text:
\section{Introduction to Cosmological Structure Formation Simulations}

In the standard cosmological framework, the two most dominant components in the universe are dark energy (DE) and cold dark matter (CDM). The nature of dark energy is unknown and in the standard model it is assumed that it is a vacuum contribution in the form of a cosmological constant (generally denoted by $\Lambda$) in Einstein's field equation of general relativity.\cite{2001LRR.....4....1C, 2008PhLB..667..212P} Also the nature of the CDM is not understood and it could consist of weakly interacting massive particles (WIMPs) that only interact via the weak nuclear force and gravity. A possible WIMP candidate is the lightest supersymmetric particle (LSP) that is predicted in supersymmetric models of particle physics.\cite{1996PhR...267..195J, 2005PhR...405..279B, 2008PhLB..667..212P} Cold means that the thermal velocities of the CDM particles are small which leads to the formation of tiny structures in the universe.\cite{2004MNRAS.353L..23G, 2006PhRvL..97c1301P} The baryonic matter, of which all the stars and planets are made of, contributes only ca. 17\% of the total matter content.\cite{2009ApJS..180..330K} This standard cosmological framework is also known as the concordance or $\Lambda$CDM model.

The parameters of the $\Lambda$CDM model are known to a good precision.\cite{2007ApJS..170..377S, 2009ApJS..180..330K} This leads to well defined initial conditions for cosmological structure formation simulations, which are completely determined by these parameters. The initial conditions are set up at early cosmological times when the density perturbations, which probably originate from quantum mechanical fluctuations in the inflationary epoch,\cite{2008PhLB..667..212P} are still in the linear regime.

In most cosmological structure formation simulations, the baryonic matter is replaced by CDM due to computational reasons. The baryonic physics is complex and difficult to model in a self consistent way, which makes more realistic simulations very expensive. But the replacement is physically well motivated since for the large scale clustering properties of the CDM halos the baryonic contribution can be neglected. The baryons are only important at the centers of CDM halos: baryons can dissipate energy through radiative processes, hence they concentrate at the centers of the potential wells formed by the CDM halos where they can lead to a significant alteration of the CDM distribution.

The non-linear evolution of the CDM is modelled as a collisionless fluid that interacts via gravity in an expanding universe. Collisionless means that the CDM can be described by a continuous distribution function that obeys the collisionless Boltzmann equation. The collisionless Boltzmann equation is a consequence of mass conservation under a Hamiltonian flow. The gravitational potential is then calculated via a Monte Carlo sampling of the continuous CDM distribution function by $N$ particles/bodies (sampling points). Hence this technique is called the $N$-body method.\cite{2008gady.book.....B} The sampling of the continuous distribution function introduces artificial singularities that are cut-off by softening the singular point particle potential at a softening scale $\epsilon$.\cite{2001MNRAS.324..273D}

In the last few years, an enormous effort in our collaboration went into understanding the structure of CDM halos of the size of our own galaxy, the Milky Way. In several large simulation projects, we put all the effort in resolving one such object within a larger cosmological volume, with a $\Lambda$CDM cosmology, with as much particles as computationally possible. This is achieved via a multi-mass nested refinement technique.\cite{1993ApJ...412..455K,2001ApJS..137....1B} The first simulation in this series was the Via Lactea I simulation,\cite{2007ApJ...657..262D, 2007ApJ...667..859D, 2007ApJ...669..676S, 2007ApJ...671.1135K, 2008ApJ...679.1260M, 2008ApJ...680L..25D, 2008AN....329.1004G, 2009ApJ...702..890G} which was followed by Via Lactea II.\cite{2008Natur.454..735D, 2009MNRAS.394..641Z, 2008ApJ...686..262K, 2008ApJ...689L..41M, 2009PhRvD..79l3517K, 2009PhRvD..80c5023B, 2009arXiv0905.4744M, 2009arXiv0906.1822K, 2009Sci...325..970K} Finally, the GHALO project was the first simulation to resolve a Milky Way sized CDM halo with more than one billion particles.\cite{2009MNRAS.398L..21S} The Aquarius project is a similar simulation project that was done by a different group.\cite{2008Natur.456...73S, 2008MNRAS.391.1685S, 2009MNRAS.395..797V, 2008arXiv0810.1522N} Aquarius has an equivalent resolution to GHALO. In this brief review, we will mainly focus on results from our projects.

\section{Numerical Aspects}

\subsection{Initial conditions}

The initial conditions of Via Lactea I \& II and GHALO are based upon the Wilkinson Microwave Anisotropy Probe (WMAP) three-year data\cite{2007ApJS..170..377S} and the three simulations have very similar cosmological parameters. In general, the initial conditions for cosmological structure formation simulations consist of a cubic volume of side length $L_\mathrm{Box}$ (see Table \ref{tab:summary}) with periodic boundary conditions.

Creating initial conditions with billions of particles is a real challenge. In the case of GHALO, the GRAFIC1 and GRAFIC2 packages,\cite{2001ApJS..137....1B} which are often used by the community to produce initial conditions,\footnote{The original version of GRAFIC2 contained a bug that lead to incorrect initial conditions. Via Lactea II and GHALO used the corrected version of the code and are not affected by this. For more details consult Ref. \refcite{2009MNRAS.398L..21S}.} had to be parallelized.\cite{2009MNRAS.398L..21S} The initial conditions are then set up at high enough redshifts $z_\mathrm{IC}$ (see Table \ref{tab:summary}) when the density perturbations are still in the linear regime. The softening lengths $\epsilon$, where the singular point particle potential is cut-off, is also given in Table \ref{tab:summary}.

\subsection{Time evolution}

The consequent time evolution is done by numerically solving the coupled collisionless Boltzmann and Poisson equations. In the case of Via Lactea I \& II and GHALO this was done with the code PKDGRAV.\cite{2001PhDT........21S, 2008JPhCS.125a2008K} The latest version of PKDGRAV is a tree code that uses a fast multipole method (FMM) in Cartesian coordinates in order to calculate the gravity.\cite{2000ApJ...536L..39D, 2002JCoPh.179...27D} PKDGRAV uses a 5th-order reduced expansion in potential for faster and more accurate force calculation in parallel, and a multipole based Ewald summation technique for periodic boundary conditions. \citep{2001PhDT........21S} Much better parallel computing efficiency was achieved by using Single Instruction Multiple Data (SIMD) vector processing.

For the time integration, PKDGRAV uses a kick-drift-kick leapfrog integration scheme which is a second order, explicit, time-reversible and symplectic integrator when used with constant time-steps.\cite{2004shd..book.....L} The individual time-steps of the particles are chosen according to their local dynamical time which leads to a more accurate orbit integration in the centers of CDM halos and an overall more optimal time-step distribution which as a consequence requires less force evaluations.\cite{2007MNRAS.376..273Z}

\begin{table*}[t]
	\centering
	\tbl{Summary table for Via Lactea I \& II and GHALO. In the first block, basic halo properties at redshift $z=0$ are presented. The definitions of $r_\mathrm{200b}$, $M_\mathrm{200b}$, $r_{V_\mathrm{max}}$, $V_\mathrm{max}$ and $c_\mathrm{V}$ are given in the main text. The second block summarises some simulation properties: $m_\mathrm{p}$ is the particle mass in the high resolution region, $N_\mathrm{200b}$ is the number of particles within $r_\mathrm{200b}$, $z_\mathrm{IC}$ is the redshift of the initial conditions, $\epsilon$ is the softening length and $L_\mathrm{Box}$ is the size of the cubic cosmological box with periodic boundary conditions.}{
	\begin{tabular}{llccc}
		\toprule
		Simulation & & Via Lactea I & Via Lactea II & GHALO \\
		\colrule
		$r_\mathrm{200b}$      & [kpc]                  & 389 & 402 & 349 \\
		$M_\mathrm{200b}$      & [$\mathrm{M}_\odot$]   & $1.77 \times 10^{12}$ & $1.92 \times 10^{12}$ & $1.27 \times 10^{12}$ \\
		$r_{V_\mathrm{max}}$   & [kpc]                  & 69.0 & 59.8 & 49.5 \\
		$V_\mathrm{max}$       & [km s$^{-1}$]          & 181  & 201  & 153  \\
		$c_\mathrm{V}$         & [1]                    & $2.59 \times 10^{3}$ & $4.25 \times 10^{3}$ & $3.52 \times 10^{3}$ \\
		\colrule
		$m_\mathrm{p}$    & [$\mathrm{M}_\odot$] & $2.09 \times 10^{4}$ & $4.10 \times 10^{3}$ & $9.94 \times 10^{2}$ \\
		$N_\mathrm{200b}$ & [1]                  & $8.47 \times 10^{7}$ & $4.68 \times 10^{8}$ & $1.27 \times 10^{9}$ \\
		$z_\mathrm{IC}$   & [1]                  & 48.4 & 104 & 57.6\\
		$\epsilon$        & [pc]                 & 90 & 40 & 61\\
		$L_\mathrm{Box}$  & [Mpc]                & 90 & 40 & 40\\
		\botrule
	\end{tabular}
	\label{tab:summary}}
\end{table*}

\section{CDM Halos}\label{sec:general}

\subsection{General description}

In a $\Lambda$CDM cosmology, the main host halos contain a wealth of subhalos - smaller bound structures similar to their host halos. These subhalos contain again subsubhalos.\cite{2008Natur.454..735D, 2009MNRAS.398L..21S, 2008MNRAS.391.1685S} This is like a fractal pattern where a similar structure repeats on different scales which is expected to hold down to the cut-off scale of CDM. We denote the different levels of subhalos as sub$^n$halos, where $n$ can specify a particular level.

In Fig. \ref{fig:ghalo} we show the dark matter mass density map of GHALO. The main halo and the over $10^5$ numerically resolved subhalos it contains are visible as bright peaks. While smaller halos are falling towards a larger host halo, they get tidally stripped and loose mass. This lost mass is then detectable in phase space as coherent tidal streams that are streaming of the Lagrange points of the subhalo (see also Sec. \ref{sec:phasespace}).\cite{2008Natur.454..735D, 2009MNRAS.394..641Z} This tidal mass loss is not complete though and the inner, very compact cores of these infalling halos survive as sub$^n$halos within the host halo.

