Purpose: To assess the feasibility of a gene therapeutic approach to treating choroidal neovascularization (CNV), we generated an adeno-associated virus type 8 vector (AAV2/8) encoding an siRNA targeting vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), and determined the AAV2/8 vector's ability to inhibit angiogenesis.
Methods: We initially transfected 3T3 cells expressing VEGF with the AAV2/8 plasmid vector psiRNA-VEGF using the H1 promoter and found that VEGF expression was significantly diminished in the transfectants. We next injected 1 μl (3 × 1014 vg/ml) of AAV2/8 vector encoding siRNA targeting VEGF (AAV2/8/SmVEGF-2; n = 12) or control vector encoding green fluorescent protein (GFP) (AAV2/8/GFP; n = 14) into the subretinal space in C57BL/6 mice. One week later, CNV was induced by using a diode laser to make four separate choroidal burns around the optic nerve in each eye. After an additional 2 weeks, the eyes were removed for flat mount analysis of the CNV surface area.
Results: Subretinal delivery of AAV2/8/SmVEGF-2 significantly diminished CNV at the laser lesions, compared to AAV8/GFP (1597.3±2077.2 versus 5039.5±4055.9 µm2; p<0.05). Using an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay, we found that VEGF levels were reduced by approximately half in the AAV2/8/SmVEGF-2 treated eyes.
Conclusions: These results suggest that siRNA-VEGF can be expressed across the retina and that long-term suppression of CNV is possible through the use of stable AAV2/8-mediated siRNA-VEGF expression. In vivo gene therapy may thus be a feasible approach to the clinical management of CNV in conditions such as age-related macular degeneration.
Choroidal neovascularization (CNV) is a major complication that threatens the vision of patients with various retinal degenerative and inflammatory diseases, including pathologic myopia, ocular histoplasmosis [1,2], and, especially, age-related macular degeneration (AMD) [3,4], which is the most frequent cause of visual impairment in individuals over the age of 40 years in developed countries [5,6]. Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is a 45-kDa homodimeric glycoprotein that increases vascular permeability , stimulates angiogenesis , and is a specific endothelial cell mitogen . VEGF also functions as a vasodilator and an anti-apoptotic, endothelial cell survival factor , expression of which is upregulated by hypoxia  and inflammatory mediators . In addition, VEGF has pathogenic importance in cases of AMD, since VEGF contributes to the development of CNV in humans [13,14] and experimental CNV models . The angiogenic actions of VEGF are mediated through its binding to two endothelium-specific receptor tyrosine kinases: Flt-1 (fms-like tyrosine kinase or VEGFR1) and Flk-1/KDR (fetal liver kinase or VEGFR2) [16,17], with the VEGF ligand showing at least 10-fold greater affinity for Flt-1 than Flk-1/KDR. We previously showed that neovascularization in a mouse CNV model is efficiently inhibited by type 8 adeno-associated viral (AAV) vectors mediating expression of flt-1 . Clinically, moreover, inhibiting the VEGF pathway using a VEGF aptamer or an anti-VEGF antibody effectively suppresses the pathway's CNV-related activity [19-21].
The ability of siRNA to specially and potently downregulate the expression of a target gene post-transcriptionally is based on the sequence-specific degradation of homologous target mRNA . Intravitreous injections of siRNA have been shown to inhibit expression of selected genes, and specific siRNA targeting VEGF has been shown to prevent retinal or choroidal neovascularization in mice [23,24]. However, because of the short half-lives of these molecules in vivo, repeated intraocular injections of siRNA are frequently required for therapeutic benefit, which confers a high cumulative potential for local ocular complications. Gene transfer mediated by a viral vector offers the possibility of targeted, sustained, and regulatable delivery of therapeutic levels of angiostatic proteins or small therapeutic molecules to the retina after only a single administration to the appropriate intraocular site. AAV vectors, in particular, have the ability to mediate efficient and stable transduction , and we have already shown that the AAV2/8 vector can be transduced into the retina . Recently, Askou et al. showed siRNA targeting VEGF expression localized to RPE cells inhibited neovascularization in a murine CNV model using a self-complementary AAV type 8 vector (scAAV2/8) . We have already reported that single-strand AAV2/8 (ssAAV2/8) mediated soluble Flt-1 (sFlt-1) inhibited neovascularization in a murine CNV model . Our future final goal is combination gene therapy using shRNA strategy and sFlt-1. However, since the scAAV has a severe size limitation of the insert gene (within 2.4 kb), it is difficult to express anti-angiogenic agents such as sFlt-1 (4Kb) for combination therapy. Therefore, to analyze whether ssAAV2/8-mediated shRNA against VEGF is effective, in the present study, we assessed the effect of shRNA targeting VEGF using ssAAV2/8 when expressed in the photoreceptor and RPE cells in a murine CNV model.
Three siRNA sequences targeting the mouse VEGF gene were selected (SmVEGF-1, SmVEGF-2, and SmVEGF-3; Figure 1) using siRNA design software (siDirect) . To express shRNA, we chose the human H1 RNA polymerase III promoter, which was used in viral vector-mediated expression of shRNA and suppresses the target gene efficiently in vivo and in vitro [28,29]. After synthetic double-stranded oligonucleotides were introduced into the BglII and HindIII sites of the pSUPER vector (OligoEngine, Seattle, WA), the BamHI and KpnI fragment was cleaved and introduced into the corresponding restriction sites of pSP72. The EcoRI fragment was then cleaved from that plasmid and introduced into the corresponding restriction sites of the AAV vector plasmid (CAGS-Gal_B19-EGFP_SUB201) .
Since we used siRNA against murine VEGF but not human VEGF, to analyze the effect of siRNA, we chose mouse-derived 3T3 cells. 3T3 cells maintained in Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium (DMEM; D-5546, Sigma-Aldrich, Louis, MO) supplemented with 8% fetal bovine serum (FBS) were seeded to a density of 1 × 105 cells/well in a 24-well plate and allowed to adhere overnight. The cells were then transfected using Lipofectamine 2000 (Life Technologies, Tokyo, Japan) diluted 1:25 in Opti-MEM (Life Technologies). Each siRNA-containing plasmid diluted (20 ng/µl) in Opti-MEM was first added to the transfection mix at a 1:1 ratio and incubated at room temperature for 5 min. Then after the plated cells were washed with Opti-MEM, the siRNA/transfection agent complexes (DNA (µg): Lipofectamine 2000 (µl) = 1:2) were added (500 ng/well), and the cells were incubated for 72 h in 8% FBS DMEM at 37 °C under 5% CO2. Thereafter, the cells were trypsinized with 0.25% trypsin-EDTA (Sigma, St. Louis, MO) and centrifuged at 900 ×g for 5 min. The resultant cell pellets were washed in PBS (1X; 137 mM NaCl, 2.7 mM KCl, 8.1 mM Na2HPO4, 1.5 mM KH2PO4, 0.5 mM MgCl2, pH 7.2; D-5773, Sigma-Aldrich) and centrifuged again at 900 ×g for 5 min at 4 °C. These cells were fixed using 1% paraformaldehyde (PFA)/PBS (Wako, Pure Chemical Industries, Tokyo, Japan) and analyzed with fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS; BD FACSCalibur, Becton, Dickinson and Company, Franklin Lake, NJ). These cells were also used to isolate total RNA.
Total cellular RNA was extracted from each sample, treated with DNase 1, and purified using a RNeasy Mini Kit according to the manufacturer's instructions (Qiagen, Valencia, CA). cDNA was generated by reverse transcription of 150 ng of RNA using random hexamer primers and a TaKaRa RNA PCR Kit (AMV) Ver.3.0 (TaKaRa, Shiga, Japan). Real-time quantitative PCR was performed using Premix Ex Taq (TaKaRa) on a 7500 Fast Real-Time PCR System (Life Technologies) with the following primers and probes: for VEGF, 5′-GCA CTG GAC CCT GGC TTT ACT-3′ (forward), 5′-ACT TGA TCA CTT ATG GGA CTT CTG-3′ (reverse), and 5′-CCA TGC CCA GTG GTC CCA GGC TG-3′ (probe); for GAPDH, 5′-CAT CAC TGC CAC CCA GAA GA-3′ (forward), 5′-ATG TTC TGG GCA GCC-3′ (reverse), and 5′-TGG ATG GCC CCT CTG GAA AGC TG-3′ (probe). The cycling protocol entailed incubation at 95 °C for 30 s followed by 40 cycles of 95 °C for 5 s and 60 °C for 34 s. Relative gene expression was calculated using the standard curve method. The VEGF mRNA levels were normalized to those of the housekeeping gene GAPDH. Each sample was run in duplicate, and each real-time PCR was repeated three times.
An AAV2/8 vector encoding siRNA targeting VEGF (AAV2/8/SmVEGF-2) and a control vector encoding GFP (AAV2/8/GFP) were generated using an adenovirus-free system and purified using a previously described discontinuous iodixanol gradient centrifugation method . In brief, the viral solution was layered with Optiprep (iodixanol; Axis-Shield plc, Oslo, Norway). Then after iodixanol continuous gradient centrifugation at 100,000 ×g for 15 h at 16 °C, the viral fractions were collected from the bottom of the gradient. The purified virion titers were determined with quantitative PCR analysis (Igarashi et al., 2013) . The AAV2/8/GFP and AAV2/8/SmVEGF-2 titers were 3 × 1014 vector genomes (vg)/ml.
For the ocular injections, C57BL/6J mice were purchased from Charles River Laboratories Japan (Tokyo, Japan) and maintained under a 12 h:12 h light-dark cycle. All protocols involving animals were conducted in accordance with the Animal Experimental Ethical Review Committee of Nippon Medical School and the Association for Research in Vision and Ophthalmology (ARVO) Statement on the Use of Animals in Ophthalmic and Vision Research.
To confirm the location of gene transduction following subretinal injection of the vectors, 2-month-old mice were anesthetized, and 1 µl of AAV2/8/GFP was administered. Two months later, the eyes were enucleated, fixed overnight in 4% PFA/PBS at 4 °C, and sequentially transferred every 3 h to PBS containing 10%, 20%, or 30% sucrose. The eyes were then frozen in optimal cutting temperature (OCT) compound on dry ice, after which 6-μm cryostat sections were cut in a plane parallel to the vertical meridian of the eye. The sections were mounted using a medium containing 4, 6-diamidino-2-phenylindole (DAPI; Vector Laboratories, Burlingame, CA) and observed under a fluorescence microscope (Olympus, Tokyo, Japan). In addition, to assess the extent of the transfected surface following subretinal injection of the vectors, retinal flat mounts were made 2 weeks after injection, as described previously .
To generate the CNV model, 2-month-old male C57BL/6 mice were first deeply anesthetized by intramuscular injection of ketamine hydrochloride (50 mg/kg; Daiichi Sankyo Company, Tokyo, Japan) and intraperitoneal injection of pentobarbital sodium (50 mg/kg; Kyoritsu Seiyaku Corp, Tokyo, Japan). The experimental CNV model was then created as preciously described . Briefly, the beam from a diode laser (532 nm; Lumenis, Yokneam, Israel) was shone onto to the retina through a slit-lamp biomicroscope using a 22-mm cover glass as a contact lens. The treatment parameters were chosen to produce a cavitation bubble in the choroid without hemorrhage (spot size, 100 μm2; intensity, 120 mW; duration, 100 ms). Four laser burns were made at the 3, 6, 9, and 12 o'clock positions of the posterior pole, around the optic nerve in both eyes. One week before the laser treatment, 1 µl of AAV2/8/GFP or AAV2/8/ SmVEGF-2, was delivered by subretinal injection at the posterior limbus using a Hamilton syringe (Hamilton Inc., Reno, NV) with a 33-gauge needle.
Two weeks after the laser treatment, the size of the CNV lesions was measured in the choroidal flat mounts . Anesthetized mice were killed by cardiac perfusion of 40 ml of PBS, 5 ml of PFA/PBS in PBS, and 2 ml of a mixture of fluorescein-isothiocyanate (FITC)-conjugated high-molecular-weight dextran (molecular weights: 2 × 106 and 4 × 104 Da in a proportion of 2:1 at a concentration of 10 mg/ml; Sigma). The eyes were then enucleated and fixed in 4% PFA/PBS overnight at 4 °C. A technique for visualizing FITC-dextran-perfused vessels within CNV was modified to enable simultaneous visualization of cell nuclei within the lesions. The anterior segment and the neurosensory retina were removed, and four radial relaxing incisions were made in the remaining sclera-choroid-RPE complex. Green FITC fluorescence from within the neovascular complexes was then visualized using a fluorescence microscope (Olympus DP50, Olympus), and the images were taken using a cooled charge-coupled device (CCD) camera. Although the retina of the control group (AAV2/8/GFP) expressed GFP that was detected at a wavelength similar to FITC-dextran, it was not difficult to distinguish RPE cells and vascular complex due to their morphology. The margins of the CNV lesion were defined with the FITC-dextran fluorescence and determined using image-analysis software (Photoshop CS5 extended; Adobe, Tokyo, Japan). The lesion sizes of AAV2/8/ SmVEGF-2 (n = 12) and AAV2/8/GFP (n = 14) were averaged for each group. Data are presented with the means ± standard deviation (SD).
Two weeks after laser photocoagulation, the sclera-choroid-RPE complex and the neurosensory retina were isolated from AAV2/8/GFP and AAV2/8/SmVEGF-2 (each; n = 16). Thereafter, two samples from the sclera-choroid-RPE complex and the neurosensory retina were placed in 200 µl of 0.9% NaCl and homogenized, and the sclera was removed from the RPE/choroid complex. The resultant lysate was centrifuged at 17,000 ×g for 5 min at 4 °C, and the VEGF levels in 50-µl aliquots of supernatant were determined using a Mouse VEGF Quantikine ELISA kit according to the manufacturer's protocol (R&D system, Minneapolis, MN).
Morphometric data from the different lesions in each eye were averaged to provide one value per eye. The mean and standard deviation (SD) for these measures for each group were calculated, and the Student t test was used to compare the groups (Microsoft Excel, Microsoft, Redmond, WA). In all cases, values of p<0.05 were considered statistically significant.
The 3T3 cells transfected with each of three AAV vector plasmids encoding siRNA targeting VEGF were examined using semiquantitative real-time PCR. The transfection efficiency was nearly 65% (Figure 2A; pGFP; 65.22±15.65, pSmVEGF-1; 65.62±5.38, pSmVEGF-2; 67.29±11.42, pSmVEGF-3; 69.03±9.44), and VEGF expression was reduced by up to 55% in the cells treated with AAV2/8/SmVEGF (Figure 2B; pSmVEGF-1; 0.76±0.14, pSmVEGF-2; 0.55±0.14, pSmVEGF-3; 0.55±0.08). Somewhat stronger VEGF suppression was achieved with pSmVEGF-2 and pSmVEGF-3 than pSmVEGF-1 (pSmVEGF-1, pSmVEGF-2, pSmVEGF-3:0.77, 0.55, 0.55), so we selected pSmVEGF-2 for use in the subsequent in vivo experiments.
To deliver the siRNA into the RPE cells responsible for VEGF expression, we chose a type 8 AAV vector, which we previously showed mediated highly efficient transduction . Then to confirm which areas of the retina were transduced following subretinal injection of the AAV2/8/GFP vector, we performed a histological analysis of GFP expression using frozen sections and flat mounts. In frozen sections, GFP fluorescence was detected in photoreceptors and RPE cells from all injected eyes (n = 3; Figure 3A,B). Similarly, widespread GFP fluorescence was observed in RPE cells in the retinal flat mounts (n=3; Figure 3C,D).
We next investigated the efficacy of AAV2/8/ SmVEGF-2 in a murine laser photocoagulation-induced CNV model. The ability to inhibit angiogenesis was analyzed using the choroidal flat mount method . In the case of the AAV2/8/GFP group, the RPE cells expressed GFP. However, it is not difficult to distinguish between GFP and CNV, as shown in Figure 4A–C. We found that CNV was significantly inhibited in the mice treated with AAV2/8/ SmVEGF-2 (n = 12), compared with the mice treated with AAV2/8/GFP (Figure 4F; 1597.3±2077.2 versus 5039.5±4055.9 µm2; n = 14, p<0.014). Thus, subretinal injection of AAV2/8/ SmVEGF-2 was an effective treatment for CNV in our murine model.
Finally, we analyzed the VEGF level in the RPE/choroid complex and the neurosensory retina using a specific ELISA in treated mice. We found that the VEGF levels were slightly reduced in the neurosensory retina of the AAV2/8/SmVEGF-2 treated mice compared to the control AAV2/8/GFP mice (3.41 versus 3.84 pg/eye; Figure 5B). However, significant suppression of the VEGF level was observed in the RPE/choroid complex from mice treated with AAV2/8/SmVEGF-2 compared with AAV2/8/GFP (3.6 versus 6.06 pg/eye, p=0.0182) (Figure 5A). Thus, exogenous expression of siVEGF suppressed VEGF in this murine CNV model.
Among the various strategies proposed to prevent choroidal neovascularization in mice, administering siRNA specifically targeting VEGF  or VEGF receptor 1  has proved effective. However, groundbreaking clinical trials of naked VEGF-A siRNA (bevasiranib) and VEGF receptor 1 siRNA (siRNA-027) [32,33] were suddenly halted due to adverse side effects, and the primary endpoints were never reached. Kaiser et al. reported some efficacy with lower doses, but not with the higher range of doses . It was also reported that although siRNAs composed of 21 nucleotides (nt) or more suppressed CNV, the effect was unrelated to an RNAi action; instead, the siRNA activated cell surface toll-like receptor-3 (TLR3) in a sequence- and target-independent manner . Consistent with that finding, two independent groups similarly reported that non-targeted 21-nt siRNA suppressed CNV [35,36]. In addition, Kleinman et al. demonstrated that non-internalized siRNAs induce retinal degeneration in mice by activating surface TLR3 on RPE cells . They also suggested that evasion of immune system recognition might be accomplished through the use of siRNA duplexes shorter than 21 nt.
These observations suggest injection of naked siRNA may cause side effects by acting via TLR3 in the cytoplasm. However, this may be avoided by generating siRNA through virally mediated gene expression, as this siRNA could directly interact with targeted nucleic acid sequences in the nucleus. TLR3-dependent suppression on angiogenesis has also been seen in the laser-induced CNV model [33,37]. Consistent with the hypothesis of a TLR3 pathway proposed by Kleinman et al. , it may be that siRNA administration can trigger nonspecific autoimmune diseases, including uveitis, as siRNA may activate TLR3 on the cell surface and mimic a viral infection. Furthermore, repetitive activation of TLR3 by external siRNA may induce immune tolerance, which could also have adverse effects. We therefore strongly suggest that, for clinical application (e.g., for AMD), the delivery of siRNA encoded by an AAV vector is superior to repetitive external administrations of siRNA, and that viral delivery of siRNA gene is a potentially variable approach to treatment.
We confirmed that GFP is efficiently expressed following subretinal injection of AAV2/8/GFP in mice, and that the GFP expression was localized to photoreceptor cells and RPE cells. Some groups have reported that exogenous gene expression is limited to the bleb area following subretinal injection [38,39], while others reported that the area of expression extended over the entire retina [40,41]. We recently reported that the average relative area of GFP expression (the expression area/the whole area) following subretinal injection of AAV type 8 GFP was 18.0±18.9% in the neural retina and 29.3±25.8% in the RPE cells . We suggested that the transduction efficiency depends on various factors, including the injection site, vector volume, viscosity, titer, and the age of injected mice. In the experiment of Askou et al., GFP expression was limited in the RPE cells . They commented that effective titers below a particular threshold could lead to inefficient photoreceptor transduction. Our earlier findings indicate that AAV2/8/GFP can be used for photoreceptor transduction [18,31]. Askou et al. reported that AAV-mediated gene transfer of siRNA targeting VEGF did not reduce the diameter of CNV, but decreased the horizontal extension of CNV measured in retinal cross-sections. In contrast, we observed that AAV-mediated siRNA decreased the CNV size in retinal flat mounts. Moreover, we examined whether AAV2/8/SmVEGF-2 decreased VEGF expression using the ELISA system in the RPE/sclera complex and the neurosensory retina. VEGF levels were significantly decreased in the RPE/choroid complex, but were not decreased in the neurosensory retina. We suggested that the decrease in VEGF in the RPE/choroid complex led to the downsizing of CNV, since the VEGF level in the RPE/sclera complex was higher than in the neurosensory retina.
We previously investigated the inhibition of ocular neovascularization through lentivirus-mediated expression of angiostatin  and AAV2/8-mediated expression of soluble flt-1 . Flt-1 is a member of the VEGF receptor family, and we showed that soluble flt-1 inhibited CNV by blocking the activity of VEGF. This is noteworthy since siRNA suppresses the production of VEGF, but it does not affect VEGF already present. Lawrence et al. therefore suggested using a combination of siRNA-VEGF and ranibizumab . Similarly, we suggest AAV-mediated expression of siRNA-VEGF and soluble flt-1 may be an effective approach to anti-angiogenesis therapy. In the case of sufficient and rapid expression of shRNAs, self-complementary (sc) AAVs might be preferable. However, since scAAV have a severe size limitation of the insert gene (within 2.4 kb), it is difficult to express anti-angiogenic agents such as Flt-1. In the present study, we assessed the effect of siRNA targeting VEGF using single-strand AAV type 8 vector (ssAAV2/8) when expressed photoreceptor and RPE cells in a murine CNV model. To develop the combination therapy, in this experiment, we used the single strand AAV vector used in a previous report , and suppression of CNV is possible through the use of stable ssAAV2/8-mediated siRNA-VEGF expression. These results indicated that ssAAV2/8/SmVEGF-2 is useful for combination therapy.
In summary, we have shown that type 8 ssAAV-mediated siRNA-VEGF expression decreased VEGF and inhibited CNV in an experimental model of CNV. This finding demonstrates the feasibility of an in vivo gene therapeutic approach to the clinical management of CNV in conditions such as AMD.
This work was supported in part by Grant-in-Aid for Young Scientists (B) (23792014) from the Ministry of MEXT (Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology, Japan) and Grant (S0801034) from MEXT-supported program for the strategic research foundation at private universities, 2008-2012. We thank Dr. James Wilson at the University of Pennsylvania for providing AAV packaging plasmids (pacH and p5E18-VD2/8). We also thank Yukihiko Hirai for making AAV viral vectors and Nagisa Asakawa and Maika Kobayashi for technical assistance.


