text:
The Islamic Sharia
Islam - Lesson 14
Sharia is Islamic religious law which regulates both public and private aspects of life.
Timothy Tennent
I. Great Hadith Passage #1: "The Night Journey and Miraj"
II. Components of Sharia
A. Definition of Sharia
B. Ijma as a third guiding principle beyond Qur'an and Hadith
1. The relationship of Ijma to Shura
2. The relationship of Ijtihad to Ijma
C. Historical Discursive: Ijma evolves into Law: 700 - 900 A. D.
1. Four major leaders
a. Abu Hanifa (d. 767) Hanifi School of Law
b. Malik ibn Anas (d. 796) Malikite School of Law
c. Muhammad al-Shafi (d. 819) Shafite School of Law
d. Ahmad ibn Hanbal (d. 855) Hanbalite School of Law
2. The emergence of Fiqh and Kalam
3. The Islamic Ulama / Mujtahid and the "gate of Ijtihad"
D. Lesser Components of Sharia
1. Fatwa (legal opinion)
2. Qiya (analogy)
III. Sharia Structure in Sunni and Shia
A. Overall sources of legal framework
1. Sunni: Qur'an + Hadith + Ijma (open or closed?)
also, Qiya and Fatwa
2. Shia: Qur'an + Hadith + Imam
B. Categories of Sharia
1. Two fold
a. Duties to God (ritual)
b. Duties to others (social)
2. Five fold
a. Obligatory
b. Recommended
c. Indifferent
d. Objectionable
e. Prohibited
1. Introduction to Islam
Islam is based on teachings in the Qur'an. Knowing the teachings of Islam helps us to understand the uniqueness of the teachings of Christianity and the perspective of Muslims.
2. Pre-Islamic Arabia
Arabia in the 6th century was a land where traders and raiders lived. Mecca was a city in which many religions were practiced.
3. Early Life and Influences
In his early life, Muhammad was influenced by Judaism, Christianity and the Hanifs.
4. Revelations, Hegira, Movement
As Muhammad began telling others about his revelations, he was forced to flee Mecca and went to Medina. After he consolidated his power and influence he returned to Mecca.
5. Revelation
The text of the Qur'an was revealed directly to Muhammad.
6. Creation, Anthropology, Cosmos
The Qur'an has passages that teach about both practical and spiritual aspects of daily life. The world was created in six days and there will be a culmination of events at the end of the age.
7. Pillars 1 & 2
The first two pillars of the Muslim faith are the confession of faith (Shahadah), and ritual prayer (Salat).
8. Pillar 3 & 4
Almsgiving (Zakat) and fasting (Sawm) are the third and fourth pillars of the Islamic faith.
9. Pillar 5
Pilgrimage (Hajj) is the fifth pillar of Islam.
10. Islam as a "Missionary" Religion
Da'wah and jihad are two methods that the Qur'an describes for Muslims to approach infidels.
11. Muhammed and Caliphs
After Muhammad's death in 632 AD, he was succeeded by the four "rightly guided caliphs."
12. Shi'a, Sunni and Sufism
The split between the Sunni and Shi'a groups began when there was a disagreement over who should succeed Muhammad after he died. Sufi Islam is the mystical expression of Islam and could be compared to the monastic movement in Christianity.
13. Role of Tradition
Many Muslims consider the Hadith an important source of information for guidance in how to live their lives.
14. The Islamic Sharia
15. Schools of Law
Different groups within the Sunni and Shia traditions have various perspectives on how the teachings in the Qur'an and Hadith should be interpreted and applied.
16. Sufism and Sufi Orders
Sufi Muslims are more contemplative, mystical, individualistic, syncretistic, and non-legalistic than someone who is an orthodox Muslim.
17. Introduction, Hausa, Tiv
Folk Islam is a popular expression of Islam which has synthesized indigenous beliefs and customs into the religion. Folk Islam is a popular expression of Islam which has synthesized indigenous beliefs and customs into the religion. Two expressions of this in Nigeria are the Hausa and Tiv.
18. Yoruba, Maguzawa, Key Observations
Folk Islam is a popular expression of Islam which has synthesized indigenous beliefs and customs into the religion. Two expressions of this in Nigeria are the Yoruba and Maguzawa.
19. Introduction, Titles and Life
The Qur'an contains a description of Jesus' life and ministry.
20. Death, Resurrection and Deity
The description in the Qur'an of Jesus' death, resurrection and deity are different than that of the Bible.
21. Biblical/Theological Issues
Islam does not teach the doctrine of the Trinity.
22. Cultural Issues
Islam has clear teachings in cultural areas such as the significance of beards, acceptable types of clothing, behavior and acceptable clothing for females, and food and dietary restrictions.
23. The Christian Community in an Islamic Context
In order to make it easier for Muslims to understand and accept the message of the gospel, Christians can approach them with the assumption that they probably misunderstand the Gospel, that the number one stumbling block for Muslims is Christianity, and that the most effective approach is Jesus plus nothing.
24. Islamic Apologetics Surveyed
Comparison of teachings of Christianity and Islam.
This course is an introduction to the religion of Islam. There are 24 separate lectures totaling approximately 16 hours. These lectures were given at Gordon-Conwell Theological Seminary in South Hamilton, Massachusetts.
The purpose of this course is to provide an introductory study of the structure, beliefs and practices of Islam. Special emphasis will be placed on a study of the theology of the Koran. The student will read and study the entire Koran along with important selections from the Hadith, Shari`a material and Sufi writings. The actual historical manifestations of contemporary Islam will be explored with a special emphasis on Islam in the African context. Throughout the course there will be a concern to demonstrate how Islamic thought is different from Christian thought and how the gospel can be most effectively communicated to members of the Islamic faith, the second largest and fastest growing religion in the world today.
The class handouts that Dr. Tennent mentions in the lecture are not available. There is an outline for each lecture and when you login, you will see links on the class page for books that Dr. Tennent recommends for you to read along with this class.

Course: Introduction to Islam

Lecture: The Islamic Sharia

I. Great Hadith Passage #1: "The Night Journey and Miraj"

This is lecture #9 where we continue to focus on the role of tradition in Islam. Just as we normally begin each session with a great Qur'anic passage, today we actually begin with a passage from the Hadith. This is a little bit of a change for us, but it does show the shift in the course as we begin to expand beyond the Qur'anic material to look at some of the material from the Hadith.

I chose a passage directly from one of our textbooks because indeed, this is a very important one as we have noted. This is a very famous Hadith that is found in Al-Bukhari and several other collections of Hadith. It is from The Night Journey and the Miraj. Miraj is a word for the ascension of Muhammed. You can see how though, the whole thing is the Isnad, transmission of Isnad.

This is of course one of the paths which describes Muhammed being transported from Mecca to Jerusalem in the spirit while he slept. According to other Hadiths, Aisha, his wife, observed that his body was present in Mecca the entire time, he never left Mecca from a visual point of view; but in the spirit he was transported, according to Muslim belief, to Jerusalem, in fact to the place which is now the Dome of the Rock, the famous Muslim site in Jerusalem, the #1 Muslim holy site outside of Saudi Arabia.

One of the Hadiths that is delivered is this one which is before us, quite a lengthy passage with a ton of theology in this. In fact, on page 44 is contained several interesting points; that on the way they mentioned that they find at the temple in Jerusalem, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, a company of the prophets. You have the forbidding of wine here, which we will come back to later when we look at some of the parts of the Hadith; an ancient reference to Hassan. Hassan speaks about the prophet. According to the text. Hassan was not even born at that point, and yet is speaking to Muhammed. You have Aisha mentioning that the messenger's body was not ever moved. All of this information is there. Emphasis on the different parts of the heaven. Many scholars believe this is the source of Dante's Divine Comedy. You have Jesus being identified in the second heaven, so Jesus is not in the highest heaven. You have his various encounters.

