since it has been shown that silver can be washed out from these textiles and will end up in our wastewater treatment plants.
Silver is also approved as a food colouring agent (known as E174) to colour product surfaces. Labelling of food items is mandatory in cases of sugar-, confectionary and bakery products. Plastic packaging materials sold in the US or in Asia could contain silver particles which may then change over to the covered food items and thus enter the human body. Silver included in spray applications can also be breathed in.
Is there any risk from this material to humans and the environment?
Silver has bactericidal properties and if silver nanoparticles are administered in small amounts they will not cause any harm to the human body. However, the use of silver in high amounts and over a long period can cause a grey colouring of the skin and organs. It is important to notice that silver is especially toxic to certain wildlife animals such as fish.
Since the production volumes and applications of silver nanoparticles are constantly increasing greater quantities of silver nanoparticles enter the environment ending up for example in sewage sludge of wastewater treatment facilities. In general metals such as silver cannot be degraded in the environment.
Small amounts of silver nanoparticles are non-hazardous for humans. Only high concentrations of silver nanoparticles could be expected to cause adverse health effects in the human body. At present there is no evidence of risk to the environment but the hazard potential for the environment is likely to be higher as some animal species, notably fish are especially sensitive to silver. However, the German Environmental Agency (UBA) recommends adjusting the upper limit for silver content of sewage sludge upon which it is not allowed to be used on cultivated fields. Some countries, e.g. Switzerland, already have installed a legal ban for the usage of sewage sludge on cultivated fields.
The threshold limit value (TLV) for silver (in silver-containing compounds) allowed to be inhaled (breathed in) at the workplace is 0,01 mg/m3.
Properties and Applications
Silver (chemical symbol Ag) is one of the best-known metals. Be it the silver cutlery in family possession for over 100 years or silver jewellery that slumbers in a treasure chest. The "silvery"-white metal has been known and appreciated since ancient times. Because it is more common (about 20 times) and because of its lower chemical stability it is not as expensive as gold. The lower chemical stability is illustrated by the fact that silver tarnishes – in most cases this means that silver reacts with sulphur compounds e.g. from perspiration to black silver sulphide. In contrast, gold is so precious that it hardly reacts with "normal" reagents and therefore does not tarnish.
For the chemical industry silver plays only a minor role e.g. as a catalyst. A classical area of application was the traditional photography. Photographic film contained silver salts that were reduced to elemental silver through exposure, thus producing the desired photo. Film developing in many photo labs lead to unnecessary silver being washed out and ending up in sewage treatment plants (keeping in mind the discussion whether nanosilver is damaging to the sewage treatment plants). Since the digital camera has reached private and professional households, the contamination of sewage water with silver has to have reduced; the classical (silver) film is today an "endangered species".
Another important area of application for silver is the electronics industry, as silver has one of the highest conductivities for electrical current and is therefore very important for the electronics industry. Combined with great ductility and the chemical stability described above, silver is a highly demanded material for electronic devices or circuits. Brazing alloys containing silver and other metals are used for brazing joints.
Silver can play a role in biological systems as well. Already the old Romans knew about the bacteria inhibiting property of silver, they put silver coins in jars that were used for the storage of milk. The minimal release of silver and thus the release of silver ions lead to a longer preservation of the milk. Because the bactericide (biocidal) effect was only weak, it was possible to drink the dissolved silver without any problems.
For the treatment of warts, which are mostly caused by viruses, silver nitrate is used in the form of a solid stick, the so-called lunar caustic The effect of this stick is commonly described as cauterization, this means the silver nitrate releases corrosive nitric acid when exposed to light and this etches off the wart. At light, the remaining silver ion is reduced to elemental silver that causes a blackening of the treated skin area. Because the reduction of (atomic) silver ions produces black silver particles ranging in size in the upper nanometer or micrometer scope, there have to exist silver particles with dimensions of a few nanometers at some point in time in between. According to the present definition, the traditional lunar caustic performs a kind of nanotechnology.
first-aid box © PeJo / fotolia.com
In medicine (nano) silver is used as a wound dressing, often the term "colloidal" silver is used – it was called that way before the term nano was in fashion (collides can range in size between nanometers and micrometers). Nanosilver has a better effect compared to coarse silver particles, because it has a larger surface and can be dispersed more finely. Through the larger surface more silver ions are released, that finally have the bactericide (biocidal) effect. Additionally, less of the expensive silver is needed.
Because of its bactericide (etc.) effects silver is also used in other products. Often it is not clear whether the attribute "nano" is only used for advertising purposes or if nanoparticles were actually used – that is to say the term nano is not protected.
Furthermore, it can be argued if it makes sense to invest our limited silver supplies in low-odour socks. It is proven that silver is washed off from such textiles and ends up in sewage treatment plants (cf. the above paragraph about photography).
Silver is not self-inflammable as nanometer-sized powder. Also as a mixture with air (dust) under the influence of an ignition source, silver is not inflammable, so there is no possibility of a dust explosion.
Occurrence and Production
Silver is often mined as metal (called "solid silver") more seldom in the form of silver salt. It is usually mixed with copper or lead and/or other metals; this is referred to as "association".
Roempp Chemie-Lexikon (1992). Band 5, Pi-S, Silber, 9. Auflage, Thieme-Verlag, Stuttgart, ISBN 3-13-735010-7
PEN - Project on Emerging Nanotechnologies (EN): Nanotechnology Consumer Products (last access date: Apr 2010)
Fries, René, Sabine Gressler, Myrtill Simkó, André Gazsó, Ulrich Fiedeler, and Michael Nentwich. "Nanosilver (Nanotrust Dossier No. 010en - November 2010)." In ISSN: 1998-7293, 6. Wien, 2010. https://doi.org/10.1553/ITA-nt-010en.
Human Exposure
Studies with various consumer products show a possible release of nano-silver depending on the application and processing of the silver nanoparticles in the product. Studies show that silver nanoparticles administered in low doses do not cause any health effects, although silver can be detected in organs regardless of the respective uptake route.
General Hazards
Regardless of the particle size permanent exposure to silver can cause diseases, where high doses of silver are taken in and deposited in the body. Symptoms of the so-called argyria include irreversible staining of the skin and mucous membranes, whereas in case of argyrosis the silver deposits are locally confined. In Germany the occupational limit values for the handling of powdered substances are also applicable for silver nanoparticles and should not exceed a value of 0.01 mg/m³ for inhalable silver compounds .
Looking at many consumer products it is not always clear whether silver is actually added in the nano form for functional or for promotional purposes only. To create more transparency for the consumers the EU has put into place mandatory labelling for nano-containing products in the cosmetics and biocides sector since July 2013 and for food since December 2014. The normal calculated dietary intake of silver is approximately 70-90 mg per day .
Can textiles release nanoparticles? © Used with permission from Von Goetz, N et al. (2013). Migration of Ag- and TiO2-(Nano)particles from textiles into artificial sweat under physical stress: experiments and exposure modelling. Environ Sci Technol, 47(17): 9979-9987. Copyright © 2013 American Chemical Society.
In Germany nano silver is not approved for use as a food supplement and considered a pharmaceutical product (colloidal silver) subjected to the regulations of the German Medicinal Products Act. Dietary supplements containing nanoscale heavy metals such as silver, gold, platinum, palladium, and iridium, however are already sold internationally on the internet and are therefore also available to German buyers.
Commercially available products with integrated silver nanoparticles, such as performance sportswear, food packaging and various children's products have been shown to release silver ions and silver nanoparticles. Studies in which the wearing of silver nanoparticles containing sportswear was simulated in the laboratory have shown that both silver ions and silver nanoparticles are being released into artificial sweat. This would correspond to a worst case scenario of a non-negligible maximum exposure of the skin with 8.2 - 17.1 micrograms of silver per kg of body weight .
The same is also true for food packaging materials, but in this case the amounts found were far below the natural silver-load of humans. Nevertheless, in March 2014 the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) has banned the sale of the plastic containers investigated in this study .
Analysis of (nano) silver containing consumer products for children. © Used with permission from Quadros M.E., Pierson R.T., Tulve N.S., Willis R., Rogers K., Thomas T.A., Marr L.C. (2013). Environ Sci Technol, 47(15): 8894-8901. Copyright © 2013 American Chemical Society
In another study, various children's products including toys, clothes and wipes were tested on a possible release of nano silver or silver ions. Here the silver nanoparticles were firmly embedded in the product, so that only very small amounts of silver ions could be detected in artificial sweat or urine .