\subsection{Basic properties}

Defining the size of a CDM halo is a non-trivial task. The traditional method was based on the simple picture of the spherical collapse model.\cite{1972ApJ...176....1G} This model predicts, that after virialisation the virial radius $r_\mathrm{vir}$ encloses a region that has an overdensity of exactly $18\pi^2 (\approx 178)$ times the critical density $\rho_\mathrm{crit} = \frac{3 H^2}{8 \pi G}$ \footnote{$H$ is the Hubble parameter and $G$ is Newton's gravity constant.} in an Einstein-de Sitter cosmology. For the $\Lambda$CDM model the overdensity is approximately 100 with respect to $\rho_\mathrm{crit}$.\cite{1996MNRAS.282..263E, 1998ApJ...495...80B} But CDM halos in structure formation simulations collapse in a different way and the region that is dynamically influenced by the halo is much larger than the traditional virial radius.\cite{2006ApJ...645.1001P, 2007ApJ...667..859D, 2008ApJ...680L..25D}

In this brief review we use the radius $r_{\mathrm{200b}}$ to characterise the size of CDM halos. The region within $r_{\mathrm{200b}}$ has an overdensity of 200 times the background, mean matter density $\rho_\mathrm{M}$. The associated enclosed mass is denoted by $M_{\mathrm{200b}} \equiv M(r_{\mathrm{200b}})$ where $M(r)$ indicates the enclosed mass.

Due to the shape of the mass density profiles of CDM halos (see also Sec. \ref{sec:profile}), they have a well defined peak in the circular velocity function
\begin{equation}\label{eq:vcirc}
V_\mathrm{circ}(r) \equiv \sqrt{\frac{G M(r)}{r}}~.
\end{equation}
The peak value $V_\mathrm{max}$ of the circular velocity function $V_\mathrm{circ}(r)$ serves as proxy for mass and the radius $r_{V_\mathrm{max}}$, where the peak velocity $V_\mathrm{max}$ is reached, gives an inherent size scale of the CDM halo. Describing CDM halo properties by these two intrinsic scales avoids the trouble of defining an outer boundary of halos which is of especial advantage when characterising sub$^n$halos. The main properties of Via Lactea I \& II and GHALO are summarised in Table \ref{tab:summary}.

\begin{figure}[t]
	\centering
	\includegraphics[width=\textwidth]{ghalo400kpc-business}
	\caption{Dark matter mass density map of GHALO. The height of the picture corresponds to 400 kpc. The main halo, which is resolved with more than 1 billion particles, and the over $10^5$ numerically resolved subhalos it contains are visible as bright peaks.}
	\label{fig:ghalo}
\end{figure}

\section{Mass Distribution}

\subsection{Mass density profile}\label{sec:profile}

The simplest way of characterising CDM halos is by measuring their spherically averaged mass density profile. Over a large range of CDM halo masses, their mass density profiles can be well fit by a generalised NFW\cite{1996ApJ...462..563N} (GNFW) profile given by
\begin{equation}
\rho_\mathrm{GNFW}(r) \equiv \frac{\rho_s}{(r/r_s)^{\gamma} (1+ r/r_s)^{3-\gamma}}~.
\end{equation}
This form of the profile is a special case of the $\alpha\beta\gamma$ profile with $\alpha=1$ and $\beta=3$.\cite{1990ApJ...356..359H,1996MNRAS.278..488Z} In the outer part, the GNFW profile is $\propto r^{-3}$ whereas in the inner part $\propto r^{-\gamma}$, $r_s$ is the scale radius and $\rho_s$ the scale density.

The inner slope $\gamma$ was proposed to be $\gamma=1$, the NFW case, over a range of radii from $0.01~r_{\mathrm{200b}}$ to $r_{\mathrm{200b}}$.\cite{1996ApJ...462..563N} But it was soon realised, that CDM halos have some significant halo-to-halo scatter and most halos are significantly denser in their inner parts and have a steeper slope with $\gamma > 1$.\cite{1998ApJ...499L...5M, 1998MNRAS.300..146G, 2001ApJ...557..533F, 2003ApJ...588..674F, 2004ApJ...606..625F, 2005MNRAS.364..665D, 2008Natur.454..735D, 2009MNRAS.398L..21S} This is still true for our highest resolution case, GHALO, which shows a steep slope of -1.4 down to approximately $2\times10^{-3}~r_\mathrm{200b}$ (see Fig. \ref{fig:rhoslope}).

Below this scale the mass density profile becomes significantly flatter due to the higher resolution and a newly proposed functional form for the mass density profile, the SM profile,
\begin{equation}\label{eq:smprofile}
\rho_\mathrm{SM}(r) = \rho_0 e^{-\lambda[\ln(1+r/R_\lambda)]^{2}}
\end{equation}
fits better.\cite{2009MNRAS.398L..21S} The SM profile approaches the central maximum density $\rho_0$ as $r \rightarrow 0$. We also note that the derivative $\mathrm{d} \ln \rho/\mathrm{d} \ln(1 + r/R_\lambda)$ versus $\ln(1 + r/R_\lambda)$ has a slope of exactly -2$\lambda$. In the innermost region that is still resolved by GHALO, the logarithmic slope is -0.8 (see Fig. \ref{fig:rhoslope}).\cite{2009MNRAS.398L..21S} Such a shallow inner logarithmic slope on similar scales is also found in the Aquarius simulation.\cite{2008arXiv0810.1522N}

Locally, when measured in small volumes, the mass density can vary by orders of magnitudes in the outskirts of CDM halos. This is to some degree due to the prolate shape of the halos (see Sec. \ref{sec:shape}) but also because of the presence of both subhaloes and underdense regions or holes in the matter distribution.\cite{2009MNRAS.394..641Z} In the inner region, the dark matter distribution is very smooth and the contribution of subhalos is small.\cite{2009MNRAS.394..641Z, 2009MNRAS.395..797V}

Unfortunately, subhalos are still not resolved with enough particles in order to give a definitive answer about the shape of their mass density profile. But results from Via Lactea II show that they are also showing a steep inner cusp so that they would be similar to their host halos.\cite{2008Natur.454..735D}

\begin{figure}[t]
	\centering
	\includegraphics[width=0.495\textwidth]{GHALO_profile}
	\includegraphics[width=0.495\textwidth]{GHALO_slope}
	\caption{Mass density profile (left) and slope (right) for GHALO as a function of radius. For GHALO $r_\mathrm{200b}= 349~\mathrm{kpc}$. The vertical line marks the convergence radius of 120 pc.}
	\label{fig:rhoslope}
\end{figure}

\subsection{Concentration}

An intrinsic and general measure for the concentration of halos is given by the enclosed density within $r_{V_\mathrm{max}}$ in units of the critical density,\cite{2002ApJ...572...34A, 2007ApJ...667..859D}
\begin{equation}
c_\mathrm{V} \equiv \frac{\bar{\rho}(r_{V_\mathrm{max}})}{\rho_{\mathrm{crit},0}} = \frac{2}{H_0^2} \left(\frac{V_\mathrm{max}}{r_{V_\mathrm{max}}}\right)^{2}~.
\end{equation}
This definition has the advantage that it is also well defined for isolated halos as well as sub$^n$halos. The traditional virial concentration
\begin{equation}
c_\mathrm{vir} \equiv r_\mathrm{vir} / r_s
\end{equation}
depends on the detailed definition of the virial radius, the profile fitting procedure and has the drawback that it artificially increases due to the growth of $r_\mathrm{vir}$ with time.\cite{2007ApJ...667..859D} The usage of the inherent concentration $c_\mathrm{V}$ circumvents these complications and offers a robust concentration measure of halos as long as the peak of the circular velocity curve is resolved. The concentrations $c_\mathrm{V}$ for the host halos of Via Lactea I \& II and GHALO are also given in Table \ref{tab:summary}.

For isolated CDM halos of a given mass, objects that form earlier have a higher concentration. But there is a significant scatter in this relation.\cite{2001MNRAS.321..559B} Since in a $\Lambda$CDM cosmology smaller halos form in average earlier than larger halos, they have a higher concentration.\cite{2001MNRAS.321..559B, 2008MNRAS.391.1940M} Also, isolated halos in dense environments are more concentrated and exhibit a larger scatter than halos in a low density environment.\cite{2001MNRAS.321..559B}

Generally, subhalos have higher concentrations than isolated halos.\cite{2001MNRAS.321..559B} Subhalos that are located closer to the host halo center have higher concentrations than subhalos in the outskirts of the halo.\cite{2007ApJ...667..859D, 2008Natur.454..735D} This is due to the tidal forces that remove material of the infalling subhalos from the outer, low density region. Subhalos closer to the host halo center loose more mass due to the stronger tidal forces and more pericenter passages which leads to an increased concentration.\cite{2001ApJ...563....9M, 2007ApJ...667..859D}

\subsection{Shape}\label{sec:shape}

The mass distribution of isolated CDM halos has the shape of triaxial ellipsoids in general, though the shape is close to prolate since the lengths of the intermediate axis $b$ and the minor axis $c$ are similar.\cite{2006MNRAS.367.1781A, 2007MNRAS.376..215B, 2007ApJ...671.1135K, 2009MNRAS.398L..21S} Less massive halos are in general rounder, i.e. the ratio $c/a$, where $a$ is the major axis length, is larger for less massive halos.\cite{2006MNRAS.367.1781A, 2007MNRAS.376..215B}

Overall, GHALO has a prolate shape as well with $b/a \approx c/a \approx 0.5$. The outer parts of GHALO, and CDM halos in general, are rounder and the axis ratios become larger with distance. At the halo centers the shape diverges fast and becomes more spherical due to numerical reasons.\cite{2009MNRAS.398L..21S}

Subhalos have a triaxial shape in general as well but are over all more spherical than the host halos. Like isolated halos, subhalos tend to be less spherical in their central regions. Also, subhalos are tendentially slightly more spherical closer to the host halo center.\cite{2007ApJ...671.1135K}

