text:
2In philosophy
3In developmental psychology
3.1Jean Piaget
3.2Lawrence Kohlberg
3.3James Rest
4In social cognition
4.1Dual-process theory and social intuitionism
4.2Motivated reasoning
4.3Causality and intentionality
6Gender difference
Moral reasoning
Study in psychology that overlaps with moral philosophy
Moral reasoning is the study of how people think about right and wrong and how they acquire and apply moral rules. It is a subdiscipline of moral psychology that overlaps with moral philosophy, and is the foundation of descriptive ethics.
Starting from a young age, people can make moral decisions about what is right and wrong. Moral reasoning, however, is a part of morality that occurs both within and between individuals.[1] Prominent contributors to this theory include Lawrence Kohlberg and Elliot Turiel. The term is sometimes used in a different sense: reasoning under conditions of uncertainty, such as those commonly obtained in a court of law. It is this sense that gave rise to the phrase, "To a moral certainty;"[2] however, this idea is now seldom used outside of charges to juries.
Moral reasoning is an important and often daily process that people use when trying to do the right thing. For instance, every day people are faced with the dilemma of whether to lie in a given situation or not. People make this decision by reasoning the morality of their potential actions, and through weighing their actions against potential consequences.
A moral choice can be a personal, economic, or ethical one; as described by some ethical code, or regulated by ethical relationships with others. This branch of psychology is concerned with how these issues are perceived by ordinary people, and so is the foundation of descriptive ethics. There are many different forms of moral reasoning which often are dictated by culture. Cultural differences in the high-levels of cognitive function associated with moral reasoning can be observed through the association of brain networks from various cultures and their moral decision making. These cultural differences demonstrate the neural basis that cultural influences can have on an individual's moral reasoning and decision making.[3]
Distinctions between theories of moral reasoning can be accounted for by evaluating inferences (which tend to be either deductive or inductive) based on a given set of premises.[4] Deductive inference reaches a conclusion that is true based on whether a given set of premises preceding the conclusion are also true, whereas, inductive inference goes beyond information given in a set of premises to base the conclusion on provoked reflection.[4]
In philosophy[edit]
Philosopher David Hume claims that morality is based more on perceptions than on logical reasoning.[4] This means that people's morality is based more on their emotions and feelings than on a logical analysis of any given situation. Hume regards morals as linked to passion, love, happiness, and other emotions and therefore not based on reason.[4] Jonathan Haidt agrees, arguing in his social intuitionist model that reasoning concerning a moral situation or idea follows an initial intuition.[5] Haidt's fundamental stance on moral reasoning is that "moral intuitions (including moral emotions) come first and directly cause moral judgments"; he characterizes moral intuition as "the sudden appearance in consciousness of a moral judgment, including an affective valence (good-bad, like-dislike), without any conscious awareness of having gone through steps of searching, weighing evidence, or inferring a conclusion".[4]
Immanuel Kant had a radically different view of morality. In his view, there are universal laws of morality that one should never break regardless of emotions.[4] He proposes a four-step system to determine whether or not a given action was moral based on logic and reason. The first step of this method involves formulating "a maxim capturing your reason for an action".[4] In the second step, one "frame[s] it as a universal principle for all rational agents".[4] The third step is assessing "whether a world based on this universal principle is conceivable".[4] If it is, then the fourth step is asking oneself "whether [one] would will the maxim to be a principle in this world".[4] In essence, an action is moral if the maxim by which it is justified is one which could be universalized. For instance, when deciding whether or not to lie to someone for one's own advantage, one is meant to imagine what the world would be like if everyone always lied, and successfully so. In such a world, there would be no purpose in lying, for everybody would expect deceit, rendering the universal maxim of lying whenever it is to your advantage absurd. Thus, Kant argues that one should not lie under any circumstance. Another example would be if trying to decide whether suicide is moral or immoral; imagine if everyone committed suicide. Since mass international suicide would not be a good thing, the act of suicide is immoral. Kant's moral framework, however, operates under the overarching maxim that you should treat each person as an end in themselves, not as a means to an end. This overarching maxim must be considered when applying the four aforementioned steps.[4]
Reasoning based on analogy is one form of moral reasoning. When using this form of moral reasoning the morality of one situation can be applied to another based on whether this situation is relevantly similar: similar enough that the same moral reasoning applies. A similar type of reasoning is used in common law when arguing based upon legal precedent. [a]
In consequentialism (often distinguished from deontology) actions are based as right on wrong based upon the consequences of action as opposed to a property intrinsic to the action itself.
In developmental psychology[edit]
Moral reasoning first attracted a broad attention from developmental psychologists in the mid-to-late 20th century. Their main theorization involved elucidating the stages of development of moral reasoning capacity.
Jean Piaget[edit]
Jean Piaget developed two phases of moral development, one common among children and the other common among adults. The first is known as the Heteronomous Phase.[7] This phase, more common among children, is characterized by the idea that rules come from authority figures in one's life such as parents, teachers, and God.[7] It also involves the idea that rules are permanent no matter what.[7] Thirdly, this phase of moral development includes the belief that "naughty" behavior must always be punished and that the punishment will be proportional.[7]
The second phase in Piaget's theory of moral development is referred to as the Autonomous Phase. This phase is more common after one has matured and is no longer a child. In this phase people begin to view the intentions behind actions as more important than their consequences.[7] For instance, if a person who is driving swerves in order to not hit a dog and then knocks over a road sign, adults are likely to be less angry at the person than if he or she had done it on purpose just for fun. Even though the outcome is the same, people are more forgiving because of the good intention of saving the dog. This phase also includes the idea that people have different morals and that morality is not necessarily universal.[7] People in the Autonomous Phase also believe rules may be broken under certain circumstances.[7] For instance, Rosa Parks broke the law by refusing to give up her seat on a bus, which was against the law but something many people consider moral nonetheless. In this phase people also stop believing in the idea of immanent justice.[7]
Lawrence Kohlberg[edit]
Main article: Lawrence Kohlberg's stages of moral development
Inspired by Piaget, Lawrence Kohlberg made significant contributions to the field of moral reasoning by creating a theory of moral development.[8] His theory is a "widely accepted theory that provides the basis for empirical evidence on the influence of human decision making on ethical behavior."[9] In Lawrence Kohlberg's view, moral development consists of the growth of less egocentric and more impartial modes of reasoning on more complicated matters. He believed that the objective of moral education is the reinforcement of children to grow from one stage to an upper stage. Dilemma was a critical tool that he emphasized that children should be presented with; yet also, the knowledge for children to cooperate.[10] According to his theory, people pass through three main stages of moral development as they grow from early childhood to adulthood. These are pre-conventional morality, conventional morality, and post-conventional morality.[8] Each of these is subdivided into two levels.[8]
The first stage in the pre-conventional level is obedience and punishment. In this stage people, usually young children, avoid certain behaviors only because of the fear of punishment, not because they see them as wrong.[8] The second stage in the pre-conventional level is called individualism and exchange: in this stage people make moral decisions based on what best serves their needs.[8]
The third stage is part of the conventional morality level and is called interpersonal relationships. In this stage one tries to conform to what is considered moral by the society that they live in, attempting to be seen by peers as a good person.[8] The fourth stage is also in the conventional morality level and is called maintaining social order. This stage focuses on a view of society as a whole and following the laws and rules of that society.[8]
The fifth stage is a part of the post-conventional level and is called social contract and individual rights. In this stage people begin to consider differing ideas about morality in other people and feel that rules and laws should be agreed on by the members of a society.[8] The sixth and final stage of moral development, the second in the post-conventional level, is called universal principles. At this stage people begin to develop their ideas of universal moral principles and will consider them the right thing to do regardless of what the laws of a society are.[8]
James Rest[edit]
In 1983, James Rest developed the four component Model of Morality, which addresses the ways that moral motivation and behavior occurs.[11] The first of these is moral sensitivity, which is "the ability to see an ethical dilemma, including how our actions will affect others".[12] The second is moral judgment, which is "the ability to reason correctly about what 'ought' to be done in a specific situation".[12] The third is moral motivation, which is "a personal commitment to moral action, accepting responsibility for the outcome".[12] The fourth and final component of moral behavior is moral character, which is a "courageous persistence in spite of fatigue or temptations to take the easy way out".[12]
In social cognition[edit]
Based on empirical results from behavioral and neuroscientific studies, social and cognitive psychologists attempted to develop a more accurate descriptive (rather than normative) theory of moral reasoning. That is, the emphasis of research was on how real-world individuals made moral judgments, inferences, decisions, and actions, rather than what should be considered as moral.
Dual-process theory and social intuitionism[edit]
Main articles: Dual process theory (moral psychology) and Social intuitionism
Developmental theories of moral reasoning were critiqued as prioritizing on the maturation of cognitive aspect of moral reasoning.[13] From Kohlberg's perspective, one is considered as more advanced in moral reasoning as she is more efficient in using deductive reasoning and abstract moral principles to make moral judgments about particular instances.[13][14] For instance, an advanced reasoner may reason syllogistically with the Kantian principle of 'treat individuals as ends and never merely as means' and a situation where kidnappers are demanding a ransom for a hostage, to conclude that the kidnappers have violated a moral principle and should be condemned. In this process, reasoners are assumed to be rational and have conscious control over how they arrive at judgments and decisions.[13]
In contrast with such view, however, Joshua Greene and colleagues argued that laypeople's moral judgments are significantly influenced, if not shaped, by intuition and emotion as opposed to rational application of rules. In their fMRI studies in the early 2000s,[15][16] participants were shown three types of decision scenarios: one type included moral dilemmas that elicited emotional reaction (moral-personal condition), the second type included moral dilemmas that did not elicit emotional reaction (moral-impersonal condition), and the third type had no moral content (non-moral condition). Brain regions such as posterior cingulate gyrus and angular gyrus, whose activation is known to correlate with experience of emotion, showed activations in moral-personal condition but not in moral-impersonal condition. Meanwhile, regions known to correlate with working memory, including right middle frontal gyrus and bilateral parietal lobe, were less active in moral-personal condition than in moral-impersonal condition. Moreover, participants' neural activity in response to moral-impersonal scenarios was similar to their activity in response to non-moral decision scenarios.
Another study[14] used variants of trolley problem that differed in the 'personal/impersonal' dimension and surveyed people's permissibility judgment (Scenarios 1 and 2). Across scenarios, participants were presented with the option of sacrificing a person to save five people. However, depending on the scenario, the sacrifice involved pushing a person off a footbridge to block the trolley (footbridge dilemma condition; personal) or simply throwing a switch to redirect the trolley (trolley dilemma condition; impersonal). The proportions of participants who judged the sacrifice as permissible differed drastically: 11% (footbridge dilemma) vs. 89% (trolley dilemma). This difference was attributed to the emotional reaction evoked from having to apply personal force on the victim, rather than simply throwing a switch without physical contact with the victim. Focusing on participants who judged the sacrifice in trolley dilemma as permissible but the sacrifice in footbridge dilemma as impermissible, the majority of them failed to provide a plausible justification for their differing judgments.[14] Several philosophers have written critical responses on this matter to Joshua Greene and colleagues.[17][18][19][20]
Based on these results, social psychologists proposed the dual process theory of morality. They suggested that our emotional intuition and deliberate reasoning are not only qualitatively distinctive, but they also compete in making moral judgments and decisions. When making an emotionally-salient moral judgment, automatic, unconscious, and immediate response is produced by our intuition first. More careful, deliberate, and formal reasoning then follows to produce a response that is either consistent or inconsistent with the earlier response produced by intuition,[13][5][21] in parallel with more general form of dual process theory of thinking. But in contrast with the previous rational view on moral reasoning, the dominance of the emotional process over the rational process was proposed.[5][21] Haidt highlighted the aspect of morality not directly accessible by our conscious search in memory, weighing of evidence, or inference. He describes moral judgment as akin to aesthetic judgment, where an instant approval or disapproval of an event or object is produced upon perception.[5] Hence, once produced, the immediate intuitive response toward a situation or person cannot easily be overridden by the rational consideration that follows. The theory explained that in many cases, people resolve inconsistency between the intuitive and rational processes by using the latter for post-hoc justification of the former. Haidt, using the metaphor "the emotional dog and its rational tail",[5] applied such nature of our reasoning to the contexts ranging from person perception to politics.
A notable illustration of the influence of intuition involved feeling of disgust. According to Haidt's moral foundations theory, political liberals rely on two dimensions (harm/care and fairness/reciprocity) of evaluation to make moral judgments, but conservatives utilize three additional dimensions (ingroup/loyalty, authority/respect, and purity/sanctity).[21][22] Among these, studies have revealed the link between moral evaluations based on purity/sanctity dimension and reasoner's experience of disgust. That is, people with higher sensitivity to disgust were more likely to be conservative toward political issues such as gay marriage and abortion.[23] Moreover, when the researchers reminded participants of keeping the lab clean and washing their hands with antiseptics (thereby priming the purity/sanctity dimension), participants' attitudes were more conservative than in the control condition.[24] In turn, Helzer and Pizarro's findings have been rebutted by two failed attempts of replications.[25]
Other studies raised criticism toward Haidt's interpretation of his data.[26][27] Augusto Blasi also rebuts the theories of Jonathan Haidt on moral intuition and reasoning. He agrees with Haidt that moral intuition plays a significant role in the way humans operate. However, Blasi suggests that people use moral reasoning more than Haidt and other cognitive scientists claim. Blasi advocates moral reasoning and reflection as the foundation of moral functioning. Reasoning and reflection play a key role in the growth of an individual and the progress of societies.[28]
Alternatives to these dual-process/intuitionist models have been proposed, with several theorists proposing that moral judgment and moral reasoning involves domain general cognitive processes, e.g., mental models,[29] social learning [30][31][32] or categorization processes.[33]