Investigations of spray products that, according to the product description, contain silver nanoparticles only detected the silver in the form of silver chloride and silver agglomerates, but not in the nano form. However, the calculated exposure levels with silver for a worst case scenario were still below the WHO (World Health Organization) defined daily limit of 5 micrograms of silver per kg body weight .
First human studies with commercially available silver nanoparticle products, e.g. in textiles, sprays or nano silver suspensions for oral intake, showed no negative health effects of the studied subjects. Nevertheless examining the products for longer periods as well as a possible chronic exposure to silver nanoparticles are necessary steps for a comprehensive assessment of consumer products containing silver nanoparticles .
Taken together, it is not possible to make a general statement on the potential dangers of silver nanoparticle containing consumer products. Important clues are provided from the processing and integration of silver nanoparticles into the respective product.
Studies on Living Organisms – in vivo
Possible entry routes of silver nanoparticles into the human body. © Used with permission from Eckhardt S., Brunetto P.S., Gagnon J., Priebe M., Giese B., Fromm K.M. (2013). Chem Rev, 113(7): 4708-4754. Copyright © 2013 American Chemical Society
To examine the possible entry routes of silver nanoparticles in the body experiments with laboratory animals were performed over longer periods of time (28-90 days). After administering silver nanoparticles to test animals via inhalation, small amounts of silver were detected in the blood and various organs such as liver, kidney, lymph nodes and brain. No definite clinical or histopathological effects were found in rats exposed to nano silver over 28 days. In the course of long-term studies over 90 days the rodents displayed decreased lung function and inflammation in the lungs .
Feeding the laboratory animals with a nano silver supplemented diet over a longer period of time also resulted in silver being detectable in the blood and different organs such as liver, lung, kidneys, stomach, testicles and in the brain. Related to this exposure scenario there occurred gender-related differences in distribution and retention of silver nanoparticles in the body. Twice as much nano silver was found in the kidneys of female rats compared to their male counterparts, whereas the male test animals showed a persistent accumulation of silver in the brain and testes. However, it is still unclear whether either silver ions or (nano) particles are absorbed via the gastrointestinal tract and transported to other areas in the body.
As silver ions are very reactive they usually agglomerate immediately upon release or interact with and bind to other chemical compounds making them more bioavailable for the body. Analyses of the genetic material revealed no DNA-damage to either male or female test animals. Repeated doses of silver nanoparticles in the diet were not toxic to the animal and had no effect on fertility of the rats .
Silver nanoparticles used in wound dressing material protect damaged skin (e.g. from skin burns) against excessive bacterial colonisation by the release of silver ions. Studies in rats have shown that the silver nanoparticles can penetrate deep into the damaged skin of rats where they work effectively against microorganisms and promote healing. Another study confirmed that the dermal application of silver nanoparticles only triggered a slight irritation of the skin but no acute toxicity .
First studies with volunteers using commercially available nano silver containing products (T-shirt, spray, silver nanoparticle solution) showed no adverse health effects on the human body. Taken together small and thus realistic amounts of silver nanoparticles are not toxic for humans and mammals based on the current scientific knowledge .
Studies Outside the Body – in vitro
Typically in the lab different cell lines are used as representative models for the respective routes of exposure under investigation (lung, skin, gastrointestinal tract) or as models for various target organs. These in vitro studies showed a dose-dependent effect of silver nanoparticles similar to the results obtained in animal experiments (in vivo studies). Besides cellular shrinkage and cell death (apoptosis) the generation of inflammation markers and the formation of reactive oxygen species (ROS) (oxidative stress) could be detected as well as further activation of stress signalling pathways within the cells .
Cellular reaction and response to silver nanoparticle exposure. © Used with permission of Verano-Braga T., Miethling-Graff R., Wojdyla K., Rogowska-Wrzesinska A., Brewer J.R., Erdmann H., Kjeldsen F. (2014). ACS Nano, 8(3): 2161-2175. Copyright © 2014 American Chemical Society
It is still an open question whether it is the silver nanoparticles or rather the released silver ions or even both which are responsible for the aforementioned effects. In an aqueous environment (e.g. in in vitro experiments or in the body) you will always find dissolved silver ions together with surface-bound ionic silver in addition to the silver nanoparticles. As silver ions are very reactive and would favour the formation of ROS, they will equally interact with, and bind rapidly to, other groups (ions, sulphur groups, proteins) thus being converted into "neutral" complexes. The desired amount of released silver ions can be easily altered by specifically adapting the size and surface properties (Coatings for Nanomaterials) of the silver nanoparticles .
The majority of the in vitro studies support the "Trojan Horse" hypothesis, in which the release of silver ions only happens after intracellular uptake of the silver nanoparticles subsequently triggering the effects described (stress responses, cell death). The acidic environment within the cellular vesicles favours the dissolution of the nanoparticles. Therefore, researchers advocate to not only analyse the silver nanoparticle suspensions in in vitro experiments but also the nanoparticle-free supernatant in order to correlate the observed effects more accurately .
Depending on the type of silver nanoparticles used, some studies were able to directly link ROS formation and toxicity, whilst in other investigations ROS production and cell damage were only detectable after cellular uptake. In another analysis the silver nanoparticles activated cellular anti-oxidative protection mechanisms upon uptake thereby protecting the cell from oxidative damage. Oxidative DNA damage occurred only at very high doses which in turn further strengthened the "Trojan Horse" hypothesis .
"Trojan Horse" hypothesis for the mode of action of silver nanoparticles in cells. Adapted from Quadros et al. 2011
By releasing ions, silver nanoparticles are very effective against microorganisms and therefore are often used in medicine, e.g. in wound dressings or for spray disinfectants. However, comparative studies have shown that only a relatively small therapeutic window exists for the use of silver nanoparticles in wound dressing materials, in which the nanoparticles effectively kill the undesirable pathogens and act not toxic to the cells .
The various studies have shown that relatively high concentrations of nano silver act negatively towards cellular health. As the size and surface coating of the silver nanoparticles generally have a strong influence on the nanoparticles' dissolution rate, bioavailability and distribution in the body, these properties can be altered specifically for the intended application and also to avoid undesirable side effects.
Arzneimittelgesetz (AMG) (2005). Gesetz über den Verkehr mit Arzneimitteln, Arzneimittelgesetz in der Fassung der Bekanntmachung vom 12. Dezember 2005 (BGBl. I S. 3394), das zuletzt durch Artikel 14 des Gesetzes vom 24. Juni 2022 (BGBl. I S. 959) geändert worden ist. (Last Access: 12/2014)
European Union (2008). Regulation (EC) No 1333/2008 of the European Parliament and of the Council of 16 December 2008 on food additives (Text with EEA relevance)
Select: 1 OJ L 354, 31.12.2008, p. 16–33. http://data.europa.eu/eli/reg/2008/1333/oj (Last Access: 12/2014)
Scientific Committee on Emerging and Newly Identified Health Risks (SCENIHR) (2014). EC-Report: "Are silver nanoparticles safe? Implications for health, the environment and microbial resistance."
Environmental Release
The precious metal silver occurs naturally in the earth's crust and is present in small amounts in various environmental compartments. In the past, water bodies carried high loads of silver due to waste e.g. from the photographic industry. With the advent of digital photography, however, silver concentrations in water systems have declined drastically. Currently, it is a challenge to nanomaterials in environmental matrices. Furthermore, the natural background of silver complicates the measurement of silver nanoparticles.
For this reason, most studies available on the occurrence of silver nanoparticles in the environment estimate or model environmental concentrations. Production volumes for silver nanoparticles are used as a basis to generate assumptions on their release from products and their subsequent distribution in the environment. The resulting predicted environmental concentrations (PEC value) can be used for risk assessment.
The estimated amounts of nano silver for the different environmental compartments and Europe made in 2009 and 2014 show that the estimated silver concentrations were significantly lower in 2014 despite higher production volumes. This is mainly due to an increase in knowledge about the behaviour of silver nanoparticles in the environment. The particles are subject to changes by interaction with other substances and can dissolve. By including such processes in the estimation resulted in much lower calculated concentrations .
As mentioned above, the direct measurement of nanomaterials in the environment is difficult, but it is possible to determine the total content of silver in the various environmental compartments. Comparing these measured concentrations with the predicted amounts of nano silver clearly demonstrated that the total silver amount exceeds the amount of silver nanoparticles in all considered environmental systems .
