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Opinion: It's time to scrap Trident
By Toby Fenwick | Thu 8th March 2012 - 11:56 am
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The world is a better place because of the role Britain plays internationally through aid, diplomacy and, when necessary, using force sanctioned by international law. It is worth remembering the many Libyans and Sierra Leoneans who are alive today because of the actions of Britain's forces.
Yet at a time when the government is preparing to spend at least £25 billion on replacing our Trident nuclear weapons, it is making cuts to the conventional forces that make such interventions possible. There have been £74 billion of defence cuts to date, with another £3-5 billion due to be announced before the Easter recess. Unless something changes the Trident programme will go ahead without any serious debate, even though the Soviet Union which provided its rationale collapsed more than two decades ago.
We should be grateful that as a result of Liberal Democrat insistence, the primary investment decision on Trident ('Main Gate') has been postponed until 2016. It is also good news that Nick Harvey has successfully pushed for a study of the alternatives to Trident. We believe this study should be significantly expanded to explicitly consider the alternative of getting rid of Britain's nuclear weapons altogether.
Whether Britain needs nuclear weapons is the subject of a new CentreForum report 'Dropping the Bomb: a post Trident future', launched this week.
Our conclusion is that there is no credible threat to the UK now or in the foreseeable future where British Trident missiles would make a contribution to our security. In our analysis, this is as true for Iran, Pakistan and North Korea as it is for Russia and China. Reasonable people can differ about whether there was a need for Trident in the depths of the 1980s Cold War, but there is simply no strategic (much less financial case) for replacing Trident today.
We examine in detail the alternatives to Trident, including the cruise missile option, and find that they are either technically unproven, fiscally uncosted, militarily ineffective, strategically destabilizing or a combination of all four – as the Sunday Times pointed out a fortnight ago.
There are essentially two options: a like for like replacement of Trident with 'continuous at sea deterrence' (known as CASD) or non-replacement. And if we don't need to replace Trident in 2028 because it fulfils no strategic role, why waste money on it until then?
What do we propose instead?
We propose a costed plan of eight interlocking recommendations, which withdraws Trident from service immediately, refocuses AWE Aldermaston's work on disarmament verification technologies, and invests in the conventional forces to allow the UK to meet its global commitments. As part of this we propose converting the existing submarines to carry conventional cruise missiles to bridge the long range strike gap to the new carriers. It would provide a balanced UK military to maximise our ability to be a force for good worldwide. In the very unlikely case of a new Cold War, it would provide us with the option to return to fielding nuclear weapons.
We keep hearing that "to govern is to choose", and as Lib Dems, I'm delighted that we choose through vigorous debate. So let's have the debate about moving beyond the Cold War and focusing our defence spending where it can make a real difference..
Toby Fenwick is author of the CentreForum report 'Dropping the bomb: a post Trident future'
* Toby Fenwick is a Research Associate of the British American Security Information Council (BASIC), has written extensively on the UK Trident programme, and served on the party's last Trident Working Group. This article is written in a personal capacity.
Read more by Toby Fenwick or more about centreforum, toby fenwick or trident.
This entry was posted in The Independent View.
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Geoffrey Payne 8th Mar '12 - 12:39pm
Delighted to see this intiative from Centre Forum.
It wasn't long ago when CF organised it's resources at a Lib Dem conference to support Ming Campbell in insisting that Trident should be replaced. No doubt different people were involved then but it does seem extrordinary how long it has taken for the political establishment to come to terms with reality.
I think a useful next step would be for CF to calibrate how useful our interventions are around the world- where they have succeeded (Sierra Leone) and failed (Afghanistan and Iraq). How much should we be spending on our military?
Particularly useful in the run up to the next war in Iran, of which the consequences I think wold be appalling (and the Lib Dems should not support it).
On the latter point there is probably not much time.
On a general point; CF has improved greatly in my opinion over recent months, keep up the good work!
jedibeeftrix 8th Mar '12 - 3:42pm
[repeated for poor spelling – feel free to delete the comment above Mr Mod]
re: it being time to drop trident.
If………………. we explicitly promise a comittment to retaining the core defence budget (i.e. not including operations) above the 2.0% of GDP NATO minimum…………. then I am willing to at least listen to the proposal, given that it is growing ever harder to manage power-projection in a sovereign and strategic manner whilst also keeping nukes.
If……………… this is just some wet and limp-wristed Lib-Dem wheeze to get rid of nukes and spend the money on ever-so-nice social causes…………….. then I will completely and utterly reject any and every attempt to bring this into public debate.
Really, the ball is in your court……………
Defence always gets shafted, so you will understand my caution in the matter.
Liberal Majority 8th Mar '12 - 5:00pm
Trident is reaching its end of life, but there is no need to dispose of it immediately. As soon as you say that it sounds more anti-nuclear rather than being pragmatic. Any change needs to make sure it does not leave a vacuum or it will get zero support and plenty of argument.
The main problem is that there is genuine disagreement as to what our role should be, can be, and will be in the future, let alone working out how we need to be armed to fulfil our role.
Although Trident as it stands and Polaris before it were very much cold-war weapons, the people that are opposed to Trident or a nuclear replacement now are often the same that were opposed even during the cold war – that can undermine arguments before anyone even opens their mouth.
We also have the problem that some see another type of cold war looming, but this time with fragmented smaller states having nuclear weapons rather than one big enemy state. There is a genuine, practical argument that the USA has all the nuclear weapons that the West needs for its side of the nuclear balancing act, but there is also discomfort about being seen to be quite so beholden to a foreign power.
Contradictions all over the place, basically, and to find a genuine solution it seems that setting up a stall first is probably a bad idea. Inevitably it will be back to the situation where those people who are not actually actively in government roles have the luxury of saying all sorts of wonderful radical things from completely no nuclear to armed to our teeth, while those in government are stuck with the reality of knowing that no solution is ever going to be easy or appeal to the far ends of each argument.
So, it is back to working out our role – and not what we would like it to be to neatly fit which ever philosophy we are comfortable with, but what we can practically achieve and what will help most in the global community given our budget.
And good luck to anyone who wants to try and wade through that particular quagmire!
Note: I am a great believer that the higher the cost of policy then the more vital it is to park idealogical beliefs before attempting to find a solution.
Gareth Jones 8th Mar '12 - 5:48pm
I don't support the replacement of Trident but I do support using any money saved for the construction of more SSN's – that is nuclear powered attack submarines. The reasons are simple;
1) To maintain the skilled work force and ability to produce nuclear submarines you have to have a regular order (I read somewhere one every 22 months but don't quote me on that). The construction of the 7th Astute is being stretched to cover for the delay in ordering the V-class replacement. This is going to cost so much it that apparently it would have been cheaper to order an 8th Astute.
2) The current fleet of SSN's is shrinking fast and the planned 7 Astutes, although individually very capable, will be too small in number to perform all the roles required of them. The modern nuclear attack submarine is the "battleship" of the fleet, as well as providing over capabilities such as intelligence.
3) A continuation of the current Astute design would be the simplest option but we could also consider a Astute "Batch 2" with vertical launch tubes for cruise missiles. As the article says, cruise is not a good nuclear deterrent but is an excellent conventional deterrent, as well as being usable in support of British troops/interests.
Soft power is crucial but so is hard power. 12 SSN's will be an affordable, significant piece of hard power, which can support our troops abroad whether on humanitarian operations or defending our interests. By all means cancel the V-class/Trident replacement but replace it with more submarines.
Richard Church 8th Mar '12 - 7:08pm
A simple question remains. Can you conceive of any occasion when the British might wish to independently use a nuclear weapon of any kind? Are we likely to throw a missile at Moscow or Tehran or Damascus or anywhere else without American consent? Of course not.
A weapon is only a deterrent if it stops someone else and it is only independent if it would be used alone. Would Trident or its replacement stop someone exploding a dirty nuclear bomb on Trafalgar square? Of course not.
Britain's supposedly independent nuclear deterrent is cold war hangover which has no meaningful application in the 21st century. Not replacing it in 2016 will free up cash to spend on something worthwhile.
Richard Dean 8th Mar '12 - 7:51pm
I can't imagine a scenario where there would be no alternative but Trident. But I realise I am no military or political expert, so I have some simpler questions:
1. If Trident is scrapped, how long would it take to rebuild a similar capability if we thought we needed one?
2. How far ahead would we be able to see in order to make the decision to rebuild in time?
3. Can we see that far ahead?
Alistair 8th Mar '12 - 10:06pm
Why would we want to build more nuclear SSNs (than are already planned)? If we are going to build more small reactors, we may as well power our cities with them rather than subs?
If we have to have nuclear weapons, lets have something cheap like nuclear capable cruise missiles. Cheap as chips by comparison and you can still hide them on subs. Trident is overkill. Replacing Trident like for like is overkill. We aren't the British Empire anymore.
Steve Way 9th Mar '12 - 1:24am
As the most realistic nuclear threat to the UK seems to be from non National source I fail to see who we would point any nuclear weapon at. For example, if Islamic terrorists managed to detonate a nuclear device during the Olympics. Do we pick a country at random ?
We are no match for Russia or China unlikely to be in range of Iran or North Korea and have good relations with the US and Israel. So if we are attacking none of those, using a nuclear weapon would be like removing a tooth with a JCB. The Tooth would come out but the head (in fact the whole body) would be destroyed….
MAD was always mad and they are now more pointless than ever….
jedibeeftrix 9th Mar '12 - 9:28am
@ Gareth Jones – "To maintain the skilled work force and ability to produce nuclear submarines you have to have a regular order (I read somewhere one every 22 months but don't quote me on that)"
Correct, the conclusion of the DIS was to to maintain nuclear submarine building as a viable industry for the future would require a minimum of 11 boats built on a 22 month drum-beat and with a 22 year service life.
This to be divided into two classes to ensure that design skills remain current/cutting-edge, but not necessarily with a SSN/SSBN split (could be two concurrent classes of seven SSN types).
@ Alistair – "Why would we want to build more nuclear SSNs (than are already planned)? If we are going to build more small reactors, we may as well power our cities with them rather than subs?"
Because we rightly calculated that world-class SSN's are a strategic asset that few others can compete with, and thus represents a degree of overmatch that makes contemplating war against the RN very difficult to swallow. However, as above, they are expensive and require a minimum investment in design [and] manufacture in order to keep viable.
Simon Banks 9th Mar '12 - 12:34pm
There are two arguments here that surprise me, in a negative sense, and yet they give hope. Jedibeeftrix's "weak and limp-wristed Lib-Dem wheeze" sounds like the sort of lip-curling contempt (so often an alternative to serious debate) I would expect not to flourish in a Liberal party, even ignoring the no doubt unintended homophobicovertones. Others seem to be sayinf that, yes, Trident is pointless and the money could be better spent, but we're unhappy about supporting its removal because the wrong sort of people (anti-nuclear activists, peaceniks etc) seem to be supporting it. The argument should not be about who's suppporting it, but about what the effects of the different policies would be.
However, both arguments come from people who might well in other circumstances be supporting a nuclear deterrent, but can see the strength of the case against the renewal of this one – so clearly relative hawks are reconsidering.
To come clean about my own position: I opposed unilateral nuclear disarmament during the Cold War because I could not see a unilateral UK decision being helpful to world nuclear disarmament, but changed my position after the end of the Cold War because people seemed to be forgetting the very real remaining dangers from nuclear arsenals and because, since we no longer had two blocs facing up to one another, I could no longer see that a moderate Britain at the nuclear table could make much more difference to the big players' decisons than if we were non-nuclear. So yes, I do not love nuclear weapons, but I seek practical solutions to the dangers – and I too can imagine no circumstances in which Trident would be used except in support of a U.S. nuclear strike.
Roland 9th Mar '12 - 12:48pm
Interesting in the discussion "Europe" hasn't been mentioned, even in passing…
Yes I know that we (GB) seem to like doing the "hokey cokey" when it comes to Europe, but both our role in Europe's and Europe's role in our defense needs to be factored in.
In tandem, the decision regarding nuclear weapons should take account of 'our' (GB and other nations) nuclear power strategy. Currently, 'our' nuclear industry is Uranium-based, a legacy from the development of the atom bomb and the need to have a capability to produce weapons grade materials – the primary reason for concern over Iran et al. Hence as Chernobyl and Fukushima show, you don't always need nuclear weapons to cause nuclear damage to a country.
However, we know that nuclear power can be generated more safely from Thorium-based fuels, which can't be converted into weapons grade materials. So a decommissioning could free up Uranium focused R&D etc. to develop Thorium (the main problem with Thorium is that R&D was diverted onto Uranium, to enable the building of weapons, the Cold War then perpetuated this R&D bias.). Given that (largely because of Fukushima) the world is reassessing their (uranium-based) nuclear power programmes and that GB is about to commence on a nuclear building programme, now would seem to be a good time to be making these hard decisions.
Tabman 9th Mar '12 - 1:06pm
I think there's also the issue of whether you need a strategic nuclear deterrent in the post Cold-War world, vs whether you remove all nuclear weapons entirely.
Trident is designed to be the minimum strategic deterrent – 4 subs; one on station, one on the way out, one on the way back, one in dock. The "enemy" doesn't know where it is and so can't hit it before it can launch its missiles . You could have a tactical nuclear deterrent based on tomahawk cruise missiles. They are more vulnerable than trident because they have to be launched from ships or aircraft, which are easier to find and take out with a first strike. But would be sufficient deterrent for more limited nuclear powers than those with ICBMs.
These days global reach would seem to be the imperative, and that means aircraft carriers and the means of moving troops and their equipment about quickly.
Roland 9th Mar '12 - 1:25pm
Just to add to and close off my digression into Thorium, the article http://www.resourceinvestor.com/2006/02/07/thorium-an-alternative-to-uranium provides a very level headed view of Thorium including it's potential role in the disposal of weapons grade nuclear materials.
I agree with Tabman, global reach has been important, as demonstrated by the various conflicts we've seen and been involved in since the Falklands in 1982 and has probably become more important as the role of the military has increasingly become that of first line law and peace enforcers in conflict zones. And with the massive advance in military technology we've seen in the last 30 years alternatives to Trident maybe viable.
@ Simon – "Jedibeeftrix's "weak and limp-wristed Lib-Dem wheeze" sounds like the sort of lip-curling contempt (so often an alternative to serious debate) I would expect not to flourish in a Liberal party, even ignoring the no doubt unintended homophobicovertones. "
My most frequent complaint about the Lib-Dem's is that they have existed for so long in the hot-house of perpetual opposition that they have ceased to make the argument for difficult positions when the positions lead to uncomfortable compromise and painful consequences.
A case in point is Lib-Dem foriegn and Defence policy that I have regarded as a shambles since i first started reading it:
http://jedibeeftrix.wordpress.com/2010/04/26/britain%E2%80%99s-future-strategic-direction-7-whither-will-the-lib-dems-lead-us/
http://jedibeeftrix.wordpress.com/2010/05/03/britain%E2%80%99s-future-strategic-direction-7-%E2%80%93-taking-another-look/
I live in hope that five years of seasoning will sharpen up the flaccid, lazy and quellerous defence and foriegn policy evident in years past.
If I am particularly scathing on this issue it is because defence and foriegn policy to me are the most interesting and relavent facet of politics, and much as i am right-of-centre I recognise that Labour at least percieve Britain as a global power with global responsibilities*, and thus desire to maintain sovereign and strategic power projection.
Lib-Dem's have yet, as far as i know, yet to make this intellectual leap.
* for all that there execution has been spectacularly incompetent
re homophobic overtones:
fear not, the term "limp-wristed" was used to indicate a general 'wetness', such as a poor handshake insomuch as it might indicate a lack of 'bottom'.
Alistair 9th Mar '12 - 2:33pm
@Tabman, you can launch a cruise missile from a submarine. If you couldn't they would be a completely ineffective alternative to Trident. They are vastly inferior as they can be shot down and they can't travel as far so the sub has to be closer to the target. They also would not be as destructive.
Toby Fenwick 10th Mar '12 - 6:10pm
I wrote the paper, and am grateful to all for your interest. The paper is available from http://centreforum.org/assets/pubs/dropping-the-bomb.pdf.
@Geoffrey Payne: this should be the first of a series of papers. The next one is about the UK's role in the world.
@jedibeeftrix: Yes, the eight recommendations are there to be taken together. Meeting the NATO 2% of GDP target is explicitly stated, and the increased Astute buy is designed to protect the industrial base out to 2030 to allow the replacement of Astute in due course.
@Liberal Majority: strictly speaking, Trident isn't approaching the end of its life – the missile and the warhead will go onto 2042, and the subs are good for another 10-15 years. But if there is no need for Trident – and the paper concludes that there is not and will not be – there's no point in continuing to keep it through to 2030. Instead, I propose to convert the existing Trident submarines to fire conventional cruise missiles to provide a bridging long-range precision strike capability through to the mid-2020s until the carrier groups are available. All of this is costed in the report – see the chart on p. 52.
@Roland: Europe – in these terms, France – is considered in the paper. Unless you're prepared to have jointly crewed missile submarines, then you're unlikely to save too much cash. And joint crewing immediately precludes the independence which is allegedly at the core of the case for Trident.
@ Tabman / Alistair: Yes, and there are other problems with the use of nuclear cruise missiles, notably signalling, provision of warhead and missile, and where you can send the submarines. See page 36 of the report.
Again, many thanks for your interest.
Jedibeeftrix 11th Mar '12 - 11:32am
Thank you toby.
Yes, I am aware of the conclusions, it is an interesting paper, rather I worry that lib-dens will seize on the nice bits (an excuse to ditch nukes) while blissfully ignoring the compensating. Commitments (2.0% of gdp and sub industry).
Roland 11th Mar '12 - 12:45pm
@Toby – Europe: Anglo-Franco operation
I've quickly skimmed through the paper and one thing that comes out is that the reasons for ruling out French involvement effectively also apply to an EU defense scenario. Hence I would take it that (for the foreseeable future) you are also against any arrangements that would give the EU control over the deployment of the UK's forces.
@jedibeeftrix: A fair point, which is why we've stressed the interlocking nature of the recommendations; you can't cherry pick between them.
@Roland: I'm not per se against EU-led operations, indeed quite the reserve where they are appropriate. But it is clear that NATO has the organisational capacity and expertise to be the hub of out military planning in the foreseeable future.
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text:
Q: Satisfying lib dependency I have a program (which I will call foo here) compiled for x64 (my current arch).  When I try to run it, it goes:
./foo: error while loading shared libraries: libgmp.so.3: cannot open shared object file: No such file or directory