Motivated reasoning[edit]
Main article: Motivated reasoning
A theorization of moral reasoning similar to dual-process theory was put forward with emphasis on our motivations to arrive at certain conclusions.[34] Ditto and colleagues[35] likened moral reasoners in everyday situations to lay attorneys than lay judges; people do not reason in the direction from assessment of individual evidence to moral conclusion (bottom-up), but from a preferred moral conclusion to assessment of evidence (top-down). The former resembles the thought process of a judge who is motivated to be accurate, unbiased, and impartial in her decisions; the latter resembles that of an attorney whose goal is to win a dispute using partial and selective arguments.[21][35]
Kunda proposed motivated reasoning as a general framework for understanding human reasoning.[34] She emphasized the broad influence of physiological arousal, affect, and preference (which constitute the essence of motivation and cherished beliefs) on our general cognitive processes including memory search and belief construction. Importantly, biases in memory search, hypothesis formation and evaluation result in confirmation bias, making it difficult for reasoners to critically assess their beliefs and conclusions. It is reasonable to state that individuals and groups will manipulate and confuse reasoning for belief depending on the lack of self control to allow for their confirmation bias to be the driving force of their reasoning. This tactic is used by media, government, extremist groups, cults, etc. Those with a hold on information may dull out certain variables that propagate their agenda and then leave out specific context to push an opinion into the form of something reasonable to control individual, groups, and entire populations. This allows the use of alternative specific context with fringe content to further veer from any form of dependability in their reasoning. Leaving a fictional narrative in the place of real evidence for a logical outlook to form a proper, honest, and logical assessment . [34]
Applied to moral domain, our strong motivation to favor people we like leads us to recollect beliefs and interpret facts in ways that favor them. In Alicke (1992, Study 1),[36] participants made responsibility judgments about an agent who drove over the speed limit and caused an accident. When the motive for speeding was described as moral (to hide a gift for his parents' anniversary), participants assigned less responsibility to the agent than when the motive was immoral (to hide a vial of cocaine). Even though the causal attribution of the accident may technically fall under the domain of objective, factual understanding of the event, it was nevertheless significantly affected by the perceived intention of the agent (which was presumed to have determined the participants' motivation to praise or blame him).
Another paper by Simon, Stenstrom, and Read (2015, Studies 3 and 4)[37] used a more comprehensive paradigm that measures various aspects of participants' interpretation of a moral event, including factual inferences, emotional attitude toward agents, and motivations toward the outcome of decision. Participants read about a case involving a purported academic misconduct and were asked to role-play as a judicial officer who must provide a verdict. A student named Debbie had been accused of cheating in an exam, but the overall situation of the incident was kept ambiguous to allow participants to reason in a desired direction. Then, the researchers attempted to manipulate participants' motivation to support either the university (conclude that she cheated) or Debbie (she did not cheat) in the case. In one condition, the scenario stressed that through previous incidents of cheating, the efforts of honest students have not been honored and the reputation of the university suffered (Study 4, Pro-University condition); in another condition, the scenario stated that Debbie's brother died from a tragic accident a few months ago, eliciting participants' motivation to support and sympathize with Debbie (Study 3, Pro-Debbie condition). Behavioral and computer simulation results showed an overall shift in reasoning--factual inference, emotional attitude, and moral decision--depending on the manipulated motivation. That is, when the motivation to favor the university/Debbie was elicited, participants' holistic understanding and interpretation of the incident shifted in the way that favored the university/Debbie. In these reasoning processes, situational ambiguity was shown to be critical for reasoners to arrive at their preferred conclusion.[34][37][38]
From a broader perspective, Holyoak and Powell interpreted motivated reasoning in the moral domain as a special pattern of reasoning predicted by coherence-based reasoning framework.[39] This general framework of cognition, initially theorized by the philosopher Paul Thagard, argues that many complex, higher-order cognitive functions are made possible by computing the coherence (or satisfying the constraints) between psychological representations such as concepts, beliefs, and emotions.[40] Coherence-based reasoning framework draws symmetrical links between consistent (things that co-occur) and inconsistent (things that do not co-occur) psychological representations and use them as constraints, thereby providing a natural way to represent conflicts between irreconcilable motivations, observations, behaviors, beliefs, and attitudes, as well as moral obligations.[37][39] Importantly, Thagard's framework was highly comprehensive in that it provided a computational basis for modeling reasoning processes using moral and non-moral facts and beliefs as well as variables related to both 'hot' and 'cold' cognitions.[39][40][41]
Causality and intentionality[edit]
Classical theories of social perception had been offered by psychologists including Fritz Heider (model of intentional action)[42] and Harold Kelley (attribution theory).[43] These theories highlighted how laypeople understand another person's action based on their causal knowledge of internal (intention and ability of actor) and external (environment) factors surrounding that action. That is, people assume a causal relationship between an actor's disposition or mental states (personality, intention, desire, belief, ability; internal cause), environment (external cause), and the resulting action (effect). In later studies, psychologists discovered that moral judgment toward an action or actor is critically linked with these causal understanding and knowledge about the mental state of the actor.
Bertram Malle and Joshua Knobe conducted survey studies to investigate laypeople's understanding and use (the folk concept) of the word 'intentionality' and its relation to action.[44] His data suggested that people think of intentionality of an action in terms of several psychological constituents: desire for outcome, belief about the expected outcome, intention to act (combination of desire and belief), skill to bring about the outcome, and awareness of action while performing that action. Consistent with this view as well as with our moral intuitions, studies found significant effects of the agent's intention, desire, and beliefs on various types of moral judgments, Using factorial designs to manipulate the content in the scenarios, Cushman showed that the agent's belief and desire regarding a harmful action significantly influenced judgments of wrongness, permissibility, punishment, and blame. However, whether the action actually brought about negative consequence or not only affected blame and punishment judgments, but not wrongness and permissibility judgments.[45][46] Another study also provided neuroscientific evidence for the interplay between theory of mind and moral judgment.[47]
Through another set of studies, Knobe showed a significant effect in the opposite direction: Intentionality judgments are significantly affected by the reasoner's moral evaluation of the actor and action.[48][49] In one of his scenarios, a CEO of a corporation hears about a new programme designed to increase profit. However, the program is also expected to benefit or harm the environment as a side effect, to which he responds by saying 'I don't care'. The side effect was judged as intentional by the majority of participants in the harm condition, but the response pattern was reversed in the benefit condition.
Many studies on moral reasoning have used fictitious scenarios involving anonymous strangers (e.g., trolley problem) so that external factors irrelevant to researcher's hypothesis can be ruled out. However, criticisms have been raised about the external validity of the experiments in which the reasoners (participants) and the agent (target of judgment) are not associated in any way.[50][51] As opposed to the previous emphasis on evaluation of acts, Pizarro and Tannenbaum stressed our inherent motivation to evaluate the moral characters of agents (e.g., whether an actor is good or bad), citing the Aristotelian virtue ethics. According to their view, learning the moral character of agents around us must have been a primary concern for primates and humans beginning from their early stages of evolution, because the ability to decide whom to cooperate with in a group was crucial to survival.[50][52] Furthermore, observed acts are no longer interpreted separately from the context, as reasoners are now viewed as simultaneously engaging in two tasks: evaluation (inference) of moral character of agent and evaluation of her moral act. The person-centered approach to moral judgment seems to be consistent with results from some of the previous studies that involved implicit character judgment. For instance, in Alicke's (1992)[36] study, participants may have immediately judged the moral character of the driver who sped home to hide cocaine as negative, and such inference led the participants to assess the causality surrounding the incident in a nuanced way (e.g., a person as immoral as him could have been speeding as well).[52]
In order to account for laypeople's understanding and use of causal relations between psychological variables, Sloman, Fernbach, and Ewing proposed a causal model of intentionality judgment based on Bayesian network.[53] Their model formally postulates that character of agent is a cause for the agent's desire for outcome and belief that action will result in consequence, desire and belief are causes for intention toward action, and the agent's action is caused by both that intention and the skill to produce consequence. Combining computational modeling with the ideas from theory of mind research, this model can provide predictions for inferences in bottom-up direction (from action to intentionality, desire, and character) as well as in top-down direction (from character, desire, and intentionality to action).
^ See for example the section "Reasoning by analogy" in.[6]
Gender difference[edit]
At one time psychologists believed that men and women have different moral values and reasoning. This was based on the idea that men and women often think differently and would react to moral dilemmas in different ways. Some researchers hypothesized that women would favor care reasoning, meaning that they would consider issues of need and sacrifice, while men would be more inclined to favor fairness and rights, which is known as justice reasoning.[54] However, some also knew that men and women simply face different moral dilemmas on a day-to-day basis and that might be the reason for the perceived difference in their moral reasoning.[54] With these two ideas in mind, researchers decided to do their experiments based on moral dilemmas that both men and women face regularly. To reduce situational differences and discern how both genders use reason in their moral judgments, they therefore ran the tests on parenting situations, since both genders can be involved in child rearing.[54] The research showed that women and men use the same form of moral reasoning as one another and the only difference is the moral dilemmas they find themselves in on a day-to-day basis.[54] When it came to moral decisions both men and women would be faced with, they often chose the same solution as being the moral choice. At least this research shows that a division in terms of morality does not actually exist, and that reasoning between genders is the same in moral decisions.
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^ Kleiman-Weiner, Max; Saxe, Rebecca; Tenenbaum, Joshua B. (October 2017). "Learning a commonsense moral theory". Cognition. 167: 107–123. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2017.03.005. hdl:1721.1/118457. PMID 28351662. S2CID 3184506.
^ McHugh, Cillian; McGann, Marek; Igou, Eric Raymond; Kinsella, Elaine Louise (2021). "Moral Judgment as Categorization (MJAC)". Perspectives on Psychological Science. 17 (1): 131–152. doi:10.1177/1745691621990636. hdl:10344/10451. PMC 8785282. PMID 34264152.
^ a b c d Kunda, Ziva (1990). "The case for motivated reasoning". Psychological Bulletin. 108 (3): 480–498. doi:10.1037/0033-2909.108.3.480. ISSN 0033-2909. PMID 2270237.
^ a b Ditto, P. H., Pizarro, D. A., & Tannenbaum, D. (2009). Motivated moral reasoning. In B. H. Ross (Series Ed.) & D. M. Bartels, C. W. Bauman, L. J. Skitka, & D. L. Medin (Eds.), Psychology of learning and motivation, Vol. 50: Moral judgment and decision making (pp. 307-338). San Diego, CA: Academic Press
^ a b Alicke, Mark D. (1992). "Culpable causation". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 63 (3): 368–378. doi:10.1037/0022-3514.63.3.368. ISSN 0022-3514.
^ a b c Simon, Dan; Stenstrom, Douglas M.; Read, Stephen J. (2015). "The coherence effect: Blending cold and hot cognitions". Journal of Personality and Social Psychology. 109 (3): 369–394. doi:10.1037/pspa0000029. ISSN 1939-1315. PMID 26167800. S2CID 10247813.
^ Holyoak, Keith J.; Simon, Dan (1999). "Bidirectional reasoning in decision making by constraint satisfaction". Journal of Experimental Psychology: General. 128 (1): 3–31. doi:10.1037/0096-3445.128.1.3. ISSN 1939-2222.
^ a b c Holyoak, Keith J.; Powell, Derek (2016). "Deontological coherence: A framework for commonsense moral reasoning". Psychological Bulletin. 142 (11): 1179–1203. doi:10.1037/bul0000075. ISSN 1939-1455. PMID 27709981. S2CID 22681077.
^ a b Thagard, Paul (1989). "Explanatory coherence". Behavioral and Brain Sciences. 12 (3): 435–467. doi:10.1017/s0140525x00057046. ISSN 0140-525X.
^ Thagard, Paul (2006). Hot thought: Mechanisms and applications of emotional cognition. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.
^ Heider, F. (1958). The psychology of interpersonal relations. New York: Wiley.
^ Kelley, Harold H. (1973). "The processes of causal attribution". American Psychologist. 28 (2): 107–128. doi:10.1037/h0034225. ISSN 0003-066X.
^ Malle, Bertram F.; Knobe, Joshua (1997). "The Folk Concept of Intentionality". Journal of Experimental Social Psychology. 33 (2): 101–121. doi:10.1006/jesp.1996.1314. ISSN 0022-1031. S2CID 14173135.
^ Cushman, Fiery (2008). "Crime and punishment: Distinguishing the roles of causal and intentional analyses in moral judgment". Cognition. 108 (2): 353–380. doi:10.1016/j.cognition.2008.03.006. ISSN 0010-0277. PMID 18439575. S2CID 2193343.
^ Malle, Bertram F.; Guglielmo, Steve; Monroe, Andrew E. (2014-04-03). "A Theory of Blame". Psychological Inquiry. 25 (2): 147–186. doi:10.1080/1047840x.2014.877340. hdl:2027.42/147150. ISSN 1047-840X. S2CID 10477084.
^ Young, L.; Cushman, F.; Hauser, M.; Saxe, R. (2007-05-07). "The neural basis of the interaction between theory of mind and moral judgment". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 104 (20): 8235–8240. Bibcode:2007PNAS..104.8235Y. doi:10.1073/pnas.0701408104. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 1895935. PMID 17485679.
^ Knobe, J. (2003). "Intentional action and side effects in ordinary language" (PDF). Analysis. 63 (3): 190–194. doi:10.1093/analys/63.3.190. ISSN 0003-2638.
^ Knobe, Joshua (2003). "Intentional action in folk psychology: An experimental investigation" (PDF). Philosophical Psychology. 16 (2): 309–324. doi:10.1080/09515080307771. ISSN 0951-5089. S2CID 12326690.
^ a b Pizarro, D.A. & Tannenbaum, D. (2011). Bringing character back: How the motivation to evaluate character influences judgments of moral blame. In M. Mikulincer & Shaver, P. (Eds) The Social psychology of morality: Exploring the causes of good and evil. APA Press.
^ Bloom, Paul (2011). "Family, community, trolley problems, and the crisis in moral psychology". The Yale Review. 99 (2): 26–43. doi:10.1111/j.1467-9736.2011.00701.x. ISSN 0044-0124.
^ a b Uhlmann, Eric Luis; Pizarro, David A.; Diermeier, Daniel (2015). "A Person-Centered Approach to Moral Judgment". Perspectives on Psychological Science. 10 (1): 72–81. doi:10.1177/1745691614556679. ISSN 1745-6916. PMID 25910382. S2CID 12624043.
^ SLOMAN, STEVEN A.; FERNBACH, PHILIP M.; EWING, SCOTT (2012-03-26). "A Causal Model of Intentionality Judgment". Mind & Language. 27 (2): 154–180. doi:10.1111/j.1468-0017.2012.01439.x. ISSN 0268-1064.
^ a b c d Clopton, Nancy A.; Sorell, Gwendolyn T. (March 1993). "Gender Differences in Moral Reasoning: Stable or Situational?". Psychology of Women Quarterly. 17 (1): 85–101. doi:10.1111/j.1471-6402.1993.tb00678.x. S2CID 144044301.
Haidt, J. (2001) The Emotional Dog and its Rational Tail: A Social Intuitionist Approach to Moral Judgement, Psychological Review, 108, pp. 814–34
Roberto Andorno, "Do our moral judgements need to be guided by principles?" Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare Ethics 2012, 21(4):457-465.
WikEd Moral Reasoning
Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy - Moral Reasoning
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Moral_reasoning&oldid=1136225077"
Moral psychology