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So how much pop was in the King of Pop's funeral?
After the world-televised seating of family and famous friends, most of Michael Jackson's Sept. 3 funeral took place behind the closed gates of Forest Lawn Memorial Park in Glendale, Calif. The event's costs, however, were only made public yesterday, when court papers were released as lawyers continued to wrangle over other estate details in court.
According to the papers, more than $1 million went into the event, including the solid bronze casket with 14-karat gold-plated handles and the party following the ceremony — all of which needed court approval for Michael Jackson's estate to cover the costs. That's a lot of This Is It ticket sales. The papers also show that sisters Janet and LaToya Jackson were owed reimbursements of $49,000 and $2,437, respectively, for fronting immediate funeral costs. As Katherine Jackson's lawyer states in the court papers, while the costs are "significant, they are entirely commensurate with the decedent's worldwide status as an entertainer and with the world's grief over his death."
The post-funeral reception, attended by Jackson family members as well as producer music mogul Quincy Jones and the Rev. Al Sharpton, was held at nearby restaurant Villa Sorriso. It ran a tab of $21,455. The passed tray food, including tidbits like bruschetta, fruit skewers, beef satay and ratatouille, was one of the party's cheapest features at $4,200.
The most expensive? The open bar. Instructions on the bill said the bar was to "notify host when $10,800 was met." Based on the final total, the guests hit that alcohol ceiling. Now that's a wake made for a King.
See the last pictures taken of Michael Jackson.