The main point I want us to look at is the very end of this Hadith where it says, "Finally the messenger of God came to his lord and the duty of five ritual

prayers," that is Salat, "a day was laid on his community," on his umma. So this is the Hadith that I have alluded to in the past, one of the Hadiths which actually verifies the fact that the fivefold prayer does not occur in the Qur'an, it actually occurs in the Hadith. You have another Hadith that says that he heard the messenger of God – which is of course Muhammed – say, "Five prayers are prescribed by God for his servants in the space of a day and a night."

"The five prayers are obligatory for every Muslim who has reached the age of puberty and has the use of reason." So, insane people are omitted, as are women who are menstruating or recovering from childbirth. So, during a woman's period or during the period immediately following childbirth, the woman is exempt from the fivefold prayer. This one also mentions something else that we have alluded to in the earlier lectures and that is this practice of combining prayers, so that in effect, your fivefold prayer functions daily as a threefold prayer, which I have argued is actually conforming to the Jewish practice of threefold prayer, which is the source of this whole thing. I have quoted to you, "It is not permitted to delay a prayer unless one has formulated the intention of combining it with another prayer." So the idea of combining prayers, which is widely practiced throughout the Muslim world, is not something, as some argue, that is a problem or a compromise. It is actually allowed for in the Hadith.

These are some of the points in that Hadith. Jesus is viewed as on par with the prophets. You have some interesting ethical guidelines which appear in this

Hadith, the no alcohol guideline. You have in that Hadith the hell and judgment day, good works as being reviewed by Adam. You have the idea of seven heavens, Jesus is in the second heaven, and the fivefold prayer. There is quite a lot of theology. I think it is helpful to read that Hadith in light of what you now know because you are starting to realize, hopefully, that a lot of Islamic practice and theology actually comes out of the Hadith, rather than the Qur'an. I think we are beginning to see that picture a lot more clearly.

II. Components of Sharia

What we do want to focus on today is the various components of the Sharia because up to this point, we have essentially talked only in terms of revelation. We have essentially established that for Muslims there are two major sources of revelation: The Qur'an, we have spent some time unfolding and looking at the theology of it. Secondly, we are now seeing the emergence of the Hadith and we spent the entire last lecture talking about different kinds of Hadith, the method of establishing the authenticity of the Hadith to the Isnad and the various categories, how Hadith is categorized once it has been established.

We are now going to come to a third component to finally put this picture a little closer together. That is the whole concept of Ijma. You will be happy to know, this is the third and really final major element of what will eventually form the basis for Sharia Law.

A. Definition of Sharia

The word "Sharia" literally means "the path to the watering hole." It is a term for the straightest path, which is why our textbook is called, "The Straight Path." This is a reference that goes back to the idea of Sharia; in other words, the path of God's will, it is a straight path.

We discussed how the Hadith of course emerges from what reality? What is it that produces the Hadith, where does it come from? What are those actions called? Sunna. The oral Sunna tradition gets written down into the Hadith. So with the Qur'an and Hadith, we now have two written sources of revelation that are now, particularly with those we have mentioned, more or less fixed in the tradition.

B. Ijma as a third guiding principle beyond Qur'an and Hadith

The third source of revelation is Ijma, which can be translated, "consensus." This is a very explosive topic. What is the role of Ijma? Is it a source of revelation? Is it a source of guidance? Everyone admits that Ijma, or consensus, plays a very important role in the Islamic community. The Hadith states that Muhammed said, "My community shall be in agreement in error." That is to say, "The importance of the umma, the unity of the community, is so important that we want to maintain that at all costs." So the importance of consensus is very, very important. The idea behind this is that the Islamic community, if they stay together and are united, can safeguard potential errors that would creep into the Islamic community.

Issues arose, which were addressed in neither the Qur'an nor the Sunna. So once again, the Qur'an we saw with 114 Surahs, is a fixed document, to which you cannot add or take away from. Therefore, it is fixed material to which it is difficult to address new issues which arise.

Once they stop the massive explosion of the invented Hadith, which we talked about last lecture, they actually began to establish using the Isnad, the whole train of transmission, the closest to Muhammed, and the integrity of the transmission. Once you establish that, the Sunna too becomes the practically speaking fit. In other words, no longer do you have the authority to invent new Sunna. Obviously, there are some issues in the modern world and certainly even in the middle ages when Islam was a major civilization and force, and the words of Muhammed just simply are not present. They just cannot make Muhammed speak to the new issues. So this third one does provide the opportunity, at least in theory - we'll see how it actually shakes out – of addressing some issues, getting the whole Islamic community to agree on the Muslim position, thereby reaching a consensus and therefore having a new source of authority.

If you are to do a study of this and compare it to the Biblical idea of canonicity and how do Christians address new issues, do we use analogies on the basis of scripture? If we say, "What is the Biblical view of nuclear war or nuclear weapons" how do you talk about nuclear weapons with a first-century document? You either invent secret sayings of Jesus, when Jesus said something on one level; but if you really are an insightful person, you realize that he was speaking at many different levels and he addressed every conceivable issue. There are people who believe that. Or, you have to find some other way for an authority to speak. Obviously, in the Christian tradition this comes through the tradition of the church and different church traditions develop which apply the scripture; but at least in partisan circles, it doesn't fall in the same level of authority as the scriptures.

Essentially it is the same problem with issues the Muslims are dealing with. How do you approach new issues? What happens is, the word Ijma developed. Before we go too deep into this, I must tell you before someone comes and shows me a book stating otherwise, that you will find, if you look carefully, the word "Ijma" used in at least two different ways, so I want to clarify this point for you.

The word "Ijma", some Islamic writers use to refer to the whole process of reaching a consensus. You can have essentially an attempted Ijma that fails. An

Ijma would refer to the whole process through which a new principle or a new requirement can gather the force of law and hence revelatory status by being generally accepted.

The relationship of Ijma to Shura

In other writings - and I think this is actually more precisely accurate – the process is known as "Shura."Shura and Ijma are related to each other just the way Sunna is related to Hadith. You have a process which leads to a Hadith. They would say that Shura is the process where one attempts to find if we indeed have an Ijma or a consensus. I must admit to you, there is some inconsistency in how this term is used so I am going to bring both of those before you.

If Ijma is used as the final outcome, the consultation process is known as Shura; so Shura is the method through which Ijma is reached. In practice, how do you get all Muslims to agree on anything? How do you get anybody, how do you get this room to agree on anything? It is difficult to do this. Once again, the reality of Islam is that they had to have a process through which they could declare that a consensus had been reached. It is particularly difficult for islam because they don't have the clerical structures. They do in practice; but in theory at least, they don't have a clergy in Islam, even though they have plenty of those who operate clerical positions. They actually have tried to portray the idea that this is a massive lay movement. It is difficult to really establish in Sharia Law, a process through which one can define and work out an Ijma.

The relationship of Ijtihad to Ijma

So they produced a class of Islamic scholars who are known as Ulama. This is one of actually many terms for this. These are Islamic scholars who professionally study and interpret the Qur'an and the Hadith. This is a scholarly community basically. Islam gradually accepted the notion that certain scholars who were accepted after intense theological training, could issue what is known as an Ijtihad. This is a very important concept to grasp. Ijtihad means basically a personal effort. The word actually has a much stronger force than this translation actually shows. Ijtihad refers to the effort of a major Muslim scholar.

Basically this scholar would announce the Shura or in some people's interpretation, announce the Ijma. He would announce saying, "I believe that this

should be accepted by the Muslim community." That would go through a process and would either be rejected or eventually accepted. This idea of an Ijtihad or a personal effort by a Muslim scholar to reach a consensus which would allow Islam to address new issues, is in itself supposedly found basis for in the Hadith. Muhammed asked, "How will you administer the region assigned to you?" The reply, "the Qur'an." Muhammed asks, "And then what?" He replies, "the Sunna." Of course, we realize that this is going to eventually lead to the Hadith. This part is not in the Hadith, but the Sunna. "And then what?" "Then I will make a personal effort, Ijtihad." That is according to that. The Hadith comments, "This the prophet approves."