As a kid growing up and watching Louth there was no greater sight in red and white than Stephen Melia.
His style of play, all action in the full back line, high catches and uncompromising approach to opposing forwards added to his hero status.
Like all good hero's He just never let you down.
I've heard at the time, that he didn't play underage football for the John Mitchells at all, that gave you/me belief that if you worked hard on your game with the honesty Stephen Melia had, you could achieve anything.
Even playing club football in Balbriggan for O'Dywers too, gave insight for me to the mystic of the ultimate competitor he was, playing alongside Dublin Goalkeeper John O'Leary at the time he wanted to test himself against the best.
Then, his possible career highlight came during the twilight of his playing career. Coming back to win a Joe Ward with the Joes while he was in his forties cemented his already legendary status in Louth GAA circles.
Sympathies to his Family and Friends.
If you have a stories you'd like to share post it in the comments.
Sorely missed is right. you are welcome, he was a inspiration of mine and my friends who went to all the those louth games when we were younger. Loved playing against him too.


Residents of Parc-Extension are trying to stop a development project they say is contributing to the gentrification of their neighbourhood. Two buildings in Park Ex earmarked for demolition and replacement by condo projects aimed at students won a reprieve at Borough Council Tuesday night. Protesters gathered outside of that borough council meeting, calling for the current plan to be scrapped. We speak with Sasha Dyck, one of the organizers behind the protest; and Mary Deros, the Montreal City Councillor who represents Parc-Extension.