Relevant part of locate output:
/usr/lib/x86_64-linux-gnu/libgmp.so
/usr/lib/x86_64-linux-gnu/libgmp.so.10
/usr/lib/x86_64-linux-gnu/libgmp.so.10.1.3

Looking around, I found the question Mint: correct way to install /lib/i386-linux-gnu/libgmp.so.3, whose author says: "I have a 32-bit binary that needs libgmp.so.3 on an x86_64 installation."  In that thread, they suggest installing the compiled for 32-bit version Ubuntu package, which I did, only to add /usr/lib/libgmp.so.3 and /usr/lib/libgmp.so.3.5.2 to locate libgmp and (as should be expected) change the error to
./foo: error while loading shared libraries: libgmp.so.3: wrong ELF class: ELFCLASS32

So I wrote the binary author, who very helpfully recompiled, but wrote me back saying the library is now 140 MB, so best option is I recompile myself.
Why isn't the binary dependency on libgmp.so.3 satisfied by libgmp.so.10?
Does this mean the software depends on a certain library version only? Couldn't this be "soft-coded"?
Does a shared library always break backwards compatibility with its previous version (I thought it didn't)?
My options as I perceive them are:
a. Downloading and compiling libgmp.so.3 for x64
b. Recompiling the software
c. Running risks: Would I be able to write a link to use libgmp.so.10 (as it were libgmp.so.3)?
Would them work? What would be pros/cons?
PS:
extra: ldd for the bin
linux-vdso.so.1 =>  (0x00007fff290fa000)
libresolv.so.2 => /lib/x86_64-linux-gnu/libresolv.so.2 (0x00007f8061064000)
libpthread.so.0 => /lib/x86_64-linux-gnu/libpthread.so.0 (0x00007f8060e46000)
libm.so.6 => /lib/x86_64-linux-gnu/libm.so.6 (0x00007f8060b3f000)
libbz2.so.1 => /lib/x86_64-linux-gnu/libbz2.so.1 (0x00007f806092f000)
llibz.so.1 => /lib/x86_64-linux-gnu/libz.so.1 (0x00007f8060716000)
libgmp.so.3 => not found
libc.so.6 => /lib/x86_64-linux-gnu/libc.so.6 (0x00007f8060350000)
/lib64/ld-linux-x86-64.so.2 (0x00007f80612a0000)

A: From your ldd output, it doesn't look like /usr/lib/x86_64-linux-gnu/ is in the path that ld knows to search for shared libraries. You can check this by running ldconfig -v with superuser privileges, which will spit out a list of all the shared libraries LD can find. If you can't find libgmp in that list, you need to edit your /etc/ld.so.conf.d/[your-system-arch].conf to put /usr/lib/x86_64-linux-gnu/ in the library search path.

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text:
Bankrupt Pug - "I Can't Believe I Ate The Whole Thing"
Correct me if I'm wrong but this cover art suggests otherwise...?
People do this on purpose I swear...they decide to form bands with the sole intention of being so utterly terrible it hurts...I'm not exaggerating, I would rather listen to a rap battle between Prof. Stephen Hawking and Microsoft Sam in real time...speaking of rap, I would rather personally fund a new STEVE-O album...I would rather name my first born daughter ROMAN REIGNS than have to go through any more of this, but, alas...it is my duty to you all to share such a monstrosity.
Allow me to elaborate; I was sent an email containing a link to an EP, with a request to check it out and review, non-PR related, a personal email. The person in question stated that they were a casual reader of this blog, and wanted to know what I thought about their "comedy / punk" band; BANKRUPT PUG. Alarm bells are already ringing in my ears, are they baiting me?...With influences including "Music, sound effects, cartoons, alcohol and pugs", they created (they didn't write this EP, they created it, like a fucking FRANKENSTEIN monster) the "I Can't Believe I Ate The Whole Thing" EP....did I spare myself the loss of sanity and send this to the spam folder? Of course not...I wasted ten minutes of my sense of hearing only to find myself raging harder than a Red Gyarados flipping it's shit in Johto...here's what I found.
We open up with "Adopt / Adapt / Improve" and all I can say is that initially, it begins with a semi-retro vibe with it's guitar tone taking you back to the likes of THE B52's or MINUTEMEN...musically it's straightforward enough, it's upbeat, generally quirky but vocally, Pablo or Tetley, whichever one it is (Yes, they go by these names, other members include Captain Zilchio, Vlad The Creator and wait for it...Strangey McStrange) it sounds awful. There's barely any tune vocally, it's flat and, lyrics that include two boys burning a bag of dogs is just...what?! It get's worse...we follow up with "Why So Seagullrious?" (I'm not even joking) and it is beyond ridiculous. It's a softer song, it's got subtle keyboard elements that aid with the tracks melody and really it falls under pop-rock more than punk, if you took out all the words this could actually make a decent demo track for a proper band...but those words...I thought I'd heard it all but I was clearly wrong. If you spend three minutes singing about wanting to cause physical harm to a seagull while trying to feed ducks, by sticking dynamite up it's arse, you need help, you really do. I get that this is comedy punk but use that term loosely, very loosely. I hope a seagull shit's in his chips for this song...
What's next? "Golf, Strangling Animals & Masturbation"...OK you know what, I'm not even going there. It's getting to a point now where I'm unsure if I should stop writing this review right now and contact someone...like, the police, or, the RSPCA or, Jeremy Kyle, anyone! I'M going to need counselling let alone this lot! Finally we finish up then on "Marshmallow" and it's another two minutes of up-beat punk-inspired noise akin to our first track and really it's nothing special, ending rather abruptly too which quite frankly is the most merciful thing they've done here...the line "sweat out your sickness" closing the song and really, they should take their own advice, I mean, who recorded this?! Now, I can appreciate artistic merit, freedom of creativity, alternative comedy, freedom of expression and all of that, and even more so I do appreciate being personally contacted and requested, but if you're going to call yourself a comedy act please make sure there's something worth laughing at that ISN'T the fact you submitted this EP, unless, that was the whole point all along? There are other bands from Wales that utilize a comedy twist, NIGHTMARES FROM THE DISCOTHEQUE do it so much better and even BREAKDOWN FACE have found their purposefully low-quality niche...this on the other hand is just bad. Bankrupt is least of their worries, I'd put this pug down myself...[1]
www.facebook.com/bankruptpug
boomessays reviews link
Bankrupt personalities have been taking control of the things and all sorts for the humans. The major chunk of the position is taken forward for the sentimental slots for the individuals.

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For Christmas my wife gave me supplies for making home-brewed beer. This was the perfect gift, because I enjoy craft beers and was looking for a new hobby. This included a 5-gallon Stainless Steel brew kettle and all the supplies to make my first batch of brewskies! Shortly after brewing my first batch of beer, she began having second thoughts about her Christmas present. While I love the smell of raw ingredients, such as hops, grains, etc. . . . my wife did not. This lead to the relocation of my brew space, from the comfort of my glass top kitchen stove to the garage, using my propane King Kooker. I did not mind brewing outside, but I was using a much different heat source. A serious disadvantage was that I needed to devote all of my attention to stirring my brew, especially at the boil stage of the process. The flame would heat my brew with a level of inconsistency, and could very quickly turn my beer to a dark and chunky mess, burning the ingredients to the bottom of a very expensive brew kettle. While this method was crude and somewhat primitive, I was able to produce some quality beer, while avoiding potential over-boils and burning my batches by vigorously stirring for an hour straight.
In 2014, two years into my home-brew experience, I was asked to resurrect our company brew stand.The Sure Controls brew stand included a user-friendly method of controlling the mashing process, boil, and cool-down processes. Suddenly I was able to make all-grain beers with ease, avoiding the constant need for "babysitting" the process by stirring the brew and manually adjusting the magnitude of heat required to keep a steady boil. The ease of brewing that this brew stand presented freed me up for other activities beside stirring and adjusting gas valves.
The main reason the Sure Controls brew stand was able to control temperature was the precise control we obtained with a Eurotherm temperature controller for each stage of the brew process. We used a Eurotherm 2216e for controlling temperature of three different stages of the process, including: the preheat stage to 160˚F, the mash stage maintains the temperature of the brew at 162˚F, and the boil stage maintains a consistent 212˚F. The heat source being used no longer is a propane-burning King Kooker, but instead, a pair of custom band heaters and an immersion heater, integral to the mash stage of the process where the grains are steeped in 162˚F water to extract the necessary sugars to manufacture the beer. The Eurotherm controllers maintain a steady control of the thermal process temperature, specifically, the heat supplied to each of the 3 stages to the brewing process. It is with these temperature controllers that we are provided the time to focus on other activities.
Sure Controls has extensive thermal process expertise with temperature controllers. Eurotherm provides many different types of controllers which would work great for the beer-making process. Just a couple are the Eurotherm 2216e, which we currently use with our brew stand, or the 3216, available at a lower cost due to the fixed I/O. The possibilities with these devices are not limited to just maintaining temperature within the beer making process. They have numerous applications that can be implemented as a means of automatic control where fast or slow response to a temperature, pressure, power, or whatever the process requires. As a value-added industrial automation distributor for temperature control systems, it is comforting to know that there are options, such as Eurotherm, RKC, Red Lion, Exergen, and others, to provide the ability to sustain temperature, pressure, and other process variables.
I have found that using the single loop control method for the temperature control is a marked improvement to more primitive methods of manual control. To take it a step further, the discrete control allows for numerous different ways to monitor temperature, including non-contact Infrared (IR), 4-20mA, 0-10vdc, and several different types of thermocouples, to name a few. The discrete temperature controller that we are using with our brew stand, per each stage, utilizes the Eurotherm 2216e, with a Type J-type thermocouple input and a logic-pulsed output driving a Carlo Gavazzi Solid-State Relay (SSR), which produces the proper amount of heat required for our process. This configuration is very common in an industrial environment where a thermocouple is used as the input to keep the process temperature at set-point.
Josh is our Sure Controls resident brew master, advanced service technician, design engineer. Josh is passionate about delivering smiles and brewing the perfect micro!
What is the Rheological Significance of the Entrance Pressure Drop?