One likely release path for silver nanoparticles is the washing of silver equipped textiles. There is evidence that nano silver is released in varying amounts from textiles, and both the manufacturing and the washing process have an influence on the release behaviour. It is believed that the nano silver release from textiles and plastic products (equivalent to approximately 15 % of the total production of nano silver) is not critical for environmental organisms (see cross-cutting issues - nanoparticles in textiles) .
Up-to-now, there exist no real measurement values for silver nanoparticles for the different environmental compartments (water, soil, air). However, estimates show that nano silver represents only a small proportion of the total amount of silver in the environment. Then again, such estimated values allow only a limited evaluation of potential threats nano silver poses for environmental organisms or microbial purification stages of sewage treatment plants.
Uptake in Humans
Silver nanoparticles can be absorbed into the body via the lung, skin or gastrointestinal tract and pass into the bloodstream.
Uptake via the Lung – Inhalation
Inhalation studies with laboratory animals have shown that silver nanoparticles are taken up into the bloodstream after inhalation and systemically distributed in the body. The incorporated silver could then be detected in various organs such as liver, kidney, spleen, brain and testes .
In short-term inhalation studies (28 days), no tissue damage occurred in the experimental animals exposed to sub-acute amounts of 10-15 nm silver nanoparticles, although this was accompanied by a slight inflammatory response. In the course of long-term inhalation experiments (90 days) the test animals were exposed to 18 nm silver nanoparticles for 6 hours per day via the respiratory air and showed a dose-dependent decreased lung function and inflammatory response in the lung. Even at very high doses of silver nanoparticles no genotoxic effects in the bone marrow of the animals could be detected .
In vitro exposure at the air-liquid interface (ALI) with the example of the Karlsruhe exposure system. Used and adapted with permission from © Vitrocell Systems GmbH, Lenz A.G., Karg E., Brendel E., Hinze-Heyn H., Maier K.L., Eickelberg O., Stoeger T., Schmid O. (2013). Biomed Res Int, 2013 652632. © Hindawi Publishing Corporation
Assessing the exposure to substances at the air-liquid interface (ALI) makes it is possible to mimic and simulate the processes happening in the lung in a simplified manner, in a petri dish. Aerosolised 20 nm silver nanoparticles induced only a temporary inflammatory reaction after uptake into the cell whereas only at very high doses could adverse effects be detected. In general small silver nanoparticles trigger stronger effects in in vitro experiments as compared with larger (nano)particles due to their larger specific particle surface area .
When analysing different spray products that should contain nano silver according to the products' description, silver was only detectable in form of silver chloride and silver agglomerates, but not in nano form in the aerosol. However, even in a worst case scenario the calculated exposure levels were still below the daily WHO (World Health Organisation) exposure limits of 5 micrograms of silver per kg body weight .
In general it is possible that silver nanoparticles may enter the body via inhalation. Potential health effects however are mainly dose and time-dependent.
Uptake via the Skin – Dermal Uptake
The European Parliament has reacted to the recent fear that very small particles may penetrate the skin and exert toxic effects by changing the EU Cosmetics Directive. It stipulates that since July 2013 all nanoparticles contained in cosmetics must be labelled with the term "(nano)" as indicated on the list of ingredients.
For medical wound care, especially for skin burns, there are already several products on the market that are equipped with silver and/or silver nanoparticles. In case of silver-coated wound dressing material that was applied to damaged skin the integrated 15 nm silver nanoparticles were absorbed into the skin from this product. After one week of local treatment increased quantities of silver could be detected in the plasma and the urine of the patient without adversely affecting the health of the patient. Compared to healthy skin silver nanoparticles can penetrate much deeper into damage skin. Combining nano silver with nanocellulose results in improved wound dressing materials that were demonstrated in in vitro and in vivo experiments to exhibit a similar or even improved antimicrobial activity (compared to conventional products) combined with an accelerated wound healing and lower toxicity .
In the textile sector there are different ways to apply silver nanoparticles, with their antimicrobial effect, to the fibres. Solidly incorporated silver is not lost during washing processes allowing for a controlled and persistent long-term release of silver ions. Comparative studies with volunteers who were wearing such silver-equipped T-shirts for several weeks displayed no harmful effects to the skin or allergic reactions to the product whilst showing good antimicrobial effects. However after simulating the wearing of nano silver containing sportswear in the laboratory the studies showed that both silver ions and silver nanoparticles were being released into the artificial sweat. A worst case scenario in this simulation would correspond to a non-negligible maximal skin exposure of 8.2 - 17.1 micrograms of silver per kg body weight .
In principle silver nanoparticles can only trigger a systemic toxicity when applied to the skin if they are able to completely penetrate the skin barrier. Various studies in the laboratory (in vitro and in vivo) have tested the penetration potential of silver nanoparticles and have shown that if detectable at all, only a very small proportion of silver ions can pass through the corneal layer (stratum corneum) of the skin. After applying creams and lotions to the skin with an active-agent content (silver) in the range of 0,1 to 1,5 %, less than 0,1 percent of the amount applied was recovered in the in the corneal layer without having penetrated the skin .
If we now perform a conservative risk assessment based on these data it follows that 10 g cream with a microsilver content of 1 % contain 100 mg silver providing an estimated amount of 10 to 500 μg silver ions. At most 1 % of these silver ions are able to penetrate the deeper layers of the skin which corresponds to 0,1 to 5 μg silver ions. In total, this means in case of a generous estimate for a full body treatment (30 g of cream) 0,3 to 15 μg silver is taken up via the skin .
Uptake via the Gastro-Intestinal Tract
Food colouring agent silver (E174) used in edible food varnish. © Lottmann PR.
In a short-term study (14 days) with a commercially available nano silver product the volunteers orally received either a one-time large dose (480 g/day) or repeated smaller doses (100 micrograms/day) of silver nanoparticles. Overall the silver nanoparticles did not cause any clinically relevant negative effects in the test subjects .
Delivering silver nanoparticles in in vivo studies to test animals via the feed resulted in silver being detectable in the blood and in different organs (liver, lung, kidney, stomach, testicles and brain) even after longer periods of time. After uptake within the gastrointestinal tract the silver nanoparticles are transported throughout the body with the help of the blood circulation and accumulate in the above mentioned target organs. The majority of the nano silver, however, is still excreted in the faeces. From these and other studies it has become apparent that it is mostly the ionic form of silver that is bioavailable for the body. In some cases, an accompanying inflammatory response but no acute toxicity has been detected .
In vitro studies in the laboratory, using different cell lines, have shown that silver nanoparticles are taken up into cells of the gastrointestinal tract either in the particulate or ionic form and are even able to pass the intestinal barrier. The induced cellular stress responses are most likely caused by the released silver ions .
Food packaging with vegetable content. © PhotoSG / fotolia.de
Plastic packaging materials available in the USA and in Asia may contain silver particles that could transfer into the food and consequently be taken up into the body. Studies have proven that predominantly silver ions but also up to 12 % of silver nanoparticles are being released from such packaging materials. However, the detected amounts of nano silver were well below the natural silver load or even below the limit values of 0.05 mg/L silver in water and 0.05 mg/kg of silver in foods as suggested by the European Food Safety Authority (EFSA). Nevertheless the US Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) banned the sale of the investigated plastic containers from this study in March 2014 .
In the EU and in Germany silver is not approved to be used in such antimicrobial packaging materials or as dietary supplement. However, when applied for the decoration of confectionery silver has to be labelled appropriately on the list of ingredients as food colouring agent (E174). Since December 2014 all nanoparticles contained in food and food packaging materials must be labelled with the term "nano" as indicated on the list of ingredients.
Agency for toxic substances and disease registry (ASTDR). ToxFAQs™ for Silver. (Last Access 12/2014)
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Uptake and Effect on Environmental Organisms
Silver is known to be toxic for bacteria and aquatic organisms this being the reason why it is one of the most studied nanomaterials. Although most studies compare the effects of silver ions (originating form silver salts) with those of silver nanoparticles, it is difficult to distinguish between the effects of the particles and the dissolved ions. The question has not yet fully been answered whether nanoparticles or silver ions are more toxic to environment organisms.