Not last Saturday but the Saturday before I knew that I would be writing this post…and after the experience I had last night I decided that the time to write it is now.
Forever and always before I've donated any clothes to any charity I've washed them first so they are clean and smelling good. I do this always.
I figure that whoever gets them will appreciate getting something clean and fresh….especially if they are in a disaster or crisis situation. If I was in need I know that clean clothes would be appreciated. So I make sure I send off what I donate clean. Always.
But recently I started washing all the shoes I donate as well. Even if they are just going to the Salvation Army…they go there clean.
Recently I've seen first hand where donated shoes go.
And I was so glad that what I had to offer was clean.
Last night I went to a home where a family lives in poverty that is hard to imagine existing in our country let alone so close to my own home.
This family had nothing…not a bed, not a couch, not even a kitchen sink or a little hot plate to cook on. They had nothing. But the only thing they asked for was shoes.
It doesn't take long or a lot of effort.
Just do it, wash your shoes. I promise it will be appreciated.
The Art of Homemaking….on liking what you do.
that breaks my heart to hear about that family. and im embarassed to admit that i have never even thought about washing the shoes that i donate…shame on me!
I never thought of it either– although we always do clothes. Great post, and great reminder!
Such a good thing to point out!
Thank you for the story. Interesting to hear how little they had as I have heard on news shows that American "poor" actually have DVD players, a roof over their head, etc. How I would love to know of a family like that and give, give, give. I donate alot of our stuff and never thought about the shoes!!! Why? I wash everything else but some shoes, like leather, can't be washed. I will be sure to wash all the rest though–thank you!
How sad to hear about that family. I will remember to wash my shoes before donating them- except ones that can't be reasonably washed (like heels).
Thank you so much for sharing this story. And for reminding me of the little things we can do to make others lives better.


This full-fee paying degree, offered at The Hotel School Sydney and The Hotel School Melbourne, focuses on hotel operational and management practices across hospitality industries and the skills needed for employment in a competitive and changing global business environment. The Hotel School is a partnership between Southern Cross University and Mulpha Australia, whose property portfolio includes the InterContinental Sydney, Hayman Island, InterContinental Sanctuary Cove Resort, Salzburg Apartments, Marritz Alpine and Bimbadgen Estate.
A compulsory six-month professional hospitality internship is a key feature of the course enabling students to establish valuable industry experience, confidence and networks.
Teaching methods include lectures, tutorials, online discussion forums, work experience, field trips, guest speakers and industry engagement. The method of teaching may vary from unit to unit.
Professional positions in hospitality and service management in Australia and overseas; management positions in hotels and resorts, human resources, marketing, front office, food services, food and beverage, events and conferences and general management.
A compulsory six-month professional hospitality placement is a key feature of the course and counts as four core units of the degree. This may be completed in Australia or overseas. All students establish valuable industry experience, confidence and networks.
Students are responsible for securing their internship placement and are given extensive assistance in interview and application procedures, access to a database of potential employers and roles and ongoing support from the dedicated Work Integrated Learning team.
This is a full-fee paying course.
Students can exit with the Associate Degree of Business in Hotel Management if 16 units (192 credit points) have been completed, comprising 16 core units.
Students can exit with the Diploma of Hotel Management if 8 units (96 credit points) have been completed, comprising 8 core units.
Note 2: This unit available only for Sydney and Melbourne locations.


Crude oil prices climbed strongly on Wednesday after a higher than expected fall in US inventories according to the American Petroleum Institute (API).
The API figures showed that US crude stockpiles fell by three times more than expected - down 6.356 million barrels last week. Analysts had expected a drawdown of just 1.545 million barrels.
Much of the drop was due to refinery throughput as gasoline inventories rose by more than expected - up 869,000 barrels during the week. Analysts had expected a rise of 737,000 barrels.
Nymex West Texas Intermediate, the US benchmark crude contract, was up 1.51% to $57.59 a barrel. Brent crude, the global benchmark, rose 0.85% to $63.10 a barrel.
The API data will be followed later on Wednesday by official data from the Energy Information Administration (EIA) - widely seen as the more influential stock report.
Should the EIA data confirm the levels of crude drawdowns seen in the API numbers, then the current rally in oil prices is likely to be cemented and both WTI and Brent could close at their highest levels since mid-2015.


"We have an extensive network of suppliers, for the quality and reliability of which we (can) vouch/guarantee"
dürfte ja wohl nicht das Richtige sein.
... for whose quality we can vouch.
@Robert: That's bad English! No native speaker would say that.
It is very correct English; I think in this case it may be more idiomatic to put the preposition at the end.
BTW, It is not helpful or necessary (and is to my mind bad manners) merely to criticise another's contribution; instead, make a suggestion yourself, and back it up with some examples.
We (can) vouch for the quality and reliability of our extensive network of suppliers.
It may be rather formal, but it is native.
We have an extensive network of .... and can rely on their quality and experience.
So würde ich es übersetzen - von "Erfahrung" stand zwar im deutschen Text nichts, aber insgesamt klingt der Satz damit viel eleganter, wie ich finde.
1... for whose quality we can vouch.
1We have an extensive network of .... and can rely on their quality and experience.


