For a long time, the pricing user community had been waiting for this functionality. Unlike all the financials modules, it was not possible to partition pricing data by operating unit. This was a serious issue in a multi-org environment. A sales order supported multi-org functionality but a price list or modifiers did not. This meant that pricing data was wide open to all the responsibilities that access price lists. There was also no function security available to make the price list 'read only' for a specific group of users.
A new HTML form has been introduced in Release 11.5.9 that can be configured using the Pricing Administrator responsibility (also a new responsibility in 11.5.9) to partition pricing data by responsibility, user or operating unit. It is also now possible to grant 'read only' access to a pricing user group (responsibility or operating unit) on a specific pricing object. This is really a powerful feature. The good news is that this security feature is available both in advanced pricing and in basic pricing. The bad news is that the new pricing security only works for the HTML interface. Moreover, the HTML interface does not show any of the descriptive flexfields defined in the pricing form. We hope that this gap will soon be taken care of by Oracle.


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surpass terrorism as the most serious security threat in the United States. Businesses in particular face an increasing risk of exposing themselves to cyber-attacks. Here is a list of the top five cyber threats that threaten businesses today.
1. Web Application Security – According to the Web Hacking Incident Database, Web application exploits, specifically SQL injection, account for 27.1% of reported attacks. SQL injection attacks use vulnerabilities in a website's code to obtain access to data in the site's database. Such attacks are commonly used to obtain sensitive information, such as credit card numbers, addresses, Social Security numbers, and other information which can then be used or sold.
2. Social Media – Cyber criminals comb through sites such as Facebook to obtain personal information, and to instigate phishing schemes against users. Users often fail to adequately protect their information using the sometimes confusing privacy settings. Also, data stored on social media sites is vulnerable to viruses and malware used to obtain information used in identity theft.
3. Phishing – Phishing remains a serious threat. The 2011 Norton Cyber crime Report indicates that 21% of cyber crime involves online scams or phishing. Attackers use email, social media, and malicious websites to obtain information such as user ids, passwords, and other sensitive data. A common scam involves someone posing as a systems administrator or security professional, asking for login information following supposed "system maintenance," or to reset a user's login information for them.
4. Wireless devices – Attacks on systems using smartphones and other wireless devices are a particularly insidious threat to businesses. Smartphones and tablets are common devices with wireless networking capability, but are frequently left unsecured against viruses or malware. With the dramatic increase in smartphone and pad adoption, this is an attractive backdoor for cyber criminals, giving them easy access to an otherwise secure network.
5. Advanced persistent threats – An advanced persistent threat is a person or a group pursuing objectives such as fraud, theft, or industrial espionage. According to a report published following Georgia Tech's 2011 Cyber Security Summit, the coordinated use of botnets (such as Stuxnet), phishing, malware, and fraud to obtain sensitive information from credit card numbers to design schematics is on the rise. What makes these threats especially dangerous is the covert nature of the threat. APTs fly under the radar, letting them continually exploit security vulnerabilities.


If you have ever wanted to get up close and personal with one of the many different birds of prey that populate our planet, why not make a visit to the Pacific Northwest Raptors visitor centre in Cowichan Valley? The facility is situated only about eight minutes away from Duncan on Vancouver Island in British Columbia, and can be easily accessed via the Trans Canada highway.
This magnificent Raptor centre allows visitors the opportunity to get better acquainted with a wide variety of these magnificent predatory birds. A self-guided bird watching tour will enable family and friends to walk through naturally landscaped grounds where they can view hawks, falcons, owls and eagles. If falconry has always appealed to you, you will be able to learn more about this ancient art at the Pacific Northwest Raptors centre. You will also be able to discover how the birds at the centre are trained for things such as free-fly demonstrations, bird control work and movie work. The flight demonstrations that are put on at the centre on a daily basis (weather permitting) are absolutely breathtaking and guests will be able to marvel at the supreme abilities of these magnificent birds as they show off their natural talents. Along with these demonstrations, visitors will be told more about the specific birds and how they live, how they are perfectly adapted to hunting and how they relate to mankind.
The family-orientated center will appeal to virtually any bird lover, and visitors will find that there is almost always something exciting taking place here. The small interpretive center will further educate visitors about these magnificent birds, while the gift shop provides the perfect selection of gifts and mementos for you to take home. For those who just have to have a more personalized birding experience, the Pacific Northwest Raptors center offers hawk-walks and hands-on courses. So get yourself to Pacific Northwest Raptors and make the most of the excellent birding facility!