The specific effect of silver nanoparticles on bacteria is lower than expected since the inhibitory effect is caused by released silver ions. By controlling the ion release (for example, by varying the coating or particle size), the strength of growth inhibition can be controlled. Silver nanoparticles attach themselves to the bacterial cell wall and cause damage, which ultimately leads to the death of the bacteria. The type of surface modification affects the binding of the nanoparticles to the bacteria. Similarly, organic materials (such as those found in the environment) bind to the particles and subsequently alter their effect on bacteria [1-6].
Biofilms consist of bacteria and other organisms, which are embedded in a gel-like substance and cover e.g. stones in rivers. The gel-like substance protects the organisms from silver nanoparticles, but not from silver ions. Humic acids, which are found in different proportions in natural waters, on the one hand bind silver ions and reduce the toxicity of particle suspensions. On the other hand, they also stabilise the particles, thereby facilitating the penetration of individual particles into the biofilm. Although the uptake of the silver nanoparticles into the biofilm is increased, the silver toxicity is reduced [8,9].
With regard to algae, it has not been finally clarified whether nanosilver or silver ions exert a stronger toxic effect. For green algae, silver is known to be toxic, as they are very sensitive to silver and quickly absorb the silver ions. Experiments with green algae showed no differences with respect to the toxic effect of silver nanoparticles and silver ions. This behavior has been attributed to ion liberation from the particles. In addition, the coating has a decisive influence on the toxic outcome [10-14].
Silver in general disrupts the salt metabolism of water fleas affecting not only the behaviour but also the movement of the animals. Whether the silver nanoparticles or silver ions are more toxic to water fleas, is not yet clear due to conflicting results. Size and shape had no influence on the toxicity of silver nanoparticles, even though the animals ingested more small nanoparticles compared to larger particles. In contrast, the type of surface coating significantly affected the effect and uptake of nano silver. In response to nano silver and silver ions, different genes of the water fleas were affected, which probably reflects the differences in the uptake of two substances [10-13,15-20,23].
To simulate realistic environmental conditions, laboratory experiments with silver nanoparticles were conducted in the presence of natural waters ingredients, resulting in a reduced silver toxicity. It is believed that the silver nanoparticles release less silver ions under natural conditions [21,22].
In earthworms, nano silver and silver ions exerted the same toxicity. Both silver ions and silver nanoparticles show a very limited uptake behaviour by earthworms form soil and are quickly excreted afterwards. The worms show an avoidance behaviour and preferably stay in soils without silver nanoparticles, when exposed to soil with and without nanoparticles. Nematodes show a retarded growth on silver nanoparticles, which can be attributed in part to the silver ions. However, very high concentrations were used, which are not environmentally relevant [24-28].
Silver nanoparticles and silver ions are toxic and genotoxic for mussel cells and the ions cause stronger effects compared to the nanoparticles [29].
Silver nanoparticles exert concentration-dependent toxic and genotoxic effects to fish and cultured fish cells. Nano silver taken up via the water accumulates in gills, intestines and liver and was shown to cause lesions in the liver. Silver nanoparticles present in tank water trigger stress response and damage the gills thereby impairing oxygen uptake. Silver ions and silver nanoparticles show different mechanisms of action in fish. Equally the particle shape (e.g., spherical, rod-shaped) influences the toxic effect, which can be traced back to the number of so-called surface defects. The more often these defects occur in the surface structure of the particles, the more toxic they act. This also explains the difference in effect strengths of various coated nanoparticles [10,12,13,30-32,36-39].
Silver nanoparticles can attach to the shell of fish eggs with the number of particles depending on the salinity of the surrounding water. In seawater, less silver nanoparticles bind to the eggs compared to freshwater. Nano silver exposure results in a delayed development of fish embryos, malformations of the skeleton and organs, as well as a slower heartbeat [34,35].
For a "realistic" estimate, silver concentrations from laboratory experiments (with various organisms) were set in the context of actually occurring environmental concentrations. Based on these data, the silver concentrations in two Taiwanese rivers were predicted. These calculated values were found to be far below the concentration range identified as critical for fish in the laboratory experiments. From the current point of view, silver nanoparticles present no real risk for environmental organisms [40].
A comparison of 11 plant species revealed different sensitivities for silver nanoparticles and silver ions, as well as for the various surface coatings of nano silver. In young grass plants the silver nanoparticles, but not the ions caused a delayed root growth. This effect was greater, the smaller the particles were. In a long-term experiment, a community of plants and bacteria was fertilised with nano silver-containing sludge. Biomass was not affected by the nanoparticle treatment and only one of the plant species displayed reduced growth in presence of nanoparticle -containing sludge. Similar effects were observed in communities treated with silver ions [41,42,7].
The sensitivity of various organisms to silver nanoparticles is different. Filter feeders (e.g. water fleas, mussels) were found to be more sensitive than fish. For some of the studied organisms, silver nanoparticles and silver ions had different mechanisms of action. That could be an explanation for the observed differences in the effects of the two silver forms.
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Effects on Humans
If silver nanoparticles are uptaken into the body, they can distribute throughout the body - either as nanoparticles or ions - and accumulate in the organs after overcoming the body's barriers.
Behaviour inside the Body
Possible entry routes of silver nanoparticles into the human body. © Used and adapted with permission from Eckhardt S., Brunetto P.S., Gagnon J., Priebe M., Giese B., Fromm K.M. (2013). Chem Rev, 113(7): 4708-4754. Copyright © 2013 American Chemical Society
The most important entry pathways for silver nanoparticles into the body are via the lungs or via the gastrointestinal tract. Silver nanoparticles have shown to mainly accumulate in different organs such as the liver and kidney but also in spleen, testis and brain. In some cases, gender-related differences in the distribution and retention time of the silver nanoparticles in different organs has been be observed. Female test animals had an increased incorporation of silver in the kidneys whereas the male counterparts displayed a persistent accumulation of silver in the brain and testes. The reasons behind these observations are yet unknown. In general, the distribution pattern of the silver nanoparticles inside the body depends on various factors such as dose, particle size and duration of exposure which also affects the potential toxic effects .
So far the immune system has only been shown to be impacted by silver nanoparticles when using extremely high concentrations, far beyond any realistic exposure. Furthermore there is no concrete evidence that nano silver can cause allergies .
Regardless of the different exposure routes, silver nanoparticles can undergo various biochemical transformations once inside the body for which a variations in particle coating plays an important role. For example, in the stomach the silver nanoparticles dissolve faster due to the acidic environment resulting in an increased release of silver ions. Since silver ions are very reactive they usually agglomerate immediately upon release or interact with and bind to other chemical compounds meaning they no longer exist as ions or nanoparticles. To that effect the silver-ion-complexes (also called organo-silver-complexes) rather than the original silver nanoparticles are taken up and distributed throughout the body. Altering the surface of the silver nanoparticles by means of different coatings allows for a selective adjustment of the ion-release behaviour of the silver nanoparticles .
Up to now there is no evidence that the body is able to metabolise silver ions. With the help of the various detoxification mechanisms within humans, the silver ions are primarily inactivated by binding to other chemical compounds or proteins and then incorporated into the tissues as non-toxic silver complexes (e.g. as silver sulphide). Excretion of silver nanoparticles usually occurs via faeces and urine but very few data are available for this .
Behaviour at the Blood-Brain Barrier
Based on current scientific information it is not yet possible to make a final statement as to whether silver nanoparticles are actually transported across the blood-brain barrier or only deposited in the near-brain regions. Studies dealing with the neurotoxic effects of silver in general (not explicitly with nano silver) could detect silver in the region of blood-brain barrier but no accompanying damage.
Parallel conducted in vitro studies confirmed that the observed neurotoxic effects occurred due to the released silver ions. In addition, the silver nanoparticles triggered an inflammatory response in primary endothelial brain cells resulting in an increased permeability of the cell layer. This mode of action could the enable the transport of normally undesirable substances into the brain .
Behaviour of Uptake in somatic cells
Possible uptake mechanisms for silver nanoparticles. © Used with permission from Eckhardt S., Brunetto P.S., Gagnon J., Priebe M., Giese B., Fromm K.M. (2013). Chem Rev, 113(7): 4708-4754. Copyright © 2013 American Chemical Society
Uptake of silver nanoparticles in the cells has been proved within the framework of in vitro studies. (Nano)particles or small agglomerates are usually taken up via phagocytosis or pinocytosis and can be detected in intracellular vesicles. In phagocytes receptors, so-called scavenger receptors, mediate the cellular uptake processes of the nanoparticles.