text:
The 2016 Challenge for Charities fundraiser was a success!
The 2016 Challenge for Charities fundraiser ran from May 1st through July 10th, with the Half Marathon/5K/1-mile kids' fun run held on July 4th, as the culminating event with record-breaking participation of over 900 runners from 33 states. To date, donations have tallied over $325,000 for both individual nonprofits and the matching pool fund. The matching percentage will be announced at the awards ceremony on August 25th. This event would not be possible without numerous volunteer hours and financial donations from both individuals and companies that have come together to support our community.
"We are thrilled that the Challenge for Charities has become such an important element of Lander nonprofits' financial stability and health. Over the past six years, not counting this year's fundraising event, the Challenge for Charities has funneled over $1,100,000 straight into our local nonprofits. That's HUGE! It translates directly into more cool programming for our community," said Lander Community Foundation Vice-Chair Mike Lilygren.
Once again, Fremont Therapy Group has come through for Lander as a Platinum Level sponsor of the Challenge for Charities. Brent Kaufman and Scott Phister, the physical therapists who co-founded Fremont Therapy Group in 1996, have long been whole-hearted Lander supporters. As Brent puts it, "We wanted to give back to this community which has been so supportive of us and made our business a success," Scott agrees.
For a fourth year in a row, Fremont Toyota, has stepped up to support this event as a Platinum Sponsor. This major contribution makes a significant impact on the amount that the Foundation can match the individual nonprofits' donations.
"Lander is our lifeline and we love to support our community, just as it supports us. It's important to be part of something good. Fremont Toyota has been a Platinum Sponsor since 2013. That equates to $40,000 that has gone back into our community through this event. We feel good about that, " said John New, General Manager.
For the current list of Challengers and Sponsors, please visit our website.
INVITATION TO ALL: The Challenge for Charities Award Ceremony will be held prior to the LanderLIVE concert, on August 25th from 5:30-6:30pm. This year's match percentage will be announced and thirty-five participating nonprofits will be awarded checks from funds raised through the Lander Community Foundation's fundraising event. Come support and celebrate some of Lander's amazing nonprofits be recognized for their amazing work!
#sponsored #county10 #news #lcf

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


text:
HomeUncategorizedArchitecture, design
Details, divinity and architectural terra cotta
phil berger 4/12/06
Yes, Mies van der Rohe's proclamation that "God is in the details" has become a tired cliche. Which doesn't mean it's not so. It's just suffered from overuse and loose interpretation.
When Mies made his pronouncement, he was talking about the importance of stuff like handrails, window reveals and door pulls, mostly because everything else in his design lexicon was so abjectly minimal that the smallest details had to be perfect.
The cliche maker's notion of details and godliness (not to be confused with a word coined by a popular basic cable fake news show) more probably focuses on stuff like the applied terra cotta ornamentation you see on so many early 20th century Chicago buildings, which is so purely and deliriously decorative it probably horrified the meister of minimalism when he fled Germany in the late '30s and saw it here firsthand.
A hundred years ago, most of America's leading terra cotta manufacturers were located in Chicago (Terra Cotta Place, off the 2500 block of Clybourn, was where the largest of them — the Northwestern Terra Cotta Company — had its main plant) and the material was hugely popular in building until the Great Depression.
Like so many treasures of Chicago's built environment, terra cotta is ubiquitous, but we barely see it. It is most obvious on downtown office towers like the Wrigley, Reliance (now the Hotel Burnham) and the Carbide and Carbon (now the Hard Rock Hotel) buildings. But it's also on humble commercial structures in every neighborhood of the city.
You can find these particular details on an unprepossessing little storefront building that is an amazing tour de force in tile. Can you tell us where it is?
AUTHOR: phil berger
Renting above Chicago bars: unit open at The Vu
The daily Joeff


I'll do my best to attend; it's 18.00 local time Sweden and my wife works late so I have to take care of the kids. On top of that my son broke my wifi router recently and having a cord across the floor to the laptop is not a good idea with kids around... I have a IM client on my cell phone, I'll try to be online on that one.
Göran is in northern Norway on some remote island so I'm not sure about his internet connection, but I'll tell him about the meeting and hope he can get there in case my options runs out for getting online.
>forget please invite me. Thanks.
>Subject: [SPAM][games_access] The Wii and Next SIG Meeting?
>spinning so I haven't yet looked that up.
>people...you'll probably be getting a few emails from me shortly!!
>all going to work. We've got FIVE sessions...woooooooo!!!!
>>> I bought a Wii with my 23 year-old daughter for Christmas and I love it!


text:
Q: Find the infimum and supremum of $\{x\in Q \mid x² < 9\}$ I have to find (and prove) the infimum and supremum of the following set:
$M_1:=\{x\in\mathbb{Q} \mid x^2 < 9\}$
On first glance, I would say:
$\inf M_1=-3 $
$\sup M_1=3$
Now I have to prove that these really are the infimum and supremum of the set, and that's the point where I'm having problems. According to the definition of $\inf$ and $\sup$, this means, that $-3$ is the biggest lower bound and 3 is the lowest upper bound:
$\forall x\in\mathbb(M_1): -3 \leq x \leq 3$
We can see, that -3 and 3 are not elements of M1, which means:
$\forall x\in\mathbb(M_1):-3<x<3$
But how can I show that -3 and 3 are the $\textbf{biggest / smallest}$ bound? I mean, for example, what if there is a number bigger than -3 that acts like a lower bound to the set? Obviously there isn't a bigger lower bound, but how can I mathematically show it? Do you guys have any advice? Thanks in advance, and sorry for my English :D

A: One must resort to the definitions when proving whether something is the supremum or infinimum of a set.
1. Show that 3 is an upper bound of the set.
2 show that 3 is the smallest upper bound. In other words suppose there existed some a such that a is an upper bound but a < 3. By density of rationals we can choose a q in Q such that a < q < 3. Then q is in your set, condtradicting the fact that a is an upper bound.
Alternatively, we can do the epsilon definition of supremum as suggested by @kingW3.

A: Let $I= \{ x\in\mathbb{Q} : x^2 <9\}.$ $x^2<9\Rightarrow -3 < x < 3.$ Assume that $3-p,-3+p\in\mathbb{Q}$ are $\sup I$ and $\inf I$ respectively, where $p>0.$ By definition, the greatest lower bound $l$ of $I$ is the value satisfying $\forall \epsilon >0,\exists x\in I\;(x<l+\epsilon).$ Similarly, the least upper bound $u$ of $I$ is the value satisfying $\forall \epsilon >0,\exists y\in I\; (u-\epsilon<y).$ By the density of the rationals, we may choose a sequence of rationals $q_{n_x}\in I$ such that $-3<q_{n_x}<-3+p\;\forall x$ and a sequence of rationals $q_{n_y}\in I$ such that for all $y,3-p<q_{n_y}<3.$ This is a contradiction, as by assumption, $-3+p$ and $3-p$ are $\inf I$ and $\sup I$ respectively. Since $p$ cannot be less than $0$ (otherwise $-3+p$ and $3-p$ would both not be in $I$), we thus have that $p=0$ and so $\inf I = -3$ and $\sup I = 3.$
Notice that we have directly satisfied the $\epsilon$ definitions of infimum and supremum.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


Well, we've finished our 9 days in Morocco. Overall, it was a great experience. For the first time, we left the developed world and visited the developing world. In many ways, visiting Morocco is like visiting Mexico or Vietnam - for better and for worse.
First of all, I'd like to say that the Moroccan people we met were friendly and generous to us. Other than being a little uncomfortable at times due to unfamiliar circumstances, I never felt that our personal security was at risk. Even last night, as we walked through the Fes medina after dinner, I always felt there were people around who would help if there was any problem. I don't think it was any more dangerous than walking at night in any big North American city.
In terms of Marrakech, I'm glad we went, but I don't have any interest in ever going back. It's overly touristy and the vendors are very pushy. That's not fun for anyone, but especially not for an avowed anti-shopper like me! The other things we saw there can be found in any Moroccan city.
As I've written previously, Essaouira was wonderful. Being on the ocean was a great advantage, but we also liked the motorcycle-free, small-city feel. There's also lots to see in the region surrounding the city if you have time to explore. I'd happily return, rent a condo and car, and stay a few weeks.
Fes is a big city like Marrakech, but the central medina was far more exotic than anything Marrakech could offer. As we walked through the souks (especially with our guide), I felt like we had been transported back in time. There were hundreds of craftsmen working in tiny shops. We learned that retail merchants from all over Morocco buy things wholesale to sell back in their hometowns. Most of the vendors ignored us, and went about their business. There are a few touristy streets, but they are the minority. I think that's partly because you have to be a pretty brave tourist to even get to the heart of the Fes medina. I'll bet many tourists get overwhelmed and intimidated, and retreat to the relative familiarity of Fes' 19th century nouveau ville, never really seeing what's there in the belly of the beast.
Beyond these three places, I wish we had been able to visit Berber villages in the Atlas mountains and the Sahara sand dunes in the interior. Both sound authentic and amazing. As such, I'm looking forward to hearing detailed accounts from Jenn and Rodney from their visit to those two areas.
In conclusion, I would say that Morocco is a worthwhile destination that deserves more than a week or ten days. I could spend several weeks exploring all it has to offer. I'm not saying it's easy, but it is worthwhile. For example, George and Molly got to see for the first time how most people on this planet live - not in comfortable wealth, but not in extreme poverty either. There's lots of noise, and garbage, and dust, and building, and activity. Switzerland it's not!