text:
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Domain has exceeded the max defers and failures per hour allowed
Domains & DNS
G Suite (Formerly Google Apps)
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If your email is returned with error messages similar to the following, you may have sent too many bounced or deferred messages within one hour.
Domain has exceeded the max defers and failures per hour (5/5 (100%)) allowed. Message discarded.
To avoid misuse by spammers and subsequent blacklisting of the server in spam databases, all email errors are tracked.
If more than 50% of email sent from a particular domain within one hour is bounced or deferred by the recipient server, a temporary block on sending additional email will be activated for that domain. After the hour has passed, this block will be automatically lifted.
Bounced: Any email messages that are returned with an error status.
Deferred: This usually indicates that the message could not be delivered to the recipient's server, but that additional attempts will be made. In most cases, email servers will attempt to deliver deferred messages several times over a 24 hour period. If the receiving email server becomes available again within this time period, the message will be delivered.
Create and modify mailboxes in SiteWorx
After you have created an email account, you will be able to modify properties, such as password...
Forwarding Email to Gmail
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Email forwarders allow you to forward a copy of all mail from one address to another. For...
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Spam refers to junk email that's sent out in mass quantities. On average, three-fourths of the...
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The Senate on Friday morning is set to hold a crucial vote on whether to advance Kavanaugh's nomination to the nation's highest court.
A final vote is set to occur on Saturday.
Without evidence, Trump claimed the protesters are "paid professionals only looking to make Senators look bad." Trump suggested billionaire George Soros was among those allegedly paying the protesters.
The president's description of the protesters as "elevator screamers" seemed to be a reference to two women who confronted Republican Sen. Jeff Flake last Friday as he boarded an elevator and tearfully told him about their experiences as sexual assault survivors.
Flake was speechless as the women told him that moving forward with a vote on Kavanaugh's nomination would send a deeply troubling message to women about sexual assault.
"You're telling all women that they don't matter, that they should just stay quiet because if they tell you what happened to them you're going to ignore them," Maria Gallagher, 23, said to Flake during the emotional encounter.
WATCH – KAVANAUGH protesters hold open JEFF FLAKE's elevator on his way to the Senate Judiciary Committee.
Kavanaugh has been accused of sexual misconduct by multiple women. Last Thursday, Kavanaugh and one of his accusers, Christine Blasey Ford, delivered testimony on her allegations.
Subsequently, an FBI investigation was launched into the allegations, which concluded on Wednesday. Critics feel the investigation was not extensive enough, creating tension between Senate Democrats and Republicans as they moved toward a vote on whether to advance Kavanaugh's nomination.


text:
Here's Why Zoha Rehman Refused To Work With Saif Ali Khan
Sara Imran
Zoha Rehman is Pakistani based British actress and model. She is famous for her Hijab-wearing character in the 'Spiderman Far From Home. She is a brilliant and talented actress. Zoha Rehman recently appeared in an interview with "Something Haute".
Zoha Rehman while talking about the offers she received from Bollywood, mentioned that "I was supposed to be a part of a Bollywood film opposite Saif Ali khan and it was a big role but I refused because of the character."
"It was a bold character so I refused it right away because of the dynamics I've to deal with", added Zoha Rehman.
Nabeel's Side of Story On Quitting Dhuwan
Naimal Khawar Khan & Hamza Ali Abbasi Latest Clicks


text:
Q: Apollo client: Can @defer be used with client side resolvers? For some reason, I had to build a client-side only GraphQL server, my schema is built as follow:
    private buildSchema(): GraphQLSchema {
        const allTypes: string = ...// my types
        const allResolvers: IResolvers[] = ...// my resolvers

        return makeExecutableSchema({
            typeDefs: allTypes,
            resolvers: allResolvers
        });
    }

The client is as follow:
        this.client = new ApolloClient({
            link: new SchemaLink({schema: this.buildSchema()}),
            cache: new InMemoryCache({
                addTypename: false
            })
        });

And everything works fine except that my queries are not defered. For instance if I run:
const gqlQuery: string = `
{
user {
   name
   slowResolver @defer {
      text
      }
   }
}
`

const $result = this.apollo.getClient().watchQuery({
query: gql(gqlQuery)
});

The $result will be emited only when the whole query will be resolved (instead of user and then slowResolver as expected).
Any idea of what I missed in the workflow?

A: The @defer directive was actually removed from Apollo, although there's been some work done to reimplement it. Even if it's implemented, though, deferred queries would have to be handled outside of the execution context. In other words, executing the schema can return a deferred execution result, but something else (like Apollo server itself) has to handle how that response (both the initial payload, and the subsequent patches) are actually sent to the server over whatever transport.
If you're defining a schema client-side, unfortunately, it's not going to be possible to use the @defer directive.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