\section{Subhalos}

\subsection{Spatial distribution and orientation of subhalos}

When halos fall into a host halo and become subhalos, their mass is removed from outside inwards by tidal interactions. This process leads to an antibiased spatial distribution of subhalos with respect to the smooth background mass and subhalos have a more extended spatial distribution. The tidal disruption process is not able  to completely disrupt the subhalos though and the dense cores survive. For example in Via Lactea I, 97\% of all subhalos at redshift $z=1$ survive until the present time and the total mass in resolved subhalos is 5 \% at redshift $z=0$.\cite{2007ApJ...667..859D, 2008ApJ...679.1260M} The volume occupied by subhalos increases with distance from the center of the host halo.\cite{2009MNRAS.394..641Z}

When selecting subhalos by their current mass, they have a number density distribution at redshift $z=0$ of
\begin{equation}
n_\mathrm{sub,M}(r) \propto \rho(r) ~ r
\end{equation}
where $\rho$ is the smooth DM density.\cite{2004MNRAS.352..535D, 2007ApJ...667..859D, 2008MNRAS.391.1685S} The subhalo number density is independent of the selection mass threshold and the subhalo mass, i.e. subhalos in different mass bins have the same spatial distribution when properly normalised.\cite{2004MNRAS.352..535D, 2008MNRAS.391.1685S, 2009ApJ...692..931L} $V_\mathrm{max}$ is less affected by tidal mass removal and therefore $V_\mathrm{max}$ selected subhalos follow closer the smooth DM distribution at redshift $z=0$ with
\begin{equation}
n_\mathrm{sub,V_{max}}(r) \propto \rho(r) ~ M(r)
\end{equation}
where $M(r)$ denotes the enclosed mass.\cite{2007ApJ...667..859D, 2008Natur.454..735D, 2008MNRAS.391.1685S}

During their orbit within the host halos, the major axis of subhalos tends to be aligned with the direction toward the host halo center. This is effect is most likely due to tidal interactions as well in the sense that tides stretch the subhalo shape along the direction towards the center. For subhalos further out (i.e. distances larger than 3 $r_\mathrm{200b}$), this alignment is not observed any more.\cite{2007ApJ...671.1135K}

\subsection{Sub$^n$halo abundance}

The cumulative subhalo abundance within $r_\mathrm{200b}$ when selected by velocity (velocity function) at redshift $z=0$ can be described by
\begin{equation}
N(>V_\mathrm{max}) \propto \left(\frac{V_\mathrm{max}}{V_\mathrm{max,host}}\right)^{-\alpha_V}
\end{equation}
with $\alpha_V = 3$ and where $V_\mathrm{max,host}$ is the peak velocity of the host halo.\cite{1998MNRAS.300..146G, 2007ApJ...667..859D, 2008Natur.454..735D, 2008MNRAS.391.1685S} For Via Lactea II the proportionality factor is 0.036 and $V_\mathrm{max,host} = 201~\mathrm{km}~\mathrm{}^{-1}$ (see also Table \ref{tab:summary}).\cite{2008Natur.454..735D} The velocity function is independent of the selection radius, i.e. in the case of Via Lactea II the velocity functions of subhalos selected within 100 kpc or 50 kpc have the same shape as the velocity function for subhalos selected within $r_\mathrm{200b}$, only the normalisation changes.\cite{2008Natur.454..735D} The mean sub$^2$halo abundance is consistent with a scaled down version of the main halo within the current resolution of simulations.\cite{2008Natur.454..735D}

When selecting by mass, the cumulative subhalo abundance (mass function) at redshift $z=0$ is well described by
\begin{equation}
N(>M) \propto \left(\frac{M}{M_\mathrm{200b,host}}\right)^{-\alpha_M}
\end{equation}
with $\alpha_M = 0.9 \ldots 1.0$.\cite{1998MNRAS.300..146G, 1998ApJ...499L...5M, 2007ApJ...657..262D, 2007ApJ...667..859D, 2008MNRAS.391.1685S}

\section{Velocity Space Structure}

\subsection{Anisotropy parameter}

A parameter to describe the velocity space structure of CDM halos is the anisotropy parameter
\begin{equation}
\beta \equiv 1 - \frac{1}{2}\frac{\sigma_\mathrm{tan}^2}{\sigma_\mathrm{rad}^2}
\end{equation}
where $\sigma_\mathrm{tan}$ is the tangential velocity dispersion and $\sigma_\mathrm{rad}$ the radial velocity dispersion. A value of $\beta \approx 0$ means isotropic, $\beta > 0$ respectively $\beta < 0$ denotes a radial respectively tangential anisotropy. For relaxed CDM halos $\beta(r)$, measured in spherical shells, changes from nearly isotropic in the center to slightly radial in the outskirts of the halo.\cite{1996MNRAS.281..716C, 2000ApJ...539..561C, 2001ApJ...557..533F, 2004MNRAS.351..237R, 2004MNRAS.352..535D, 2006NewA...11..333H, 2009MNRAS.394..641Z}

When $\beta$ is measured in small, local volumes, then the local value can greatly deviate from the spherically averaged value. In the inner halo, regions along the long shape axis particles are preferentially on radial orbits whereas along the short shape axis particles are on tangential orbits. This effect disappears at larger radii.\cite{2009MNRAS.394..641Z}

\subsection{Velocity dispersion ellipsoid}

As a consequence of the tensor virial theorem, the global velocity dispersion ellipsoid is aligned with the shape ellipsoid.\cite{2008gady.book.....B} This is also true for small local volumes in the inner parts of halos, where the local velocity ellipsoid is aligned with the global shape as well. In the outskirts this local alignment is not observed any more.\cite{2009MNRAS.394..641Z}

The shape of the global velocity dispersion ellipsoid (and as a consequence the potential) is significantly rounder than the mass distribution.\cite{2007ApJ...671.1135K} When measured again in small local volumes, the shape depends on the location within the halo.\cite{2009MNRAS.394..641Z}

\subsection{Velocity distribution function}

\begin{figure}[t]
	\centering
	\includegraphics[width=0.495\textwidth]{sphere_000_008_000_pos_w}
	\includegraphics[width=0.495\textwidth]{sphere_000_400_000_pos_w}\\
	\includegraphics[width=0.495\textwidth]{sphere_000_008_000_vel_w}
	\includegraphics[width=0.495\textwidth]{sphere_000_400_000_vel_w}
	\caption{Velocity structure of Via Lactea II. Positions (top row) of particles within small volumes at 8 kpc (left) and 400 kpc (right) from the Via Lactea II center as well as the corresponding location of the particles in the local velocity space (bottom row). The colour in both cases is given by the magnitude of the velocity vector.}
	\label{fig:localvelocity}
\end{figure}

From theoretical models that describe CDM halos with smooth phase space distribution functions, it is expected that the local velocity distribution has the shape of a normal distribution around regions where the mass density profile has a slope of -2, i.e $\rho \propto r^{-2}$. In the inner regions, where the mass profile is shallower, the velocity distribution is more peaked and in the outer region, where the mass profile is steeper, the velocity distribution is broader.\cite{1990ApJ...356..359H, 2004ApJ...601...37K, 2008MNRAS.388..815W}

But a smooth velocity distribution is only a good description of the velocity space of CDM halos in the central region. In the outer parts, the local matter stems from several tidal streams of subhalos that lost material while passing. This is best illustrated in Fig. \ref{fig:localvelocity}. This figure shows the positions and velocity vectors (top row) for every particle within local volumes centered at 8 kpc (left) and 400 kpc (right) from the center of Via Lactea II. We also plot the location of the particles in the local velocity space (bottom row). The colour (and length in position space) encodes the magnitude of the velocity vector. The big white arrow in the center of the position space plots points towards the galactic center whereas the black cube in the center of the local velocity space plots marks the origin. For the velocity space plots, we split the velocity vector field in a radial- ($x$-axis), $\varphi$- ($y$-axis) and a $\vartheta$-component ($z$-axis).

These small volumes have been selected to be free of subhalos. Therefore, one would not expect to see a clumpy structure in the velocity space of these volumes. At 8 kpc no velocity space structure is apparent. The orientation of the velocity vectors appears random and the actual velocity distribution can be well fit by a multivariate normal distribution. But at 400 kpc, there is evidence for locally coherent motion, visible as groups of vectors with the same colour pointing in the same direction. This is even clearer in the velocity space plot: there are only a bit more than a dozen clumps in velocity space and no smooth component at all. Obviously a smooth multivariate normal distribution would not provide a good fit. This is evidence that the outer part of the halo is built up from a collection of large scale streams from the tidal disruption of infalling subhaloes. But so too is the smooth component in center, in that it also likely consists of an overlap of many, many streams.\citep{2003MNRAS.339..834H, 2009arXiv0906.4341V} The central limit theorem then guarantees that the resulting distribution in the center closely resembles something like a multivariate normal distribution\citep{2003MNRAS.339..834H} or more general distributions.\citep{2006JCAP...01..014H, 2009MNRAS.395..797V}

\section{Phase Space Structure}\label{sec:phasespace}

\begin{figure}[t]
	\centering
	\includegraphics[width=0.495\textwidth]{den}
	\includegraphics[width=0.495\textwidth]{psd}
	\caption{Central sphere of radius 50 kpc where we calculated the position space density (left) and the true phase space density (right) with EnBiD. Approximately 2000 peaks from the subhaloes within that radius are visible in both pictures but the contrast of subhaloes is higher in the phase space density picture. In the phase space picture are also large scale dark matter streams visible which were formed by tidal mass loss of infalling subhaloes. These streams are not visible in the traditional position space density picture.}
	\label{fig:denpsd}
\end{figure}

In Fig. \ref{fig:denpsd} we show the central region of Via Lactea II: the sphere has a radius of 50 kpc. We plot the position space density (left) and the true six dimensional phase space density (right) calculated with EnBiD\footnote{\texttt{http://sourceforge.net/projects/enbid/}}.\citep{2006MNRAS.373.1293S} We only show the top five to six orders of magnitude in position and phase space density, in order not to overload the two pictures. Many cold streams are clearly visible in the central region. Although these cold streams only contribute a few percent to the local mass density, their velocity dispersion is just a few km s$^{-1}$, resulting in a very high phase space density for these particles. These streams are not visible in traditional density picture (see Fig. \ref{fig:ghalo}) and can only be revealed by visualising the true phase space density. Via Lactea II seems to be the first structure formation simulation with sufficient resolution to reveal these streams in phase space, since previous lower resolution runs did not show such phase space features. Also subhaloes are better visible due to their higher contrast in phase space density. Approximately 2000 peaks are seen in the central 50 kpc sphere phase space density image. The high contrast makes the phase space density the ideal method of identifying subhaloes.