A great fire lighting skill to learn is the use of the Flint and Steel seen here with one of our leather pouches.
A Ferro Rod is a must have in your kit and this one includes a compass and a striker which doubles up as a whistle, a little saw and a ruler. These are the ones that we use on our course and will last for around 12,00 strikes.
Fire Lighting media that includes a Storage tin, lint, fatwood and a Ferro rod and striker that has a compass and whistle.


Yo, i need some help ! If i'm lucky i will buy an engine but i need some informations.
The engine number is 8g174 and gearbox cast is 22g333 , 11stud head with traps at back.
Maybe it is a cooper s engine ? But it dont have hardy spacer.
What is a decent price for this engine ?


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Welcome to the Violence Research Centre
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The Violence Research Centre (VRC), launched in September 2014, aims to contribute to the advancement of the understanding of the causes, the consequences and the prevention of interpersonal violence. This includes childhood aggression, bullying, assault and robbery, homicide, domestic abuse and sexual violence. The VRC takes an interdisciplinary perspective that draws on theoretical approaches and empirical findings from criminology, psychology, biology, political science, sociology, and history. We work closely with academics and policy-making institutions both nationally and internationally.
Research conducted at the Violence Research Centre addresses three main questions:
What are the individual, social and biological causes of violence?
How can we prevent violence?
Why do levels of violence vary between countries and over time?
Projects hosted by the Centre have received funding from a wide range of sources, including, the British Academy, The ESRC Impact Acceleration Fund (UK), the European Commission, the Jacobs Foundation, the Leverhulme Trust, The Fondation Botnar, the National Institute of Justice USA, the Newton Trust, The Consuelo Foundation, Queensland University of Technology and the UBS Optimus Foundation.
You can find our annual reports and other publications here.


Barrowmore offers a variety of programmes developing employability skills and work readiness.
Come along and enjoy the ambience of our 84 acre woodland estate, whether it is for a conference and or use of our training facilities. We have three different sized rooms accommodating up to 8, 12 and 35 people. We have digital projectors, screens, laptops and a 50 inch plasma TV. All of this equipment is included in the room hire price of £15 per hour.
We also have our own catering staff on site for breakfasts, lunches and buffet sandwiches. A price for this service is on application, just ring Alex McGhie for room hire on 075000 11237 and Leonie Collins-Read at the Bluebell Café 01829 742633 should you wish to order meals.


Simplified 365: The Bedroom - Day 29: Nail Care — the simplified life.
Stay strong! We're almost to the end of the month! We will look at nail care today and wrap up with shaving accoutrement tomorrow.
If you only go to salons for manicures and pedicures, I want you to keep that in mind. You probably use far fewer of these items than a DIYer.
If you absolutely, scouts honor, have used it in the past 6 months, put it to one side. Now let's look at the rest. Do you dislike the color? Is it separated or gunky, and no amount of shaking will revive it? Do you have a friend who could use it? I challenge you to pare down to your top ten favorite colors, one base coat and one top coat. Bonus points if you use an all in one base and top coat. You only have one pair of feet, so just keep one pair of toe separators for your at home pedicures. Let's get the nail polish remover pared down to one bottle and the cotton balls and q-tips pared down to what you would reasonably use in 6 months. No need storing a huge amount of these, when they aren't used very often. If you're the nightly q-tip in the ear type, and only occasionally use them for nail polish fix its, then adjust the amount you keep accordingly.
Moving on to the nail tools - clippers, scissors, files, buffers and any other tool you use. Grab a small bin or makeup pouch to create your nail kit. You'll put one each of the above items in it. Extra metal tools can be given to family members or cleaned and donated. Used paper emery boards and orange sticks should be tossed.
Once you're done sorting, grab a small bin to keep all of your nail supplies in. When it's time to take care of your nails, it will be as easy as grabbing that bin off the shelf.


Apartment L'Atlantide Cannes is just 400 metres from the sea and 500 metres from the city centre. It offers a TV in the living area, which opens onto a south-east facing terrace. Additional facilities in this apartment include a washing machine, an iron and a dishwasher. The open-plan kitchen is fully equipped with an oven, stove and a fridge-freezer. Free private parking is provided on site and Cannes Train Station is 600 metres away. You may also choose to walk the 300 metres to Boulevard de la Croisette or visit the Palais des Festivals, just 1 km away.
The prepayment as stated in the Policies will be charged to the customers' credit card by Interhome. After full payment is taken, the invoice and general conditions are sent by Interhome via email. The property's details, including address and where to collect the keys, are provided to customers by email one month prior to arrival. For customers traveling within the next 28 days, the email is sent instantly after full payment.


CRIF Select specializes in indirect automotive lending partner programs and integrated technology-based solutions that will make loan approvals faster, more accurate and virtually paperless. These solutions lower costs and better serve the consumer. With state-of-the-art technology, experienced call center support and loan processing services, these partnerships offer user-friendly, value-added solutions for every phase of the indirect auto lending process.
These outsourced indirect lending solutions can include dealer management, reporting and consulting, funding and processing, and technology. The key is to determine the best solution to match the amount of time, staff and other resources the institution can devote to successfully expanding an indirect lending portfolio. These solutions allow lenders to do what they do best, lend.
Offers access to Dealertrack®, RouteOne® and proprietary application portals driving more applications to the financial institution.
Handles lending for any vehicle type including cars, trucks, motorcycles, recreational vehicles and boats.
Performs quality checks and compliance reviews as well as tracks down missing information for loan packages and completes the process by facilitating the dealer funding.
Team of indirect auto lending experts to provide industry best-practices as well as program design and development support.
Continually tracks performance and allows an indirect lending program to flourish while providing necessary tools and support.
Builds and strengthens dealer relationships that build loyalty and help you earn more business.
Provides turnkey indirect lending programs in the form of customized technology and/or specific services that will enhance an existing program.
A robust and easy-to-use decision engine designed specifically for indirect lending with features and functionality to automate the entire decisioning process.
Offers a safe, convenient and profitable online balloon and leasing solution to help capture new business and diversify portfolios.
Case study quote from Interra Credit Union, a CRIF Next Level Achievement Award winner.
Case study quote from VyStar Credit Union, a CRIF Next Level Achievement Award winner.
CRIF Select's full-service offering is the perfect solution for any institution that wants to keep costs at a minimum or wants to reel in the profits of an indirect lending program without the responsibility of operating it.
This program is ideal for institutions that have indirect lending experience or want to internally control their programs, but find it more efficient and profitable for a partner to handle certain key elements.
Need more information about indirect auto lending partner programs? Schedule a consultation. Speak with a knowledgeable CRIF Select representative to answer your questions, see a demo or discuss your project in greater detail. We have your solution!