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Here is the sample of Moscow city distant suburb.
As an experiment the dull gray houses were painted to different colours.
From my point of view it's really amazing isn't it?
In Russia where is in winter sun is a very rare thing such kind of art might keep the winter depression away. For instance this fall-winter there were no visible sun in Moscow for more than 30 days. Due to this it was reported that a lot of people simply refuse to go to work because of an enormous depressive state they were in.
Maybe such urbanistic art would keep the depression away.
Do you know the names of the painters or their group?
Wonderful! Absolutely wonderful! Thank you for the photographs.
So something good does happen in Russia!
Fantastic. I was in Moscow and Leningrad many years ago, and it was such a drab and dreary world. I didn't think that russians had this sort of imagination. These paintings are wonderful, very impressive.
English Russia is a great blog. But you need to keep showing us positive things like this, as well as the bad or the decaying side.
wtf is this?? It looks gay; it makes typical Soviet artitecture look even worse.
Maybe Russia could slap a bunch of LED's on a building and fix the problem. Just imagine the artistic possibilities.
Eye, imagine living here for the whole life. What sort of imagination you'd have.
Well, we don`t get too much sunny days in the winer indeed, mainly because of short bright daytime, so I think such pallette is a good idea. But it will require quite a lot of expensive maintenance, because if it will degrade over time, it will look even more depressing than common tiled walls.
Yes as I see daily these walls that once were new and shiny but, because of dirt and smoke and pollution, became dark, gloomy and dirty. And sad.
that's a real creatiff !!
This looks really amazing. But in fact, the idea to use bright colours was first used in the northern cities with yet longer winters and less sunlight in the winter than in Moscow like e.g. Norilsk or Anadyr. They painted the very same concrete slab or brick houses in various colours to make them look not too depressing. The people in Ramenskoe just developed the known idea somewhat further and made pictures of the houses. Looks really avanguardistic.
The greyness and clouds in Moscow late autumn and winter are a natural event, but there were a lot more freezing, but sunny days in the past. Such a "European winter" is a recent trend which is generally disliked by the most. The air pollution is not the only (although important) reason.
I would feel like my life was a bad acid trip.
with a project like this at this scale, something positive has to come from it. our surroundings affect us more than we even noitce. i would like to see more palm trees in winnipeg, but that will never happen!!!
but im a bit affraid of this colors !!
do u like chocolate? Muy muy!
Why paint them at all comrades? Just leave concrete as it is.
Reinforced concrete is fashionable nowadays.
It will make housing even more affordable to the masses. Beside, paint, any paint, is toxic. Why have it on your house?
Long live social justice! Long live Russia!
Can anybody tell me where these buildings are in Moscow, please?
giving colors for all these big blocks of flats with no life!
Wow, you are really opening up my eyes to the "new" Russia. I remember pictures from my childhood in which I was fascinated because Russia seemed to be so void of color from the buildings and cars to the clothing. I'm glad to see things are changing.
It is better to see more colors instead of mono chromatic gray walls.