Using techniques such as electron microscopy has enabled the detection of silver nanoparticles in membrane-enclosed structures (vesicles) after the uptake into the cell. Due to the acidic pH within the vesicles, the silver nanoparticles are dissolved and silver ions released into the cytoplasm, which in turn can initiate the generation of oxidative stress, inflammation and toxicity. Researchers have described this mode of action as a "Trojan Horse" mechanism .
Environmental Distribution
Silver nanoparticles are not very stable under environmental conditions and are modified due to the influence of various factors (e.g. aging). An important factor is the solubility of the particles that release silver ions in dependence of ambient conditions.
An essential characteristic for estimating the environmental behaviour of nanomaterials is their stability under environmental conditions. Simplified, it is assumed that a high stability leads to a high accumulation in the environment and to better transport properties. Silver nanoparticles are considered an unstable nanomaterial. In an aqueous environment, they tend to dissolve or react with other substances present in the environment. Here, the interaction of environmental factors (e.g. pH) with the particle properties (e.g. surface modification) decides on whether and how quickly certain processes (e.g. sedimentation) occur. Dissolved organic carbon, for example, affects the solubility of silver and thus both the behaviour of the particles and their effects on environmental organisms. Similarly, the type of surface modification of nano silver alters the behaviour with respect to solubility and agglomeration .
Release from facade paint
The release of silver nanoparticles from facade paint was investigated by simulating typical environmental conditions (rain, UV light). After one year, about 30 % of the silver contained in the original paint was washed out. The released nanoparticles were not present individually, but firmly embedded in remnants of the paint matrix (see cross-cutting issues – nanoparticles in paints) .
Behaviour in waste water treatment plants / wastewater
Sewage treatment plants, which purify polluted wastewater from households or industry, are a potential source for nanomaterials being released into the environment. This can occur either via purified wastewater or by application of sewage sludge as fertiliser on fields (as done in some regions). First and foremost, the release of nano silver depends on the incorporation into the respective product (see cross-cutting issues - nanoparticles in textiles).
For silver-containing textiles, it was shown as part of the UMSICHT project that some products released almost no silver, whereas others released high silver amounts into the sewage. Released nanosilver was effectively transported through the sewers to the treatment plant. So far, the concern on a disruption of bacterial treatment of wastewater by silver nanoparticles has not been confirmed. Furthermore, silver nanoparticles are effectively separated from the wastewater and subjected to dissolution- and modification processes. The majority of the particles will adsorb to solids and thus ends up in sewage sludge (see cross-cutting issues - nanoparticles in wastewater treatment plants) .
Section of grass and soil. © andreusK / fotolia.com
Behaviour in soils
Assessing the behaviour of nanomaterials in soils is a challenging task because appropriate methods are still missing. Both the nature of the silver nanoparticles as well as the composition of the soil can vary greatly, which likewise affects the interaction between soil and particles. For example, by comparing 16 natural soils the distribution and solubility of nano silver varied greatly depending on the soil type. The distribution of nano silver in soil differs significantly from the distribution of both of the dissolved silver as well as coarser silver particles .
Silver nanoparticles are considered as unstable under environmental conditions. A variety of processes leads to the dissolution or to modifications of the particle surface. In this respect, both the environmental conditions as well as the particle characteristics determine whether and how quickly these processes occur.
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Rigo, C.; Roman, M.; Munivrana, I.; Vindigni, V.; Azzena, B.; Barbante, C.; Cairns, W.R.L. Characterization and Evaluation of Silver Release from Four Different Dressings Used in Burns Care. Burns 2012, 38, 1131–1142, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.burns.2012.06.013.
Rigo, C.; Ferroni, L.; Tocco, I.; Roman, M.; Munivrana, I.; Gardin, C.; Cairns, W.R.L.; Vindigni, V.; Azzena, B.; Barbante, C.; et al. Active Silver Nanoparticles for Wound Healing. IJMS 2013, 14, 4817–4840, https://doi.org/10.3390/ijms14034817.
Paladini, F.; Sannino, A.; Pollini, M. In Vivo Testing of Silver Treated Fibers for the Evaluation of Skin Irritation Effect and Hypoallergenicity. J. Biomed. Mater. Res. 2014, 102, 1031–1037, https://doi.org/10.1002/jbm.b.33085.
Quadros, M.E.; Pierson, R.; Tulve, N.S.; Willis, R.; Rogers, K.; Thomas, T.A.; Marr, L.C. Release of Silver from Nanotechnology-Based Consumer Products for Children. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2013, 47, 8894–8901, https://doi.org/10.1021/es4015844.
Quadros, M.E.; Marr, L.C. Silver Nanoparticles and Total Aerosols Emitted by Nanotechnology-Related Consumer Spray Products. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2011, 45, 10713–10719, https://doi.org/10.1021/es202770m.
Park, M.V.D.Z.; Neigh, A.M.; Vermeulen, J.P.; La Fonteyne, L.J.J.; Verharen, H.W.; Briedé, J.J.; van Loveren, H.; Jong, W.H. The Effect of Particle Size on the Cytotoxicity, Inflammation, Developmental Toxicity and Genotoxicity of Silver Nanoparticles. Biomaterials 2011, 32, 9810–9817, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.biomaterials.2011.08.085.
Nymark, P.; Catalán, J.; Suhonen, S.; Järventaus, H.; Birkedal, R.; Clausen, P.A.; Jensen, K.A.; Vippola, M.; Savolainen, K.; Norppa, H. Genotoxicity of Polyvinylpyrrolidone-Coated Silver Nanoparticles in BEAS 2B Cells. Toxicology 2013, 313, 38–48, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tox.2012.09.014.
Loeschner, K.; Hadrup, N.; Qvortrup, K.; Larsen, A.; Gao, X.; Vogel, U.; Mortensen, A.; Lam, H.R.; Larsen, E.H. Distribution of Silver in Rats Following 28 Days of Repeated Oral Exposure to Silver Nanoparticles or Silver Acetate. Part Fibre Toxicol 2011, 8, 18, https://doi.org/10.1186/1743-8977-8-18.
Liu, J.; Wang, Z.; Liu, F.D.; Kane, A.B.; Hurt, R.H. Chemical Transformations of Nanosilver in Biological Environments. ACS Nano 2012, 6, 9887–9899, https://doi.org/10.1021/nn303449n.
Munger, M.A.; Radwanski, P.; Hadlock, G.C.; Stoddard, G.; Shaaban, A.; Falconer, J.; Grainger, D.W.; Deering-Rice, C.E. In Vivo Human Time-Exposure Study of Orally Dosed Commercial Silver Nanoparticles. Nanomedicine: Nanotechnology, Biology and Medicine 2014, 10, 1–9, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nano.2013.06.010.
Lee, J.H.; Kim, Y.S.; Song, K.S.; Ryu, H.R.; Sung, J.H.; Park, J.D.; Park, H.M.; Song, N.W.; Shin, B.S.; Marshak, D.; et al. Biopersistence of Silver Nanoparticles in Tissues from Sprague-Dawley Rats. Part Fibre Toxicol 2013, 10, 36, https://doi.org/10.1186/1743-8977-10-36.
Mitrano, D.M.; Rimmele, E.; Wichser, A.; Erni, R.; Height, M.; Nowack, B. Presence of Nanoparticles in Wash Water from Conventional Silver and Nano-Silver Textiles. ACS Nano 2014, 8, 7208–7219, https://doi.org/10.1021/nn502228w.
Martínez-Gutierrez, F.; Thi, E.P.; Silverman, J.M.; Oliveira, C.C.; Svensson, S.L.; Vanden Hoek, A.; Sánchez, E.M.; Reiner, N.E.; Gaynor, E.C.; Pryzdial, E.L.G.; et al. Antibacterial Activity, Inflammatory Response, Coagulation and Cytotoxicity Effects of Silver Nanoparticles. Nanomedicine: Nanotechnology, Biology and Medicine 2012, 8, 328–336, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.nano.2011.06.014.
Luther, E.M.; Koehler, Y.; Diendorf, J.; Epple, M.; Dringen, R. Accumulation of Silver Nanoparticles by Cultured Primary Brain Astrocytes. Nanotechnology 2011, 22, 375101, https://doi.org/10.1088/0957-4484/22/37/375101.