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Jump Into Australian Basketball Mania
Understanding Divisions
Cheer On The Champs
What did they use for the first basketball hoops?
Exploring the History of Basketball Hoops: How the First Basketball Hoops Came to Be
Basketball is one of the most beloved sports in the world today, and it has been around since the late 1800s. The invention of the game is credited to Dr. James Naismith, who was a physical education teacher at the YMCA Training School in Springfield, Massachusetts. Dr. Naismith wanted to create an indoor game that would involve minimal physical contact and be suitable for all ages and skill levels. In December of 1891, he came up with the game of basketball and hung two peach baskets on opposite walls of the gymnasium. These were the first basketball hoops ever used.
The original peach baskets were 10 feet off the ground and had no bottom. The ball had to be retrieved manually after each goal was scored. The game quickly became popular, and in 1894, the first metal hoops were introduced. They were much sturdier than the original peach baskets and allowed for a net to be strung below the rim. This made it easier to retrieve the ball and encouraged more aggressive play.
In 1895, basketballs with laces were invented, and in 1897, a backboard was introduced. The backboard was made of wood and was attached to the top of the hoop. This enabled players to shoot the ball at an angle and improved accuracy. It also made it easier to rebound the ball off of the backboard and increased scoring opportunities.
Today, the game of basketball is enjoyed by millions of people around the world. Basketball hoops have come a long way since the first peach baskets, and the modern basketball hoop is a far cry from the original invention. It is incredible to think how much the game has changed in the last 125 years, and the invention of the basketball hoop is one of the main reasons why.
A Look at the Evolution of Basketball Hoops: From Simple Wooden Rings to Modern Day Nets
For the first basketball hoops, rudimentary wooden rings with a metal net were used. These hoops were nothing like the modern day hoops we see on basketball courts today. The earliest basketball hoops were made up of an iron hoop and net attached to a wooden backboard. The backboard was typically made of wood and metal and was attached to a pole or beam.
The metal hoop and net used for the first basketball hoops were held together by wooden dowels. The net was made of metal mesh and was strung up with a metal ring. The metal hoop and net was attached to the wood backboard with metal screws.
The metal hoop and net used in the first basketball hoops was not as durable as modern basketball hoops. The metal hoop and net would rust and become less effective over time. It was also difficult to adjust the hoop and net to the correct height and position.
The first basketball hoops were also much less safe than modern hoops. The metal hoops and nets were often placed too close to the court and were a safety hazard for players. The metal hoop and net could also be easily damaged when players dunked or leaped for rebounds.
Modern basketball hoops are much safer and more efficient than the wooden rings with metal nets used in the early days of basketball. Basketball hoops today are made of metal and fiberglass and are designed to be more durable and adjustable. The net is made of nylon and is much stronger and more durable than the metal used in the past.
The evolution of basketball hoops is an interesting part of the history of basketball. The simple wooden rings with metal nets have been replaced by much more modern and efficient designs. It's amazing to think that the same game is being played with such different equipment.
The Fascinating Origin Story of Basketball Hoops: How They Changed the Game
Basketball has been a major part of American culture since the game was invented in 1891. The game has grown to become one of the most popular sports in the world and its popularity continues to grow. But how did the first basketball hoops come to be?
The first basketball hoops were actually peach baskets, which were hung up in YMCA gyms. James Naismith, the inventor of basketball, wanted to create a game that could be played indoors. He had the idea to hang two peach baskets from the balcony in the gym and have players shoot a ball into them.
The baskets were attached to the balcony using a rope, and the bottom of the basket was left open so that a ball could be retrieved. The baskets were 10 feet high, which was the same height as a modern basketball hoop.
This style of basketball hoop was used for many years until 1894 when metal hoops and backboards became available. The metal hoops were much sturdier and easier to attach to the balcony. They also had a net that could be hung from the hoop to make it easier to score.
The metal hoops were the standard for many years and they were the ones used in the very first professional basketball game in 1895. The first basketball hoops were a far cry from the modern hoops we see today, but they laid the foundation for what would become one of the most popular sports in the world.
The first basketball hoops revolutionized the game and made it more exciting and accessible to more people. The game has changed a lot since then, but the original hoops still serve as a reminder of how far the game has come.
Uncovering the Mystery of the First Basketball Hoops: What Were They Made of?
For decades, basketball fans have wondered what the first basketball hoops were made of. Many have speculated that they were constructed from wood and iron, but no one knows for sure. Luckily, recent research has shed light on this fascinating topic.
The earliest basketball hoops actually had little to do with wood or iron. In fact, they were made from something much simpler: a peach basket. Around 1891, James Naismith had the ingenious idea to use a peach basket for the first basketball hoop. The basket had a small hole at the bottom, which allowed the ball to enter the basket and score. Because the baskets were hung from the railings of a balcony, they were much higher than modern basketball hoops.
The peach baskets were used until the early 1900s when metal hoops began to appear. The metal hoops were made from wrought iron and were much more durable than their predecessor. They also allowed for a much more consistent game, as the quality of the baskets could not be relied upon.
However, it wasn't until the 1950s that basketball hoops began to take the shape we are familiar with today. The invention of the steel rim and backboard revolutionized the game, as they allowed for more consistent shots. Today's basketball hoops are typically made from stainless steel, aluminum, or fiberglass.
In conclusion, the earliest basketball hoops were made from a peach basket. As time went on, more durable materials such as wrought iron and steel were used. Today, modern basketball hoops use aluminum, stainless steel, or fiberglass for the backboard and rim. While the materials may have changed, one thing has remained the same: basketball is still the same great game it has always been.
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The Multivariated Effect of City Cooperation in Land Use Planning and Decision-Making Processes: A European Analysis
By Luís Carlos Loures, Rui Alexandre Castanho, José Manuel Naranjo Gómez, Ana Vulevic, José Cabezas and Luis Fernández-Pozo
Submitted: June 26th 2017Reviewed: November 3rd 2017Published: March 21st 2018
Home > Books > Urban Agglomeration
Spatial and urban planning processes regarding border cooperation have reached unprecedented levels in recent decades, not only due to their potential for territorial integration, i.e., infrastructure construction and planning activities worldwide. Bearing in mind the European project, for a united and strong network of nations, this scenario is more evident in European territories. In this regard, through multivariated analyzes of city cooperation on European border areas, it is possible to identify the factors that influence the territorial success and also a sustainable regional development and even their effects over the urban agglomerations. From the identified factors, the study pointed out one that is common to all cases: connectivity-movement between cities.
border territories
Luís Carlos Loures*
Polytechnic Institute of Portalegre, Portugal and Research Centre for Spatial and Organizational Dynamics (CIEO), University of Algarve, Portugal
Rui Alexandre Castanho
Environmental Resources Analysis Research Group (ARAM), University of Extremadura, Spain
Department of Landscape, Environment and Planning; School of Science and Technology, University of Évora, Portugal
José Manuel Naranjo Gómez
Polytechnic School, University of Extremadura, Spain
Ana Vulevic
Department of Architecture and Urban Planning, Institute of Transportation – CIP, Serbia
Luis Fernández-Pozo
*Address all correspondence to: lcloures@gmail.com
Urban AgglomerationEdited by Mustafa Ergen
Edited by Mustafa Ergen
Recent changes in the European landscape introduced by geopolitical, socioeconomic and/or cultural issues have been continuously contributing to strengthen the magnetism of urban areas, increasing their capacity to change land use, thus fostering important transformations not only at the socioeconomic level but also in terms of urban morphology all over Europe [1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7]. Even though sometimes positive, these changes have reinforced the clear tendency of depopulation of rural territories—confirmed on the last decades—consequently increasing the development of progressively larger urban agglomerations [8, 9, 10].
Even if these issues are currently seen as part of countries' evolutionary processes, it urges to develop specific strategies that might tackle this scenario, contributing to revert this situation. In this regard, it is crucial to study new ways of cooperation between smaller cities, highlighting the ways in which this type of synergic projects and strategies related to cross-border and city cooperation might revert this process contributing to city sustainability.
Considering the aforementioned opportunity and taking into account that very often the cooperation between cities occur among sovereign nations, such issues gain more emphasis not only because one-third of European population live in border areas [11, 12] but also because this fact takes the discussion to another level, associated with intricate bureaucratic procedures related to the lack of standardization practices and policies between these territories, which generally lead to a reckless attitude by the main actors/decision-makers toward city cooperation and development, facts which have a high influence not only in the development capacity of these regions but also on the overall quality of life of people leaving in these areas [7, 13].
The analysis of city cooperation multivariated effect in land use planning and decision-making processes is, in this respect, seen as a pivotal procedure that, throughout the implementation of specific planning principles and frameworks, might contribute to strengthen the development of these areas, enabling Europe to achieve a more balanced polynucleated territory, less dependent on few large metropolitan areas.
In this regard, in order to identify a set of planning principles and city cooperation frameworks, a group of the best practice case studies will be analyzed, using both Case Study Research (CSR) method [14, 15] and Territorial Impact Assessment (TIA) analysis, in turn identifying the impacts produced by this type of cooperation [16, 17, 18] and highlighting how these processes might contribute to reverse the impacts promoted by current mononucleated tendencies.
This study is considered a fundamental basis that will enable the identification of precise factors, which influence spatial planning procedures, leading to the definition of new methods and approaches to one of the main urban problems affecting Europe during the last decades, in line with the scope of the book and considering several relevant issues related to spatial planning, sustainable growth, and urban development approaches.
2. European planning framework: a brief review
The European Union (EU) has no direct mandate and no clear institutional and political framework for spatial planning: according to the principle of "subsidiarity," territorial planning is a responsibility primarily of the member states. While this is so, it is equally clear that the EU's indirect role in spatial planning is steadily increasing, mainly through sector policies particularly in the areas of regional policy, rural development, environment, and transport. Another way in which the role of the EU is indirectly increasing in spatial planning is the principle of territorial "cohesion" [19].
In this regard, European territorial cooperation is the third objective of the EU Cohesion Policy for 2007–2013, as well as being the new umbrella under the European Spatial Development Perspective (ESDP) of 1999, such as European Spatial Planning Observation Network (ESPON), and European Territorial Cooperation (INTERREG) [20, 21].
In fact, the documents of EU from 1999 regarding spatial policy foster to promote a sustainable urban development. European Territorial Cooperation, and the EU INTERREG Initiative in particular, is one of the five main means of application identified by the European Spatial Development Perspective (ESDP). ESDP is a document approved by the Informal Council of Ministers of Spatial Planning of European Commission in Potsdam in 1999 and forming a policy framework with 60 policy options for all tiers of administration with a planning responsibility.
An entire chapter of the ESDP is in fact devoted to considering the application of its concepts and ideas. The five main means of application comprise (1) application at the European Community level, (2) application via transnational cooperation between member states, (3) application via cross-border and interregional cooperation, (4) application of the ESDP in member states, and (5) application via pan-European and international cooperation. The influence and application of the ESDP clearly have an important transnational learning dimension. As a result, the ESDP remains the most significant policy document guiding the EU's determinations in the territorial development sphere [22].
Even though the document does not have the power of a law, it has indeed been successful in establishing a framework [20]. Once that the strategic aim achieved a balanced and sustainable spatial development strategy. In the late 1990s, the ESDP represented a "new dimension of European policy" since for the first time the EU was starting to pay explicit attention to territorial planning as an instrument to achieve broader social and economic goals [19]. A key objective of the ESDP was to facilitate better coordination of the territorial impacts of European policy: horizontally across different sectors, vertically among different levels of government, and geographically across administrative boundaries [23].
The ESDP was created to achieve three central aims of European policy: socioeconomic cohesion, conservation of natural resources and cultural heritage, and a more balanced competitiveness of the European territory. In order to achieve these goals, the ESDP highlighted three crucial spatial development policy objectives [19, 20, 21, 24]:
Development of a polycentric and balanced urban system and strengthening of the partnership between urban and rural areas. This implicates overcoming the outdated contrast between city and countryside.
Promotion of unified transport and communication concepts, which support the polycentric development of the EU territory and are an important precondition for enabling European cities and regions to pursue their integration into the Economic and Monetary Union. Equivalence of access to infrastructure and knowledge should be realized gradually. Regionally, adapted solutions must be brought into being for this.
Development and conservation of natural and cultural heritage through wise management. This contributes both to the preservation and deepening of regional identities and the maintenance of the natural and cultural diversity of the regions and cities of the EU in the age of globalization.
A significant outcome of the ESDP process was the establishment of the European Spatial Planning Observation Network [21]. The mission of ESPON is to support policy development and build a European scientific community in the field of the European territorial development [19]. The main aim is to increase the general body of knowledge about territorial structures, trends, perspectives, and policy impacts in the enlarging European Union [25].
One of the concrete offspring of the ESDP is the ESPON established in 2001 for providing data and information about spatial trends and developments in the EU. ESPON's aim was to support spatial policy making for all territorial levels [26]. For planners, the value added of ESPON is that it supplies the technical and scientific knowledge needed to help implement the policy options in the ESDP and translates them into appropriate legal and financial instruments [27, 28].
However, the planning and execution of the specific political objectives of the ESDP should take into account the specific economic, social, and environmental situation of each area. These policy objectives for agriculture and rural development, infrastructure, and transport, as well as the environment, in a synthesized way are policy aims and options for ensuring productive and diverse rural areas, policy aims and options for promoting accessibility to transport and sustainable infrastructure, and policy aims and options aimed at preservation and development of the natural heritage [21, 29].
On the other hand, the policy priorities of the ESDP have been addressed by means of cofinancing of spatial planning projects involving partners in different countries through the INTERREG Initiative [19]. In this regard, INTERREG is the EU's primary instrument to support cooperation across national borders, and it is financed by the European Regional Development Fund. INTERREG was launched in 1990 to overcome the disadvantages presented by administrative boundaries of adjacent regions in the emerging common market [30]. INTERREG has included three phases with spatial planning agenda: Phase II (1994–1999), Phase III (2000–2006), and Phase IV (2007–2013). There are three territorial levels: (1) cross-border projects, involving geographically contiguous border regions; (2) transnational initiatives, across large multinational spaces; and (3) interregional initiatives, among noncontiguous regions across the whole territory of the EU.
In the latest phase (2007–2013), INTERREG has been incorporated into the EU's territorial cohesion agenda under the objective of territorial cooperation [19]. This implies cooperation on regional and spatial planning together with other economic growth issues more generally related to regional policy [30]. As for territorial cohesion in 2005, the Commission explained that territorial cohesion becomes a key element of promoting stronger integration of the territory of the Union in all its dimensions, and cohesion policy supports the balanced and sustainable development of the territory of the Union at the level of its macro-regions and reduces any barrier effects through cross-border cooperation (CBC) and the exchange of best practices [31].
The latter objective (strengthening territorial cooperation) is closely tied to the notion of European spatial planning (in INTERREG Phase III). The strong relation between cohesion policy and planning in the EU is reinforced by the work of DG Regio, the Commission Directorate-General for Regional (Cohesion) Policy which has taken the lead, with member states, on European spatial planning initiatives [30].
On the one hand, in European urban areas, the focus is on improving competitiveness through clustering, networking, and achieving more balanced development between the economically strongest cities and the rest of the urban network. Priorities are promoting entrepreneurship, local employment, and community development and measures to rehabilitate the physical environment, redevelop brownfield sites, and preserve and develop historical and cultural heritage [19, 31].
On the other hand, in European rural areas, the member states should support economic regeneration by ensuring a minimum level of access to "services of general economic interest," with a view to improving conditions in rural areas and limiting outmigration. Priorities include building connectivity to the main national and European networks; developing an integrated approach to tourism development; investing in development poles in rural areas (e.g., in small- and medium-sized towns); and developing economic clusters based on local assets combined with the use of new information technologies [19, 31].
3. City cooperation (CC) effect in land use planning
City-to-city (C2C) cooperation is not a novel phenomenon, through a scientific study on the matter is quite new. C2C was started, and evolved, in Europe—in wider terms: local governments in developed countries tend to determine the content of it. The first international relations between local governments in Europe were recognized after the Second World War, especially in the 1950s. The Council of European Municipalities and Regions, established in 1951, took a strong position to encourage these international contacts at the local level. The idea was to build a united Europe. Strict regulations were determined for these relations by the Council of European Municipalities and Regions and by the French-oriented Fédération Mondiale des Villes Jumelées—Cités Unies [32].
In the Western world of attention for development, cooperation was high in the 1970s, and characteristic of this development was the total absence of formal regulations. Then, a new tendency of international relations of local governments became apparent in the 1980s. In the United Kingdom, the United States, and the Netherlands—among others—local authorities united themselves against the apartheid in South Africa [32, 33].
As for Asia, China has undergone economic and political restructuring in the post-socialist era under the background of globalization. At the same time, its provincial governments have mobilized various forms of booming North-South city-to-city (C2C) cooperation within their respective jurisdictions during the last 10 years [34]. As for cross-border cooperation (CBC), during the recent decades, border areas increased great importance on the international scene concerning their potential and integrative functions such as demonstrated along the unification of Europe [12, 35, 36, 37].
The experiences of CBC, assumed not only in Europe but also all over the world, as is the case of several CBC projects between the United States and Mexico, China-India (Asia), Argentina-Chile, or Brazil-Bolivia (South America), among many other examples through the globe [38, 39], fostered the creation of a global network of relationships among people and states, which enabled the achievement of several political, economic, environmental, and sociocultural win-win situations [40, 41]. These networks have been increasingly recognized by urban planners, landscape architects, and other urban development specialists, as crucial elements which enable the introduction of recent urban development challenges and paradigms [13, 42, 43, 44, 45, 46, 47] into future planning activities [10].
As for spatial planning system, an ensemble of territorial governance arrangements that seek to shape patterns of spatial development in particular places is considered [48, 49]. In this regard, the set of systems and policies of the planning of the EU expanded planning system increasing criteria such as the extent of the planning system, the extension, and the type of planning at the national and regional level [31, 50, 51]. Also, it has redefined the role of the public and the private, maturity and integrity of the system and the distance between the intended objectives and the results actually obtained [52]. And, it divides traditional planning mainly into four types, including regional economic planning, urban planning, comprehensive planning, and land use planning [49].
In fact, the efficacy of the CBC at different scales of cooperation in planning the land use has been under discussion, through the review of CBC's initiatives in developing countries [10, 53]. On a governmental scale normally stands as the promise of the project from the management and land use, in several cases, it contributes to overshadow the limitations of land use. For example, the extraction of natural resources and the massive agricultural exploitation. Secondly, at the regional level, the design and implementation of the CBC have overlooked often asymmetries of power within a community. This effect has been gone unnoticed at the individual level. Thus, there has been unequal access to the design, decision-making, and the intended results. It also highlights at the community, local, and national bargaining power that has taken the elites, because this has been instrumental in shaping the governance of the CBC and even in the promotion of the CBC by external agents. In fact, the adaptation of the CBC to new scenarios depends largely on the process of empowerment of the community and the construction of optimal networks with external agents [53]. In this way, as will be achieved through CBC, cross-border regions can reach (1) comparative advantages and (2) economies of scale.
4. The impact of city cooperation in decision-making processes
Planning potentially influences and connects a wide range of issues, behind which are most diverse and conflicting interest [49]. The traditional special planning focuses on the position, intensity, form, quantity, and coordination of the development of the land in different spaces. However, the issues and challenges faced by the local areas need to be addressed by a process of socio-spatial integration through which occurs a vision, coherent actions, and means of implementation for shaping and structuring making it a place and what this place might be in the future position [54, 55]. In this sense, cooperation between cross-border cities is directed to the solution of problems arising from the dysfunctions caused by the existence of the border [56].
As for sovereign and cooperation problems, nation-states are under pressure to find innovative ways to redefine their relationships with space. The traditional understanding of the state, as the ultimate repository of sovereignty over a bounded portion of the Earth's surface and the society that inhabits it, is at odds with the current world of cross-border flows of capital, goods, people, and ideas [57]. At the same time, there is a reterritorialization of economic and political activity that transcends the spatial framework of the nation-state [58].
Border, cross-border regions, and CBC studies address state territorial restructuring at the subnational level. They have primarily examined the reterritorialization of state power and institutions across borders, documenting the emergence of cross-border governance networks and power relations [57, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63, 64, 65]. In this regard, CBC should be placed in the context of the emergence of multilevel and participative governance, which requires an active involvement on behalf of, on the one hand, different tiers of government (from the EU institutions to local governments) and, on the other, civil society and private actors working alongside public authorities [66]. The diversity of arrangements existing in the field of CBC includes the fact that Euroregions may be established according to either private or public law [67]. The geopolitics of Euroregions suggest that cross-border reterritorialization across the latest EU borders is driven by a scalar conflict of territorial logics [57]. The border-induced territorial logic of the nation-state conflicts with the border-bridging territorial logic of CBC [68].
In political and institutional terms, the emergence of CBC and the setting-up of cross-border frameworks such as Euroregion and European Grouping of Territorial Cooperation (EGTC) can be seen as an expression of broader developments in the field of European governance, including the subsidiarity principle and its adaptation to a borderless Europe, the increasing centrality of regions as spaces combining a political, economic, social, and cultural dimension [69].
A "territoire de project" amounts to a bottom-up process, which in turn can contribute to moving from a vertical, interlocked approach to regional development and multilevel governance to the one characterized by shared responsibilities and by horizontal, interdependent relationships among different regions and tiers of government [70]. Besides, the added value of EGTCs lies in their ability to fulfill cross-border tasks by common decisions on the regional/local level and to reinforce the ability of local and regional authorities to contribute to bottom-up regional development [71]. But public authorities on the regional/local level need an EGTC; otherwise, a bottom-up approach in territorial cooperation is very difficult [66]. Also, in comparative terms, the adoption of the EGTC Regulation also serves to highlight the relevant role played by CBC within the European integration process, since the sovereignty of the state ends at its borders, but the differences and problems of these borders continue to exist and require sustainable solutions [66]. Against this background, they cannot allow their borderland to follow special rules without compromising the theoretical model of the territorial container that the nation-state follows [72]. Euroregions for their part need exemptions from national regulation in order to be able to function meaningfully across state borders [57]. Indeed, the degree of cross-border integration can be a result of political will and the benefit perceived by the communities involved in the collaboration, but it can also be interpreted as resulting from the prevailing tension between the aim to supersede traditional borders and the ongoing weight of national traditions and structures [66].