An often used method of describing the structure of phase space is by the pseudo phase space density $Q \equiv \rho/\sigma^3$ where $\rho$ is the matter density and $\sigma$ is the velocity dispersion. When $Q$ is measured in spherical shells, then it follows a power law
\begin{equation}
Q(r) \propto r^{-\alpha_Q}
\end{equation}
with $\alpha_Q = 1.8 \ldots 1.95$.\cite{2001ApJ...563..483T, 2004MNRAS.351..237R, 2004MNRAS.352.1109A, 2005MNRAS.363.1057D, 2008MNRAS.386.2022A, 2009MNRAS.398L..21S}

\begin{figure}[t]
	\centering
	\includegraphics[width=0.5\textwidth]{GHALO_psd}
	\caption{Phase space density profile for GHALO. The $Q(r)/(2\pi)^{3/2}$ profile follows a power law with slope -1.84 (dotted line). The mean of the true phase space density calculated with EnBiD is dominated by the contribution from subhalos beyond 1.8 kpc. The approximate power law relation can be recovered by removing high phase space density contributions from subhalos and streams. The true phase space density relation is steeper and has a slope of ca. -2. The median of the true phase space density is not affected by the contribution from substructure. The resolution limit of GHALO is 120 pc and is marked with a vertical line. This figure was adopted from Ref. \protect \refcite{2009MNRAS.398L..21S}.}
	\label{fig:psd}
\end{figure}

In Fig. \ref{fig:psd} we plot the quantity $Q(r)/(2\pi)^{3/2}$,\footnote{The additional factor $(2\pi)^{3/2}$ is necessary in order to agree with the expectation value from a Maxwell-Boltzmann distribution.} which follows a nice power law with a slope of $\alpha_Q = 1.84$ for GHALO.\cite{2009MNRAS.398L..21S} It is interesting to compare this to the spherically averaged true phase space density again calculated with EnBiD. When taking the mean true phase space density in spherical shells, we see that subhalos start to dominate the profile from ca. 1.8 kpc on where the innermost subhalo in GHALO is located. In the inner part, the mean EnBiD value roughly shows a power law behaviour but with a steeper slope of -2. Subhalos have in general a higher central phase space density than the host halos.\cite{2004MNRAS.353...15A, 2009MNRAS.395.1225V} By cutting out the contribution of particles with $f > 100 ~\mathrm{M}_\odot ~\mathrm{kpc}^{-3} ~\mathrm{km}^{-3} ~\mathrm{s}^{3}$ we can remove the contribution from subhalos. When removing also streams by neglecting particles with $f > 0.4~\mathrm{M}_\odot ~\mathrm{kpc}^{-3} ~\mathrm{km}^{-3} ~\mathrm{s}^{3}$ the approximate power law behaviour can be extended out to ca. 40 kpc. Also, the median of the true phase space density is not affected by the contribution form substructure (see Fig. \ref{fig:psd}).

The power law behaviour of the pseudo phase space density $Q$ is still enigmatic and likely reflects the distribution of entropy $K \equiv Q^{-2/3} = \sigma^2/\rho^{2/3}$, which dark matter acquires as it is accreted.\cite{2009MNRAS.395.1225V} Therefore, one should use $Q$ with caution and give preference to the true phase space density when studying the phase space structure.

\section{Conclusions and Final Remarks}

In this brief review we discuss recent results from the high resolution structure formation simulations Via Lactea I \& II and GHALO which study the formation of Milky Way sized objects. The resulting CDM halos show a wealth of structure: several levels of sub$^n$halos and streams in phase space in regions that where smooth in previous simulations. We present quantitative descriptions of the mass and subhalo distribution as well as a detailed insight into the velocity and phase space structure.

Unfortunately, the content of this brief review is limited and we had to skip results on implications for indirect and direct dark matter detection experiments. Please consult Refs. \refcite{2007ApJ...657..262D,2008ApJ...686..262K,2009PhRvD..79l3517K,2009PhRvD..80c5023B,2009arXiv0906.1822K,2009Sci...325..970K} for more results in that area. For a complementary review on the structure and evolution of CDM halos consult Ref. \refcite{2009arXiv0906.4340D}.

Images, movies and data from Via Lactea I \& II and GHALO are available at \texttt{http://www.ucolick.org/$\sim$diemand/vl/} and \texttt{http://www.itp.uzh.ch/ghalo/}.

\section*{Acknowledgements}

It is a pleasure to thank my collaborators J{\"u}rg Diemand, Michael Kuhlen, Piero Madau, Ben Moore, Doug Potter, Joachim Stadel and Larry Widrow for useful discussions and input. M.Z. is supported by NSF grant AST-0708087.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaArXiv


Abstract Acylated amino-benzenesulfonyl urea, its preparation method and use as herbicide and plant-growth regulator. The invention concerns compounds of formula (I) and their salts, W<1>, W<2>, R, n, R<1>, R<2>, R<4>, X, Y and Z being defined as in claim 1 and R<3> meaning an acyl residue. These compounds are suitable as herbicides and plant-growth regulators. The herbicides can be prepared according to the variant processes of claim 5, the novel intermediate products (II), (IV), (VI) and (VIII)* of claims 9 and 10 being used.


Those new to the world of search engine optimization (SEO) may feel a little overwhelmed with all of the tactics that are needed to achieve higher rankings. But here are a few tools that you need to help you get started.
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text:
/**
 * Authorization tests
 */
if (typeof define !== 'function') {
    //noinspection JSUnresolvedVariable
    var define = require('amdefine')(module);
}

define(function (require, exports) {
    "use strict";

    var auth = require('../lib/auth');

    var api;

    exports.setUp = function (done) {
        api = {};
        auth.apply(api);

        done();
    };

    exports.common = {};

    exports.common['raw authorization should be supported'] = function (test) {
        var authorization = 'SomeScheme some-token';

        api.authorize(authorization);

        test.equals(api.authorize(), authorization);
        test.done();
    };

    exports.common['auth-params should be supported'] = function (test) {
        api.authorize('SomeScheme', { token: 'token-value'});

        test.equals(api.authorize(), 'SomeScheme token="token-value"');
        test.done();
    };

    exports.common['realm should be set'] = function (test) {
        api.authorize('SomeScheme', { token: 'token-value'});
        api.authorize.realm('realm-name');

        test.equals(api.authorize(), 'SomeScheme token="token-value", realm="realm-name"');
        test.done();
    };

    exports.common['realm method without arguments should return current realm value'] = function (test) {
        api.authorize('SomeScheme', { token: 'token-value', realm: 'realm-name'});

        test.equals(api.authorize.realm(), 'realm-name');
        test.done();
    };

    exports.common['realm method should return undefined when no realm set'] = function (test) {
        test.equals(api.authorize.realm(), undefined, 'no auth-param');

        api.authorize('SomeScheme', { token: 'token-value'});
        test.equals(api.authorize.realm(), undefined, 'auth-params object');

        api.authorize('SomeScheme', 'token-value');
        test.equals(api.authorize.realm(), undefined, 'auth-params string');

        test.done();
    };

    exports.common['unauthorize should clear authorization'] = function (test) {
        api.authorize('SomeScheme some-token');

        test.equals(api.authorize(), 'SomeScheme some-token');

        api.unauthorize();

        test.equals(api.authorize(), undefined);
        test.done();
    };

    exports.common['scheme update should reset auth-params'] = function (test) {
        api.authorize('SomeScheme', { token: 'token-value', realm: 'realm-name' });
        api.authorize('Token', { token: 'new-value' });

        test.equals(api.authorize(), 'Token token="new-value"');
        test.done();
    };

    exports.basic = {};

    exports.basic['login/password authorization sould be supported'] = function (test) {
        api.authorize.basic('test', 'test');

        test.equals(api.authorize(), 'Basic dGVzdDp0ZXN0'); // base64 encoded 'test:test'
        test.done();
    };

    exports.token = {};

    exports.token['token authorization should be supported'] = function (test) {
        api.authorize.token('token-value');

        test.equals(api.authorize(), 'Token token="token-value"');
        test.done();
    };

    exports.token['realm argument should be supported'] = function (test) {
        api.authorize.token('token-value', 'realm-name');

        test.equals(api.authorize(), 'Token token="token-value", realm="realm-name"');
        test.done();
    };

    exports.facebook = {};

    exports.facebook['facebook authorization should be supported'] = function (test) {
        api.authorize.facebook('token-value');

        test.equals(api.authorize(), 'Facebook token="token-value"');
        test.done();
    };

});