text:
in: Articles containing Italian-language text, Articles incorporating text from Wikipedia, Red Cross and Red Crescent national societies,
1860s establishments in Italy
Organizations established in 1863
Medical and health organisations based in Italy
Italian Red Cross
The Italian Red Cross (Italian language: Croce Rossa Italiana ) is the Italian national Red Cross society that has its origin in the Comitato dell'Associazione Italiana per il soccorso ai feriti ed ai malati in guerra that was formed in Florence in 1863, and in Milan on June 15, 1864.[1] Other committees were formed later. The Italian Red Cross was one of the original founding members of the International Red Cross in 1919.[2]
1 History of the Italian Red Cross
1.1 Early History
1.2 Red Cross Hospital 68 and the Korean War
2 Current Operations
3 Components
History of the Italian Red Cross
South Korean Stamp commemorating the role of the Italian Red Cross in providing medical care during the Korean War (It's interesting to note how the Korean designer of the stamp used the Kingdom of Italy flag, while Italy had been a republic, with a different flag, since 1946) 1950-1953
The American Red Cross has long been active in Italy, working in cooperation with the Italian Red Cross.[3] Ernest Hemingway worked for the American Red Cross in Italy in 1918.[4] The American Red Cross continues to have an office in Naples, Italy.[5]
Red Cross Hospital 68 and the Korean War
During the Korean War, the Italian Red Cross Field Hospital 68 (Ospedale da campo CRI n. 68) was despatched to Korea to aid the humanitarian disaster there, even though Italy was not a member of the United Nations at the time.[6] The Hospital arrived in Korea in November 1951 and provided medical services to wounded civilians and soldiers of all sides. It finally left Korea in January 1955.
Presently, the Italian Red Cross has the status of a sovra-national charitable organization, under the high patronage of the President of the Italian Republic. The Italian Red Cross is currently a member of the International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies. Doctor Massimo Barra was elected President of the Italian Red Cross on December 11, 2005 and served until October 30, 2008, when the Italian Government appointed Extraordinary Commissioner Francesco Rocca.[7]
Italian Red Cross vehicles bear special license plates.[8]
The Italian Red Cross has the following components:
Corpo militare - Military corps
Corpo delle Infermiere Volontarie - Voluntary nurses
Volontari del Soccorso - Voluntary of First Aid
Comitato Femminile - Women's Committee
Pionieri - Red Cross Youth
Donatori del Sangue - Blood Donors
↑ ITALY'S RED CROSS WORKS EFFICIENTLY, The New York Times, Page 53, Jan 6, 1918.
↑ IFRC: Who We Are: History.
↑ The Story of the American Red Cross in Italy, Charles Montague Bakewell, The Macmillan Company, New York, 1920.
↑ World War I, Michael Palin's Hemingway Adventure, PBS
↑ American Red Cross Naples Italy official website
↑ http://www.korean-war.com/italianRChospital.html
↑ Francesco Rocca is the Extraordinary Commissioner for the Italian Red Cross, from the IRC officiale web site.
↑ Italian Red Cross
Official Italian Red Cross website (in Italian)
Arkansas Army National Guard
Medical (non-combat) participants
Korean War reenactments
United Nations Contingents
United States Eighth Army
United States Seventh Fleet
Allegations of biological warfare
American and British defectors
Flying aces
Impact on the economy of the United States
MiG Alley
Operation Blacklist Forty
Operation Glory
United Nations Memorial Cemetery
Red Cross and Red Crescent national societies


Wine Lips have hit their stride with their new album Stressor. The three-piece have been slowly perfecting a brash brand of garage rock that sounds like an alluring blend of PUP and Ty Segall. Just like the stain that gave them their name, the hooks on these songs will be hard to wash off.


The scope of this project was to automate existing systems within the property with a control system, centralise all media and upgrade an existing cinema room. After an initial survey it was also agreed that the existing wired and wireless networks needed upgrading to support the project. It was also necessary to choose the lighting solution carefully as this required a retro fit and the property was occupied throughout the installation.
The project was completed within six weeks of the initial visit, and to the customer's specification.


Fiddlehead monogram. Photo of uncoiling fiddlehead of large fern in the Wilson Botanical Garden, San Vito, Costa Rica.
© Harry Hull III and Mandalagraphs.com, 2012. Unauthorized use and/or duplication of photographs and other material on this blog/website without express and written permission from this blog's author and owner is strictly prohibited. Excerpts and links may be used, provided that full and clear credit is given to Harry Hull III and Mandalagraphs.com with appropriate and specific direction to the original content.