In this regard, research has gained additional momentum considering current developments, such as the recent situation in Crimea (Ukraine) with Russia, the Greek-German frictions, the rise of terrorism in European continent (leading to an increasingly fractious debate about free movement in Europe as well as the resurgence of nationalist and extremist sentiments among European citizens), the economic fallouts in Europe, or even the recent Brexit scenario [3, 7, 73, 74, 75]. Due to the fact, other factors to ensure the sustainability of experiences include political will, i.e., political commitment and transparency, and the integration of a "cross-border awareness" or "cross-border culture" in the standard design and management of policies and legislation, i.e., common objectives and Master's Plans [10, 66].
5. City cooperation in Europe: assessing the past, envisioning the future
In the inception of the twenty-first century, especially in a European and Western context, it is almost given that borders are just lines drawn on a map. For this, the establishment of the European Union has contributed as a catalyst [76], almost vanishing borders and promoting CBC and city border cooperation, i.e., as is the case of the establishment of the Euro-cities. Still, as abovementioned, the recent developments going on European territory are threatening such relationships among European nations and even with other continents, leading to the necessity to rethink some of the EU policies.
In this regard, four European CBC case studies (Figure 1) focused from different aspects and perspectives will be exposed, analyzed, and assessed, enabling a multivariated effect analysis of city cooperation in land use planning and decision-making processes. Thus, the case studies need to meet the following criteria:
Cities must present a historic of city cooperation.
Countries should present CBC projects toward the integration of environmental, sociocultural, and economic development goals.
The distance between cities should be no longer than 100 km.
Selected case studies. (A) Vienna-Bratislava-Brno-Györ, (B) Copenhagen-Malmö, (C) Oradea-Debrecen, and (D) Ruse-Giurgiu.
5.1. Case study analysis
5.1.1. Vienna-Bratislava-Brno-Györ: the labor force as a catalyst "4" city cooperation
The institutional relations between the cities of Bratislava, Vienna, Brno, and Györ are driven, mainly, by the desire to promote economic development. With the end of the transitional period—limiting the right of Slovak workers to enter the labor market in the European Union in 2011—the cooperation levels between the cities have considerably increased. Nowadays, the leading entity, regarding CBC, is the Centrope Strategy 2013—which includes territories of Hungary, the Czech Republic, Austria, and Slovakia. In this regard, one of the main goals of such strategy is to foster a coordinated approach toward a sustainable regional planning to improve connectivity and the movement between cities, in this large region, regarding accessibility and transportation infrastructure and services [77]. All the regions present great results; however, it should be highlighted that the city of Bratislava once is perhaps one of the best examples of urban growth in the globalization Era [1, 7]. These great results may be explained mainly by its privileged geographical situation, at the heart of a rapid European development, presenting interesting future indicators for their citizens, along with new opportunities and horizons perfectly possible to reach.
Identified critical factors: common objectives and Master's Plans, connectivity-movement between cities, and stronger economy.
5.1.2. Copenhagen-Malmö: a strong cooperation through a bridge below Öresund
The cooperation around the Øresund Strait mainly focuses on cross-border economic development based on knowledge and innovation—several clusters in life sciences and clean technologies. Projects as the Øresund Bridge, the train or the freeway, are just some example that have enabled an increase on accessibility standards and improving border functional integration among regions, which have led to the development and construction of new urban districts, i.e., Ørestad, in Copenhagen, and Hyllie, in Malmö, through this transboundary linkage. Being peripheral cities normally seen as a handicap, however, in this case, it has turned into an advantage thanks to the great relationships among these territories and the commitment demonstrated by the main actors of the common regional planning processes and the decision-makers.
5.1.3. Oradea-Debrecen: CrossTrans toward the EU standards
If the cooperation between these two cities is still young and also poorly developed, the possibilities for growth through new cooperations and synergies are considerably high, once these two cities perform one of the major urban agglomerations of the region—leading to a significant amount of human resources. By the other hand, the existence of a Hungarian minority in the Romanian side contributes to a stronger regional cohesion. Still, both cities are inserted in the Euroregion Hajdu-Bihar Bihor, where one of the pre-established goals of the Euroregion is fostering a better integration of the projects carried out by the public regarding: health, culture, education, and economic development. The distance between these two cities, about 65–70 km, should also be taken into account. So, their territorial success depends on well-developed connectivity between cities; so, the CrossTrans project, as well as the establishment of other infrastructures, has been critical to achieving the so desired success. Besides, it also should be considered that the region is not Schengen Area, or a member of the common currency (Euro), leading to more handicaps for the territories. Nevertheless, and against all the low odds, the region through CBC strategies shows significant positive performances which conduct an approach to European standards.
Identified critical factors: access to European funds, connectivity-movement between cities, and increasing life's standards.
5.1.4. Ruse-Giurgiu: the importance of being inserted in a Euroregion
The cities of Ruse and Giurgiu constitute the largest border urban agglomeration between Bulgaria and Romania, separated by the Danube River, which is in itself a reason for cooperation since a long time, i.e., common urban planning due to extreme flood phenomena. Along with the previously identified reason for cooperating, also exists the need for the rehabilitation of accessibility infrastructures promoting a transboundary integration avowing infrastructural duplication in CBC [7]. Also, in this case, the area is inserted within a Euroregion—Danubius Euroregion. Thus, it is possible to verify, once more, the importance of being inserted in a Euroregion, mainly, for cities and regions that denote an estrangement from the European standards—which, unfortunately in many cases, is more evident. So, their integration in larger common regional development programs, i.e., the Euroregions, conducts that the performances presented by these "Euroregionalized regions" start to reverse the estrangement tendency and consequently a closeness to the EU standards.
Identified critical factors: access to European funds and connectivity-movement between cities.
5.2. Outcomes
In this regard, general settings including statistical data for the population of the cities and the corresponding region or influenced area (Table 1), as well as data for the distance-time between the cities of these border areas (Table 2), were analyzed. Through that analysis, it is possible to understand their spatial configuration, i.e., different spatial configurations and different urban patterns and dynamics, concurring with previous researches and studies as the one conducted by ESPON regarding Urban Functions [78], among many other studies and works developed in the same context.
Spatial structure
Vienna-Bratislava-Brno-Györ (Centrope region) AT
HU 48,200 Cross-border polycentric metropolitan region 6,500,000
Copenhagen-Malmö DK
SE 21,800 Cross-border polycentric metropolitan region 3,800,000
Oradea-Debrecen RO
Ruse-Giurgiu BG
RO 195 Cross-border agglomeration 204,297
General settings and spatial structure (source: [77, 79]).
AT, Austria; SK, Slovakia; CZ, Czech Republic; HU, Hungary; DK, Denmark; SE, Sweden; RO, Romania; and BG, Bulgaria.
Between main cities
Travel time (min)
Vienna-Bratislava-Brno-Györ (Centrope region) AT Vienna-Bratislava 83 54 /
SK Vienna-Györ 116 81
Vienna-Brno 137 103
CZ Bratislava-Györ 91 55
Bratislava-Brno 87 78
HU Brno-Györ 248 122
SE Copenhagen-Malmö 34 48 /
HU Oradea-Debrecen 54 69 /
RO Ruse-Giurgiu / 15 15
Connectivity and accessibility-movement between cities (source: [80]).
Also, an indicator which allows that to analyze the economic dynamics of the territories, i.e., GDP per capita in terms of purchasing power parity, is presented in Table 3, covering both sides of the border. Analyzing Table 3, it is possible to understand the socioeconomic dynamics of the urban areas under study, i.e., GDP per capita for each case study region for the 3 years 2000, 2006, and 2011, where in all cases, the GDP per capita has increased in absolute terms but with very different rates. For an easy reading, in the last column, the information is synthesized using signs which allow seeing whether GDP has increased at rates, which are:
Still below the average increase for European regions in NUTS 3 (−), which was 5500 €.
Between 5000 € and 10,000 € above the EU average growth (+).
Very above (++), over 10,000 € elation to the population.
Evolution (2000/2011)
Vienna-Bratislava-Brno-Györ AT 30,263 34,547 36,562 +
SK 12,400 17,200 19,000 +
CZ 12,803 16,139 18,652 +
HU 15,652 26,855 34,357 ++
Copenhagen-Malmö DK 22,100 25,700 27,100 —
SE 29,161 33,419 36,667 +
Oradea-Debrecen RO 7600 10,900 12,500 —
HU 4700 9300 10,100 —
Ruse-Giurgiu BG 4700 7100 8700 —
RO 2700 4800 9000 +
GDP per capita dynamics (source: [77, 79]).
Notes: (−) means that the evolution of the GDP per capita is below 5.500 € (EU NUTS 3 average growth) between 2000 and 2011; (+) means that the evolution of the GDP per capita is between 5.500 and 10.000 € between 2000 and 2011; (++) means that the evolution of the GDP per capita is higher than 10.000 € between 2000 and 2011; The threshold values have been calculated based on the average and standard deviation in all the NUTS 3 regions in the EU. AT, Austria; SK, Slovakia; CZ, Czech Republic; HU, Hungary; DK, Denmark; SE, Sweden; RO, Romania; and BG, Bulgaria.
It is a well-documented fact that labor market can play a critical role through the impact on cross-border integration [81]; so, throughout Table 4, it is possible to analyze the differences in unemployment levels and where cross-border cooperation can potentially allow a higher fluidity of the labor market for the benefit of both sides of urban regions [80, 81].
NUTS2*
Active population 2006/2013 (%)
Employment 2006/2013 (%)
Difference (%)
Vienna-Bratislava-Brno-Györ Burgenland 3.5 5 4.7 −1 4.7
AT Niederösterreich 6.2 4 5.6 0.5 5.6
SK Wien 7.4 8.8 7.8 −0.4 7.8
CZ Jihovýchod 3.7 7.1 4.1 −0.3 4.1
HU Nyugat-Dunántúl −0.7 5.7 −2.7 2.1 −2.7
Bratislavský kraj 0.3 4.6 −1.7 1.8 −1.7
Copenhagen-Malmö DK Sydsverige 9 8.2 6.8 1.7 6.8
SE Hovedstaden 8.8 5 3.8 2.4 3.8
Sjælland −2 4 −5.6 2.8 −5.6
Oradea-Debrecen RO Észak-Alföld 5.7 11 1.7 3.4 1.7
HU Nord-Vest 0.6 5.9 2.7 −1.8 2.7
Ruse-Giurgiu BG Severen Tsentralen −9.1 13.5 −11.1 1.8 −11.1
RO Sud-Muntenia −8.8 9.4 −9 0.5 −9
Labor market dynamics (2006/2013) (source: [77, 79]).
Totally or partly incorporated in cross-border urban areas.
Table 5 shows the identified factors for territorial success on the case studies.
Identified factors
Vienna-Bratislava-Brno-Györ
Copenhagen-Malmö
Oradea-Debrecen
Ruse-Giurgiu
Access to European funds x x
Common objectives and Master's Plans x x
Connectivity-Movement between cities x x x x
Increasing life's standards x
Stronger economy x x
Identified factors.
6. Discussion and conclusions
The performed multivariated analysis of the case studies enabled us to identify critical factors for territorial success through CBC projects. Nevertheless, similar studies have already been developed, i.e., [7, 10, 32, 66], among many others, however, not through a multivariated analysis focusing on the addressed case studies. Thus, the present study allowed to define specific factors for these cases as well as to establish a correlation with land use, urban planning, city cooperation, and CBC.
So, from an individualized perspective, two rhythms of development and consequently two groups of factors and objectives can be defined; in order words, through the analysis of the case studies, it is verified that the cases located in Central and North Europe, Bratislava-Vienna-Brno-Györ, and Copenhagen-Malmö, have similar objectives, i.e., common objectives, Master's plans, and stronger economy, while in the cases of Eastern Europe, Oradea-Debrecen, and Ruse-Giurgiu, the factors and objectives are access to the EU funds and increase in life's standards, demonstrating significant disparities in the development levels within the European continent. However, one of the identified factors is common to all case studies: connectivity-movement between cities, showing unequivocally its relevance to achieve territorial success as well as the so desired sustainable development. In this regard, to achieve a sustainable, well-developed and abiding CBC project, all the critical factors, even the ones that have been assigned only for some of the cases, should be considered and not be underestimated [6]; such statement is valid not only for the planners but mainly for the decision-makers.
The historical and social evolution that European territories have felt through time should also be focused; along with the land use, changes as well as territorial landscapes, urban and rural, are the outcome of policies and administrative actions leading to strengthen urban agglomerations giving them the consistency that they present as a result of the application of regional strategies, i.e., the plurality of Europe [41]. In fact, the reality of the twenty-first century is increasingly the change tendency in the urban landscapes of these "new times," i.e., technological, and socioeconomically, where city cooperation is not an exception.
In fact, throughout history, territories have always sought an approach to the more developed/avant-garde nations of their time. Nowadays, and based on the results of the present study, economies and countries of Central and Northern Europe, along with the United States, continue to be references to good practice, formatting the urban agglomerations and their landscapes in the demand for such standards.
The authors would like to acknowledge the financial support given by the Junta de Extremadura/FEDER for the support to the research Group ARAM - Environmental Resources Analysis Research Group (GR15149).
2.European planning framework: a brief review
3.City cooperation (CC) effect in land use planning
4.The impact of city cooperation in decision-making processes
5.City cooperation in Europe: assessing the past, envisioning the future
6.Discussion and conclusions
Luís Carlos Loures, Rui Alexandre Castanho, José Manuel Naranjo Gómez, Ana Vulevic, José Cabezas and Luis Fernández-Pozo (March 21st 2018). The Multivariated Effect of City Cooperation in Land Use Planning and Decision-Making Processes: A European Analysis, Urban Agglomeration, Mustafa Ergen, IntechOpen, DOI: 10.5772/intechopen.72191. Available from:
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This is the new variant cover for "Firewater", the eleventh novelette in the alternate history science fiction "Futurist Manifesto" series. Cover design and illustration by Dazzling Danielle Drake! Read an excerpt here!