text:
Spectrum Competition
Anchorage Down with the King First Date Have a Nice Life I'm Fine (Thanks for Asking) Kendra and Beth Ludi Mayday Poser Stop and Go Superior The film awarded in the Spectrum competition The Scary of Sixty-First The Sleeping Negro To the Moon Violet Youngstown
Pete Ohs, USA 2021, 78'
Audience award nominated film. Vote after the screening.
Sarah (Stephanie Hunt, co-writer) gets a new name, a new home, bathroom and bedroom. She is to avoid talking to other people and, as the official sitting opposite her points out, just try not to be who she is. Certainly, and under no circumstances, is she to mention Youngstown, Ohio. Sarah, whose family history has been complicated, is part of the witness protection program. However, she has a serious problem - she is completely unable to lie or even remember her new name. Fortunately, in Youngstown, to which she immediately returns, she quickly meets an outspoken crook who "forgot" to return the car after a test drive and promises to teach her to cheat and use crutches convincingly. In his "microscopic" movie Peter Ohs shows some inept cheats who could learn a lot from Ryan and Tatum O'Neal from Paper Moon, surprised to learn that the more they lie, the more they learn about themselves.
Audience award nominated film. Please pick up a voting card on entering the screening and tear in a place marking your opinion and throw it into an assigned box after the screening (cards and boxes will be available at the theaters). The filmmakers have a chance of winning $10,000.
Marta Bałaga
Pete Ohs
Pete Ohs is an American director, cinematographer and editor. He made music videos for bands such as Slow Club, Wavves and The Fiery Furnaces, and in 2013 "Filmmaker Magazine" counted him among the top new faces of independent cinema to watch. Julia Garner starred in his acclaimed first feature film Everything Beautiful Is Far Away. His latest film, Youngstown, examines a city in Ohio. As an editor he worked, among others, one the film Beast, Beast, shown at the American Film Festival.
2012 I Send You This Place (co-dir.)
2015 We Found Footage (short)
2017 Poza zasięgiem / Everything Beautiful Is Far Away
2018 Nothing Bad Will Happen (short)
2021 Youngstown
director Pete Ohs
screenplay Andy Faulkner, Stephanie Hunt, Pete Ohs
cinematography Pete Ohs
editing Pete Ohs
music Charles Watson
cast Stephanie Hunt, Will Madden, Andy Faulkner, Alla Verkhlin, Michelle O'Brien
producer Andy Faulkner, Stephanie Hunt, Pete Ohs, Jesse Reed
production Spartan Media Acquisitions
sales Pete Ohs