So this is actually the Hadith, which supposedly provides the theological basis for creating an Ijma. You would first consult the Qur'an and the Sunna. By the way, this is why the Ulamas were the ones who had to do this because they are the only ones who are the true scholars of the Qur'an and the Sunna and they could say, "This is simply not addressed by the Sunna." Therefore, after this has failed, then this person would be allowed to make a personal effort; and this is the idea of initiating a potential consensus.

A man who is approved to issue an Ijtihad has several names. I mentioned Ulama as one of these. You also find in later writings they are called a Mujtahid. You also find them called Mufti or a Qadi. A Qadi is actually a judge - a Faqih - which is a lawyer or a jurist. You have several figures that eventually in various traditions in Islam, may be called upon to issue this effort, this Ijtihad.

C. Historical Discursive: Ijma evolves into Law: 700 – 900 AD

So this process of the Ijma emerging and forming a third basis, happens primarily between 750 and 900 AD. They would make judgments on the Qur'an. The problem was, the result of this process was not uniform, so you had different Qadis with different bodies of law and therefore it was difficult to really talk about the Sharia law as having divine force when you have different legal traditions within a community.

What eventually happened was, you compared the major legal minds in Medina and Damascus, Bozrah, Kuhfa, Baghad, etc. Then what happened was, there was such diversity that an attempt was made to consolidate the schools of law into certain kinds of tradition.

Just to be clear, we are still dealing with at this point the Sunni tradition and we are dealing with the emergence of what is known as Sharia. This is a law code that is going to emerge to govern the Muslim community based on these three components: Qur'an, Hadith and Ijma.

Four Major Leaders

What happens is that four major leaders arose in different parts of the world, different parts of the Muslim community, and after them are named four distinct schools of law. You can see the Hanifi School, the Malikite School, the Shafite School, the Hanbalite, the four major schools of law. That has not changed to this day. Essentially today you still have four major schools of law and everything flows out of that tradition. There are many sub-groupings, but essentially you still have those four basic groups.

Let me say a little bit about each of these schools because what basically happened is that some of the schools would focus more on the Qur'an and more

of a literal interpretation of the Qur'an. Some would focus more on the Hadith and various kinds of traditions from the Hadith. Others, more on Ijma. So you have a lot of diversity in the Sharia-based on what they emphasize. I am going to give you the basic gist of this.

Abu Hanifa (died 767) Hanifi School of Law

The Hanifi School from Abu Hanifa, who died in 767. This is actually the largest school of law in Islam. It is famous for being the most liberal of the schools of law. In fact, just to give you an example: According to the Hanifi School of Law, a Muslim is permitted to marry a Christian or a Jew, someone from the people of the book. That is a part of the Hanifi Sharia code. That means that a Muslim can marry outside the faith; strictly speaking, outside the Muslim faith, not outside the people of the book; nevertheless, outside the faith. That is considered to be an absolutely condemnable view by the Hanbalites, for example. But you have these different traditions that emerge.

So the Hanifi is a large school, it is a liberal school. They use Qiya, or analogy very, very prominently. Qiya is another term which allows for analogies from the Qur'an or the Hadith or Ijma, where you will take a statement or a verse and you analogize to a new situation. They are much more liberal about applying the Qur'an to a wide range of situations that they find will fit their situations. You may have heard, there has been a big problem recently in terms of marriages because the idea of the Muslim marriage, which we will look at later, allows them to enter into temporary marriage alliances, which was originally viewed just as something to help people during the hajj, but has now been interpreted to include people that are involved in youthful sexual encounters in the Muslim world, where they can actually enter into temporary marriages with their boyfriend or girlfriend and still maintain their connection with the mosque. That is a very liberal interpretation of these kind of things. But this is the kind of thing that is happening in some of the more liberal traditions of the law schools.

If you ask, "Where would I find the Hanifi most dominant?" These are just where they are dominant, particularly a place like Turkey and in much of Asia, where you will find Hanifi Law Schools that will preside. Again, as a rule, as you leave Saudi Arabia and go out from that epicenter, you find more liberal interpretations of the Sharia because they are in a more hostile environment, they have more opposition. They have places where they cannot so easily establish Muslim law courts, so they have more liberal interpretations.

Malik ibn Anas (died 796) Malikite School of Law

The Malikites, the second group, you find them especially in upper Egypt and places like West Africa, many parts of North Africa, the Sudan for example. The Malikites are very famous for their use of the Hadith in their development of law codes. In the case of the Malikites, they believe that the Hadith represents the best basis to develop really sound law codes because they believe that is the place where you can go directly to the life and practice of Muhammed.

Muhammad al-Shafi (died 819) Shafite School of Law

The Shafites, which you find in lower Egypt, again some portions of Arabia on the western side of Arabia - not the eastern side, and southern Arabia, you will find the Shafites, who emphasize very much the whole idea of consensus. So you have the whole idea of Ijma; and certain very strong, powerful legal scholars who have arisen out of Arabia, have forced their views and they have emphasized this idea of the Islamic unity. Whenever you are in Arabia, there is great emphasis on the importance of Muslims conforming to the practice of Arabian Muslims, naturally. Therefore, there is a big emphasis on that in the Arabian Peninsula.

Ahmad ibn Hanbal (died 855) Hanbalite School of Law

The Hanbalites, again portions of Saudi Arabia. Very literal interpretation of the Qur'an. The Hanbalites are like the fundamentalists of the Muslim world. There are many sub groups to all of these. One group, the Wahhabis, we mentioned earlier, we now come back to that. The Wahhabis is a sub group of the Hanbalites, who focus on extreme, literal interpretation of the Qur'an and have argued that no other Muslims outside of their group are true Muslims and have fallen from the faith.

You can imagine that what you essentially have here are four denominations or schools of law representing four very different traditions based on how they interpret or which part of these three components they emphasize the most. The result has been the emergence of a number of other elements in order to interpret this.

The Emergence of Fiqh and Kalam

The Fiqh is the study of Sharia. If you talk to Muslims, they will actually call Kalam "theology," but I think from our point of view, what we would call theology is what they would call "Fiqh." This is the closest thing to the study of theology. The Kalam is actually non-systematic theological discourses, where they discuss theological positions.

The Islamic Ulama/Mujtahid and the "gate of Ijtihad"

The Ulama, we mentioned already, are those who sought to apply the Sharia to life situations and may in fact, because they are professional interpreters of the Qur'an and the Hadith, be asked to make the Ijtihad.

So the Mujtahid could hopefully reach a conclusion which would, after studying the law, the Qur'an, the Hadith, the Ijma from the past, create a new consensus, a new Ijma. But it is believed that regardless of who makes a personal effort or Ijtihad; regardless of who does that, it cannot succeed unless it finally reaches some level of consensus. This is at least in theory the way the Muslims view it. So there has to be widespread acceptance of the personal effort.

The real question which arose in later times and is still a big issue today is whether this is something that was allowed in the early stages of Islamic development. So someone could make an Ijtihad, someone could make a personal effort and create an Ijma, and therefore they could round out

information necessary to create a Sharia. Whether or not the idea of personal effort is an ongoing thing, or is it something that happened and is over with? Or is it something that can continue happening today? The whole Ijtihad, is the gate open, or is the gate closed? It is a very important issue of discussion and debate among the Muslim community. In a way, it is a little bit like our asking, "Is the canon open, is the canon closed?" In other words, if the gate of Ijtihad is open, that means that there is still a role for an Islamic scholar to make a personal effort and the Islamic community could come to new Ijma or go through a new process of Shura, whether they reach Ijma or not. If they did reach Ijma, this could continue to inform Sharia and you could conceivably have an ongoing, developing body of law that goes on forever at the level of revelation.