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


text:
Camouflage Covered: 12 Things You Didn't Know About Camo
Posted by Staff Writer
Next time you don your camo to go hunting (or anywhere, really), take pride in its rich history.
Though we get a hard time from our spouses, and sometimes even our friends, the decision to wear camo is part of who we are.
To celebrate the patterns we've come to know and love, here are 12 things you never knew about the camo you're wearing.
1. The camo in your favorite movie might have been created specially for its on-screen appearance.
The digi-camo in the popular Children of Men (2006) was specially commissioned for the film's costumes.
Image via Camopedia
If you look closely, you'll also notice that the camo in the 2009 film G.I. Joe: Rise of the Cobra incorporates the G.I. Joe logo.
AKFiles.com
2. There are 13 recognized "families" of camo, including Chocolate Chip, Duck Hunter, Leaf, Woodland, Digital, Brushstroke, and Lizard.
As variants within those families (full list here), thousands of patterns have been created.
3. John Wayne has his own camo pattern named after him.
imagez.co
You saw him wearing it in The Green Berets. This camo pattern is a variant from the Tiger Stripe family, which was widely used during the Vietnam war.
If you've seen enough Vietnam veterans' uniforms, you might notice that dozens of different variants of the tiger stripe pattern were issued between 1964 and 1975. You can read about them all in Tiger Patterns by Sgt. Richard Johnson.
4. Woodland Camo, originally designed in the U.S., was standard issue from 1981 to 2006. Since then, it's been adapted by 17 other nations for military uniforms.
U.S. Woodland, a.k.a. M81 Camo Pattern
Throughout recent history, the U.S. government has meticulously tested hundreds of different options, setting the bar high for armed forces worldwide. Findings from these trials have also served as valuable groundwork in creating advanced camo patterns for hunters.
5. Venator (Latin for "Hunter") is the first all-region camo pattern designed for hunters.
The idea for the pattern came from some hunters employed at Rocky Boots who wanted a better western region-friendly pattern. Two years later, they had developed a much more versatile pattern that blends in with North American regional terrain as well as a wider variety of wilderness settings.
The secret is strategic color choice: the four main colors used in this pattern are found in almost every environment in the world.
6. The first pixelated (a.k.a. digital) camo pattern was pioneered in 1996 by the Canadian government and called CADPAT (Canadian Pattern).
CADPAT (Left) and MARPAT (Right)
A similar variant, called MARPAT, was quickly adopted by the U.S. Marines in 2001. Though that might seem like only yesterday, digital camo is now more than 20 years old, and recent variants have come a long way!
7. Modern camo patterns continue to incorporate pixelation because it really works.
The graph below, shared by Lt. Col. Timothy R. O'Neill, Ph.D., United States Army (Ret.), shows the effectiveness of MARPAT compared to two other patterns in terms of how long it takes to be detected by a first-year cadet with 20-20 vision and no colorblindness.
8. If you ever see an authentic vintage uniform with this pattern, keep it, because only a few were ever produced.
The McLaren camo pattern (above) was briefly tested during WWII, around 1942, but it was never adopted. There are many reasons a pattern can be discontinued: it might have been developed for a niche application, failed to stand the test of time, or simply proved ineffective in the field.
9. Most commercial camo patterns for hunters don't conceal effectively once you start moving.
Realtree (Left) vs. Venator (Right)
The reason is that rather than being engineered to adapt to various environments, they're based more on a snapshot of a specific background. This works well if you're standing still, not so much if you're moving across terrain. "Active camouflage" hasn't been perfected yet.
10. Not all camo is practical. Far from it! Some is downright bizarre.
From coast to desert, Chinese marines to go 5,900 km for training in remote northwest https://t.co/YxEcv4yDNw pic.twitter.com/mfNt5KQkKH
— China Xinhua News (@XHNews) January 2, 2016
For example, this pattern is actually worn by the Chinese Navy as part of their military equipment.
11. When concealing yourself from animals, your hands and head are just as important as the rest of you.
The motion of your head and hands can be giveaways at close range--so, especially if you hate face paint, it's smart to get a pair of camo gloves and a hat. Not convinced? Ask a buddy to take a black and white photo of you in the environment you're hunting. Although not perfect, this is a good way to approximate a deer's vision and see which parts of you stick out.
12. Although it's not known when the very first pattern was created, we may well be past the 100th anniversary of American camouflage!
Even though its use became widespread in 1942, development of camo by the U.S. Military can be traced back to World War I. That means camo may well be over 100 years old.
NEXT: 4 STATES YOU'D BE SURPRISED HAVE GOOD DEER HUNTING

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


text:
Q: UIImageView screenshot clipping with subviews I am trying to screenshot a UIImageView which has alpha (love heart with alpha transparency for the heart, black edges) which is moveable, scalable and rotatable - on top of a UIImageView which doesn't move.
What I'm trying to accomplish is allowing the user to move the heart shape on top (already got the code working for that) - then when they click a next button, it will take a screenshot of the heart shape and also capture the image underneath. I have this code passing through the screenshotted image to a segue. This is what I have so far and this is the result.
Here is my current code and the before/afters:
moveableMaskImageView is the Heart UIImageView
outletPreview is the UIImageView underneath
#pragma screenshotImage:
- (UIImage *)screenShotImage {
CGRect rect = [moveableMaskImageView frame];
NSLog(@"Screenshot X: %f Screenshot Y: %f Screenshot W: %f Screenshot H: %f",rect.origin.x,rect.origin.y,rect.size.width,rect.size.height);
UIGraphicsBeginImageContextWithOptions(rect.size, NO, 0.0f);
CGContextRef context = UIGraphicsGetCurrentContext();
[outletPreview.layer renderInContext:context];
[moveableMaskImageView.layer renderInContext:context];
UIImage *capturedImage = UIGraphicsGetImageFromCurrentImageContext();
UIGraphicsEndImageContext();
return capturedImage;
}

Before (Positioning):

After:

A: I guess the problem is you see a quarter of what is selected.
try replacing
this
UIGraphicsBeginImageContextWithOptions(rect.size, NO, 0.0f);

with this
CGSize *size = CGSizeMake(rect.size.x *2, rect.size.y *2);
UIGraphicsBeginImageContextWithOptions(size, NO, 0.0f);

A: I found the answer to my question - I hope this helps anyone out because it baffled me for a while:
Instead of using my screenshot function to clip the image - I used this piece of code that I found laying around on the internet:
- (UIImage*)imageByCropping:(UIImage *)imageToCrop toRect:(CGRect)rect {

UIGraphicsBeginImageContext(outletContainer.frame.size);/// use your screen or photo frame
[outletContainer.layer renderInContext:UIGraphicsGetCurrentContext()];
UIImage *screenshot = UIGraphicsGetImageFromCurrentImageContext();
UIGraphicsEndImageContext();

CGImageRef imageRef = CGImageCreateWithImageInRect([screenshot CGImage], rect);
UIImage *cropped = [UIImage imageWithCGImage:imageRef];

/*    no origin .....
 UIGraphicsBeginImageContext(tempview.frame.size);
 [[self.photo layer] renderInContext:UIGraphicsGetCurrentContext()];
 cropped= UIGraphicsGetImageFromCurrentImageContext();
 UIGraphicsEndImageContext();
 */
return cropped;
}

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


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Every time I see the latest numbers from Hungary's economic performance, I think of all those critics who denounced so vociferously the policies of the Orbán Government of 2010-2014.
We were condemned for rejecting austerity and showing IMF the door, for introducing flat taxes on income and business profits, for our special sectoral taxes on banks and other multinationals, for our measures to eradicate foreign currency-denominated debt, for imposing higher VAT to tax consumption, for reducing utility prices and more. I said it before. I'll say it again: Who's calling us unorthodox now?
A prominent economic research institute in Budapest just raised its forecast for Hungary's GDP growth in 2018 from 3.8 to 4 percent. GKI cited faster-than-expected growth in wages and consumption and predicted that industrial output would climb 5 percent, the construction industry would expand by 10 percent, investment by 9 percent and retail sales by 6 percent.
GKI's optimism follows similar upward revisions from the EBRD and IMF, both of which boosted forecasts by .4 percent and now project 3.8 percent GDP growth in 2018.
They have good reason. Earlier this month, Finance Minister Mihály Varga reported that year-on-year growth figures from the first quarter of 2018 hit a robust 4.7 percent.
At the dawn of the fourth Orbán Government, it's eight years since the prime minister's economic policies pulled Hungary's economy from the brink of bankruptcy, put the fiscal house back in order, paid off the IMF and set the country again on a path of steady growth. Back in 2010, when the Orbán Government took power, the prime minister promised to transform Hungary, with unemployment then at nearly 12 percent, into a workfare society. Pledging to create one million new jobs over the next decade, the government set a goal to reduce the welfare rolls, give every Hungarian that wants to work a chance to work, and also make it worthwhile to go back to work by lowering taxes on labor and increasing real wages.
It's working. As Finance Minister Mihály Varga said recently, the number of people working has risen by more than 740 thousand and unemployment remains at its record low of 3.9 percent. That puts Hungary's jobless rate among the best in the EU, bettering even Germany's unemployment rate of 5.3 percent. The numbers of Hungarians working in community service and those working abroad have also decreased.
The economic expansion has covered a broad base and come without additional debt. Almost every sector of the economy has contributed to overall growth. Tourism has performed especially well; we've seen double-digit increases in the number of nights stayed in every accommodation type and that increase touched every region in Hungary.
Growing investment also boosted economic output. Hungary, according to Site Selection magazine in the US, now ranks eighth among the world's most attractive investment destinations. That's due in part to the fact that we have the lowest corporate tax rate in the EU at 9 percent.
Now that the groundwork for macro-economic stability and fiscal prudence has been done, said Minister Varga, the re-igniting of economic growth and boosting employment become even more important strategic objectives. Supporting growth, the new government plans further tax cuts for both individuals and businesses, he added.
I remember well how the sages in the international press scoffed at the Orbán Government's economic policies as "unorthodox." As our unemployment rate drops to record lows and GDP growth continues apace, our work-based approach, changing the paradigm of the welfare society, is becoming the new model.