text:
Migrations: A Q&A with DCQR Editor-in-Chief Devika Chawla
Devika Chawla is a professor of communication studies at Ohio University, and Editor-in-Chief of UC Press's journal Departures in Critical Qualitative Research. Her research focuses upon communicative, performative, and narrative approaches to studying family, home, and its relationship to social identity.
UC Press: You recently joined DCQR as its new Editor-in-Chief. Welcome!
Devika Chawla: Thank you. I am honored to have taken over this position. I am also deeply grateful for all the ways in which the past editor, Stacy Holman Jones, sculpted the content of DCQR for the last five years. Because of her labor, my editorial team has begun its work in a good place.
DCQR 8:1, the first issue of a special double issue on migrations and borders
UC Press: Your inaugural issue is now out, and it's organized around the theme of migrations. You have a very personal relationship with migrations—whether the migration forced on your childhood during India's Partition, or the migration of choice which brought you to the US to study. What is it about migrations that led you to devote your first issue to this idea?
Devika Chawla: Yes, migration is a large part of my family history. As I note in the introduction to the issue, my paternal family was forced to move to India after the 1947 Partition of British India into India and Pakistan. What is not mentioned in that issue is that my maternal family is originally from Burma (now Myanmar). This family fled to British India in 1942, after the Japanese (one of the Axis powers) bombed British-controlled Burma during World War II. We know less about my maternal family's migration, so I rarely address this side of my family. We also know less because maternal histories are often lost in the patriarchal structures that shape family narratives and histories. Migrations are indeed never equal, and neither are stories. Hence, reflexively, I feel the need to briefly mention my other family history in my answer to this question. And then there is my self-imposed migration to the US, which has added different layers and contours to my familial history.
"I was trying to focus attention on the ongoing crises of displacement the world is witnessing"
In considering the inaugural issues, however, my own history was less in the forefront, rather, I was—as are so many other persons across the world—trying to focus attention on the ongoing crises of displacement the world is witnessing. These crises have created refugees, migrants, immigrants, exiles the world over. After I knew I was taking over as the Editor, I wanted to commit to a set of inaugural issues on this theme. It seemed natural, but also necessary, given our geo-political surround. I view the double issue as an opportunity to ask academics and writers from different fields and disciplines to engage the notion of migration in their personal and professional work. I am very pleased and excited about the contributions. I believe the writers delivered poignant, thoughtful, even heartbreaking essays.
UC Press: Migrations are something that everyone experiences—as you note in your call for papers for the issue, "the history of human beings is tied to a history of movement and travel," but also that migrations can be understood not just as physical transformations but also as existential or metaphorical transformations. What were the migrations uncovered in this issue that were most impactful for you?
Devika Chawla: For the first issue (and indeed also the second), I made some strategic invitations because I was committed to engaging the voices of scholars from different contexts, areas, and locations. I am fond of all the essays because each essay made me travel into territories that are unfamiliar. Even so, three of the contributions continue to stand out for me. Karma Chavez's essay on migrant caravans as "coalitions in motion" is a very thoughtful piece of writing about the migrant caravan from a place of "place privilege," a place that she shares with the current US President. The essay is not only contemporaneous, but it also reframes some of the ways that caravans are perceived in the North American cultural imaginary.
Another remarkable essay is the one that directly follows Chavez's piece in the issue. Entitled, "The Great Migration of Whys," Sean Gleason's work takes us into the culture of the Nunalleq in Alaska, a tribe that has suffered from a series of colonial and climate related displacements. Of course, colonial practices have always had complicity with ecological encroachments into native lands, so in some ways that is not the novel argument the essay makes. What draws me to the essay is the astonishing force of Gleason's writing, it is the kind of writing I want to feature more and more in DCQR. The poetic and experimental form of the writing certainly informs, but more importantly evokes the reader to consider the present ongoing migrations of indigenous communities whose lives and livelihoods are imbricated with the land.
Finally, Jillian Tullis's essay, "Traveling to a New City," escorts us into the unknown territory of the migrations that accompany the processes of death, dying, and grieving. In a simple yet poignant telling, Tullis writes about her work with hospice care that has been her area of research, writing, and service for over a decade. She engages Barbara Karnes's Gone from My Sight as a roadmap for thinking about migration in dying and argues that instead of dismissing the language of travel and visitors in the dying process, such metaphors should be taken seriously. Even though I know that the travel metaphor is used in talking about death and dying, and indeed the rituals that surround human passing, I was struck by the meditative and pragmatic manner in which Tullis teaches us about the subject.
UC Press: Your follow-up to this issue on migrations is your second issue, coming in June, on borders and margins—a natural companion to the current issue. What can readers expect from the Borders and Margins issue?
Devika Chawla: In some ways, the second issue is a continuation of the broader theme of migration. In my introduction to the upcoming issue, I argue that it is impossible to talk about migration without considering its attendant features—borders and margins. Let me preview a segment from my writing where I make the argument that:
Migration, all migrations entail borders. And, to understand and address borders, it is crucial to pay attention to questions of power and privilege. Borders are imbricated, in fact arise from, issues of hierarchy. We cannot think about borders without interrogating who gets to establish borders and thus control the migration of the Other. Also, who gets to police the border, with what legitimate means? Consequently, once a border is created, emplaced, and established other questions come to the fore. What borders can we cross? What borders are off limits? What role do our identities play in this access?
Borders, therefore, necessarily contain forces that impede and mediate migration. Borders have properties. They can be political, geographic, intellectual, disciplinary, sexual, racial, gendered, economic, and so on. Borders create boundaries that define inclusion and exclusion. Borders operate as a device to limit migration by determining and defining who is an insider and who is an outsider. In other words, borders are never equal. They lead to the creation of margins, which in turn leads to marginalization, the creation of the minoritized. To bring this full circle, marginalization is tied to migration. Once again, we are forced to grapple with the question—who is in and who is out? And why? These and many more questions are implicitly and explicitly engaged by the contributors to this issue.
The essays in the second issue take us into an even more diverse and complex set of ideas from academics writing from across multiple contexts and locations. The first essay following my introduction considers a state, the nation of Turkey, itself as a border that must exist so that Europe recognizes itself as Europe. Another essay tracks the routes across which a Malaysian Muslim woman and academic navigates her identity in border spaces. In yet another piece, perhaps my favorite, a poet, who also dabbles in translating poems from French to English, writes about her process. As a translator, she is a conduit between two linguistic spheres or two cultural worlds, and she finds herself questioning the process, ". . . when I translate, my subject position is always tenuous. Who am I to carry these words over? This is a constant anxiety. When I manage to harness this anxiety, I tell myself: you are a person, interpreting another person. No matter what, you'll never get it quite right. That's poetry. That's life." In telling us about her process, in these simple words, she is able to reinforce that all border crossings—literal, literary, or metaphorical—are uneasy, unequal, and uneven.
So, in short, I'm looking forward to our readers engaging with this double issue in the hope that both issues illuminate novel ways that we can attune to migrations, borders, and margins. I also want readers to engage the issues as entwined and not necessarily distinct from each other.
Departures in Critical Qualitative Research publishes peer reviewed, innovative, experimental, aesthetic, and provocative works on the theories, practices, and possibilities of critical qualitative research. We welcome and showcase state of the art work in performative writing, performance texts, fictocriticism, creative nonfiction, photo essays, short stories, poetry, personal narrative, autoethnography, and other arts-based critical research.
TAGS: Borders, DCQR, Departures in Critical Qualitative Research, Immigration, migration
CATEGORIES: Author Interviews, From Our Authors, Journals
Become an Author: Meet Editor Lyn Uhl at ICA 2019
Introducing the California Series in Public Anthropology's new editor Ieva Jusionyte
Skills of the "Unskilled" Studying Them, Studying Us, Studying Up: What Role for an Engaged Anthropology? Immigrant America Civic Sociology: A Q&A with Eric Royal Lybeck