Others argue, "No, the gate of Ijtihad is closed. We cannot allow any more Ijma because the Muslim community is now fractured and there is no longer a Muslim civilization. There is no longer a seat of Islamic civilization in the way there has been in previous centuries." Therefore, they are saying, "Now all you can do if you encounter new ideas, new issues, then you have to take what is here and you issue an analogy, a Qiya." By virtue of analogy, you can essentially apply it to any new situation, but always at that lower level.

Conservative Sunnis insist that the gate to Ijtihad is closed. No further interpretation. No new interpretation or revelation can be added nor is needed.

We will see that the Shi'ites completely reject this whole idea of Ijma altogether because they, of course, are outside of this consensus. They have already been marginalized by the so-called "consensus" of the Sunnis regarding what is normative practice in Islam. Therefore, the Shi'ites will not accept at all the

concept, the whole idea, of how Sharia happened. They are going to have something different they put in the place of Ijma; but we are not at that point yet.

In the Sunni tradition, this is the way it is divided out in terms of how people interpret the gate of Ijtihad and at what level revelation can continue on.

D. Lesser components of Sharia

Fatwa

While Sunnis did believe that Ijma had been reached on essential matters and many believe that therefore the Ijtihad is now closed, the gate is closed, that now you can operate on the level of Qiya and Fatwa. We mentioned Qiya, which is analogy, where you extend Islamic law on the basis of a similar problem. This is what we have with the example I gave of the wine; and they say, "Okay, if the wine is prohibited, therefore all alcohol is prohibited." A Fatwa, which I am sure you have heard of many times because it comes up in the news quite a bit, is a legal opinion. A particular Sharia court issues a Fatwa which says, "Salman Rushdie should die." That is a Fatwa. They have studied his writings, they examined the work that he did and declared it was heretical, it was against the fabric of Islam and therefore they issued a legal opinion that Muslims had the legal authority to put this man to death. All of this came from Fatwa. Again, these are the lower levels of authority and this is a Fatwa, this is a legal opinion; but like the Supreme Court issues a decision, it is not the Constitution, it's not on that level, it is not the ruling document; but it is an opinion which flows from that document and therefore it carries a lot of authority.

Normally the Fatwa takes place in a religious court. We are going to see how in Shi'a Islam, this gets a little more clouded because they have individuals that can issue Fatwas, like Ayatollah Khomeini did. But in Sunni Islam a Fatwa should be issued by a certified Sharia law court. It is authoritative, but it is never considered revelatory in any way, like the other material we have looked at.

III. Sharia Structure in Sunni and Shia

A. Overall sources of legal framework

Sunni

To sum up, essentially we have two major sources of revelation that everybody agrees on, Sunni and Shi'a alike, the Qur'an and the Hadith. Everybody accepts that point. Granted, the Sunni and the Shi'a have different Hadith traditions, we all know that. In that sense, everyone is agreed. The Sunni Muslims are accepting a third component of Ijma to consolidate the unity of the Muslim community. Sunni Islam largely rejects that this is an ongoing reality and most Sunni Muslims believe the gate of Ijtihad is closed. Therefore, they rely upon Qiya and Fatwa to extend Sharia to new situations. There are some scholars who believe that the gate of Ijtihad is still open. That is a very distinct minority in the Sunni tradition.

There we have it. You can see the basic picture.You have the Qur'an, Hadith, Ijma (open or closed) and the Qiya, Fatwa. That is the Sunni view of how Sharia is achieved.

Shia

We will try to develop the Shia system. The Shia have essentially accepted the Qur'an and Hadith as we have noted, but added in the place of the Ijma, the concept of Imam. This is something which we will take a little more time to develop as we develop the whole of Shia and what makes Shia distinctive, etc.

Essentially we are looking at the Imam used in a distinctive way by the Shia tradition. We have already mentioned in passing at least, in the Sunni tradition

they also use the word "Imam;" but it is used kind of for a prayer leader. Any Muslim cleric can be called more generally an Imam. But be very careful to realize that in the Shia tradition, the Imam is not used that loosely at all. It is a very, very precise term for a particular person.

The Imam would essentially be a religious leader of some great import who has been given the mantle of Muhammed's prophethood. Remember our discussion on this point that immediately following the death of Muhammed, there was a division in the community about whether or not the mantle of Muhammed could pass to another generation, another person, either just Muhammed as the head of the community; or whether the actual mantle of his prophethood, which would mean that someone could carry on the prophetic tradition. If you accept that idea, then of course the gate of Ijtihad, as it were, is kicked wide open. Because here you have a figure that can actually speak as Muhammed spoke, when the mantle rests upon him. This idea was accepted. They believed in actually two aspects of this doctrine. One aspect is that the mantle of the prophet would be bestowed on a particular member of the line of Ali. That is to say, somebody who was in a direct blood descent of specifically Ali, could receive this mantle. That person could receive the second doctrine. The second doctrine would say that that person can be divinely inspired to utter a body of knowledge. In other words, he would have insights, revelatory information only an Imam could possess. That is a very different situation altogether because here we have the possibility of a much looser framework of Sharia because you have a person, a charismatic figure that could emerge.

To make sure we are clear, even as we have had with the Ijma, where those said "It once was open and now it is closed" and the whole open/close debate, you have the same thing with the Imamite doctrine. As we will see when we develop Shia more, but the "Seveners" who say there are seven Imams in the history of the world, they have already come, they have had their say, and it is now closed. They have the seven figures who gave them particular doctrines which obviously support Shia theology, and therefore they say that now that those seven have come, it is over with.

There are the "Twelvers" who believe there are 12 of these figures and yet a future one to come. So you have various ways this is interpreted. Even in the Shia tradition you essentially have the effective parallel to the gate of Ijtihad being open or closed. Rather than a personal jurist making a personal effort to reach a consensus, or the Ijma, you have an Imam who makes an utterance straight out, like the Pope speaking ex-cathedra or something, that would say, "By virtue of my saying this, when I speak in this way, the Imam speaks on behalf of the Islamic community." So he does not have go to through a Shura process, he actually can say, "This is the Ijma" essentially.

There are those who say that no more such individuals exist and therefore one cannot get any higher than like Ayatollah Khomeini, for example, which is a figure right beneath an Imam. Some say he was the "hidden Imam." We have to look into this idea of the Imam and the hidden Imam later. The idea of an Imam figure that could emerge at the end of time or function in this revelatory capacity, functions somewhat like the end result of the Shura process.

We now at least have the basic framework, even though we have not been able to fill in all of the Shia blanks and how Shia has unfolded. Essentially this is how it works out.

Next to the five pillars of Islam, the Sharia code, specifically what they call "The Sharia code of family life" is extremely important to Islam. It can lay down very strict laws about things like veiling of women, female exclusion, what right you have to divorce or not to divorce, who you are allowed to marry or not to marry, all kinds of things like that, which dramatically affect the average life, as well as do not use alcohol. All these things affect dramatically the way Muslims live. Whether or not a female can have a driver's license. As you know, in Saudi Arabia actually Sharia law does not prohibit this. This is a big difference in Sharia law. What is the attitude of the Qur'an or the tradition or consensus regarding a female in the home? One of the interpretations of headship is that a woman should therefore not ever be allowed to be alone; and therefore to allow her to drive alone is immoral; and therefore you should not give a woman a driver's license. You can back it up through Qiya to something as modern as whether or not somebody can drive, or not.

It really does boil down to very powerful issues in the Muslim world that have divided the Muslim world. Because you think about going to places like Turkey and you compare the way many women and people interact in Turkey under Sharia law; or in Indonesia; or Nigeria; compared to places like Saudi Arabia. There is no-one who can say there is not a dramatic diversity in the way many Muslims around the world live out their lives.

Take Muslims in America, where there is no Sharia law. They are free to live according to western law courts and so many Muslims say, "Because I'm in

America, I am not bound by these prohibitions; but if I go back home to X, Y, or Z, then there I of course have to abide by those laws." They view it as kind of a sectarian legal thing. It's like Bill Clinton saying, when he was interviewed, "Have you ever broken a Federal law?" He said, "No." The reason he said "no" was because he had actually smoked marijuana in Great Britain, where it was not against a Federal law. Of course, he didn't inhale. He did not break a Federal law. It was technically true. You have the same kind of thing. It just seems like it fits in so many ways.