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text:
Home » The Welsh Agenda » Politics and Policy » The Outlook for Public Spending in Wales.
The Outlook for Public Spending in Wales.
2nd June 2015 (27th February 2020) Politics and PolicyEconomy, IWA Event, Public services, UK Government
Eurfyl ap Gwilym looks at UK Government spending over the next five years and how that will impact Wales.
Summary.
Now that the dust is settling after the UK general election a key question that arises is what is the outlook for public spending in Wales? An analysis by the Institute for Fiscal Studies of the commitments made by the Conservatives in their manifesto and during the election campaign makes it possible to estimate the likely impact of the new government's policies on public expenditure in Wales over the coming years. In this analysis spending up to 2018-19 is estimated. If the UK government keeps to its plans public spending will fall to a minimum in that year and then start to increase again in the final year (2019-20) of this parliament.
The block grant should not change materially in real terms over the coming four years. This compares with a real terms cut of ~8 per cent over the last five years. This estimate is predicated on the UK Government evenly phasing in over the next four financial years its planned increase of £8bn by 2019-20 on NHS spending in England with a consequential increase in Welsh funding which will offset other cuts.
Non-devolved departmental spending in Wales will fall by approximately £260 million by 2018-19: this is a reduction of 16 per cent in real terms.
Spending on social protection in Wales by the UK Government will fall by approximately £550 million a year by 2018-19. Given that just under half of such spending is for pensioner related benefits which are protected by the 'triple lock' this means that other welfare spending targeted at those of working age will suffer a cut of ~10 per cent in real terms.
Total identifiable public expenditure in Wales will be cut by £810 million in real terms by 2018-19: a reduction of some 2.6 per cent.
One of the characteristics of the election campaign was last minute goodies being offered by the contending parties and a lack of clarity on how spending and tax give-aways would be funded. The incoming Conservative government committed not to make rate changes to the principal sources of revenue: income tax; national insurance; and VAT which between them account for 62 per cent of total government revenue. This commitment does not of course preclude the government from moving thresholds and changing allowances but it could prove to be major constraint if unforeseen macroeconomic events, often outside the control of UK government, unfold over the coming years. Furthermore there is a commitment to raise both the standard rate and higher rate income tax thresholds by 2019-20. The UK government also hopes to raise an additional £5bn a year by clamping down on tax avoidance and has committed to increasing the funding of the NHS in England by £8bn by 2019-20. Unsurprisingly the independent Institute for Fiscal Studies (IFS) in its analysis of the election manifestos of the three London based parties and the SNP observed that it was extremely difficult to draw clear conclusions regarding their fiscal plans or to be confident that they can be fully implemented.
The new UK Government has announced that it will publish a new budget for the UK on July 8. In the meantime what is the outlook for public expenditure in Wales? Most attention is usually paid to the block grant that funds devolved services but the funding of non-devolved expenditure which has a direct impact in Wales also needs to be considered: such expenditure represents 40 per cent of total identifiable public expenditure in Wales. Given all the uncertainties it would be foolish to claim a definitive answer to these expenditure questions but there is enough information to make reasonable estimates.
Departmental spending.
Total departmental spending (DEL) across the UK is forecast to be £364bn this year. Departmental spending covers areas such as health; education; transport; defence; and international development: it excludes expenditure areas such as welfare and debt interest. Crucially the bulk of the block grant that is used to fund devolved services in Wales is a sub-set of departmental spending and changes to departmental spending by the UK government are the principal determinants, through application of the Barnett formula, to changes in the block grant. Of total departmental spending in England approximately £211bn corresponds to programmes which are devolved in the case of Wales. The more important of these programmes are health and education and spending changes made to these programmes in England have a major impact on changes to the Welsh block grant. Thus undertakings given by the Conservatives regarding spending on health and education in England will help give a strong steer on what is likely to happen to the funding available to the Welsh government. It should be noted that because funding is in the form of a block grant the Welsh government has freedom to spend the funds in accordance with its own priorities. During the last parliament although spending on health was increased by the Coalition in England, and Wales received a consequential increase in funding, the Welsh government chose to cut relative health spending.
According to the IFS analysis of Conservative plans, departmental spending will fall from £364bn this year to £340bn in 2018-19 before rising sharply to £354bn in 2019-20 (all figures are in real terms). Thus a cut in total departmental spending of £24bn (6.6 per cent in real terms) is forecast between now and 2018-19. What can we expect to happen to the Welsh block grant?
Devolved spending.
The good news is that the two principal determinants of changes to the block grant are planned changes to education and health spending in England. In the case of health spending the Conservatives have committed to increasing spending in England by £8bn by 2019-20. The picture is a little less clear in the case of education although it appears that spending will stay at the current level in real terms. (It may well be that this implies a reduction in funding per pupil in England given the growth in the school population.). Given what will happen to these two big departmental spending programmes it follows that the overall cut of £24bn will fall disproportionately on other programmes such as: transport; economic development; Home Office; and culture, media and sports. The IFS estimates that the 'unprotected' departments will have average real terms cuts of 16 per cent by 2018-19. Based on these forecasts and using the Barnett comparability factors last published by the Treasury in 2010 it appears the Wales DEL will increase by £340m in real terms by 2018-19 thanks to health and education changes in England – assuming that the build up of health spending in England will follow an even path – and be £6bn higher by 2018-19. However there will be a reduction of ~£290m due to cuts in other, 'unprotected' programmes. Broadly speaking and subject to the uncertainties noted the block grant should not change materially in real terms over the coming four years.
This estimate needs to be treated with caution due both to lack of clarity regarding the UK government's detailed plans and the lack of availability of up-to-date comparability factors which should be published later this year at the time of the Spending Review. This conclusion does not mean that there will not be challenges for the Welsh government. Simon Stevens, the CEO of the NHS in England, has estimated that an additional £30bn will be needed by the English NHS by 2019-20 with £22bn coming from efficiency savings and £8bn from additional funding. This implies that efficiency savings are meant to deliver an improvement of ~19 per cent which many observers believe to be ambitious. Given the decline in relative per capita funding of the NHS in Wales over recent years (it was 106 per cent of the UK average in 2008-09 and 99 per cent by 2013-14) the challenge is likely to be even greater in Wales.
Non-devolved departmental spending in Wales.
The UK government continues to be directly responsible for elements of departmental spending in Wales including, for example, areas of transport (Network Rail), business, energy, the police and justice. Most of these programmes are due to experience major, real term cuts amounting on average, according to the IFS, to some 16 per cent over four years. Departmental spending that is not devolved but spent by the central UK government in Wales is approximately £1.6bn a year. A reduction of 16 per cent in this spending equates to a cut of ~£260 million a year by 2018-19.
Social Security Spending.
So far this analysis has concentrated on departmental spending but another major element of public spending is social protection which accounts for some 35 per cent of total identifiable public spending in Wales. Such spending is, in the main, disbursed directly by the central UK government to recipients across Britain (arrangements are different in Northern Ireland), is not subject to the Barnett formula and is not controlled by the Welsh government. The Conservatives have committed to cutting welfare spending over this new parliamentary term. The IFS analysis forecasts that total social security spending across the UK will fall from £217bn this year to £207bn by 2018-19, a reduction of 4.6 per cent. Given that such spending is proportionally higher in Wales than in other parts of the UK a reduction of roughly £550m a year by 2018-19 can be expected. In the March 2015 budget those welfare programmes that were 'in scope' and 'out of scope' were identified but we must await the coming budget for more details to be revealed regarding precisely which programmes are to be cut. Given that pensioner benefits are protected by the 'triple lock' and account for approximately 45 per cent of total welfare spending the cuts in benefits paid to those of working age such as tax credits, housing benefits and incapacity benefits could be of the order of 10 per cent.
Over the past five years the Departmental Spending Limit for Wales has fallen by over 8 per cent or £1,346 million in real terms. It appears that the DEL cuts in the coming four years will be far less: indeed there may be no reduction. However if the UK government sticks to its current plans there will be a sharp drop in identifiable public spending in Wales due to two other factors. Firstly departmental spending which is not devolved can expect sharp reductions and these could be as much as £260 million in real terms by 2018-19. Secondly social security funding could be reduced by up to £550 million a year by 2018-19 with the cuts being concentrated on those of working age. As well as reducing the incomes of those in receipt of such welfare payments there will be a knock-on effect in local economies. It is to be hoped that the impact of cuts in social security payments for those of working age can be ameliorated by an increase in the proportion of the population in employment and an improvement in wages and salary levels – two factors which would reduce the demand for such payments. Creating the conditions to encourage increased employment rates is a responsibility shared by the UK and Welsh governments while a major way to improve wage and salary levels could be to move to a Living Wage over the coming five years: this is a policy which is not devolved and is a matter for the UK government.
Eurfyl ap Gwilym is Plaid Cymru's Chief Economic Advisor and an IWA Board Member.


text:
wind speed: 7 m/s W
« Death Of Patricia (Pat) Daly, Formerly Thurles Co. Tipperary.
New Coronavirus Cases Confirmed On Irish Mainland Reach 13,986 In Past 24 Hours. »
Death Of Graham Michael Davies, Thurles, Co. Tipperary.
It was with great sadness that we learned of the death, yesterday Thursday 10th February 2022, of Mr Graham Michael Davies, Clashbeg, Mullinahone, Thurles, Co. Tipperary and formerly of Tredegar, Bridgend, County Borough of Blaenau Gwent, south east Wales.
The passing of Mr Davies is most deeply regretted by his loving wife Mary, son Paul, daughter Julie, grandchild Rebecca, step-children Barry, Caroline and Paul, step-grandchildren Ferdy, Elza, Hannah, Bobby and Jack, extended relatives, neighbours and a wide circle of friends.
Requiescat in Pace.
Funeral Arrangements.
The earthly remains of Mr Davies will repose at his place of residence in Clashbeg [E41 RC42], Mullinahone, Thurles, Co. Tipperary on tomorrow evening, Saturday, February 12th, from 4:00pm to 7:00pm.
His remains will be received into the Church of St. Michael, Mullinahone, Thurles, at 11:30am on Sunday morning, February 13th, to further repose for Requiem Mass, followed immediately afterwards by interment in St. Michael's Cemetery, Modeshill, Mullinahone, Thurles, Co. Tipperary.
[NB: Due to Public Health Guidelines, regarding C-19 virus restrictions; those attending Requiem Mass will continue to observe strict adherence to social distancing, face covering, with no hand shaking.]
The extended Davies family wish to express their appreciation for your understanding at this difficult time and have made arrangements for those wishing to send messages of condolence, to use the link shown HERE.
Ar dheis Dé go raibh a anam dílis.
February 11th, 2022 | Category: Church Services, Community News | |
two × four =


New Zealand's news website, Stuff, is reporting today on Loomio, a new group decision making software offering.
"The cloud-based software lets users put forward "proposals" that can then be discussed, modified, voted on and – if allowed by the organisation – vetoed, through an iterative process on an online forum.
Loomio has been translated into seven languages and was being used by sports clubs, community groups, businesses and social movements in 20 countries.
Up until last Friday's launch, use of the software had been by invitation only.
Ross Phillips, business improvement manager at Pathways, New Zealand's largest provider of community-based mental health services, said it had used Loomio to consult with an advisory board of youth on the purpose and branding of its youth-focused service, Real, and to assist with decision-making by its geographically dispersed leadership team.
While there are existing tools on the market in this space, it is good to see this problem being tackled in New Zealand.