text:
» Physical Properties
IncludedACGIH Region Regions RegionRegion
Last Updated on Sat, 13 Jul 2019 | Physical Properties
Head airways (HAR)
Extrathoracic (E) Nasopharynx (NP)
Mouth, oropharynx, laryngopharynx
Trachea, bronchi, and conductive bronchioles (to terminal bronchioles)
Respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveolar sacs, alveoli
Anterior nasal passages (ETj)
All other extrathoracic (Et2)
Tracheobronchial Tracheobronchial Tracheobronchial Trachea and
Gas exchange (GER)
Alveolar (A) Pulmonary (P)
large bronchi
Bronchioles (bb)
Alveolar-interstitial (Al)
4.3 Extrathoracic Airways
As shown in Figure 2.4, the extrathoracic airways were partitioned by ICRP (6) into two distinct clearance and dosimetric regions: the anterior nasal passages (ET,) and all other extrathoracic airways (ET2), i.e., the posterior nasal passages, the naso- and oropharynx, and the larynx. Particles deposited on the surface of the skin that lines the anterior nasal passages (ETj) are assumed to be subject only to removal by extrinsic means (nose blowing, wiping, etc.). The bulk of material deposited in the naso-oropharynx or larynx (ET2) is subject to fast clearance in the layer of fluid that covers these airways. The 1994 ICRP model recognizes that diffusional deposition of ultrafine particles in the extrathoracic airways can be substantial, whereas earlier ICRP models did not (7-9).
4.4 Thoracic Airways
Radioactive material deposited in the thorax is generally divided between the tracheobronchial (TB) region, where deposited particles are subject to relatively fast mucociliary clearance (duration in hours to 1 or 2 days), and the alveolar-interstitial (AI) region, where macrophage-mediated particle clearance is much slower (duration up to several weeks), and dissolution rates for insoluble particles not cleared by macrophages can have half-times measured in months or years.
For purposes of dosimetry, the ICRP (6) divided the deposition of inhaled material in the TB region between the trachea and bronchi (BB) and in the more distal, small conductive airways, known as bronchioles (bb). However, the subsequent efficiency with which mucociliary transport in either type of airway can clear deposited particles is controversial. To be certain that doses to bronchial and bronchiolar epithelia would not be underestimated, the ICRP Task Group assumed that as much as half the number of particles deposited in these airways is subject to relatively "slow" mucociliary clearance that lasts up to about 1 week. The likelihood that an insoluble particle is cleared relatively slowly by the mucociliary system depends on its size.
4.5 Gas-Exchange Airways and Alveoli
The ICRP (6) model also assumed that material deposited in the AI region is subdivided among three compartments (AI1, AI2, and AI3) each of which is cleared more slowly than TB deposition, and the subregions clear at different characteristic rates.
4.6 Regional Deposition Estimates
Figure 2.7 depicts the predictions of the ICRP (6) Task Group Model in terms of the fractional deposition in each region as a function of the size of the inhaled particles. It reflects the minimal lung deposition between 0.1 and 1 mm, where deposition is determined largely by the exchange in the deep lung between tidal and residual lung air. Deposition increases below 0.1 mm as diffusion becomes more efficient with decreasing particle size. Deposition increases with increasing particle size above 1 mm as sedimentation and impaction become increasingly effective.
Figure 2.7. Fractional deposition in each region of the respiratory tract for a reference light worker (normal nose breather) in the 1994 ICRP model.
Although aerodynamic diameter is an excellent index of particle behavior for relatively compact particles that differ greatly in shape and density, it is inadequate for fibers that deposit by interception, as well as by inertia, gravitational displacement, or diffusion. The aerodynamic diameter of mineral or vitreous fibers whose aspect ratio (length/width) is greater than 10 is about three times their physical diameter. Fibers whose diameters are less than 3 mm can penetrate into bronchioles whose diameters are less than 500 mm. For thin fibers longer than 10 or 20 mm, interception, whereby an end of the fiber touches a surface and is collected, accounts for a significant enhancement of deposition (10).
Less complex models for size-selective regional particle deposition have been adopted by occupational health and community air pollution professionals and agencies, and these have been used to develop inhalation exposure limits within specific particle size ranges. Distinctions are made between: (7) those particles that are not aspirated into the nose or mouth and therefore represent no inhalation hazard; (2) the inhalable (aka inspirable) particulate mass (IPM), i.e., those that are inhaled and are hazardous when deposited anywhere within the respiratory tract; (3) the thoracic particulate mass (TPM), i.e., those that penetrate the larynx and are hazardous when deposited anywhere within the thorax; and (4) the respirable particulate mass (RPM), i.e., those particles that penetrate through the terminal bronchioles and are hazardous when deposited within the gasexchange region of the lungs. These criteria are described in more detail later in this chapter in the sections devoted to exposure assessment. 4.7 Translocation and Retention
Particles that do not dissolve at deposition sites can be translocated to remote retention sites by passive and active clearance processes. Passive transport depends on movement on or in surface fluids that line the airways. There is a continual proximal flow of surfactant to and onto the mucociliary escalator, which begins at the terminal bronchioles, where it mixes with secretions from Clara and goblet cells. Within midsized and larger airways are additional secretions from goblet cells and mucus glands that produce a thicker mucous layer that has a serous subphase and an overlying more viscous gel layer. The gel layer that lies above the tips of the synchronously beating cilia is found in discrete plaques in smaller airways and becomes more of a continuous layer in the larger airways. The mucus that reaches the larynx and the particles carried by it are swallowed and enter the GI tract.