According to Kenneth Craig, a Muslim scholar, who writes, "A true theocracy is impossible since God cannot immediately reign in the earthly situation, especially in Islam with their idea of the enthronement passages, but it is divinely ordered through the vice regency, an institution which they believe emerges in these law courts." So it is a form of theocracy, which I have said before, we call "Nomocracy" from the Greek word, "Nomos or law.

Those who submit to the law of God, the Sharia, that is how you submit to God. So people who say kind of casually, who have not had this class or any

introduction to Islam, "Islam is legalistic" don't know what they are saying. We will say that, and what we really mean by that is, "Islam is legalistic because they believe you have to perform the five pillars in order to get into heaven," which is of course true, that is legalistic. What they do not realize is how true it is. In fact, it is not just that, it is the whole worldview. The whole map of Islam is mainly viewed in legalistic terms.

We are going to see how Sufism is going to drop a bomb into all of this and blow it all up. You are going to have all kinds of other activities going on that is rejecting the whole idea of a legalistic view of Islam. Quite apart from dissenting movements, the basic vision is a legalistic one. That says a lot about the whole nature of Islam as a movement. Therefore, the concept of grace is very, very difficult for Muslims to come to grips with because it is so foreign to the basic vision. It is with the Sufi movement coming on the scene that we see the veritable explosion of theologies of grace and personalness and personal relationship with Allah and all of this that will be quite alien to this whole vision that we have laid out up to this point.

The divine will is understood in terms of concrete commandments. Christians talk about sin. With the Muslim - we are talking about a mainstream Muslim here – you have to realize that you are automatically talking on two different levels of thought. Because when a Muslim says "sin" a Muslim, whether he articulates it or not, is thinking at least, if not actually verbally clearly pointing it out, that sin is tied into Sharia. If you go by the Sharia, how can you be a sinner? because Sharia defines the will of God for you. If you obey the Sharia, you are not a sinner. The idea of someone being a sinner by virtue of who we are, is alien to the legalistic concept; not only in Islam, but it is manifested in many other religions as well.

So Sharia is the codification of the Qur'an, the Hadith or Ijtihad, which has reached Ijma; or the Qur'an, Hadith and various utterances of the Imam that have entered into the Sharia law.

B. Categories of Sharia

Twofold

The Sharia originally was divided into two categories: Duties to God and duties to others, kind of a simple framework.

Fivefold

In the modern period, Sharia is more likely divided into five general categories: What is obligatory, what is recommended, what is indifferent, objectionable or prohibited.

This is a little bit like in our system where you have a misdemeanor vs a Federal crime. At what point does something become a crime which requires expulsion from the Muslim community, or death? What would involve a simple fine? What is discouraged, but is not illegal? Things like that.

These are the kind of ways it actually works out. Let me give you some examples to give you a feel for this. Prayer, fivefold prayer is in the obligatory category in Sharia law. That means that anywhere in the Muslim world that is governed by Sharia law, the fivefold prayer is obligatory. When you wash with water, the ablution before the prayer, the ablution by the way is also obligatory. So you are required to prayer and you cannot pray unless you wash. But whether you begin on the right side of the body or the left side of the body. It is recommended to begin on the right. Do you use warm water or cold water in the ablution is a matter of indifference, it does not really matter. That decision is made, the law court met and said it is indifferent. But if somebody unclean should touch this water or infect it in some way, then it is prohibited for someone to use that water for ablution. So it kind of boils down to different ways things work out.

Once the Sharia law is established, then it is beyond question. There is no way you can break out of that. To break the Sharia is tantamount to rebelling against Allah himself. So this is the way it works. In practice, many of the Sharia law courts, as you know with any legal system, you have bodies of law that develop along certain areas. You might have family law. You might have corporate law. Business law. You might have contractual laws.

In the realities of the modern world, especially with the Internet and legal issues regarding technology and business deals, there are places where we will say the Sharia law is very strong in these areas. Like in family law, it has all been nailed down for centuries. But there are new issues that have arisen so rapidly and quickly that they do not know how to deal with it. This is true for every legal system, you are always adapting and developing new forms of law, like divorce, family custody laws and all of this. So what they do is in some cases the governments have accepted Western law codes for certain areas that the Sharia does not address and they have accepted them. But when it comes to family law, you must submit to Sharia code. When it is something to do with some business deal overseas and you are dealing with an American company, you want to enter into a business deal and they are telling you they have laws about whatever, fine. Do whatever they tell you. We will be indifferent about it.

So you now have a fracture of the vision because this was not the original vision, a fracture of the vision in the practical world where you might have somebody, a Muslim in a given country who may actually live and submit to laws in the Sharia court there, but may actually submit to Western law codes for something unrelated or has been openly given over to that. We cannot address that at this time, we don't have the legal jurist to study it. So you have these kinds of collaborative efforts so that countries can face new situations, sometimes borrowing legal traditions outside the Muslim world.


Nagaland department of employment, skill development and entrepreneurship, on behalf of Nagaland government, signed a MoU with US-India Business Council (USIBC) in New Delhi on August 23, an official release said on Tuesday.
The MoU will remain in effect for one year from the date of its signing unless earlier terminated by either of the participants.
The release said the MoU was signed to encourage the interaction between corporate members of USIBC (Corporate Entities) and the Nagaland government on growth and development of regional economy.
The USIBC is a premier business advocacy organization dedicated to strengthening the economic and commercial relationship between the United States and India. It is the largest bilateral advocacy group in the US-India investment space.
The business council intends to facilitate engagements within Nagaland in which the corporate entities can present their interests, advice and capabilities in several areas such as development of an employment-oriented skilling ecosystem, preparation of a blueprint of skill development for employability and also assist in finding partners to implement it in Nagaland.
The corporate entities will also look for best practices in the areas of skilling, entrepreneurship and other areas of mutual interest besides use of technology solutions to enable skilled citizens to find suitable employment opportunities.