But now Microsoft is working on a system they call PocketTouch. A multitouch detection system that can work even though thick fabric and will ultimately allow you to operate your smartphone even when place in your pockets - or inside a protective cloth bag.
You don't even have to worry about remembering which position its in, as the unlock gesture will automatically "align" it in order to properly recognize the following gestures.


text:
Q: 1С-Битрикс, его блог и комментарии Есть интернет-магазин на Bitrix, есть в нем комментарии табового вида со вкладками vk, fb и обычные. Они есть в категории товара, но их нет в блоговой категории, то есть в новостях. Кто-нибудь может подсказать, как их туда закинуть? Я сначала подумала, что раз уже все есть, то можно просто вывести их и поковырялась в шаблоне страницы, но черт подери сейчас все табы слетели, руководство тонновое просто. Буду очень благодарна, если кто-то подскажет по каким запросам вообще можно найти ответ, ибо Яндекс ответами особо не балует.

A: Полагаю вам нужно это.

В визуальном редакторе компонент находится в Компоненты > Общение > Форум.

Однако все-таки не советую править код из визуального редактора.


text:
Q: WebView custom homepage I have a problem with my webview and custom homepage. I want the user to input the URL in the preferences page, and so it becomes automatically the webview homepage.
Here is my preferences.xml
<?xml version="1.0" encoding="utf-8"?>
<PreferenceScreen xmlns:android="http://schemas.android.com/apk/res/android">
  <PreferenceCategory
    android:title="URL"
    android:key="URL_CAT">
    <EditTextPreference
        android:key="URL_HERE"
        android:title="School/Uni URL"
        android:summary="Your School's Homepage"
        android:dialogTitle="Moodle URL"
        android:dialogMessage="Type your school's URL for a shortcut."
        android:defaultValue="http://" />
  </PreferenceCategory>
</PreferenceScreen>

Here is my WebActivity.java
@Override
public void onCreate(Bundle savedInstanceState)
{
    super.onCreate(savedInstanceState);
    this.getWindow().requestFeature(Window.FEATURE_PROGRESS);
    setContentView(R.layout.webview);
    WebView webView = (WebView) findViewById(R.id.webview);
    webView.getSettings().setJavaScriptEnabled(true);
    webView.getSettings().setSupportZoom(true);
    webView.getSettings().setDefaultZoom(WebSettings.ZoomDensity.FAR);
    webView.setWebChromeClient(new WebChromeClient() {

        public void onProgressChanged(WebView view, int progress)
        {
            activity.setTitle("Loading...");
            activity.setProgress(progress * 100);

        }

    });

    webView.setWebViewClient(new WebViewClient() {
        @Override
        public void onReceivedError(WebView view, int errorCode, String description, String failingUrl)
        {

        }

        @Override
        public boolean shouldOverrideUrlLoading(WebView view, String url)
        {
            view.loadUrl(url);
            return true;
        }
    });

    webView.loadUrl("http://test.com"); <--- I need the user data here
}

A: First you should create activity which will extend PreferenceActivity - http://developer.android.com/reference/android/preference/PreferenceActivity.html
In this activity user will be able to enter the url.
In the WebActivity add code
SharedPreferences prefs = getSharedPreferences();
try {
    url = prefs.getString(KEY, defaultValue).toString();
} catch (ClassCastException e) {
    e.printStackTrace();
}


These figures represent an Infantry squad from the Soviet Red Army of WW2. They are in Helmets and Greatcoats, suitable for the colder threatres of the Eastern Front.
This squad pack gives you a ten man unit armed for use in all World War Two wargames like Bolt Action, Rules of Engagement and Final Assault.


text:
Q: Find duplicates in an unsorted sequence efficiently I need a very efficient way to find duplicates in an unsorted sequence. This is what I came up with, but it has a few shortcomings, namely it

*

*unnecessarily counts occurrences beyond 2

*consumes the entire sequence before yielding duplicates

*creates several intermediate sequences

module Seq =
  let duplicates items =
    items
    |> Seq.countBy id
    |> Seq.filter (snd >> ((<) 1))
    |> Seq.map fst

Regardless of the shortcomings, I don't see a reason to replace this with twice the code. Is it possible to improve this with comparably concise code?

A: Here's an imperative solution (which is admittedly slightly longer):
let duplicates items =
    seq {
        let d = System.Collections.Generic.Dictionary()
        for i in items do
            match d.TryGetValue(i) with
            | false,_    -> d.[i] <- false         // first observance
            | true,false -> d.[i] <- true; yield i // second observance
            | true,true  -> ()                     // already seen at least twice
    }

A: This is the best "functional" solution I could come up with that doesn't consume the entire sequence up front.
let duplicates =
    Seq.scan (fun (out, yielded:Set<_>, seen:Set<_>) item ->
        if yielded.Contains item then
            (None, yielded, seen)
        else
            if seen.Contains item then
                (Some(item), yielded.Add item, seen.Remove item)
            else
                (None, yielded, seen.Add item)
    ) (None, Set.empty, Set.empty)
    >> Seq.Choose (fun (x,_,_) -> x)

A: A more elegant functional solution:
let duplicates xs =
  Seq.scan (fun xs x -> Set.add x xs) Set.empty xs
  |> Seq.zip xs
  |> Seq.choose (fun (x, xs) -> if Set.contains x xs then Some x else None)

Uses scan to accumulate sets of all elements seen so far. Then uses zip to combine each element with the set of elements before it. Finally, uses choose to filter out the elements that are in the set of previously-seen elements, i.e. the duplicates.
EDIT
Actually my original answer was completely wrong. Firstly, you don't want duplicates in your outputs. Secondly, you want performance.
Here is a purely functional solution that implements the algorithm you're after:
let duplicates xs =
  (Map.empty, xs)
  ||> Seq.scan (fun xs x ->
      match Map.tryFind x xs with
      | None -> Map.add x false xs
      | Some false -> Map.add x true xs
      | Some true -> xs)
  |> Seq.zip xs
  |> Seq.choose (fun (x, xs) ->
      match Map.tryFind x xs with
      | Some false -> Some x
      | None | Some true -> None)

This uses a map to track whether each element has been seen before once or many times and then emits the element if it is seen having only been seen once before, i.e. the first time it is duplicated.
Here is a faster imperative version:
let duplicates (xs: _ seq) =
  seq { let d = System.Collections.Generic.Dictionary(HashIdentity.Structural)
        let e = xs.GetEnumerator()
        while e.MoveNext() do
          let x = e.Current
          let mutable seen = false
          if d.TryGetValue(x, &seen) then
            if not seen then
              d.[x] <- true
              yield x
          else
            d.[x] <- false }

This is around 2× faster than any of your other answers (at the time of writing).
Using a for x in xs do loop to enumerate the elements in a sequence is substantially slower than using GetEnumerator directly but generating your own Enumerator is not significantly faster than using a computation expression with yield.
Note that the TryGetValue member of Dictionary allows me to avoid allocation in the inner loop by mutating a stack allocated value whereas the TryGetValue extension member offered by F# (and used by kvb in his/her answer) allocates its return tuple.

A: Assuming your sequence is finite, this solution requires one run on the sequence:
open System.Collections.Generic
let duplicates items =
   let dict = Dictionary()
   items |> Seq.fold (fun acc item ->
                             match dict.TryGetValue item with
                             | true, 2 -> acc
                             | true, 1 -> dict.[item] <- 2; item::acc
                             | _ -> dict.[item] <- 1; acc) []
         |> List.rev

You can provide length of the sequence as the capacity of Dictionary, but it requires to enumerate the whole sequence once more.
EDIT:
To resolve 2nd problem, one could generate duplicates on demand:
open System.Collections.Generic
let duplicates items =
   seq {
         let dict = Dictionary()
         for item in items do
            match dict.TryGetValue item with
            | true, 2 -> ()
            | true, 1 -> dict.[item] <- 2; yield item
            | _ -> dict.[item] <- 1
   }

A: Functional solution:
let duplicates items =
  let test (unique, result) v =
    if not(unique |> Set.contains v) then (unique |> Set.add v ,result)
    elif not(result |> Set.contains v) then (unique,result |> Set.add v)
    else (unique, result)
  items |> Seq.fold test (Set.empty, Set.empty) |> snd |> Set.toSeq


Today I sit here in Florida, over looking the pool and the Ft Pierce Inlet. It's around 78 degrees, with 70% humidity and winds at 7mph. From this view all indications point towards a delightful day of sun and warm weather, with the hope of some fresh caught fish for lunch. Just behind me in the living space of the condo is the television spewing out story after story of a world gone wrong. On my phone is a contractor not willing to take responsibility for his work. People are dying, eight new families at our funeral chapel in the last 48 hours, challenged by personal loss. And, the list goes on.
I will go out into this day knowing that I can choose to bring the reflection of pain and hurt or love and acceptance. I will make the effort to see the reflection of good in the people and world. It will not change what I heard on tv for that is the past, but, it will change the future or what I see now. It will require my effort and it will bring forth a miracle, I can already feel it. This simple exercise of sitting quietly and writing has changed everything. I invite you to do the same.
Previous Previous post: Big stuff!


text:
<!DOCTYPE html>
<title>CSS Test: Test declaring a non-custom property with invalid syntax due to containing a variable reference with fallback that contains a bad string.</title>
<link rel="author" title="Cameron McCormack" href="mailto:cam@mcc.id.au">
<link rel="help" href="http://www.w3.org/TR/css-variables-1/#using-variables">
<link rel="match" href="support/color-green-ref.html">

This text must be green.