Thank you for your interest in General Aviation and in joining our group of dedicated aviation enthusiasts. YOU NEED NOT BE A CURRENT PILOT (or even a pilot want-a-be) TO BE A MEMBER. We have many ex-military pilots with no current interest in flying, that join us just to be around the airport.
As noted in the chapter By-Laws, our meetings are at 7:30pm on the second Monday of each month at the airport terminal building. Meeting are generally quite informal with business taking up only a short time at the beginning, followed by an aviation related program, with plenty of socializing and "hangar flying".
Additionally, we sponsor at least one aviation event at the airport per year. Our "fly in" may consist of EAA members from NW Ohio flying all manner of old planes to the Wood County Airport or having a "type club" visit. Type Clubs are owners of the same aircraft make and/or model getting together to show off their treasured restorations.
To join our group print out our application form and send it with your starting dues or better yet present it in person at one of our monthly meetings. Your very presence at a meeting tells us you have the right spirit to be a member of our group, so don't be shy.


She ran away. All I know is that something like a bird within her sang, all I know she sang a little while and then flew on. She crested the hill. Though the settling dust I could see she left behind her a trail of her feathers, stitched together with only gossamer and grit. Her figure took to the air with speed. In the glare of the sun, she could have flown or jumped or been simply lifted by the breeze. Vanishing faster and faster, she is lost in a feathered flash, and is gone into stardust. Laugh in the sunshine, fly through the night.
// Your favorite leggings trimmed down to capris for hot days on the trails or in the studio.