Tapatio Springs is located near IH-10 and The Shops at La Cantera or take a relaxing short drive to main street Boerne.
Recently, businessman Tom Cusick and Country music legend George Strait purchased the resort, determined to return it to its original grandeur and beyond.
The Resort offers an outstanding resort which includes 27 holes of golf in three separate nines: The Ridge, The Valley and The Lakes.
This golf course community features gorgeous hill country views conveniently located near the city of San Antonio.
As such, Tapatio Springs featured a number of facilities to keep even non-golfers satisfied: An outdoor jacuzzi and swimming pool, 20,000 sq ft of conference space , fully prepared Fitness Center that is stuffed with all the equipment you need for your schedule.
Walking around the nature or take a bicycle trip. If you enjoy Horses back Driving or have always desired to take up the activity,Tapatio Springs provides training and sessions for starting and experienced riders. Also, talking about lessons, if you want some exercise on your swing? a chipping green and three individual exercise areas to enhance your game.
The Tapatio Springs hotel also provides 3 on-site restaurants options: La Cascadia, Ta*Patio, and 5 Points.
The average record cost for property in Tapatio Springtime is about $600k, with the cost per sq. ft. lately dropping around $172.00.
This home has it all!Situated on two lots,on a ridge in Tapatio with priceless views!Quiet cul-de-sac.Self-contained apartment w/ELEVATOR and private entrance.All BR have FULL baths.Don't miss the master tub!Furnishings can be including.This home is move in ready!Too many rooms to list on listing, including media room,2nd liv.rm. & tea room.Game rm. has murphy bed.Kitchen has all the bells&whistles inc.walk in pantry,grill,warming drawer & gorgeous views!MUST SEE!!
Gorgeous Mediterranean Style Home in gated section of the prestigious Tapatio Springs! Incredible hilltop views of Hill Country & Golf Course.4069 sqft main home w/outdoor entertaining area featuring pool,spa,waterfall,8 ft gas fire pit&BBQ kitchen.Plus a 474 sqft Poolside Cabana/Game Room.Home offers 4 bed suites w/main level Master Suite & Guest Bed Suite w/Full Bath. Enjoy the very best of the peaceful Luxury Hill Country Lifestyle in & outside this lushly landscaped & impeccably maintained turnkey home!
This is the BEST view on the Ridge!! Developer Owned Home. Stunning Hill Top lot with unlimited views overlooking the Hill Country, Boerne and beyond. The Ridge is one of Tapatio's most exclusive gated residential communities. High End appliances including gas viking cook-top, steam shower, Jacuzzi, wood windows, built in BBQ, 5CM granite in kitchen, lots of built in's and more. All underground utilities with a Resident's Clubhouse, Heated Swimming Pool and Fitness Center.
Custom built home with custom decor throughout! Peaceful courtyard with sparkling pool/hot tub welcomes guests. Rich Knotty Alder wood front door leads to magnificent open floor plan with freshly refinished Saltillo Tile. Custom cabinetry and built- ins throughout home. Custom Wood entertainment center in LR alongside fireplace with tile decor. Kitchen boasts granite counters and custom cabinets. Large covered back deck overlooks unlimited hilltop views. Huge master with access to back deck. Gorgeous Home!
Custom 1 story home in popular resort of Tapatio Springs! Double custom metal front doors & open floorplan! Milgard lifetime windows, spray foam insulation, over-sized golf cart garage & more. Chef's kitchen w/Kitchen Aid appliances, 36 gas cook top, custom cabinets, granite counter tops & lots of storage. Buyers will love the huge covered back porch (plumbed for outdoor kitchen) w/unobstructed views! Tapatio Spgs has a beautiful scenic golf course & new clubhouse under construction will open in 2019.


"Life Is Uncertain -- Eat Dessert First!" is the slogan of the Buttercup Bake Shop (Second Avenue and East 52nd Street). It's been trademarked from 2000, but an earlier 1993 trademark exists for a Denver, Colorado establishment.
The phrase (cited in print from 1986) is often associated since 2000 with Ernestine Ulmer, but no citation dates or biographical details are known.
Jennifer Appel began her professional career as a clinical psychologist. Though geared toward academics, the culinary arts were also in her blood. She fondly remembers her mother and grandmothers creating a variety of masterpieces in the family's kitchen. At the end of a long workday, Jennifer would come home and unwind by cooking, and by baking special desserts. Before long, her hobby became her passion. Intrigued by the food industry, Jennifer decided to switch careers and go full-time into the bakery business. In July 1996, she opened Magnolia Bakery in New York City's Greenwich Village, where she and her business partner sold cookies, pies, mini- cheesecakes and other delectable treats.
In August 1999, Jennifer ventured out on her own to open Buttercup Bake Shop in midtown Manhattan. Since its opening, the bakery has experienced outstanding success with its line of old fashioned American desserts and inviting ambiance.
" Bad week at the office? Miss your mom? Keep your chin up and pop over to Midtown's Buttercup Bake Shop for the indulgent, pick-me-up red velvet cake. And the next time the boss man cracks the whip, take a deep breath and repeat the mantra that hangs in Buttercup's window: 'Life is uncertain—eat dessert first!'"
"Eat dessert first. Life is uncertain," advises the plaque over the desk of Peggy Ann Baker Muse.
One of them revealed Lasorda's favorite motto: "Life is uncertain. Eat dessert first."
Lasorda once told a banquet that "Life is uncertain. Eat dessert first."
A T-shirt that reads "Life is Uncertain . . . So eat dessert first," priced at $10.
Inspiring stories demonstrate how to make the most of life, move beyond the daily trials of life to find joy, and stop putting off happiness until the "right moment"
Subject: Who was Ernestine Ulmer?
Is frequently attributed to Ernestine Ulmer. But I can't find any information about who she is to be remembered/quoted as saying this phrase. Did she write a cookbook? Did she run in a frequently quoted circle (ala Dorothy Parker)? Is she the real author of this phrase, or did someone cite her as the author and then dozens of other pages simply copy this misinformation? Does anyone have a book where *anyone* (Ms. Ulmer, or anyone else) is cited for this phrase, or the similar "Life is short, eat dessert first" phrase?
Word Mark LIFE IS UNCERTAIN, EAT DESSERT FIRST!
Do you know about Tucker's Ice Cream in Alameda, Ca that has these same words as their slogan?


text:
ROUNDUP: USS Turner Joy closes for repairs
Sun |
Mike Foley — Feb 27th, 1997
The USS Turner Joy will be closed from March 6 through March 20 for repairs to its emergency mooring system.
The ship store will remain open 10 a.m. to 5 p.m.
The USS Turner Joy docked near the state ferry in Bremerton is the only naval vessel permanently open to the public anywhere in the Pacific Northwest.
-- Mike Foley
ROUNDUP: Zellinsky event on the Turner Joy
State Rep. Paul Zellinsky has planned a fund-raising event from 6 to 8 p.m. Thursday, aboard the USS Turner Joy on the Bremerton waterfront. House Speaker Clyde Ballard, R-East Wenatchee, is scheduled to attend and speak on Zellinsky's behalf. Zellinsky, R-Bremerton, is running for ... [Read More...]
USS TURNER JOY: Shipmates reunite before dry-dock
* The former crew of the historic destroyer will get a last look before repairs. Former shipmates who served aboard USS Turner Joy will be in the area next week for a reunion, the last before the Bremerton museum ship goes into dry dock. ... [Read More...]
CAMPBELL: Historic destroyer deserves an escort
It's time to set things shipshape on the USS Turner Joy. The historic Navy destroyer opened to the public on Bremerton's waterfront in August 1992, following a heroic $905,000 fund-raising effort by the Bremerton Historic Ships Association. But even before it opened, the Turner Joy ... [Read More...]
MUSEUM SHIP: Turner Joy scheduled for dry dock in February
Congress and President Clinton have approved $750,000 to put Bremerton's museum ship USS Turner Joy into dry dock for hull repairs. If all goes as planned, the ship could be undergoing the repairs by February, said Rob Henry, president of the Bremerton Historic Ships ... [Read More...]
ROUNDUP: Turner Joy cruises to return
The display ship Turner Joy, a retired Navy destroyer, will reopen to tours today after a three-week closure. And tours along the face of Puget Sound Naval Shipyard by Kitsap Harbor Tours will resume on Saturday and Sunday. The ship was to have ... [Read More...]

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


text:
Q: Css is correctly working on Local but not on server Django? CSS is Loading perfectly on local but not on the server.
Also, I am trying using static_root and collectstatic method but that way the CSS is loading totally.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


Whether you're the bride or a guest, finding the right outfit for a wedding can be tricky, so we've selected the best designer and high street dresses for brides and guests alike, plus shoes, clutch bags and all the accessories you need to complete your look.
Is it ok to wear white if you're not the bride? Apparently so!
What will Pippa Middleton's wedding dress look like?
It's officially wedding season, gird your loins!