As the summer draws to a close and the days get cooler, my runs tend to get longer and longer in anticipation of a few Fall marathons, or other longer races which depend on a full summer's training. I have been wanting to knock off a big chunk of the Oak Ridge Trail for some time this summer, and I found some good running partners for this endeavor through a new Meetup, called "Middlebury Trail Enthusiasts". For those of you are not familiar with this group of runners and trail seekers, it began just this summer. For the time being, most of the group runs have been in town, after work (5:45), leaving from the Marble Works on Tuesdays, and some Thursdays. While I have been a regular participant on these after work runs, which usually proceed at a pace amenable to conversation, this was the first time I had joined in one of the longer group runs. So, at 8 am on a beautiful Saturday morning, I joined up with Heather, the group founder, and John, the organizer of the local race, the "Moosalamoo Ultra" for a run up the ridge. We started at the parking lot on Rt 125, between East Middlebury and Ripton, and headed up the trail. One sign of good conversation is that you miss trail signs, so I guess we got off to a good start by missing a well marked right turn, where the Oak Ridge Trail veered off of the Old Town Road, an abandoned road which serves as the northern terminus of the nearly 20 mile long Oak Ridge Trail. After about a quarter of a mile of running in increasingly higher grass, we realized our error, and backtracked to the incredibly obvious correct turn, and from this point we had no further routefinding difficulties!
I had done this section of trail once before, as a point to point run, after being dropped off at a significantly higher altitude, the turnoff for the Voter Brook Overlook on the Goshen-Ripton Road. Running the same trail in the opposite direction added an additional 500 ft or so of climbing! The trail angles up the north side of Mount Moosalamoo, rarely becoming steep, over the course of over 6 miles. At one point, pretty high up, I grabbed a shot of my running partners as they attempted to escape me.
Shortly after this point, I parted company with my running friends, as they were looking for a longer run than I today – they continued along the ridge toward the now near Moosalamoo summit, and I chose to descend on the Moosalamoo Trail to the Moosalamoo Campground, and return to my car by country roads. The descent was much easier than the ascent to this point – the Moosalamoo Trail gets much heavier foot travel than the longer Oak Ridge Trail. Some recent local new articles had alluded to trail maintenance on this trails, to make them more accessible to mountain bikers as well, but other than a few cut up trees which had fallen over the trail, it looked like this plan was not fully underway yet!
I reached to Moosalamoo Campground, at around mile 9 in the run, and was surprised to see that, even on Labor Day weekend, this primitive campground only had two groups of campers staked out for the last holiday of summer. At this point, I knew my return would be by road, but the Goshen-Ripton Road is about as quiet as a road can get- in my 4 miles or so on this road, returning to 125, I saw only 3 cars. I also made mental notes of other trailheads to be explored in future postings, most notably the Wilkinson Trails across the road and to the west of the Widow's Clearing parking lot. In one sunny section, I also noted some of the last daisies of summer, clinging to the side of the road.
Rejoining Rt 125, I passed through Ripton, and realized that while I had passed through the village countless times by car, and by bicycle, the only time I had actually been on foot in the village was racing in the Ripton Ridge Run back in the 80s when it started and finished at the old Ripton School! I also took a moment to enjoy the whimsy of the reproduction of the old sign for road tolls on this route, posted in the yard of the Chipman Inn. Do you think they accepted Easy Pass?
The last mile of the run was the most unnerving – the run through the twisty turny section of 125 below Ripton. The shoulders here were less than ample, and I took care not to run on the side of the road on the inside of the many blind corners where cars tended to cut it a little close! I did indeed survive this short section without a scratch, to return to my car in time to get home for lunch. Overall, this was a pretty long run for me, covering almost 16 miles, with about 1500 ft of climbing on the trail sections.
Finally – it would be great to see some new faces at Middlebury Trail Enthusiast events – check it out!
I've run part of the Oak Ridge trail but didn't realize it connected to Mt. Moosalamoo! I also didn't realize that when running up Moosalamoo from the other side. Will have to figure out the back roads to loop around to Ripton. I did just run those S-curves thru Ripton last week and compared to going out from Middlebury, going back toward Middlebury through those super tight turns was pretty damn hairy even though I was wearing a screaming yellow T-shirt I don't think a driver could easily see me if he was speeding thru the turns. I'm surprised I haven't run into you on the trails ever! I mostly run in the late afternoon/evening though, I don't do mornings unless I'm on second shift.
When running through the S-curves I always move to the outer lane so there are no surprises on the tight inside corners. If you run evenings, you should join in with the Tuesday night trailrunning group that does an hour or so on the TAM every Tuesday night at 6.
That sounds fun! Do you still meet at Marbleworks?
I actually ran Oak Ridge over Moosalamoo yesterday and then took the North Branch trail to the Falls of Lana and came out by Branbury and took Lower Plains Road. According to GPS it was about 32 mile round trip from my house. I also almost ran into a porcupine on the way down Moosalamoo! The ridge is beautiful and there's lots of spring flowers right now but TONS of trees and branches across the trail so along with running there was dodging, bushwacking and scrambling.
The Marbleworks at 6:00 – We meet by the parking lot lawn near Noonies. The gang is hard to miss.


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Quality design backed by 1 year warranty.
Handle size: 5-3/4″ x 1.77″ – 1 year warranty. Replacement door handle for whirlpool, kenmore, maytag, and many more. Ngd4655ew1, ngd4705ew1, wed4616fw0, wed4810ew1, wed4815ew1, wed4915ew1, wed4975ew1, wed4985ew0, wed4995ew1, wed49stbw1, wed5000dw2, wed7000dw1, wed7300dw1, wgd4616fw0, wgd4810ew1, wgd4815ew1, wgd4915ew1, wgd4975ew1, wgd4985ew0, wgd4995ew1, wgd49stbw1, wgd5000dw2, wgd7000dw0, wgd7300dw1, yied4671ew1, yied4771ew1, ymedb755dw2, ymedc415ew1, ymedc555dw1, ymedx6stbw1, yned4655ew1, yned4755ew1, ywed4616fw0, ywed4815ew1, ywed4915ew1, ywed49stbw1, ywed7300dw1. Part number w10861225 (ap5999398) replaces ps11731583, w10714516, w10861225vp.
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This addition to your arsenal allows you to put your partner into a hog-tie position. You can also find other creative ways to keep your partner nice and restrained; for example make it so they're legs are in the air, spread and ready for you. The cuffs are adjustable and use a Velcro closure, making them comfortable and easy-to-use.


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New Flyer of America delivers immediate safety improvements through the 3M international Customer Project
St. Cloud, Minnesota, USA – May 14, 2018: (TSX: NFI) New Flyer of America Inc. and New Flyer Industries Canada ULC (collectively "New Flyer"), subsidiaries of NFI Group Inc., formerly called New Flyer Industries Inc. ("NFI Group"), the largest transit bus and motor coach manufacturer and parts distributor in North America, today celebrated the successful completion of the 3M Customer Project, as one of only two globally-approved projects.
New Flyer was selected as one of two global host locations for the project in 2017. The customer project is part of 3M's Catalyst program to develop its high potential leaders from around the globe. The science and technology company sent six members to New Flyer's world-class manufacturing facility in St. Cloud, Minnesota, to work with the onsite manufacturing team on a New Flyer project. The real-world challenge builds leadership skills and global experience for the 3M Catalyst team, while creating value and lending global perspective to host organizations. New Flyer elected to focus the Catalyst Customer Project on identifying safety improvement opportunities.
"We were proud to be selected as one of two organizations around the world to host a 3M Catalyst team," said Wayne Joseph, President, New Flyer of America. "It is an honor to work with a global science and safety leader such as 3M, and to further advance safety in our manufacturing space. We have no greater responsibility than the safety of our team members."
The project commenced December 2017 in Winnipeg, Manitoba, Canada, and concluded March 2018 in St. Cloud, Minnesota, USA, where the 3M Catalyst team (comprised of members from Korea, China, Australia, France, the Middle East and the U.S.) converged to collaborate with New Flyer leaders and share best practices from the 3M Alexandria facility.
"This approach is a different way we learn about and address our customers' needs," said Mojdeh Poul, President, 3M Canada. "Inventing products to help our customers solve their issues is just one way we create value for them. This customer-first approach positions us as a partner with subject-matter expertise and a shared interest in our customers' success. We're not focused on making an immediate sale, and that's fine."
"The goal for New Flyer was to reduce recorded safety incidents from 2.2 per 200,000 person hours to 1.1 per 200,000 person hours in the St Cloud plant," said Eric Jensen, Plant Manager of the New Flyer St. Cloud facility. "3M provided recommendations for improving safety culture and we are working our way through a list of foundational elements. This includes communication, incident investigation, accountability, job hazard assessment and training – 32 items total. I am pleased to share that our current lost time rate is .56, which is under the goal we set with 3M."
About NFI Group
NFI Group and its subsidiaries comprise the largest bus and motor coach manufacturer and parts distributor in North America, with 32 fabrication, manufacturing, distribution, and service centers located across Canada and the United States and employing nearly 6,000 team members.
NFI Group provides a comprehensive suite of mass transportation solutions under several brands: New Flyer® (heavy-duty transit buses), ARBOC® (low-floor cutaway and medium-duty buses), MCI® (motor coaches), and NFI Parts™ (bus and coach parts, support, and service). NFI Group's vehicles incorporate the widest range of drive systems available ranging from clean diesel, natural gas, diesel-electric hybrid, trolley-electric, battery-electric, and fuel cell-electric.
New Flyer is North America's heavy-duty transit bus leader and offers the most advanced product line under the Xcelsior® and Xcelsior CHARGE™ brands. New Flyer actively supports over 44,000 heavy-duty transit buses (New Flyer, NABI, and Orion) currently in service, of which 7,300 are powered by electric motors and battery propulsion and 1,600 are zero-emission.
ARBOC is North America's low-floor, body-on-chassis ("cutaway") bus leader serving transit, paratransit, and shuttle applications. With more than 3,000 buses in service, ARBOC leads the low-floor cutaway bus market providing unsurpassed passenger accessibility and comfort over traditional high-floor cutaway vehicles. ARBOC also offers a medium-duty bus for transit and shuttle applications.
Motor Coach Industries is North America's motor coach leader offering the J-Series, the industry's best-selling intercity coach for 11 consecutive years, and the D-Series, the industry's best-selling motor coach line in North American history. MCI actively supports over 28,000 coaches currently in service.
NFI Parts is North America's most comprehensive parts organization, providing replacement parts, technical publications, training, service, and support for NFI Group's bus and motor coach product lines.
Further information is available at www.www.newflyer.com, www.arbocsv.com, and www.mcicoach.com. The common shares of NFI Group are traded on the Toronto Stock Exchange under the symbol NFI.
Lindy Norris