text:
Q: What can cause \ref{} of LaTex output a [??] I include a figure like this
\begin{figure*}
\begin{center}
\includegraphics[width=6.7in]{pic/recall_details.png}
\caption{ Recalls of test query MB002-MB049}
\label{ recall_details}
\end{center}
\end{figure*}

And then I refer it using \ref{recall_details}. Instead of getting numbers like 1, 2, I get ??. Literally I mean ??. What is wrong with my codes? How to make the references show correctly?

A: You should "compile" your latex code twice to get numbers instead of question marks

A: The issue is that you're referencing \ref{recalls_details}, but you've defined \label{ recalls_details}. That extra space before recalls_details is what gets you ?? instead of the figure number. You should either change the \ref to \ref{ recalls_details} or the \label to \label{recalls_details}.
On another note, I suggest you add a modifier at the start of the label, such as fig: in this case: \label{fig:recalls_details}. This is useful when you have different types of labels (e.g. to sections, sec:, and to equations, eqn:).
The bottom line is to always use the exact string you give within the \label{} in the relevant \ref{}.


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text:
Q: How do I get the error messages in Backbone.js? I got a question regarding success/error callbacks of the methods in Backbone.js. As I am new to this , my question might seem to be simple or something like that.
As far as I know, save() or fetch() methods of a model fires success, if there is no error (say, exception) on the server. The question is, should I throw an exception on the server in order to get the type of an error on the client side? Let me give you an example of what I mean:
I have a UI on the web which creates a new user for the app, for instance. My client-side would look something like this:
var userView = Backbone.View.extend({

   initialize:function(){ ... },
   events: {
     'click #sign_up': 'createAccount'
   },
    createAccount: function() {
      login = $('#login').val();
      password = $('#password').val();
      var user = new User(); // User is a model
      user.save({login: login, password: password},{
            success: function(data) {
               if (data != null) {
                  alert('success');
               } else {
                   alert('fail');
               }

            },
            error : function() {
                alert('error');
            }
   }
});

Accordingly, server side would be:
@Controller
@RequestMapping("/users")
public class UsersController {

@RequestMapping(method = RequestMethod.POST)
public @ResponseBody User createUser(@RequestBody User user) throws Exception {

    if (user == null || !user.isValid()) {
        return null;// not valid - error message 1
    }
    if (userDao.getUserByLogin(user.getLogin()) != null) {
        return null;// such user already exists! - error message 2
    }

    userDao.saveUser(user);

    return user;
}

What I want is being able to send proper error messages accordingly. If I return null, then the  data inside success callback will be the model that I've just populated before send the request. If I throw an exception, then it will fire error. At this point, what approach should I take to meet my needs.

A: You should not throw an exception. Well you can but then you should handle the exception on the server-side and only return correct HTTP codes.
e.g.
If a user is not found on the server side, normally you return a 404 HTTP Status Code. 404 will fire the error callback.
The error call back has multiple arguments in case you want to pass some data on the server (like error message). According to docs:
"error" (model, xhr, options) — when a model's save call fails on the server.

You can access the error message in xhr object.


Last Friday, the new factory complex near Cholet of 'Société Choletaise de Fabrication' was delivered to the client. The factory will be operational by the end of this week. Click here for more recent images of the complex.