Li, L.; Hartmann, G.; Döblinger, M.; Schuster, M. Quantification of Nanoscale Silver Particles Removal and Release from Municipal Wastewater Treatment Plants in Germany. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2013, 47, 7317–7323, https://doi.org/10.1021/es3041658.
Lee, J.H.; Ahn, K.; Kim, S.M.; Jeon, K.S.; Lee, J.S.; Yu, I.J. Continuous 3-Day Exposure Assessment of Workplace Manufacturing Silver Nanoparticles. J Nanopart Res 2012, 14, https://doi.org/10.1007/s11051-012-1134-8.
Larese, F.F.; D'Agostin, F.; Crosera, M.; Adami, G.; Renzi, N.; Bovenzi, M.; Maina, G. Human Skin Penetration of Silver Nanoparticles through Intact and Damaged Skin. Toxicology 2009, 255, 33–37, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.tox.2008.09.025.
Kim, J.S.; Sung, J.H.; Ji, J.H.; Song, K.S.; Lee, J.H.; Kang, C.S.; Yu, I.J. In Vivo Genotoxicity of Silver Nanoparticles after 90-Day Silver Nanoparticle Inhalation Exposure. Safety and Health at Work 2011, 2, 34–38, https://doi.org/10.5491/SHAW.2011.2.1.34.
Lansdown, A.B.G. Critical Observations on the Neurotoxicity of Silver. Critical Reviews in Toxicology 2007, 37, 237–250, https://doi.org/10.1080/10408440601177665.
Kim, Y.S.; Kim, J.S.; Cho, H.S.; Rha, D.S.; Kim, J.M.; Park, J.D.; Choi, B.S.; Lim, R.; Chang, H.K.; Chung, Y.H.; et al. Twenty-Eight-Day Oral Toxicity, Genotoxicity, and Gender-Related Tissue Distribution of Silver Nanoparticles in Sprague-Dawley Rats. Inhalation Toxicology 2008, 20, 575–583, https://doi.org/10.1080/08958370701874663.
Kim, J.S.; Song, K.S.; Sung, J.H.; Ryu, H.R.; Choi, B.G.; Cho, H.S.; Lee, J.K.; Yu, I.J. Genotoxicity, Acute Oral and Dermal Toxicity, Eye and Dermal Irritation and Corrosion and Skin Sensitisation Evaluation of Silver Nanoparticles. Nanotoxicology 2013, 7, 953–960, https://doi.org/10.3109/17435390.2012.676099.
Kim, B.; Park, C.-S.; Murayama, M.; Hochella, M.F. Discovery and Characterization of Silver Sulfide Nanoparticles in Final Sewage Sludge Products. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2010, 44, 7509–7514, https://doi.org/10.1021/es101565j.
Kennedy, A.J.; Chappell, M.A.; Bednar, A.J.; Ryan, A.C.; Laird, J.G.; Stanley, J.K.; Steevens, J.A. Impact of Organic Carbon on the Stability and Toxicity of Fresh and Stored Silver Nanoparticles. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2012, 46, 10772–10780, https://doi.org/10.1021/es302322y.
Kaegi, R.; Voegelin, A.; Sinnet, B.; Zuleeg, S.; Hagendorfer, H.; Burkhardt, M.; Siegrist, H. Behavior of Metallic Silver Nanoparticles in a Pilot Wastewater Treatment Plant. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2011, 45, 3902–3908, https://doi.org/10.1021/es1041892.
Kaegi, R.; Voegelin, A.; Ort, C.; Sinnet, B.; Thalmann, B.; Krismer, J.; Hagendorfer, H.; Elumelu, M.; Mueller, E. Fate and Transformation of Silver Nanoparticles in Urban Wastewater Systems. Water Research 2013, 47, 3866–3877, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.watres.2012.11.060.
Kaegi, R.; Sinnet, B.; Zuleeg, S.; Hagendorfer, H.; Mueller, E.; Vonbank, R.; Boller, M.; Burkhardt, M. Release of Silver Nanoparticles from Outdoor Facades. Environmental Pollution 2010, 158, 2900–2905, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.envpol.2010.06.009.
Holder, A.L.; Marr, L.C. Toxicity of Silver Nanoparticles at the Air-Liquid Interface. BioMed Research International 2013, 2013, 328934, https://doi.org/10.1155/2013/328934.
Herzog, F.; Clift, M.J.D.; Piccapietra, F.; Behra, R.; Schmid, O.; Petri-Fink, A.; Rothen-Rutishauser, B. Exposure of Silver-Nanoparticles and Silver-Ions to Lung Cells in Vitro at the Air-Liquid Interface. Part Fibre Toxicol 2013, 10, 11, https://doi.org/10.1186/1743-8977-10-11.
Gliga, A.R.; Skoglund, S.; Wallinder, I.O.; Fadeel, B.; Karlsson, H.L. Size-Dependent Cytotoxicity of Silver Nanoparticles in Human Lung Cells: The Role of Cellular Uptake, Agglomeration and Ag Release. Part Fibre Toxicol 2014, 11, 11, https://doi.org/10.1186/1743-8977-11-11.
Ji, J.H.; Jung, J.H.; Kim, S.S.; Yoon, J.-U.; Park, J.D.; Choi, B.S.; Chung, Y.H.; Kwon, I.H.; Jeong, J.; Han, B.S.; et al. Twenty-Eight-Day Inhalation Toxicity Study of Silver Nanoparticles in Sprague-Dawley Rats. Inhalation Toxicology 2007, 19, 857–871, https://doi.org/10.1080/08958370701432108.
Hong, J.-S.; Kim, S.; Lee, S.H.; Jo, E.; Lee, B.; Yoon, J.; Eom, I.-C.; Kim, H.-M.; Kim, P.; Choi, K.; et al. Combined Repeated-Dose Toxicity Study of Silver Nanoparticles with the Reproduction/Developmental Toxicity Screening Test. Nanotoxicology 2014, 8, 349–362, https://doi.org/10.3109/17435390.2013.780108.
Hoefer, D.; Hammer, T.R. Antimicrobial Active Clothes Display No Adverse Effects on the Ecological Balance of the Healthy Human Skin Microflora. ISRN Dermatology 2011, 2011, 369603, https://doi.org/10.5402/2011/369603.
Hadrup, N.; Loeschner, K.; Mortensen, A.; Sharma, A.K.; Qvortrup, K.; Larsen, E.H.; Lam, H.R. The Similar Neurotoxic Effects of Nanoparticulate and Ionic Silver in Vivo and in Vitro. NeuroToxicology 2012, 33, 416–423, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.neuro.2012.04.008.
Hadrup, N.; Lam, H.R. Oral Toxicity of Silver Ions, Silver Nanoparticles and Colloidal Silver--a Review. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology 2014, 68, 1–7, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.yrtph.2013.11.002.
Grade, S.; Eberhard, J.; Wagener, P.; Winkel, A.; Sajti, C.L.; Barcikowski, S.; Stiesch, M. Therapeutic Window of Ligand-Free Silver Nanoparticles in Agar-Embedded and Colloidal State: In Vitro Bactericidal Effects and Cytotoxicity. Adv. Eng. Mater. 2012, 14, B231–B239, https://doi.org/10.1002/adem.201180016.
Grade, S.; Eberhard, J.; Neumeister, A.; Wagener, P.; Winkel, A.; Stiesch, M.; Barcikowski, S. Serum Albumin Reduces the Antibacterial and Cytotoxic Effects of Hydrogel-Embedded Colloidal Silver Nanoparticles. RSC Adv. 2012, 2, 7190, https://doi.org/10.1039/c2ra20546g.
Geranio, L.; Heuberger, M.; Nowack, B. The Behavior of Silver Nanotextiles during Washing. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2009, 43, 8113–8118, https://doi.org/10.1021/es9018332.
Goetz, N.; Fabricius, L.; Glaus, R.; Weitbrecht, V.; Günther, D.; Hungerbühler, K. Migration of Silver from Commercial Plastic Food Containers and Implications for Consumer Exposure Assessment. Food Additives & Contaminants: Part A 2013, 30, 612–620, https://doi.org/10.1080/19440049.2012.762693.
Goetz, N.; Lorenz, C.; Windler, L.; Nowack, B.; Heuberger, M.; Hungerbühler, K. Migration of Ag- and TiO2-(Nano)Particles from Textiles into Artificial Sweat under Physical Stress: Experiments and Exposure Modeling. Environ. Sci. Technol. 2013, 47, 9979–9987, https://doi.org/10.1021/es304329w.