A '56 Triumph pre-unit in a '52 rigid frame. Fully redone 650 engine and gearbox. Shortened forks sporting NOS MCM covers, NOS MCM pipes, NOS non-ribbed Wassel rear fender, home-made sissy-bar, Schwinn bicycle-saddle and vintage GME chopper tank.
New set of British-made wheels, Barnes front-engine dragster spoolhub, chromed QD rear-hub. This bike is close to final completion, some plumbing needs te be done before first start-up. After that it's dissasamble the whole thing and off to the paint-booth ! Hope to see it on the road this summeeeeeeeeeeer !
Winter update: it's been painted by Royal Jack at Royal Kustom Works! The seat was upholstered by Miller Kustom Upholstery. A lot of people speculated about the color combo that was going to be used. Well, it's gold! Pure class! By the way, it has also gotten a new name: Pain Killer.


YTD Video Downloader is more than a Youtube downloader. It allows you to download HD and HQ videos, from dozens of sites and convert them to other video formats. The program is easy to use. Just specify the URL, similar to a Youtube downloader, for the video you want to download and click the Download button. From there, YTD Video Downloader will download the video from the URL you specified. The program also allows you to convert downloaded videos for iPad, iPod, iPhone, PSP, Cell Phone, Windows Media, and XVid, or play video that you have previously downloaded or convertedThe YTD Video Downloader interface includes a tabbed format for easy downloading, converting, and playing, and a new Activity tab allows you to keep track of multiple downloads and conversions in real time. The program has the ability to download full playlists as opposed to just one video.


text:
using System;
using System.Collections.Generic;
using System.Reactive.Linq;
using System.Reactive.Threading.Tasks;
using MS.Core;

namespace System.IO.IsolatedStorage
{
    public static class __IsolatedStorageSecurityOptions
    {
    }
}

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


Here you can talk about our SWRC WarPack!
Poll: PROMOD Sniper damage - vote here!
Official PROMOD texture - Add it to your PROMOD map!
MOD LANGUAGES VOICEPAK HELP ?
What would you like to see in the next Promod Version?
[PROMOD] How to play online ?


text:
Alan Masarek
David Pearson
Randy Rutherford
Omar Javaid
Vinod Lala
Rishi Dave
Sanjay Macwan
Sue Quackenbush
Sagi Dudai
David Levi
Jeffrey Citron
Naveen Chopra
Stephen Fisher
Carolyn Katz
Gary Steele
Hamid Akhavan
Michael McConnell
Committees/Charters
Comp Committee
Nominating/Governance
Finance Code
Hear Our Customers
Historical Share Price
Alan Masarek joined Vonage (NYSE:VG) as the Chief Executive Officer and a member of the Board of Directors in November 2014. Since then, Mr. Masarek has ushered in an era of transformation for Vonage, driving the company's rapid growth and evolution from a residential home phone provider into a global business cloud communications leader. Through a series of strategic acquisitions, coupled with fast, organic growth and internal technology development, Mr. Masarek has created a culture of agility, technology innovation and customer centricity.
An innovator with deep experience in mobile, SMB and Enterprise sectors, Mr. Masarek came to Vonage from Google, Inc., where he was Director, Chrome & Apps from June 2012 until October 2014, following the acquisition of his prior company, Quickoffice, Inc.
Mr. Masarek was the Co-founder of Quickoffice, Inc., one of the world's most widely recognized mobile brands, and served as its Chief Executive Officer from July 2007 until June 2012. Under his leadership, Quickoffice became the world's most widely embedded mobile productivity software, with a top-grossing iPad app and a top 10 grossing app in the Google Play Store, engaging more than 26 million registered users at the time of Google's purchase.
Mr. Masarek earned his M.B.A., with Distinction, from Harvard Business School and his B.B.A., Magna Cum Laude, from the University of Georgia.


text:
Das Lebanon Reservoir ist ein kleiner Stausee im Schylkill County in Pennsylvania. Der See wird durch den Christian E. Siegrist Dam gestaut und dient der Wasserversorgung der Stadt Lebanon.

Der Stausee

Der Stausee befindet sich zwischen zwei Bergrücken des Appalachen-Gebirges, dem Sharp Mountain und dem Second Mountain. Bei Normalstau hat der See eine Fläche von knapp 43 ha und beinhaltet 4,5 Mio.m³ Wasser. Er wird von zwei Bächen gespeist – der Evening Branch mündet im Südwesten und der Fishing Creek im Nordosten. Den natürlichen Abfluss des Lebanon Reservoir bildet der Mill Creek.

Die Staumauer

1994 wurde der Christian E. Siegrist Dam fertiggestellt. Die Beton-Staumauer ist 38 Meter hoch und hat eine Kronenlänge von etwa 200 m. Sie ersetzte einen in den 1940er-Jahren erbauten Erdschüttdamm, den etwa 21 m hohen High Bridge Dam (der Name stammte von einer ehemaligen Eisenbahnbrücke an dieser Stelle). Die neue Staumauer steht gegenüber dem alten Damm etwas weiter flussabwärts. Durch sie hat sich das Speichervolumen des Lebanon Reservoirs wesentlich erhöht.

Weblinks

Einzelnachweise

Stausee in Pennsylvania
Stausee in Nordamerika
SLebanon Reservoir
Bauwerk im Schuylkill County

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


This page shows new updated information on TiL website and recommended page. We will provide you many kind of useful information about Japan here.
This page introduces details about TiL website, administrator and web assistant.
This page introduces international marchandise and foods that can be found in Japan. We also recommend not to be missed spot for people who enjoy international atmosphere.
This page is a community FORUM site with the user's registration system. Many international people are gathering on this page and taking conversation each other. If you want to write comment on this page, you need registration. You can create your own account and you can message to another users with using PM(Private Message) function too. We are all pleased to waiting for your participation.
We are lecturing Spanish on this page. Mainly we are sending "TiL Spanish lecture" using by mail magazine. Many readers registered for this mail magazine and now it's exceeded more than 1000 persons. Spanish is also very popular language of the world. It is famous in the third. Why not learn the Spanish and spread your world more!
This page provides desktop wallpaper for your PC which I took these pictures many countries. If you want to use these pictures for other reason, please contact us from this TiL mail form page.
This page introduces other international website in Japan and also shows recommended website.


The lovely Rafa from Nails Ink sent me a box full of Brazilian goodies. Of course the first thing that came to mind was layering! I really like the Marimoon nail polishes, because they are easy to apply and they don't need to be layered over black like the Ozotic multi-chromes. The Hits Phenomena glitters are also better than the Ozotic Elytra, because they are more packed.
I love that you combined the multichrome polish with the multichrome glitter! I will have to recreate this look!!


Double tap to wish a happy 26th birthday to @edubrayeduar!
From our crazy family to yours #HappyThanksgiving!
Its a hoodie-under-jersey type of night in New York.
Cheers to an even better year in 2019.
... 90. 😉 Send your pic for a shoutout Credit: Google 😲OFFICIAL: #Phillies and outfielder Andrew McCutchen have agreed to terms on a three-year contract.
Dave Cash Philadelphia Phillies Autographed 8x10 Photo Inscribed ""3 Time All-Star"
Activo con el @cesita07 24/7 💪💪💪 . Follow us If you love Foo Fighters @philadelphiaphilliesfanclub .
When your friend asks you to camp out overnight for Black Friday sales . Follow us If you love Foo Fighters @philadelphiaphilliesfanclub .


Delbert Trew shares a few stories about string balls.
Farmer Francis A. Johnson showed off his ball of twine in this photo dating to the late 1950s. The ball measured 40 feet around and weighed 8.7 tons.
If you are old enough to remember a twine ball or string ball, usually kept on a pantry shelf, you are probably moving around a bit slow. A recent Alanreed Coffee Shop conversation brought out several stories about string balls.
In the old days before sticky tape, brown paper, paper, and plastic sacks, most purchases at the general store were wrapped in a sheet of white paper and tied in a cross with white string from the store's counter.
Perishable food was wrapped in butcher's waxed paper, then in the white paper and tied with string. That kept the food clean, fresh and secure for the trip home, as the purchaser was usually riding in a wagon, buggy or maybe a Model T.
Both my mother and grandmother kept a large ball of twine and a neat stack of white paper on the pantry shelf ready for instant recycling. Our family motto was, "use it up, fix it up and wear it out." This certainly applied to string and paper.
Each purchase was untied, the string wrapped around the string ball, the paper smoothed and stacked. A square of cardboard was placed on top followed by something heavy to keep the paper flat and unwrinkled.
One "coffee shop slurper," an old cowboy who'd spent his entire life on area ranches, said one of his former bosses once lost a valuable cow that died from a huge ball of twine collected in her belly. Seems she kept eating the cake sack strings, removed from sacks of cow feed, apparently because they tasted like feed. The rancher insisted the cowboys pick up every string and roll it on a string ball in the cake house. When he finally quit that job, the cowboy said, the ball was the size of a washtub.
Another man said his family's first baseballs were made from balls of string wrapped in canvas and sewed by his mother.
One of our early-day barbed wire collectors started a ball of hay baler twine. Seems he leased out his grass and suddenly found abandoned bale twine everywhere. He eventually sold the ball to Ripley's Believe It or Not and a crane had to be brought in to remove the ball from his farm, load it on a special truck and deliver it to the museum. The ball was over 12 feet tall.
Many an area settler and ranch cowboy rode saddle cinches woven from balls of twine or small mohair cordage. Along with that, many a poor man rode a saddle held on the horse with a gunny sack cinch.