The total transit time for particles cleared during the relatively rapid mucociliary clearance phase varies from ~2 to 24 hours in healthy humans (11). Macrophage-mediated particle clearance via the bronchial tree takes place during a period of several weeks. Compact particles that deposit in alveolar zone airways are ingested by alveolar macrophages within about 6 hours, but the movement of the particle-laden macrophages depends on the several weeks that it takes for the normal turnover of the resident macrophage population. At the end of several weeks, the particles not cleared to the bronchial tree via macrophages have been incorporated into epithelial and interstitial cells, from which they are slowly cleared by dissolution and/or as particles via lymphatic drainage pathways, passing through pleural and eventually hilar and tracheal lymph nodes. Clearance times for these later phases depend strongly on the chemical nature of the particles and their sizes, and half-times range from about 30 to 1,000 days or more.
All of the characteristic clearance times cited refer to inert, nontoxic particles in healthy lungs. Toxicants can drastically alter clearance times. Inhaled materials that affect mucociliary clearance rates include cigarette smoke (12, 13), sulfuric acid (14, 15), ozone (16, 17), sulfur dioxide (17a), and formaldehyde (18). Macrophage-mediated alveolar clearance is affected by sulfur dioxide (19), nitrogen dioxide and sulfuric acid (20), ozone (16, 20), silica dust (21), and long mineral and vitreous fibers (22, 23). Cigarette smoke affects the later phases of alveolar zone clearance in a dose-dependent manner (24). Clearance pathways and rates that affect the distribution of retained particles and their dosimetry can be altered by these toxicants.
Long mineral and manufactured vitreous fibers cannot be fully ingested by macrophages or epithelial cells and can clear only by dissolution. Most glass and slag wool fibers dissolve relatively rapidly within the lung and/or break up into shorter length segments. Chrysotile asbestos is more biopersistent than most vitreous fibers and can subdivide longitudinally, creating a larger number of long fibers. The amphibole asbestos varieties (e.g., amosite, crocidolite, and tremolite) dissolve much more slowly than chrysotile. The close association between the biopersistence of inhaled long fibers and their carcinogenicity and fibrogenicity has been described by Eastes and Hadly (25), and additional data on the influence of fiber length on the biopersistence of vitreous fibers following inhalation was described by Bernstein et al. (26).
4.8 Ingestion Exposures and Gastrointestinal (GI) Tract Exposures
Chemical contaminants in drinking water or food reach human tissues via the GI tract. Ingestion may also contribute to the uptake of chemicals that were initially inhaled, because material deposited on or dissolved in the bronchial mucous blanket is eventually swallowed.
The GI tract may be considered a tube running through the body, whose contents are actually external to the body. Unless the ingested material affects the tract itself, any systemic response depends on absorption through the mucosal cells that line the lumen. Although absorption may occur anywhere along the length of the GI tract, the main region for effective translocation is the small intestine. The enormous absorptive capacity of this organ results from the presence in the intestinal mucosa of projections, termed villi, each of which contains a network of capillaries; the villi have a large effective total surface area for absorption.
Although passive diffusion is the main absorptive process, active transport systems also allow essential lipid-insoluble nutrients and inorganic ions to cross the intestinal epithelium and are responsible for the uptake of some contaminants. For example, lead may be absorbed via the system that normally transports calcium ions (27). Small quantities of particulate material and certain large macromolecules such as intact proteins may be absorbed directly by the intestinal epithelium.
Materials absorbed from the GI tract enter either the lymphatic system or the portal blood circulation; the latter carries material to the liver, from which it may be actively excreted into the bile or diffuse into the bile from the blood. The bile is subsequently secreted into the intestines. Thus, a cycle of translocation of a chemical from the intestine to the liver to bile and back to the intestines, known as the enterohepatic circulation, may be established. Enterohepatic circulation usually involves contaminants that undergo metabolic degradation in the liver. For example, DDT undergoes enterohepatic circulation; a product of its metabolism in the liver is excreted into the bile, at least in experimental animals (28).
Various factors modify absorption from the GI tract and enhance or depress its barrier function. A decrease in gastrointestinal mobility generally favors increased absorption. Specific stomach contents and secretions may react with the contaminant and possibly change it to a form with different physicochemical properties (e.g., solubility), or they may absorb it, alter the available chemical, and change the translocation rates. The size of ingested particulates also affects absorption. Because the rate of dissolution is inversely proportional to particle size, large particles are absorbed to a lesser degree, especially if they are fairly insoluble in the first place. Certain chemicals, e.g., chelating agents such as EDTA, also cause a nonspecific increase in the absorption of many materials.