Foldbjerg, R.; Olesen, P.; Hougaard, M.; Dang, D.A.; Hoffmann, H.J.; Autrup, H. PVP-Coated Silver Nanoparticles and Silver Ions Induce Reactive Oxygen Species, Apoptosis and Necrosis in THP-1 Monocytes. Toxicology Letters 2009, 190, 156–162, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxlet.2009.07.009.
Gaiser, B.K.; Hirn, S.; Kermanizadeh, A.; Kanase, N.; Fytianos, K.; Wenk, A.; Haberl, N.; Brunelli, A.; Kreyling, W.G.; Stone, V. Effects of Silver Nanoparticles on the Liver and Hepatocytes in Vitro. Toxicological Sciences 2013, 131, 537–547, https://doi.org/10.1093/toxsci/kfs306.
Doolette, C.L.; McLaughlin, M.J.; Kirby, J.K.; Batstone, D.J.; Harris, H.H.; Ge, H.; Cornelis, G. Transformation of PVP Coated Silver Nanoparticles in a Simulated Wastewater Treatment Process and the Effect on Microbial Communities. Chemistry Central Journal 2013, 7, 46, https://doi.org/10.1186/1752-153X-7-46.
Chuang, H.-C.; Hsiao, T.-C.; Wu, C.-K.; Chang, H.-H.; Lee, C.-H.; Chang, C.-C.; Cheng, T.-J. Allergenicity and Toxicology of Inhaled Silver Nanoparticles in Allergen-Provocation Mice Models. IJN 2013, 8, 4495–4506, https://doi.org/10.2147/IJN.S52239.
Cushen, M.; Kerry, J.; Morris, M.; Cruz-Romero, M.; Cummins, E. Migration and Exposure Assessment of Silver from a PVC Nanocomposite. Food Chemistry 2013, 139, 389–397, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.foodchem.2013.01.045.
Cornelis, G.; Kirby, J.K.; Beak, D.; Chittleborough, D.; McLaughlin, M.J. A Method for Determination of Retention of Silver and Cerium Oxide Manufactured Nanoparticles in Soils. Environ. Chem. 2010, 7, 298, https://doi.org/10.1071/EN10013.
Cornelis, G.; DooletteMadeleine Thomas, C.; McLaughlin, M.J.; Kirby, J.K.; Beak, D.G.; Chittleborough, D. Retention and Dissolution of Engineered Silver Nanoparticles in Natural Soils. Soil Science Society of America Journal 2012, 76, 891–902, https://doi.org/10.2136/sssaj2011.0360.
Böhmert, L.; Girod, M.; Hansen, U.; Maul, R.; Knappe, P.; Niemann, B.; Weidner, S.M.; Thünemann, A.F.; Lampen, A. Analytically Monitored Digestion of Silver Nanoparticles and Their Toxicity on Human Intestinal Cells. Nanotoxicology 2014, 8, 631–642, https://doi.org/10.3109/17435390.2013.815284.
Blaser, S.A.; Scheringer, M.; MacLeod, M.; Hungerbühler, K. Estimation of Cumulative Aquatic Exposure and Risk Due to Silver: Contribution of Nano-Functionalized Plastics and Textiles. Science of The Total Environment 2008, 390, 396–409, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.scitotenv.2007.10.010.
Bouwmeester, H.; Poortman, J.; Peters, R.J.; Wijma, E.; Kramer, E.; Makama, S.; Puspitaninganindita, K.; Marvin, H.J.P.; Peijnenburg, A.A.C.M.; Hendriksen, P.J.M. Characterization of Translocation of Silver Nanoparticles and Effects on Whole-Genome Gene Expression Using an in Vitro Intestinal Epithelium Coculture Model. ACS Nano 2011, 5, 4091–4103, https://doi.org/10.1021/nn2007145.
Benn, T.M.; Westerhoff, P. Nanoparticle Silver Released into Water from Commercially Available Sock Fabrics. Environmental science & technology 2008, 42, 4133–4139, https://doi.org/10.1021/es7032718.
Arora, S.; Jain, J.; Rajwade, J.M.; Paknikar, K.M. Cellular Responses Induced by Silver Nanoparticles: In Vitro Studies. Toxicology Letters 2008, 179, 93–100, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxlet.2008.04.009.
Bianco, C.; Adami, G.; Crosera, M.; Larese, F.; Casarin, S.; Castagnoli, C.; Stella, M.; Maina, G. Silver Percutaneous Absorption after Exposure to Silver Nanoparticles: A Comparison Study of Three Human Skin Graft Samples Used for Clinical Applications. Burns 2014, 40, 1390–1396, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.burns.2014.02.003.
Beer, C.; Foldbjerg, R.; Hayashi, Y.; Sutherland, D.S.; Autrup, H. Toxicity of Silver Nanoparticles - Nanoparticle or Silver Ion? Toxicology Letters 2012, 208, 286–292, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.toxlet.2011.11.002.
Arora, S.; Jain, J.; Rajwade, J.M.; Paknikar, K.M. Interactions of Silver Nanoparticles with Primary Mouse Fibroblasts and Liver Cells. Toxicology and Applied Pharmacology 2009, 236, 310–318, https://doi.org/10.1016/j.taap.2009.02.020.
DaNa (2022-2) *****CURRENTLY UNDER CONSTRUCTION*****The Presentation of the Evaluated Literature of This Material Is Currently Being Revised. The Sources Used Can Be Found in the Respective Text Sections Above.
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The Jharkhand Combined Entrance Competitive Examination Board, Jharkhand ITI Admission exam result related information going to advertise in forthcoming future time very soon. Now candidates who are eagerly waiting for exam Result that will be uploaded online. All candidate of who are registered for the exam should check information about the Result online on its jceceb.nic.in Webpage. If you want to get more information then stay connected with our page, we provide you all type of information about the exams.
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Annually, this board conduct PG Medical Admission Test for get admission in PG Diploma Courses, JCECE examination for Engineering, MBBS, Agriculture, Forestry, BVSc and AH, Homeopathic, Ayurvedic Courses, Entrance Competitive Examination B.Sc. Nursing, Entrance Examination for General Nursing, Entrance Examination for Diploma to Degree courses, Polytechnic Entrance Competitive Examination for admission in Polytechnic diploma, Para Medical Entrance Competitive Examination any more. The board is self financed and come under the state government of Jharkhand state in India. If you want to get information about the result of Jharkhand ITI may visit its website online.


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Apostasy, Christian Music, Christianity, Ecumenical Movement, End Times, Hillsong, Hillsong United, Illuminati, Israel, Money, Music
Hillsong Launches Services In Tel Aviv, Plans For Jerusalem
Date: February 21, 2017Author: lance goodall 1 Comment
Various Outlets 17 Feb 2017
The fast-growing and hugely popular Hillsong evangelical church is to open up in Israel.
Hillsong, which runs regular tours to the Holy Land, is to launch a new church in Tel Aviv.
The move was announced by Brian Houston, global senior pastor of Hillsong Church and president of Hillsong Music.
He wrote on Instagram: 'Let me to be the first to tell you this is happening. Hillsong church is going to add a room to our church family in ISRAEL. From Jerusalem to the ends of the earth and from the ends of the earth back to Israel. #prayforhillsongisrael #TelAviv.'
Hillsong is an international phenomenom, with its worship music used by churches of all denominations worldwide.
In London, the church packs out the London Palladium in the West End with four services every Sunday, attended by many thousands of young people and their families.
Pastor Brian Houston of Hillsong church in Sydney, Australia, announces the opening of a church in Tel Aviv, Israel, February 13, 2017.
The Hillsong Young & Free music group was among those nominated for the Best Contemporary Christian Music album award at the Grammys last night, won by Hillary Scott and the Scott Family.
After Tel Aviv, assuming the church replicates the success it has had in countries worldwide, the church is expected to open a second base in Jerusalem.
Hillsong was founded in Sydney 33 years ago and currently has 194 Sunday services in cities including Sydney, Cape Town, New York, London, Los Angeles, Paris and Amsterdam.
"Let me be the first to tell you this is happening. Hillsong church is going to add a room to our church family in ISRAEL," Houston wrote on Instagram about their first church plant in that country."From Jerusalem to the ends of the earth and from the ends of the earth back to Israel."
Houston ended his post with the hashtags, "pray for Hillsong Israel" and "Tel Aviv."