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


1. What is the WACC and why is it important to estimate a firm's cost of capital? Do you agree with Joanna Cohen's WACC calculation? Why or why not? The WACC of a firm is the overall required return on the firm as whole. It is the discount rate to use for cash flows with risk that is similar to the overall firm. The WACC lets you see how much interest the company has to pay for every dollar it finances. The WACC of a firm increases at the Beta and rate of return on equity increases.
A decrease in WACC indicates a decrease in valuation and a higher risk. When the capital structure changes, the WACC will change in a U shape pattern. Debt is considered less risky than equity, so equity cost is usually higher than the cost of debt. The lowest WACC is the optimal capital structure. •Joanna used the book value of equity when she should have used the market value of equity. Which is equal to the number of outstanding shares multiplied by the price. This will change her weight of debt calculation. She used the book value of debt, which is ok because it is usually close to the market value. •The cost of debt she used was the total interest expense for the year divided by the average debt balance. She should have divided the total interest expense by the long term debt of the company. •The tax rate that she used was the state tax of 3% to the US statutory tax rate of 35%. She should have divided the income tax paid by the taxable income. •Cost of Equity – She used a 20-year treasury bond rate as the risk free rate.


The board exists to advise QS on any aspect of university rankings, including the methods used to produce them, possible new rankings, and the effect and impact of rankings around the world.
It is convened by Martin Ince, a British Science and Education Journalist who has been involved in the QS Rankings since 2004. He was formerly deputy editor of the Times Higher Education Supplement and advises universities in Europe and Asia on rankings issues.


text:
C90560B6-C202-49A5-B2ED-A4A96CD17C1E
Most Jackson County schools come up short for ELL skills
By PARIS ACHEN
More than half of all Jackson County students learning English as another language have not reached proficiency in English after five years of public school instruction, but some districts have shown significant improvement, according to a report by the Oregon Department of Education released Thursday.
State law, based on the federal No Child Left Behind Act, requires that schools bring at least half of their English learners to English proficiency by the end of five years.
In 2009-2010, that expectation will go up to 70 percent of students within five years.
"English proficiency is an integral skill for success in society, advancing economically, finding better opportunities in the work force and advancing to postsecondary education," said Jake Weigler, ODE spokesman. "If students don't advance to proficiency, we are robbing them of opportunities in life that are only available to those who are proficient in English."
The Central Point School District was the only district in the county and one of only 11 in the state that managed to guide more than 50 percent of its English language learners to English proficiency within five years. About 58 percent of that district's English learners are proficient in the language after five years or less of language instruction, a 49-point improvement from the previous year.
"We have very few ELL students compared to other districts," said Samantha Steele, Central Point education director. "That's less than 2 percent. In order to provide better services, we centralized them at Central Point Elementary, Scenic Middle School and the Crater Renaissance Academy.
"ODE told us you can provide better services when you combine and centralize those, and that has worked for us."
Eagle Point and Phoenix-Talent districts also saw dramatic gains in the number of students who advanced in English or mastered English within five years, thanks in part to more focused and intense English programs and the adoption of English language development curriculum, officials said.
The percentage of Phoenix-Talent pupils who became proficient in five years more than doubled from the previous year, from 13 percent in 2007-08 to 28 percent last year.
A similar trend happened in Eagle Point, where 30 percent of students mastered English within five years last year compared to 12 percent in 2007-08.
"I'm really impressed with a lot of these numbers," said Scott Townsend, ELL coordinator in Eagle Point. "Seventy out of 116 kids moved up a level at Mountain View Elementary School. They had 28 out of 61 students master English within five years."
Medford, the county's largest school district, and the Ashland district had setbacks in bringing students to English proficiency, but all of the county districts exceeded the state average of 25 percent.
Within five years, about 39 percent of English learners had mastered English in the Ashland district, compared to 46 percent the previous year. In Medford, 31 percent reached mastery last year, compared to 43 percent the previous year.
Butte Falls and Prospect districts don't have an English language learner program because of their small size. Rogue River was not rated because of its small number of English language learners.
"We always see there is room for improvement on our end," Townsend said. "We try to focus on what we have control over, better materials and better teacher training."
Reach Paris Achen at 776-4459 or pachen@mailtribune.com.


text:
What is the oldest tree in Ghana?
How old is the oldest tree in Ghana?
What is the longest tree in Ghana?
Where is the biggest tree in Africa located?
Where is the biggest tree found?
What is the biggest tree on earth?
What is the oldest tree in the world?
What are the top 10 tallest trees?
How old is the big tree?
What kind of trees grow in Ghana?
What is the tallest tree in Nigeria?
What is the largest forest in Ghana?
Which estate is the biggest in Ghana?
What is the tallest tree in the world 2020?
Which is bigger Redwood or Sequoia?
What's bigger sequoia or redwood?
Its unique nature has led to the intervention by the Ghana Forestry Commission. This magnificent tree is believed to be about 350 to 400 years old.
According to Ghana's Forestry officials, it is the biggest tree in the country. Growing in the forests of Akim Oda in Ghana's Eastern region, the tree known locally as "the Big Tree" is of the Bako species and its botanical name is tieghemela heckle.
A German scientist says a tree he discovered in Tanzania is Africa's tallest. It is a rare species, called Entandrophragma Excelsum, and stands 81.5m (267ft) tall.
What Is the World's Largest Tree? The largest tree in the world is a giant sequoia (Sequoiadendron giganteum) in California's Sequoia National Park. Called General Sherman, the tree is about 52,500 cubic feet (1,487 cubic meters) in volume.
IT IS INTERESTING: Quick Answer: How does Ethiopia get their water?
The General Sherman Tree is the largest in the world at 52,508 cubic feet (1,487 cubic meters).
The Great Basin Bristlecone Pine (Pinus Longaeva) has been deemed the oldest tree in existence, reaching an age of over 5,000 years old.
Consider the following 10 trees, each one the tallest in the world by species.
Hyperion: 380.1 Feet (115.85 Meters)
Centurion: 327.5 Feet (99.82 Meters) …
Doerner Fir: 327 Feet (99.7 Meters)
Raven's Tower: 317 Feet (96.7 Meters) …
Unnamed Giant Sequoia: 314 Feet (95.7 Meters) …
Yellow Meranti in Borneo: 309 Feet (94.1 Meters) …
The Texas Forest Service estimates the tree to be over 1,000 years old, while other recent estimates place it nearer to 2,000 years old.
There are tall trees of varying heights, forming a closed canopy at the top, above which tower a few forest giants, such as the silk cotton tree, the wawa tree (African whitewood, a hardwood), and the African mahogany.
It is a rare species called Entandrophragma Excelsum and it stands 81.5m tall. According to BBC, Hemp says he discovered the tree, which is about 600-years-old, some 20 years ago but he recently had the equipment to measure its height.
FAO, 21.7% or about 4,940,000 ha of Ghana is forested, according to FAO. Of this 8.0% ( 395,000 ) is classified as primary forest, the most biodiverse and carbon-dense form of forest. Ghana had 260,000 ha of planted forest.
Ghana Forest Information and Data.
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TOTAL (1000 full-time employees)
Devtraco is one of the biggest estates in Ghana with housing units that house over 1200 residents over an area of 205 acres. Apart from being one of the largest in Ghana, Devtraco's emphasis on finesse is recommendable. Each project is built with class and the traditional Devtraco quality.
The tallest trees in the world are redwoods (Sequoia sempervirens), which tower above the ground in California. These trees can easily reach heights of 300 feet (91 meters). Among the redwoods, a tree named Hyperion dwarfs them all.
Shape and size. —The giant sequoia is the largest tree in the world in volume and has an immense trunk with very slight taper; the redwood is the world's tallest tree and has a slender trunk. … —The cones and seed of the giant sequoia are about three times the size of those produced by the redwood.
Redwoods are the tallest trees in the world. Sequoias are the biggest, if measured by circumference and volume. Redwoods can grow over 350 feet (107 m). The tallest tree in the world that we know of is called the Hyperion, and it tickles the sky at 379.7 feet (115.7 m).
What was the impact of the war in Africa?
How long does a Schengen visa take in South Africa?
How much does Nigerian police earn per month?
Who is the current Minister of Public Health in Cameroon?
What happens if you find treasure in Egypt?
Where was gold discovered in southern Africa?
What two countries in Africa speak Spanish?
estudiarlab.com