La Fiambrera is an art gallery focused on illustration and graphic design (lowbrow, urban art, pop-art, street-art). Besides that, La Fiambrera is also a bookshop specialized in illustration, design and pop culture.
Everything in the same space with an amazing gift shop and a small café with homemade cakes.
If you are looking for very creative decorative art objects, original gifts or really cool artwork, while entertaining yourself with a coffee and some great art exhibitions, this is the perfect place!
This multidisciplinary space also hosts cultural events, like music concerts, book-signings, pop-up markets, and even guided visits. If you are interested check their Facebook page where they announce all their events.
Located at "Calle del Pez" the core of the cool and hipster "Malasaña" district, La Fiambrera is right next-door to "Zombie bar, "one of the trendiest diners in Malasaña frequented by musicians, designers, DJs, photographers, models and artists, famous for the amazing burgers.


Bluebird LN SE is a $675,000 property on a 134.76 acre lot located in Prineville, OR.
I am interested in Bluebird LN SE , Prineville, OR 97754.
The content relating to real estate for sale on this web site comes in part from the IDX program of the RMLS™ of Portland, Oregon. Real estate listings held by brokerage firms other than eXp Realty are marked with the RMLS™ logo, and detailed information about these properties includes the names of the listing brokers. Listing content is copyright © 2019 RMLS™, Portland, Oregon. This content last updated on 04/23/2019 at 08:08pm MDT. Some properties which appear for sale on this web site may subsequently have sold or may no longer be available. All information provided is deemed reliable but is not guaranteed and should be independently verified.


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Webinar: Rebuild VA Grant Progam – How to Apply
HomeWebinar: Rebuild VA Grant Progam – How...
04aug9:00 am10:00 amWebinar: Rebuild VA Grant Progam - How to ApplyMorning SessionRegion:All Virginia Regions,Northern Virginia
To register, click here. The Rebuild VA Grant Fund will aid businesses whose normal operations were disrupted due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The statewide
The Rebuild VA Grant Fund will aid businesses whose normal operations were disrupted due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The statewide program is capitalized with $70 million dollars, which will allow for assistance for approximately 7,000 applicants.
The Rebuild VA Grant Fund is a program to help small businesses and non-profits whose normal operations were disrupted by COVID-19, including restaurants, brick and mortar retail, exercise and fitness facilities, personal care and personal grooming services, entertainment and public amusement establishments, and campgrounds.
Businesses and non-profits that are approved for a Rebuild VA grant may receive up to 3 times their average monthly eligible expenses up to a maximum of $10,000.
This session will go over the eligibility requirements and documentation needed to apply when the application opens on August 10th.
(Tuesday) 9:00 am - 10:00 am
RICHMOND—The Virginia Employment Commission (VEC) announced that the number of continued claims filed during the December 19 filing week fell by 541 claims from the previous filing week, according to figures released today.For the filing week ending December 19, the figure for seasonally unadjusted initial claims in Virginia was 14,640. The latest claims figure was […]


First item $9.95 each additional item $4.50.
Air Time Water Seesaw, Pool Rocking Toy Its rocking and rollicking fun all the way with this Water Seesaw Pool Toy. What better way to get your kids to burn off their excess energy with this fun pool rocking toy?
When they are driving you nuts indoors, send them out to the pool and this water seesaw will wear them out. Our pool rocking toy is part of our complete range of fun summer pool toys. Get more fun out of your pool this summer.
Designed for 2 children playing.
Can also be used as a float or lounge.


Archives are no longer the exclusive domain for historians. More than ever, archives and special collections increasingly wield power over the shape and direction of historical scholarship, collective memory, and national identity. The notions of archives, history, memory, identity and power are interlinked, with archives taking a prominent and controlling role that directs how we remember and how we, and others, see ourselves.
On the occasion of The American University in Cairo's 100th anniversary, the Academy of Liberal Arts, Department of Rhetoric and Composition and the Rare Books and Special Collections Library (RBSCL) solicits paper proposals from librarians, archivists, curators, faculty, collectors, writers, independent scholars, and graduate students for its conference – From Archives to Arch-Lives. We also encourage proposals for slideshows, video presentations, panels, and roundtables organized around common themes. Proposals on digital humanities and other forms of digital scholarship and data-driven projects are also welcome.
Associate Dean for Information Studies, Graduate School of Education & Information Studies, University of California, Los Angeles.
If you have any questions about the conference, email archlives@aucegypt.edu.


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A Drain on Our Dignity
As a photojournalist, Feni spends a lot of time photographing service delivery strikes and protest in the townships. Often the images that make it into the newspapers are only of the looting and burnings. Renting a backyard room in an informal settlement, Feni was troubled by this kind of portrayal of the lack of service delivery and the life of the marginalised.
As he says, "I live at the back of an RDP house in Mfuleni on the Cape Flats. I experience issues like poor sanitation, access to clean water and the flooding first hand". Photographing the lack of sanitation was not pleasant for him, but he did not want a photographer from outside the community telling their stories while he watched on. "That too would be a Drain on Our Dignity and that's what inspired this project".
Drain on Our Dignity echoes the ground-breaking images produced by Ernest Cole in the early 1960s, showing black life under apartheid. It is a sensitive and honest look at what lack of services is, what it does to a community and what it does to a people.
Without the screaming, fighting or burning – these captivating images compel the reader to look at what is happening in the Cape Town townships.
Masixole Feni is a freelance photojournalist. He has worked for various news media such as Paris Courier, Big Issue magazine and Independent Newspapers in Cape Town. He shoots projects of relevant social issues in the townships and has over time built an impressive body of work. Feni started his career as a photographer in his early teens when he joined Jenny Altschuler's Drumming Photography Workshop at the Iziko SA Museum in 1999. Between 2011–2012 he was formally accepted on the South African Centre for Photography's mentorship programme. He soon began working for newspapers and NGOs, winning a number of awards along the way.
About the Ernest Cole Award
The Ernest Cole Photographic Award
The Ernest Cole Photographic Award was initiated under the auspices of the University of Cape Town Libraries, and offers a unique opportunity for photographers to complete an existing project. The award, named after documentary photographer Ernest Cole, has been made possible by the generous support of the Peter Brown, Gavin Relly Educational and Kirsh Family Trust, ORMS, Kier Schuringa, and the John Liebenberg Hip Op Fund.
Ernest Cole was born in South Africa in 1940 and received his first camera as a gift from a clergyman. Before leaving South Africa in mid-1960s he worked as a photojournalist for Drum magazine, sharing a darkroom and friendship with the photographer Struan Roberston. On his own initiative, Cole undertook a comprehensive photographic essay in which he showed what it meant to be black under apartheid. Out of this came the book The House of Bondage, which was published in New York in 1967 and immediately banned in South Africa. He never returned to South Africa and died in exile in New York in 1990.
Cole was a courageous documentarian who at times risked his life to share his imagery with the world. "He wasn't just brave. He wasn't just enterprising. He was a supremely fine photographer," Said David Goldblatt, the renowned South African photographer.
The Ernest Cole Photography Award has been established to stimulate in-depth photography in South Africa, with an emphasis on creative responses to South African society, human rights and justice. The award is open to anyone whose work looks at South African society, with preference being given to people living within the country. The purpose of the award is to support the realisation of a significant body of work with which the photographer has been engaged.
The Ernest Cole Award is managed by UCT Libraries. For more information, please see www.ernestcoleaward.uct.ac.za
Previous winners:
978-1-4314-2164-0 A City Refracted by Graeme Williams (2015)
978-1-4314-0861-0 Legacy of the Mine by Ilan Godfrey (2013)
978-1-4314-0613-5 Life Under Democracy by Dale Yudelman (2012)
GENRE Photography
EXTENT 96pp
PRICE R220
RIGHTS World rights
RELEASE August 2017
Site content © Copyright 2020 Jacana Media All Rights Reserved. Terms and conditions.
10 Orange Street, Sunnyside, Auckland Park, 2092, JHB, South Africa Tel: + 27 011 628 3200 Fax: + 27 011 482 7280 Email


The hidden gem of the Five Cities, this little burg is part of what locals view as a hotly-contested debate on which towns actually comprise the official "Five" cities that make up the colloquial reference "Five Cities". Of course the incorporated cities of Pismo Beach, Arroyo Grande and Grover Beach are the foundation but which two cities make the Five? Some say Oceano, and Shell Beach. Some say Shell Beach is a part of Pismo's zip code. Some say Avila Beach and some even try to go historical with their definition and bring in the little town of Halcyon as one of the original founding cities. Nonetheless, on the scale of soon-to-be cities I believe we will all see Oceano incorporate and become it's own full-fledged city in the near (decade) future.
That being said it has a lot to offer for it's tiny presence at the South end of the Five Cities. Restaurants, a historic train depot and museum, the Vegetable Exchange where a great majority of our locally grown produces takes off for parts all over the country and the world. The little vaudeville theater the Melodrama and of course, the most well-known feature.
Oceano Dunes Stage Vehicular Recreation Area – better known as the "Sand Highway" is host to thousands of visitors each year interested in off-roading through the dunes with all manner of off-road vehicle. Sand-rails, ATVs, dune-buggies, jeeps, Humvees and all vehicles large and small make their way to the bottom of Pier Avenue for a day pass and are able to drive, bounce and fly over the dunes and the sand thoroughfare paralleling the water. You can even stay the night – with a state campground that boasts designated sections of beach and rangers to monitor them. Booked far in advance these coveted spots to park your rolling home are popular throughout the summer and even at Thanksgiving and Christmas/New Year's.
And if you are more inclined to a quieter commune with nature a beautiful opportunity exists in the natural hiking, fishing and visitors center at Oso Flaco lake. South of Oceano and North of Guadalupe lies one of the most scenic natural areas on the Central Coast – Oso Flaco Lake. Three miles north of Guadalupe this hidden State Park allows access sunrise to sunset throughout the year. There is a scenic beginner/intermediate hike through the lake's cattails and to the beach. Avian enthusiasts will thoroughly enjoy watching all manner of specimens.
Eat, play, ride, hike and enjoy the sleepy Oceano dunes and the surrounding community!
Our website features the best Oceano real estate search for homes, condos, land and properties available. It is the only site you will ever need! It is easy-to-use and updated by Pismo Beach Homes' database every 15 minutes.
What's happening in your neighborhood? You can create a custom market report to see what's active, under contract, and sold in your neighborhood!