VANCOUVER — Work on a Trans Mountain pipeline crossing in a British Columbia stream altered habitat for young salmon, but the creek is expected to return to normal in one to two years, says Fisheries and Oceans Canada.
Two biologists with the department visited Stewart Creek in Chilliwack on Jan. 30 after receiving a complaint from Mike Pearson, a biologist with 30 years of experience who raised concerns about the work done by Trans Mountain Corp.
Pearson said in January that the placement of 17 metres of articulated concrete mats at the bottom of the stream had reduced hiding places for coho and chum salmon and inhibited growth of the aquatic invertebrates they feed on.
The Fisheries Department said the habitat has been altered but the natural accumulation of sediment is expected to restore the salmon habitat.
"The stream bed in the vicinity of the works has been altered from soft sediment bottom to hard substrate as a result of the placement of the concrete articulated matting for protection of the pipeline," it said in a statement.
The department believes it's unlikely salmon have been affected by the temporary alteration, as similar rearing habitat exists upstream and downstream of the site.
Pearson said while it's true the work covered a small area, it raises concerns about the ability of Trans Mountain to build infrastructure through waterways if the expansion project proceeds.
The project was purchased by the Canadian government for $4.5 billion and would triple the capacity of the existing Trans Mountain pipeline by laying nearly 1,000 kilometres of new pipe from the Edmonton area to a marine shipping terminal in Burnaby, B.C.
Pearson also doubted that enough sediment will accumulate at the site to cover the cement, and therefore maintains that the alteration to the stream bed is permanent, not temporary.
Sediment collects in places where water slows down, but that part of the creek is shallow and the current moves quickly, he said.
The corporation could add cover of larger rocks to create more habitat and hiding spots, Pearson said.
Fisheries and Oceans said it's not contemplating further action at this time. It added that new vegetation planted post-construction will help avoid recolonization of an invasive plant species called reed canarygrass and improve fish habitat once it's re-established.
Trans Mountain said it agrees with the assessment by the Fisheries Department and will continue to monitor the site.
Gravel was used to fill in the open-celled concrete blocks in order to hasten accumulation of material such as fine sand, silt and organics by natural accumulation and restore the habitat to its pre-construction condition, it said.
The company has denied an allegation by Pearson that photos he took in December show that small stones the company placed over the concrete blocks have been swept away by currents.
It said when construction was completed in September, the expectation was that it would require a period of sustained high-water levels and flows to allow the accumulation of material.
Last month, the National Energy Board recommended the government approve the expansion project after reviewing the effects of increased tanker traffic on the marine environment.
The board found that the project was in the public interest despite likely "significant adverse effects" to endangered southern resident killer whales and Indigenous cultural practices related to the animals.
Southern residents primarily eat chinook salmon during May to August, but chum salmon is an important component of their diet from September to October, according to Fisheries and Oceans Canada.
The energy board also concluded in its report last month that Trans Mountain's approach to the design of watercourse crossings is in keeping with current industry standards and practices.


A happy, joyful orchestral soundtrack piece in a 'big sky' style. Great open landscapes, new adventures, exciting and uplifting. Classic movie soundtrack style, highly suitable for movie production, western film or family adventure.


text:
Санни-Айлс-Бич () — город в округе Майами-Дейд, штат Флорида, США. Прозвище города — Маленькая Москва в связи с большим количеством русских.

География
Санни-Айлс-Бич фактически является северным пригородом Майами-Бич, на севере граничит с городком Голден-Бич, на западе — с городами ,  и . С востока Санни-Айлс-Бич омывается водами Атлантического океана, с запада — береговым каналом. Сам город находится на побочне. Площадь города составляет 3,7 км², из которых 1 км² (28,4 %) занимают открытые водные пространства. Основная улица города, «пронизывающая» его насквозь, — Коллинс-авеню (часть автомагистрали ), также через город проходят дороги  и . Ближайший аэропорт — Форт-Лодердейл/Холливуд находится в 16 километрах. Всё восточное побережье города представляет собой один длинный и узкий пляж. Город-побратим Санни-Айлс-Бич — Нетания (Израиль).

История
В 1920 году некий Харви Бейкер Грейвс купил участок земли площадью 5,9 км² на месте будущего города. Он решил сделать это место курортом и назвал его Санни-Айлс () — «Венеция Америки». В 1925 году был открыт мост Холовер, связавший напрямую этот курорт и Майами-Бич — это привлекло разработчиков, планировщиков и строителей недвижимости, которые начали углублять каналы и создавать новые, насыпать искусственные островки и полуострова, на которых можно было бы строить дома. Примерно в это же время предприниматель  построил здесь быстрейший в мире четвертьмильный бордтрек (овальная трасса с древесным покрытием) с местами на 12 тысяч зрителей. Спустя несколько месяцев после открытия, приняв одно-единственное соревнование, трасса была уничтожена Майамским ураганом.

До 1931 года это поселение носило официальное название Фулфорд, затем поменяло имя на Норт-Майами-Бич. В 1936 году поселение купил промышленник и благотворитель . Он построил причал длиной почти в километр, который быстро стал визитной карточкой городка, а в 1982 году был признан исторической достопримечательностью. В 1950-х годах в Санни-Айлс был построен первый жилой частный дом на одну семью. К концу 1960-х годов на территории города вдоль Коллинс-авеню было построено больше 30 мотелей разнообразных дизайнов, в том числе Ocean Palm — первый двухэтажный мотель в США. Многие здания «мотельного ряда» были снесены в 2000-х годах в связи с активным возведением новых современных зданий.

В 1997 году жители Санни-Айлс проголосовали за инкорпорацию в качестве муниципалитета, в результате чего Санни-Айлс получил статус города (city) и новое имя — Санни-Айлс-Бич.

В начале 2000-х годов в городе начался бум строительства высотных зданий вдоль атлантического побережья. В 2008 году был построен 53-этажный кондоминиум  высотой 175 метров. К настоящему времени (2014 год) — это самое высокое здание города и 17-е по высоте во всей Флориде.

Демография

По переписи 2000 года в городе проживало 15 315 человек (8169 домохозяйств, 3994 семьи). Расовый состав: белые — 91,85 %, негры и афроамериканцы — 2,03 %, коренные американцы — 0,16 %, азиаты — 1,36 %, уроженцы тихоокеанских островов и Гавайев — 0,01 %, прочие расы — 2,34 %, смешанные расы — 2,25 %, латиноамериканцы (любой расы) — 36,61 %. Средний возраст жителя составлял 50 лет: 11,3 % населения были несовершеннолетними и 32,2 % были пенсионерами. На 100 женщин приходилось 86,3 мужчины, причём на 100 совершеннолетних женщин приходилось 83,6 мужчины сопоставимого возраста. Средний доход домохозяйства составлял 31 627 долларов в год, семьи — 40 309 долларов, мужчины — 36 893 доллара, женщины — 28 207 долларов, доход на душу населения был 27 576 долларов в год. 11,2 % семей и 14,7 % населения жили за чертой бедности, в том числе к этой категории относились 18,9 % несовершеннолетних жителей города и 12,2 % пенсионеров. Своим родным языком испанский считали 40,07 % жителей города, английский — 36,86 %, русский — 7,36 %. О происхождении своих предков жители города сообщили следующее: русские — 18,2 %, американцы — 13,6 %, итальянцы — 12,5 %, поляки — 5,5 %, англичане — 4,5 %, немцы — 2,3 %.

По переписи 2010 года в городе проживало 20 832 человек (18 984 домохозяйства). Расовый состав: белые — 90,64 %, негры и афроамериканцы — 3,18 %, коренные американцы — 0,16 %, азиаты — 1,4 %, уроженцы тихоокеанских островов и Гавайев — 0,01 %, прочие расы — 2,41 %, смешанные расы — 2,19 %, латиноамериканцы (любой расы) — 44,39 %. Средний возраст жителя составлял 44 года: 16,6 % населения были несовершеннолетними и 28,1 % были пенсионерами. Размер средней семьи был 2,68 человек. 47,6 % населения были мужского пола, 52,4 % — женского. Средний доход семьи составлял 43 500 долларов в год, 15,1 % горожан жили за чертой бедности.

В Санни-Айлс-Бич 9,75 % жителей являются кубинцами, что делает этот город 46-м в списке «Населённые пункты США со значительным количеством кубинцев», 6,07 % жителей являются колумбийцами — 15-й в списке «Населённые пункты США со значительным количеством колумбийцев», 1,96 % жителей являются венесуэльцами — 7-й в списке «Населённые пункты США со значительным количеством венесуэльцев», 1,77 % жителей являются перуанцами — 32-й в списке «Населённые пункты США со значительным количеством перуанцев», 1,7 % жителей являются израильтянами — 20-й в списке «Населённые пункты США со значительным количеством израильтян».