Initially trained as a glass artist, Hartung received his BFA from Kent State University in1982. After seven successful years of running a glass art business with his wife and business partner Gretchen Goss, Hartung began to focus on a completely different body of work after enrolling in a Jewelry/Metals class at San Diego State University. Upon this experience, he began working primarily with metal, focusing on includes copper and steel, as well as other materials such as wood, found objects, prisma color pencils and patinas. Since then, the artist has received grant funding through the Ohio Arts Council. His work can be found in prominent collections across the US.
"Untrained artists and their direct approach to making objects has had an influence on my way of working. I am impressed by their use of materials and the basic methods used to make their work. Another significant influence on my work has been a fascination with toys from the turn, and first half of this century, especially tin toys.
Often, I feel the ingenious design in these toys is overshadowed by the simplistic nature of the toys themselves. I am equally intrigued with artists who make work with sophisticated mechanical movements but choose low-tech options of production over the high technology accessible to us all.


text:
Das Katharinenhospital in Esslingen am Neckar ist ein der heiligen Katharina geweihtes Hospital, das erstmals 1232 erwähnt wurde. Sowohl Männer als auch Frauen bildeten eine Laienbruderschaft, die als Ordensgemeinschaft ab 1247 nach den Augustinusregeln lebte.

Ende des 13. Jahrhunderts wurde das Hospital auf den heutigen Marktplatz Esslingens verlegt. Ab 1815 wurden die Aufgaben des Katharinenhospitals vom heutigen Altenpflegeheim Obertor, damals noch St.-Klarissen-Kloster, übernommen und das Hospitalgebäude abgerissen. Bisher wurde der ehemalige Standort noch nicht archäologisch untersucht.

Geschichte

Mittelalter
Die älteste erhaltene Erwähnung des Katharinenhospitals stammt von 1232 und befindet sich in einer von Papst Gregor IX. ausgestellten Bestätigungsurkunde, die Meister und Bruderschaft Schutz und den bereits bestehenden und zukünftigen Besitz der Einrichtung bestätigt. Zweck des Spitals war, Pilger, Gebärende, Findelkinder, Schwache, Lahme und andere Bedürftige unentgeltlich aufzunehmen und zu pflegen. Die zunehmende Verbürgerlichung des Hospitals war bereits 1335 abgeschlossen, was bedeutete, dass fast ausschließlich Einheimische aufgenommen wurden. Die heutige Forschung beurteilt diesen Prozess unter anderem als Vorgang der "allmählichen Ausdifferenzierung und Erweiterung des Fürsorgewesens". Ergänzt wurde das Hospital 1268 mit einem Siechenhaus – es befand sich in der heutigen Ritterstraße –, das für Aussätzige am östlichen Stadtrand platziert und noch im 13. Jahrhundert um zwei Gebäude erweitert wurde. In den 40er Jahren des 14. Jahrhunderts wurde ein Waisenhaus gegründet. 1411 wurde ein Seelhaus angegliedert, das für die Versorgung von Reisenden zuständig war. Ende des 15. Jahrhunderts wurden ein "Blatternhaus" für an Syphilis Erkrankte sowie eine Einrichtung, die sich um die Verwahrung von aggressiven Geisteskranken kümmerte und als "Narrenhäusle" bezeichnet wurde, errichtet. Vermutlich fand aber keine strikte Trennung von Einheimischen und Fremden statt. Die Einrichtungen hatten rechtlich nicht alle den gleichen Status, wurden jedoch durch die Verwobenheit von Finanzierung und Personal als zusammenhängend wahrgenommen.
War das Katharinenhospital zunächst noch eine unentgeltliche Einrichtung gewesen, so erkauften sich Pfründner im Laufe der Zeit die Aufnahme. Dazu gehörten sowohl junge als auch alte Menschen, die zum Beispiel wegen körperlicher oder geistiger Behinderung oder Geisteskrankheit Pflege benötigten, aber auch Witwen und unverheiratete Frauen außerhalb eines Familienverbandes.
Über Seuchen, die in Esslingen grassierten, ist vor dem frühen 15. Jahrhundert kein sicherer Beleg vorhanden. Vermutlich brach jedoch im 14. Jahrhundert die Pest aus, was die Inschrift über dem Türsturz des mittleren Langhaus-Südportals von St. Dionysius belegen könnte, auf dem das Wort "pestis" geschrieben steht. Im 15. Jahrhundert (evtl. 1419) entstand die Pestschrift des Nikolaus vom Schwert, die auf eine Seuche in Esslingen hinweist und von prophylaktischen Maßnahmen gegen die Pest berichtet. Dennoch ist die genaue Datierung dieser Seuchen nicht möglich.
Des Weiteren sind Seuchenflüchtlinge aus dem Jahr 1438 und Epidemien im Umland aus dem Jahr 1450 bekannt, die Esslingen und somit die Einrichtungen des Katharinenhospitals beeinflusst haben können. Erst von 1472 gibt es den ersten gesicherten Beleg einer Seuche in Esslingen.

Frühe Neuzeit
Zwischen dem 13. und dem 16. Jahrhundert kaufte die Spitalverwaltung sowohl Gebäude als auch Land zum Vermögen des Hospitals hinzu, um mehr Wohnraum für Pfründner sowie Platz für Kapellen und wirtschaftliche Außenstellen zu schaffen.
Im 17. Jahrhundert übernahm das Klarissenkloster, das ein weiteres Armenhaus mit Lazarettfunktion unterhielt, zusammen mit dem Predigerkloster, das die Funktion einer Arbeitsanstalt für Arme, Waisen und Häftlinge hatte, die Aufgaben des Katharinenhospitals.
Letzteres hatte im Laufe der Zeit ein gewaltiges finanzielles Defizit und hielt seine Bausubstanz nur noch notdürftig instand. Es hatte zusehends an Bedeutung verloren und wurde schließlich Anfang des 19. Jahrhunderts als "unschön und völlig unzweckmäßig beurteilt".