If the Tel Aviv congregation thrives the church will likely open another campus in Jerusalem, according Christian Today.
Along with the opening of their Tel Aviv campus, the two other site locations will be in Perth, Australia, and Bali, Indonesia.
"This will be a Campus of Hillsong Australia. It's almost Australia. I may have to visit this campus a lot!" Houston joked about Bali, a popular tourist destination.
Hillsong's Taya Smith Celebrates Success of 'Let Hope Rise' Film; Shows Grace to 'Haters' (Interview)
Hillsong has grown from a single church in suburban Sydney founded in 1983 to an international ministry that now extends to cities on five continents, including London, Paris, Sao Paulo, Cape Town, Rio de Janeiro, and Phoenix.
In the United States, Hillsong is recognized for their growing congregations, including Hillsong New York and Los Angeles. Combined, the ministry reaches over 100,000 people weekly.
In England, the church fills up the London Palladium in the West End with four different services every Sunday. Those services are likewise attended by thousands of young people and their families.
Hillsong churches also often attract the attention of many A-list celebrities. Justin Bieber, Oklahoma City Thunder superstar Kevin Durant, Selena Gomez and actress/singer Vanessa Hudgens, to name a few, have all visited the popular churches and their conferences.
This 400 page account outlines the strong deception that has crept into the church.
Hellsong-Sample See Inside
Watch Video Trailer
The author takes you on a journey through recent developments in Hillsong's musicology, and shows the dangers of not examining or questioning. The book, which is over 400 pages, uncovers the dark secrets behind this seemingly innocent church. The book reads more like a 'Doco-drama'.
Hellsong– See Inside
Kindle Version Amazon
Buy the book in 3 digital formats now!
Bali IndonesiabookBrian HoustonFeb 2017HellsongHillsongIsraelJerusalemLaunchNew ChurchPerth AustraliaPlantServicesTel Avivtours
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dev-blogs
PLEX Changes On The Way!
2017-03-16 - By Team Size Matters - EVE dev-blogs
Hello Space Shoppers!
Team Size Matters here to tell you about some changes we have lined up for PLEX, Aurum and the New Eden Store. These changes don't have a set release date yet but will be coming to EVE Online this spring or early summer.
With Ascension behind us, and a wave of Alphas now living as permanent residents in New Eden, our team has been looking for ways to improve the PLEX experience for Alphas and Omegas both. PLEX (Pilot's License Extension) has been an important part of the EVE ecosystem for many years now. It's been great for EVE because it allows players to trade their time and money in whatever way they like without hurting the integrity of our shared universe. Over those many years, and especially now due to Clone States, we've learned a lot about PLEX and think we can make improvements without disrupting the core design. Let me tell you how!
Smaller PLEX
The first component of our plan is focused on making PLEX more flexible. Currently, PLEX is rather large. By always existing as a one-month chunk of subscription time, PLEX can be cumbersome to buy and trade. We think it would be great if it could be broken into smaller units that fit your needs rather than always being bound to the size of 30 days. With that in mind, our first planned change is to convert every existing PLEX into 500 PLEX. After the change, anything you could get for 1 Plex from CCP will instead require 500 Plex. This new PLEX granularity will allow us to sell smaller PLEX packages, and allow you to trade whatever amounts you like with each other.
The PLEX Vault
We also want PLEX to be easier to find and understand. To make it easier for players to find out what PLEX is and what it can do, we are introducing the PLEX Vault. The Vault is an inventory location, shared across all characters on an account, that stores PLEX and shows common actions you can take with it, as well as how you can get it.
Like any other inventory location, the Vault will appear in the list of locations to the left and you can drag PLEX in and out of the Vault to any other inventory you have access to. PLEX is the only item that can be kept in the Vault. When you purchase PLEX from CCP, it will go straight to your PLEX Vault instead of the Redeem queue.
It will look something like this (work in progress):
The PLEX Vault will allow you to move PLEX safely throughout the universe rather than having to move it in a ship. It will still be possible to carry it in a ship like any other item if you want, so if you have an urge to fill a shuttle full of PLEX and tour low sec just drag PLEX out of the vault and into your cargo and you're good to go.
We know how much you love it when ships blow up with piles of PLEX inside, we even might understand why, but, we also don't want new PLEX users to be losing their PLEX before they can trade it because they didn't know how to get to market safely.
The New New Eden Store
With a much smaller PLEX, we can easily set up the New Eden Store catalog in PLEX prices rather than Aurum and let you use PLEX from your vault to buy things there. The coexistence of PLEX and Aurum has always been a heavy burden on anyone who wanted to buy something from CCP. Whether you just wanted a SKIN or you wanted to buy the smartest item to trade with other players to get ISK, you had some math to do. With Aurum out of the picture and PLEX taking over in the NES, buying should be much less confusing.
What about Aurum?
Aurum had its run but we are excited to move forward with PLEX only. On launch day for this feature we will convert all existing Aurum balances above 1000 Aurum to the new PLEX. Today you get 3500 AUR for every PLEX you convert to Aurum, and this is the same rate we will match to convert Aurum to the new PLEX. This means that if your Aurum balance on launch day is 1000 Aurum or more, it will be converted in its entirety and you will get 1 PLEX for every 7 Aurum.
A word on the PLEX market
One consequence of making the changes described above is that we are combining the existing stockpiles of Aurum and PLEX, which could affect the value of PLEX in the EVE market as new supply enters. Even though we believe this set of changes will be extremely positive, we very much want to protect the value of PLEX that you currently own. Here's a small list of information and plans to protect the PLEX market:
As we announce these changes, we expect the in-game market to respond and that there may be some volatility which could take many forms. Based on what we know about the relative sizes of Aurum and PLEX stockpiles, we believe the market should take care of finding a new balance without major impact on the price and value of PLEX
Anyone looking to liquidate Aurum for ISK has had ample opportunity to do so, especially since the release of skill extractors
Converting only Aurum balances that exceed 1000 Aurum will lower the total amount converted and decrease the risk of a rapid inflow of PLEX destabilizing the market.
We will run specials in the New Eden Store leading up to the change so that there's good reason to use up excess Aurum
We will keep a careful eye on things and be ready to intervene in other ways if necessary to protect the PLEX ecosystem and your investments in it.
With these changes, we hope to keep everything that works about PLEX intact while greatly improving clarity and usability. More details will emerge over coming months as we take on feedback and continue to nail down specifics. We've included a Q and A below to try and address some common questions, let us know if we miss anything!
Fly free,
Team Size Matters
Handy FAQ!
Q: When will this feature launch?
A: We don't have an exact date yet, but this feature is in active development now, and you can expect more detailed information on the launch timeline at EVE Fanfest in early April.
Q: What will happen to existing market orders for PLEX when the feature launches?
A: We will cancel all orders and repay fees, as usual when we make a major type conversion.
Q: Will market histories reflect the change in PLEX value?
A: New PLEX will be a new item type, getting its own graphs and history data starting from day one and leaving old PLEX data unaffected.
Q: Can I still buy Aurum?
A: Yes! All current Aurum packages will be available until near launch of these changes, after which we will close Aurum purchasing completely.
Q: Can I still buy PLEX?
A: Yes, until launch of these changes PLEX will continue to work exactly as today, and be offered from CCP at same rates and packages. Any PLEX you own on launch of these changes will be converted to 500 of the new PLEX.
Q: Why are you only converting Aurum balances above 1000?
A: A large portion of the total Aurum stockpile is in small balances left over from past giveaways and by not converting those small balances we mitigate risk of oversupply in the PLEX market
Q: For balances over 1000, will the entire balance be converted or only the amount exceeding 1000?
A: The entire balance will be converted. For example, a balance of 1050 Aurum would be converted into 150 PLEX.
Q: Will prices change in the New Eden Store?
A: Prices may change after the conversion from Aurum to PLEX as not all prices will be possible to convert at even numbers. Overall this change to PLEX is not made with the intention to change the price of products such as Skill Extractors in the New Eden Store, and we will define new pricing in PLEX to match the current pricing in Aurum.
Q: With smaller PLEX, will I be able to buy less than 30 days of Omega time?
A: We currently we have no plans regarding smaller game time packages.
2019-06-21 - By CCP Falcon
Patch Notes For June 2019 Release
Patch Notes For EVE Online: Invasion
The Scope
Nullsec Blackout
Breaking News: Drifter Invasion


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