As a defense, spastic contractions in the stomach and intestine may eliminate noxious agents via vomiting or by accelerating the transit of feces through the GI tract.
4.9 Skin Exposure and Dermal Absorption
The skin is generally an effective barrier against the entry of environmental chemicals. To be absorbed via this route (percutaneous absorption), an agent must traverse a number of cellular layers before gaining access to the general circulation (Fig. 2.8) (29). The skin consists of two structural regions, the epidermis and the dermis, which rest on connective tissue. The epidermis consists of a number of layers of cells and varies in thickness depending on the region of the body; the outermost layer is composed of keratinized cells. The dermis contains blood vessels, hair follicles, sebaceous and sweat glands, and nerve endings. The epidermis represents the primary barrier to percutaneous absorption, the dermis is freely permeable to many materials. Passage through the epidermis occurs by passive diffusion.
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The main factors that affect percutaneous absorption are the degree of lipid solubility of the chemicals, the site on the body, the local blood flow, and the skin temperature. Some environmental chemicals that are readily absorbed through the skin are phenol, carbon tetrachloride, tetraethyl lead, and organophosphate pesticides. Certain chemicals, e.g., dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) and formic acid, alter the integrity of skin and facilitate penetration of other materials by increasing the permeability of the stratum corneum. Moderate changes in permeability may also result following topical applications of acetone, methyl alcohol, and ethyl alcohol. In addition, cutaneous injury may enhance percutaneous absorption.
Interspecies differences in percutaneous absorption are responsible for the selective toxicity of many insecticides. For example, DDT is about equally hazardous to insects and mammals if ingested but is much less hazardous to mammals when applied to the skin. This results from its poor absorption through mammalian skin compared to its ready passage through the insect exoskeleton. Although the main route of percutaneous absorption is through the epidermal cells, some chemicals may follow an appendageal route, i.e., entering through hair follicles, sweat glands, or sebaceous glands. Cuts and abrasions of the skin can provide additional pathways for penetration. 4.10 Absorption Through Membranes and Systemic Circulation
Depending upon its specific nature, a chemical contaminant may exert its toxic action at various sites in the body. At a portal of entry—the respiratory tract, GI tract, or skin—the chemical may have a topical effect. However, for actions at sites other than the portal, the agent must be absorbed through one or more body membranes and enter the general circulation, from which it may become available to affect internal tissues (including the blood itself). Therefore, the ultimate distribution of any chemical contaminant in the body is highly dependent on its ability to traverse biological membranes. There are two main types of processes by which this occurs: passive transport and active transport.
Passive transport is absorption according to purely physical processes, such as osmosis; the cell has no active role in transfer across the membrane. Because biological membranes contain lipids, they are highly permeable to lipid-soluble, nonpolar, or nonionized agents and less so to lipid-insoluble, polar, or ionized materials. Many chemicals may exist in both lipid-soluble and lipid-insoluble forms; the former is the prime determinant of the passive permeability properties of the specific agent.
Active transport involves specialized mechanisms, and cells actively participate in transfer across membranes. These mechanisms include carrier systems within the membrane and active processes of cellular ingestion, phagocytosis and pinocytosis. Phagocytosis is the ingestion of solid particles, whereas pinocytosis refers to the ingestion of fluid containing no visible solid material. Lipid-insoluble materials are often taken up by active-transport processes. Although some of these mechanisms are highly specific, if the chemical structure of a contaminant is similar to that of an endogeneous substrate, the former may also be transported.
In addition to its lipid-solubility, the distribution of a chemical contaminant also depends on its affinity for specific tissues or tissue components. Internal distribution may vary with time after exposure. For example, immediately following absorption into the blood, inorganic lead localizes in the liver, the kidney, and in red blood cells. Two hours later, about 50% is in the liver. A month later, approximately 90% of the remaining lead is localized in bone (30).
Once in the general circulation, a contaminant may be translocated throughout the body. In this process it may (1) become bound to macromolecules, (2) undergo metabolic transformation (biotransformation), (3) be deposited for storage in depots that may or may not be the sites of its toxic action, or (4) be excreted. Toxic effects may occur at any of several sites.
The biological action of a contaminant may be terminated by storage, metabolic transformation, or excretion; the latter is the most permanent form of removal. 4.11 Accumulation in Target Tissues and Dosimetric Models
Some chemicals concentrate in specific tissues because of physicochemial properties such as selective solubility or selective absorption on or combined with macromolecules such as proteins. Storage of a chemical often occurs when the rate of exposure is greater than the rate of metabolism and/or excretion. Storage or binding sites may not be the sites of toxic action. For example, carbon monoxide produces its effects by binding with hemoglobin in red blood cells; on the other hand, inorganic lead is stored primarily in bone but exerts its toxic effects mainly on the soft tissues of the body.