Versorgung

Arten
Pfründverträge konnten weitgehend individualisiert werden, sowohl was Preis als auch Leistungen anging, die das Spital für den Pfründner zu erbringen hatte. Zu beachten ist dabei, dass aus den Verträgen nicht immer alle Leistungen zu entnehmen sind, da offenbar einige Leistungen als selbstverständlich erachtet und nicht aufgeführt wurden. Im Katharinenhospital existierten vier Formen der Pfründe:
 Die Armenpfründe bzw. Siechenpfründe war die günstigste Form des Vertrages mit ca. 23–25 Gulden (fl.) im 15. Jahrhundert. Die Pfründner lebten zusammen mit den Bedürftigen in den Armenstuben, mussten die Hausordnung befolgen und erhielten die gleiche Kost. Diese Art der Pfründe konnte sich dennoch nur ein geringer Teil der Bevölkerung leisten, im 15. Jahrhundert waren es aber immerhin 20–30 % der Steuern zahlenden Bevölkerung. Pfründen waren jedoch die einzige Versorgungsalternative für diejenigen, die keine Familie hatten.
 Die Herrenpfründe und Mittelpfründe wurden zusammengefasst, die Pfründner wurden als "Brüder" und "Schwestern" bezeichnet. Sie erhielten gemäß ihrem jeweiligen Pfründvertrag bessere Kost und lebten entweder in der Brüderstube, in eigenen Stuben, die entweder allein oder mit einem Ehepartner bewohnt wurden, oder mit wenigen anderen Brüdern oder Schwestern zusammen. Der Mindestpreis einer solchen Pfründe betrug im 15. Jahrhundert ca. 100 Gulden, was sich etwa ein Drittel der Steuern zahlenden Bevölkerung leisten konnte. Angesichts des Einkommens im 15. Jahrhundert und horrender Lebensmittelpreise konnten sich eine solche Pfründe fast ausschließlich Menschen leisten, die das Einkommen eines Meisters im Bauhandwerk hatten oder aus einer solchen Familie stammten.
 Die Gehorsamenpfründe war für Arbeitsfähige gedacht, die sich verpflichteten, dem Spital Dienste z. B. als Mägde oder Knechte zu leisten, solange sie arbeitsfähig waren oder auf einige Jahre. Sie erhielten Kost, Unterkunft, Kleidung und Geld. Sie konnten, wenn sie arbeitsunfähig geworden waren, eine Brüder- (Herren- bzw. Mittelpfründe) oder eine Siechenpfründe für sich erwerben. Eine Gehorsamenpfründe für ein Ehepaar kostete im 15. Jahrhundert pro Ehepartner 46 Gulden. Zu bedenken ist jedoch, dass Ehepaare zwar einzelne Pfründen erwarben, jedoch durch den Umstand der Ehe Vergünstigungen erhielten.
 Die Ladenpfründe bildete die wichtigste Einnahmequelle des Hospitals. Menschen, die Ladenpfründner waren, holten täglich Nahrungsmittel vom Küchenladen des Spitals ab. Sie wohnten nicht in zugehörigen Gebäuden des Spitals und waren auch nicht an Spitalordnungen gebunden.

Preise
Die Preise für Pfründen waren nicht absolut festgesetzt. Zwar scheint ein "Grundpreis" existiert zu haben, der jedoch nach folgenden Umständen verändert wurde:
 vereinbarter Leistungsumfang,
 Gesundheit des Pfründners,
 dessen zu erwartende Lebensdauer,
 Art der Bezahlung (bar oder auf Raten, in Gulden oder Hellern, Übereignung von Sachbesitz oder Geldforderungen oder auch durch unterschiedliche Kombinationen dieser Möglichkeiten),
 Angebot und Nachfrage von und nach Pfründen und
 teilweise auch nach den aktuellen Kosten für Lebensmittel.

Im 16. Jahrhundert kam es zu einer Verteuerung der Pfründen:

Bewohner

Allgemeine Angaben
Insgesamt waren mehr Frauen als Männer im Katharinenhospital untergebracht. Von den 5000–6000 Einwohnern, die Esslingen im 15. Jahrhundert in etwa hatte, wurden rund 5–6 % vom Spital versorgt, da das Hospital täglich mindestens 300 Menschen speiste. Ein Visitationsbericht aus dem Jahr 1532 enthält Angaben zu Brotmengen, die zu unterschiedlichen Stellen gelangten. So erhielt der Küchenladen des Spitals pro Tag 135 Brote, die Brüderstube 15. Daraus ergeben sich 135 Ladenpfründner, was die Beliebtheit dieser Pfründenart noch einmal zeigt, und 15 Brüder- bzw. Schwesternpfründe. Des Weiteren wird von 45 Hausarmen und 28 Armenpfründnern oder Kranken ausgegangen. Von weiteren 70 Personen ist zu vermuten, dass sie nicht im Spital, sondern in weiteren Armenstuben, im Seelhaus oder im "Warzenhaus" untergebracht waren.

Aus den Verträgen geht oft nicht die soziale Herkunft der Pfründner hervor. Bekannt sind aus Esslingen aber einige ehemalige Zunftmeister, Mesner, die Schwester eines reichen Geistlichen, ein Unterbaumeister, die Frau eines Totengräbers und ein Bordellwirt, was insgesamt eine soziale Heterogenität der Pfründner zeigt.

Frauen stellten die Mehrheit der Spitalbewohner. Dies war keinesfalls ungewöhnlich, da das Armutsrisiko für Frauen in der Regel höher war als das von Männern. Begründet war dies in den geringeren und eingeschränkten Erwerbsmöglichkeiten, die Frauen offen standen.

Die Armen
Das Katharinenhospital pflegte neben dem Pfründewesen auch die Bedürftigen. Es gibt Hinweise darauf, dass die Versorgung der Armen zum Teil aus Zahlungen von Pfründnern bestritten wurde, die sich in die Pflege eingekauft hatten.

Die Verhältnisse, in denen die Armen lebten, waren beengt. Aus dem Visitationsbericht, der auch die Brotmengen erfasste, geht hervor, dass diejenigen, die in der Armenstube liegen und bald sterben, keinesfalls ihre Ruhe haben, es gehe zu wie "im gerempelhaus", womit das Kaufhaus gemeint ist. Auch scheint es während der Visitation nicht für jeden Armen ein Bett gegeben zu haben. Eine Spitalordnung aus dem Jahr 1533 betont allerdings besonders, dass alle ein eigenes Bett hätten. In den Armenstuben war es eng, da in diesen Räumen bis zu 80 Personen untergebracht waren, die diese Räume so gut wie nie verließen. Ein weiteres Problem in den Armenstuben war wohl der Diebstahl von Lebensmitteln, deren Menge dort im Vergleich zur viel großzügiger bemessenen Brüder- und Schwesternversorgung gering war. Der Versorgung der Armen mangelte es sowohl an Quantität als auch an Qualität. An Festtagen erhielten sie häufig nur Fisch (anstelle von Fleisch).

Brüder und Schwestern
Brüder und Schwestern hatten zumindest teilweise Quartiere in Häusern an der nördlichen Stadtmauer und auf der Westseite des Areals. Diese waren vermutlich nicht nur größer, sondern auch heller als die Armenstuben. Bessere Logis und auch bessere Kost zeichnete ihre Pfründe aus. An Festtagen erhielten sie Braten oder Geflügel. Die Brüder und Schwestern erhielten mehr und vor allem besseren Wein und besseres Brot. Insgesamt war ihre Kost reichhaltiger und abwechslungsreicher als die der Armen und Kranken. Im Gegensatz zur Kost der Armen und Kranken war bei der Kost der Brüder und Schwestern Fleisch die Regel, ebenso waren Käse und Eier neben Fisch an Fastentagen auch keine Seltenheit.