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Deanna is a senior User Interface Designer. She has experience in designing eCommerce platforms, loyalty marketing programs, and mobile apps. She is a graduate from University of South Carolina and has a Bachelor's of Art in Art Studio, with a concentration in graphic design. She's passionate about continuing her education, and is currently learning Swift and Ruby on Rails.


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The Columbian
The Columbian Homepage
Chris Russell Swindell
Layne's Battle Ground Funeral Home
16 NE Clark Ave.
Battle Ground, WA
December 29, 1941 ~ December 10, 2015
"Chris always had a "can-do" attitude, greeted all
individuals he met with a smile, and left an impression on everyone with his unforgettable laugh."
Chris Russell Swindell, age 73, died on Thursday, December 10, 2015, at his home in Ridgefield, WA, surrounded by his immediate family members. He was born on December 29, 1941 in Vancouver, WA and raised by his mother, Mildred Pearl (Wilcox/Swindell) Dungan and Raymond ("Red") Albert Swindell, relocating up and down the Columbia River basin many times as his adoptive father, Red Swindell, worked in the dam construction industry during the 1940's and early 1950's. After Red passed away, Mildred settled in Vancouver, WA. Chris attended Ridgefield High School and in 1959, met the love of his life, Mary ("Diane") Krebser (who he later married in 1962), settled in Ridgefield, where he operated his own cabinet making and general contracting business for over 40 years, raised his own family, and became entrenched in service to his community.
Chris served as Ridgefield Little League's President for several years, coached many Little League baseball teams, was a long-time District 12 volunteer firefighter, and served as a member of the Ridgefield School Board for 21 years.
He worked tirelessly throughout his lifetime
to improve the community in which he lived,
particularly the Ridgefield School District.
Chris is survived by his wife of 53 years, Diane; brother, Al (wife Iris) Swindell of Woodland, WA; two sisters, Ardy (husband Roger) Woolley of Snohomish, WA and Cheryl ("Daisy") Dungan of Darrington, WA; three sons, Edward Swindell of Vancouver, WA, Scott (wife Lisa) Swindell of Brush Prairie, WA and Matthew (wife Leslie) Swindell of Ridgefield, WA; ten grandchildren: (from Scott) Stephanie, Megan and Emily; (from Matthew) Ashley, Andrew, Asher and Allison; (from Edward) Tyler, Lily and Violet; and three great-grandchildren; (from Ashley) Jaxson, Raiden and Jayda.
With the holidays approaching, a graveside, family members only, ceremony was held last Saturday, at the St. Mary of Guadalupe Parish in Ridgefield, WA. After the holiday season, the family will hold a Celebration of Life event at Ridgefield High School on Saturday, January 9, 2016 at 2:00 p.m. (food and drink will be served).
The family asks that, in lieu of flowers, if anyone would like to commemorate Chris's life, you please make donations to the Ridgefield Public Schools Foundation, something for the kids, just the way Chris would have wanted it.
Please sign his guest book at: www.columbian.com/obits.
Published by The Columbian on Jan. 3, 2016.
How do you know Chris Russell Swindell? (Optional)
God Bless Chris, Diane, and your family. Chris built the cabinets for our first house. Wonderful man to work with and always smiled and made me feel welcome whenever I saw him. Thank you for all you did for our Ridgefield community!
Angela McKee
Thinking of Chris Swindell makes me smile. I always respected his passion for supporting the needs and interests of Ridgefield students, including his own three sons. I am also beholding to his support of my long career in education. He was among Ridgefield S.D. Board of Directors who approved my hire in the district "back in the day." For this, I will always be grateful to the man.
Maggie (Habecker) Bates
Have a safe journey my friend and I will visit with you on the other side. Your good deeds will certainly be missed in Ridgefield and so will your great smile. Both were of great value to all that knew you.
Sharry Frasier
cheri Allison
Chris was by far the most influential man in my life. I'm glad I had an opportunity to sincerely thank him before he passed, for the skills he effortlessly passed onto to me. This man always had my back, even in my darkest times. I will always be grateful for his generosity. Gunna miss you "Boss Man"... Thank you for allowing me to be family.
Todd Eklund
Chris was a great man. I did a lot of business with Chris. Standard Building material.


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HERE FOR LIFE: a new feature film from Filmmaker Andrea Luka Zimmerman and theatre director Adrian Jackson
Film still: Here for Life 2019
Filmmaker Andrea Luka Zimmerman and theatre director Adrian Jackson have joined forces to make a new feature film with a group of ten Londoners and a dog. Commissioned and produced by Artangel, preview screenings of Here for Life will take place from 11 – 20 June 2019 in an open-air cinema in Nomadic Community Gardens, the Shoreditch community space which forms the backdrop to the film. Produced and commissioned by Artangel with the support of the National Lottery through Arts Council England and Artangel's Guardian Angels. It was selected through Open by Artangel and BBC Radio 4.
Here for Life follows the experiences of ten individuals living in London, whose lives have been shaped by loss and love, trauma and bravery, struggle and resistance. They dance together, steal together, eat together; agree and disagree, celebrate their differences and share their talents, grappling with a system that seems stacked against them. Their stories and performances become woven together, blurring the lines between fact and fiction through a series of intimate confessions, staged performances and journeys through London.
Eventually the cast meet on a makeshift stage in Nomadic Community Gardens, a unique community space between two train tracks on the fringes of the City of London. They spark a debate about the world in which we live, who has stolen what from whom, and how things might be fixed.
Here for Life will be presented at a series of outdoor screenings at sundown in Nomadic Gardens from 11 – 20 July. Each screening will be preceded by live performances.
Here for Life will have its official premiere and UK cinema release later this year.
Andrea Luka Zimmerman said: "We hope the audience will become part of the journey of the film, will be moved and challenged, recognising a shared humanity that understands suffering, endurance and resistance."
Adrian Jackson said: "If this film tells us anything about London today, it's that there are many unconsidered lives surviving against the odds. It feels important to tell these kinds of stories today – to hear from people who are often 'othered' in a variety of ways – to show a world we don't see enough of."
Michael Morris & James Lingwood, Co-Directors of Artangel, said: "Here for Life fuses fiction with documentary, conjuring up a world where difference makes no difference and hope is given a voice through trust."
Here for Life 11– 20 June 2019 Nomadic Community Gardens, Fleet St Hill, London E1 5ES #HereForLife
Performance times:
Doors open: 7.30pm
Performances: 8.00pm
Screening: 9.15p
Tickets can be purchased here: eventbrite.co.uk/here-for-life
Adrian Jackson
Adrian Jackson is a theatre maker, playwright, teacher, translator and one of the world's leading experts on the Theatre of the Oppressed. In 1991, he founded Cardboard Citizens, a theatre project that aims to change the lives of homeless people through the performing arts. He has directed over 50 plays with Cardboard Citizens, including Pericles (2003) and Timon (2006) with the Royal Shakespeare Company, The Beggar's Opera (1999) with the English National Opera, Mincemeat (2009), winner of an Evening Standard Theatre Award and A Few Man Fridays (2012). Jackson had a long association with Augusto Boal – the Brazilian theatre maker, theorist and founder of the Theatre of the Oppressed – and has translated a number of Boal's books into English. More recently, he directed Cathy, by Ali Taylor (2016/17), and, with Caitlin Mcleod, Home Truths, an Incomplete History of Housing Told in Nine Plays (2017).
Artangel produces and presents extraordinary art in unexpected places in London, the UK, and beyond. For over 30 years, Artangel has generated some of the most talked-about art of recent times, including projects with Clio Barnard, Jeremy Deller, PJ Harvey, Roger Hiorns, Michael Landy, Steve McQueen and Rachel Whiteread. Recent works include Taryn Simon's An Occupation of Loss, Evan Roth's Red Lines and Heiner Goebbels' Everything that happened and would happen. Appearing anywhere from empty prisons to underground vaults, daytime TV to the sky at night, Artangel produces art that surprises and inspires and wouldn't be possible within the confines of a gallery.
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