If the storage site is not the site of toxic action, selective sequestration may be a protective mechanism because only the freely circulating form of the contaminant produces harmful effects. Until the storage sites are saturated, a buildup of free chemical may be prevented. On the other hand, selective storage limits the amount of contaminant that is excreted. Because bound or stored toxicants are in equilibrium with their free form, as the contaminant is excreted or metabolized, it is released from the storage site. Contaminants that are stored (e.g., DDT in lipids and lead in bone) may remain in the body for years without effect. However, upon weight loss and mobilization of body reserves, the stored chemicals can enter the circulation and produce toxic effects. For example, pregnant women who had prior excessive exposure to lead can increase their own blood lead levels and also create high and possibly damaging levels of lead exposures to their fetus. Accumulating chemicals may also produce illnesses that develop slowly, as occurs in chronic cadmium poisoning.
A number of descriptive and mathematical models have been developed to permit estimation of toxic effects from knowledge of exposure and one or more of the following factors: translocation, metabolism, and effects at the site of toxic action.
More complex models that require data on translocation and metabolism have been developed for inhaled and ingested radionuclides by the International Commission on Radiological Protection (69).
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What Inkjet Printers are best for greeting card printing?
With so many inkjet printers available, your choices for a good greeting card printer are better than ever. But, for the serious amateur or pro photographer with print production in mind, the field of good printers narrows considerably. From our experience, a number of key factors come together to make a reliable, high quality greeting card printer. Most manufacturers have at least one printer that fits the bill. The printers in this article have been selected based on hours of printing experience in the Red River Paper print labs.
What are the important features of a greeting card inkjet printer?
Reliable paper feed - greeting card papers require a printer with a well designed, reliable paper feed.
Product quality - how long will the printer run before you have to buy another?
Ink economy - you need to keep overall costs down to maximize profit and minimize overhead.
Important note - With the exception of the TS9521C below, inkjet printers do not print greeting card sizes without borders. If you have a printer other than the TS9521C, your cards will have a margin around the outside, typically 1/8" to 1/4".
This is the hot rod of greeting card printers. Great color reproduction, robust paper transport mechanism, and compatibility with all Red River inkjet papers make these printers good for greeting card production. An excellent choice if you want to expand into larger print sizes. All Red River Paper greeting and note cards are compatible with the Canon PRO-100.
Interested in larger sizes for photo, design, and art prints? Find the best compatible inkjet papers for the Canon PRO-100 here.
This is the first inkjet printer specifically designed to print borderless 7x10 (folds to 5x7) greeting cards! It features four dye-based photo inks and one pigment black for document printing. It can also prints 12x12 sheets without borders. Red River Paper supports all TS models with printer color profiles.
Supports various types of media from 4" x 6" to 12" x 12"
5 color system - Canon has discontinued low cost six color printers.
Smaller ink tanks mean more replacements. Please note ink cost still in line with our estimates.
We're so pleased that Canon again offers a small, rear fed, desktop photo printer. The Canon TS series fits a number of needs - photo printer, scanner, and greeting card printer - that many of you ask us about. All of the TS printers offer very good photo quality and consistent card stock feed. As with any printer, when you get to the heaviest papers, expect to feed them in one sheet at a time. Choose a TS if you want to print cards but are not planning on huge volumes. Red River Paper supports all TS models with printer color profiles.
Important note - The printers on this page (and basically all inkjet printers), with the exception of the Canon TS9521C, cannot print borderless cards.
Your cards will have a margin around the outside, typically 1/8" to 1/4".
Why not include an HP in the list?
HP makes a fine photo printers but the paper feed system does not support cardstock or any paper over 11 mil thickness. Additionally, HP has removed the custom paper size feature from the Windows driver. This locks Windows users from popular greeting card sizes. If you have an HP and have successfully printed on Red River Paper greeting cards, we would love to hear from you via our support center.
Paper feed, print speed, and print quality are all top considerations when picking a printer for cards. Always pick printer with a top loading paper tray. Do not choose a printer that only loads from a front paper cassette. It won't work for card stock.
A popular question is "How much will it cost to print my cards?". After extensive printing and calculations on ink usage, Red River Paper produced a cost per card chart that you can see here. The great news is that paper, ink, and envelope cost less than $1.00 for most papers.
Printing inkjet greeting cards is a big part of what makes inkjet printers especially useful. Red River Paper feels that photographers and artists should create a line of cards from their work. At minimum they are powerful marketing pieces. They can often be sold for $5 each at art fairs or festivals.
Ink, paper, and envelope cost less than $1.00 per card. What a deal! Red River Paper sells the best inkjet stock pre-cut and scored ready to use for card printing.