Als Beispiel sei folgender Fall genannt: Hans von Urbach war ein Pfründner des Spitals. 1472 kaufte er sich eine Brüder- oder Herrenpfründe, die ihn 160 Rheinische Gulden (rh. fl.) kostete und ihm die oben genannten Leistungen einbrachte. In seinem Pfründvertrag war neben der normalen Brüderkost und der Unterkunft auch noch Wein im Herbst und ein Keller inbegriffen. Nach und nach vermachte Hans von Urbach dem Spital weitere Vermögensteile und setzte das Katharinenhospital 1501 wohl zu seinem Erben ein. Er lebte insgesamt 30 Jahre im Hospital, sodass davon auszugehen ist, dass er an einer chronischen Krankheit litt, die aber nicht unmittelbar zum Tode führte. Eine so lange Aufenthaltsdauer im Hospital war eher selten, nicht jedoch dass das Hospital als Erbe eingesetzt wurde.
Es gab auch weit kostspieligere Pfründe: Englin Grasmann von Vaihingen zahlte 1434 den Betrag von 231 Rheinischen Gulden für eine Schwesternpfründe.

Gebäude und Lage
Das Katharinenhospital lag zentral auf dem heutigen Marktplatz. Auf dem Kandlerschen Riss, einer Ortsansicht, ist das Katharinenhospital zwischen der Pfarrkirche St. Dionys und dem Dominikanerkloster, dem Schwörhof und dem Marktplatz eingetragen. Kurz vor dem Abriss des Hospitals fertigte der Feldmesser Johann Gottlieb Mayer den Grundriss des Gebäudekomplexes an. Das Hospital hatte eine Grundfläche von ca. 55 Ar, war jedoch nicht von Anfang an so groß angelegt worden. Zwischen dem 13. und 16. Jahrhundert erwarb die Spitalverwaltung Stück für Stück das Areal, das auf dem Kandlerschen Riss von 1774 und auf dem Grundriss von 1810 verzeichnet ist.

Über den Aufbau des Hauptgebäudekomplexes bieten die Zeichnungen von Tobias Mayer, der zum Zeitpunkt der Anfertigung erst 14 Jahre alt war, die größten und anschaulichsten Informationen. Er fertigte eine Ansicht aus allen Himmelsrichtungen an. Eine detaillierte Zeichnung vom Innenhof fehlt jedoch, sodass dessen Aufbau vor allem auf Spekulationen beruht. Es scheinen jedoch Brotkästen zur Armenspeisung auf dem Innenhof vorhanden gewesen zu sein, die jeden Tag ca. 300 Menschen mit Brot versorgten.
Der Bau der neuen Spitalkapelle ist auf einem Riss von Hans Böblinger, Sohn des Baumeisters der Kapelle, im Jahr 1501 festgehalten. Es wird jedoch vermutet, dass dieser Riss anhand von Bauplänen angefertigt wurde und die Kapelle wegen zu hoher Kosten letztlich doch vereinfacht ausgeführt wurde.

Die Gebäude wurden nach Aufgabe des Hospitals nach und nach von 1811 bis 1817 auf Abbruch verkauft. Obwohl sich der Kunsthistoriker Carl Alexander Heideloff wegen der künstlerischen Bedeutung für den Erhalt der Spitalkapelle eingesetzt hatte, wurde sie ebenfalls abgerissen. Die Bewohner der Einrichtung, von denen nur noch sieben Pfründner waren, zogen entweder ins Klarissenkloster oder in das Predigerkloster um. Das Pfründnertum wurde schließlich auf Grund der mangelnden Nachfrage ganz abgeschafft.

Heute ist vom Katharinenhospital baulich nur die Kelter im Kielmeyerhaus erhalten. An die Einrichtung erinnert jedoch noch der überdimensionierte Marktplatz. Weiter ist ein einzelner Altarflügel von der Ausstattung der Spitalkapelle in der Kirche von Deizisau erhalten, der von einem Zimmermann mitgenommen worden sein soll. Dieser Altarflügel stammt aus dem letzten Jahrzehnt des 15. Jahrhunderts und wurde von dem Kunsthistoriker Hans Rott dem Esslinger Maler Matthias Ulin-Wolf der Jüngere († 1536) zugeschrieben. Der Altarflügel zeigt auf der Innenseite die Heiligen Agnes und Christophorus, auf der Außenseite das Motiv der Apostelaussendung.

Mit dem Hospital zusammenhängende Institutionen

Bauliche Maßnahmen am Hauptgebäude

Aufbau des Hauptgebäudes

Literatur

 Württembergisches Urkundenbuch (WUB) 11 Bände Stuttgart 1849–1913, ND Aalen 1972–78.

Weblinks
 Homepage des Klinikums Esslingen, zur Geschichte
 Landeskundliche Informationssystem für Baden-Württemberg zum Katharinen Hospital
 Esslinger Bilderbuch: Marktplatz

Einzelnachweise

Pflegeheim (Deutschland)
Geschichte der Sozialen Arbeit
Geschichte (Esslingen am Neckar)
Kulturdenkmal in Esslingen am Neckar
Organisation (Esslingen am Neckar)
Esslingen
Christentum im Landkreis Esslingen
Ersterwähnung 1232

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


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Today I thought I'd bring over this imagery that I found last night thanks to my random perusing, it always leads me into good spots around the web. Usually I start with a designer of some sort, this time Alvar Aalto, and I head out with the intention to learn something new and end up finding an abundance of great imagery that I can showcase here as well. Luckily it comes with a great story, such as this post which is based around a private residence that was designed by the Finnish architect on behalf of Louis Carré, a French art collector and gallery owner.
The Maison Louis Carré is possibly one of the most important private houses designed by Alvar Aalto because it brings together the work and the private life of the client. The house is located on a sloping, south-facing site of roughly three hectares with commanding views of the surrounding countryside in every direction. You can really see this in one of the photos below, it's almost set into the ground and slopes downwards with the hill, the angle of the roof perfectly aligned with the land itself creating a seamless design within it's surrounding environment.
What's most extraordinary about this build is the way that Alvar designed every element of the building, including carpets, lighting, and obviously the furniture with the help of some collaborating friends. A lot of the fittings and the details were specifically designed for this building and were individual one offs, others were from Alvar Aalto's range, most notably the chairs that were in production at the time. The Maison Louis Carré was meant to combine the work of skilled Finnish carpenters with the delicacy of French elegance, from what I can see this has definitely worked well on the finished piece and merges nicely together.
On a personal level I've read a lot about Alvar and his work and I've seen many things designed by him, one thing that grabs me with this place is how structurally this house is very functional. You're moved around quite intentionally from one level to another level throughout the building, each having it's own natural lighting which creates a 'staggering' type effect in the experience. This is important with the slope as you feel like you're at one with the surrounding nature and general angle that the architect meant to initiate.
Obviously have a browse through the imagery that I've collected below, otherwise make sure you check out the links which gives you some extra info on the building. I'd recommend floating through the Maison Louis Carré website which even shows you some stunning sketches and architectural drawings of the building before it was produced.