Примечания

Ссылки
 Официальный сайт города
 Второй официальный сайт города
 Санни-Айлс-Бич на сайте epodunk.com
 Санни-Айлс-Бич на сайте city-data.com

Города Флориды
Пляжи США
Города округа Майами-Дейд

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


Our friend and Director of Aveniras Consulting, Rita Garza, shares her insight in her post on internal partnerships and how CSR programs initiatives may be hidden all throughout your company!
Often companies are layered with teams that perform CSR activities on a routine basis or hold relevant CSR data but do not realize how their activities or information can roll up into the larger company-wide CSR strategy. You as CSR professionals can help other departments within your company identify relevant CSR information and develop a plan to share that data. Here are three partnerships you can utilize within your company and ideas on how they may be able to contribute to your CSR efforts.
Team building has been linked to increased productivity at work and was deemed the most important investment a company can make by Brian Scudamore, CEO of O2E Brands. Many companies allocate a small portion of dollars in each department's budget for team building activities, and depending on the leadership within those departments, sometimes the budget dollars are used for simple things like team lunches, but other times, especially during the holiday seasons, the dollars are used to "give back" via a small monetary or product donation that is part of a team service activity. This type of team building happens quite often and may go untracked, though the data can enhance your CSR performance.
Due to the constant evolution of technology, the tech needs within companies regularly change and need to be updated or upgraded to keep the business operating efficiently and securely. Companies tend to replace computers and other commonly used equipment every three to five years, subsequently creating the need to discard outdated devices. You may choose to donate old equipment to schools or nonprofits, but to do so effectively, capturing the knowledge of your Information Technology (IT) team regarding technology upgrades is critical, especially if the IT team has no idea its knowledge contributes to CSR strategy.
Use the information gathered from the IT team to plan impactful in-kind donations. Know when large quantities of devices will be available to donate and identify in advance recipients who are most in need. Incorporate the fair market value of donated items into your reporting and communications, as well as an estimated operational value that includes how long the donated devices are expected to operate before needing to be replaced and how much money the nonprofit partner will save as a result.
Corporate sustainability is a fairly new focus for many CSR teams. In 1994, John Elkington coined the term "triple bottom line" calling on businesses to focus on three main areas: people, planet, and profit to be successful. Afterward, sustainability became more mainstream and companies began to publish sustainability reports in an effort to demonstrate a commitment to the environment.
The growing discussions around climate change, in the last few years, have created a sense of urgency for more companies to build a strong sustainability strategy. However, many are still in the development stages and may not realize how much information the facilities team at your company has that is CSR related. Facilities often track data regarding environmental impact such as emissions, waste management, and resource use. You can incorporate this information into annual CSR reports, traditional and social media strategy, and investor relations efforts. Even if your company has a strong sustainability strategy, consider meeting with your facilities team at least twice a year to see if any practices have changed that may result in new data they can share to support your CSR strategy.
Overall, there is an overwhelming amount of data within most companies that CSR teams have yet to access. Consider partnering with Finance, IT, and Facilities to establish regular reporting or discussion times to assist in planning and implementing your CSR strategy. If your CSR team currently partners with these departments, conduct regular exploratories to see what is changing and what new information the other teams have that you need. You'll be sure to find more and more data that can contribute to your CSR success.
Rita Garza is the Director of the Corporate Social Responsibility and Marketing Communications practice for Aveniras, a boutique investment and advisory firm.
Last year, Rita made the leap to being a consultant bringing 25 years of executive-level experience within a range of sectors, such as financial services, sports, telecommunications, utilities and healthcare to her practice. She has held top leadership positions within corporate social responsibility, marketing communications, and corporate communications departments. Rita is considered a tri-sector expert due to her ability to effectively work with diverse stakeholders in the private, public and nonprofit sectors.
A frequent media spokesperson, Rita is also a requested presenter and speaker on a wide variety of issues and topics. She has served in key Board of Director positions for various nonprofit organizations across the country.
Rita received a Bachelor's Degree in Public Relations from the University of Texas at Austin and as a National Urban Fellow received a Master's Degree in Public Administration with honors from the Baruch College, School of Public Affairs, City University of New York.
Read her last guest post here!


text:
Global Warming 20 Years Later (June 23, 2008)
starrdreams
Uploaded on Jun 26, 2008
NASA scientist looks back on his historic Congressional testimony.
Global Climate Change http://courses.dce.harvard.edu/~envre130
EPA Administrator Nomination Hearing
http://www.c-spanvideo.org/program/312050-1
Senate Committee Environment and Public Works
Gina McCarthy, the President's nominee to be Administrator of the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), testifies before the Senate Environment and Public Works Committee.
1 hour, 54 minutes | 46 Views
Current Drought and Global Warming – C-SPAN Video Library
http://www.c-spanvideo.org/program/3246-1
Current Drought and Global Warming
House Committee Science, Space and Technology | Natural Resources, Agriculture Research and Environment House Committee Science, Space and Technology | Science, Research and Technology
The subcommittees held a joint hearing on the threat of global warming. This video includes the original advertisements that aired in 1988l.
hours, 11 minutes | 28 Views
http://www.c-spanvideo.org/program/Warm
The Fossil Fuel Resistance – Bill McKibben
http://www.rollingstone.com/politics/news/the-fossil-fuel-resistance-20130411?print=true
As the world burns, a new movement to reverse climate change is emerging – fiercely, loudly and right next door
by Bill McKibben
It got so hot in Australia in January that the weather service had to add two new colors to its charts. A few weeks later, at the other end of the planet, new data from the CryoSat-2 satellite showed 80 percent of Arctic sea ice has disappeared. We're not breaking records anymore; we're breaking the planet. In 50 years, no one will care about the fiscal cliff or the Euro crisis. They'll just ask, "So the Arctic melted, and then what did you do?"
Here's the good news: We'll at least be able to say we fought.
After decades of scant organized response to climate change, a powerful movement is quickly emerging around the country and around the world, building on the work of scattered front-line organizers who've been fighting the fossil-fuel industry for decades. It has no great charismatic leader and no central organization; it battles on a thousand fronts. But taken together, it's now big enough to matter, and it's growing fast.
The Fossil Fuel Resistance: Meet the New Green Heroes
Americans got to see some of this movement spread out across the Mall in Washington, D.C., on a bitter-cold day in February. Press accounts put the crowd upward of 40,000 – by far the largest climate rally in the country's history. They were there to oppose the Keystone XL pipeline, which would run down from Canada's tar sands, south to the Gulf of Mexico, a fight that Time magazine recently referred to as the Selma and the Stonewall of the environmental movement. But there were thousands in the crowd also working to block fracking wells across the Appalachians and proposed Pacific coast deep-water ports that would send coal to China. Students from most of the 323 campuses where the fight for fossil-fuel divestment is under way mingled with veterans of the battles to shut down mountaintop-removal coal mining in West Virginia and Kentucky, and with earnest members of the Citizens Climate Lobby there to demand that Congress enact a serious price on carbon. A few days earlier, 48 leaders had been arrested outside the White House – they included ranchers from Nebraska who didn't want a giant pipeline across their land and leaders from Texas refinery towns who didn't want more crude spilling into their communities. Legendary investor Jeremy Grantham was on hand, urging scientists to accompany their research with civil disobedience, as were solar entrepreneurs quickly figuring out how to deploy panels on rooftops across the country. The original Americans were well-represented; indigenous groups are core leaders of the fight, since their communities have been devastated by mines and cheated by oil companies. The Rev. Lennox Yearwood Jr. of the Hip Hop Caucus was handcuffed next to Julian Bond, former head of the NAACP, who recounted stories of being arrested for integrating Atlanta lunch counters in the Sixties. (read more)
Hurricane Katrina – The Untold Story
Travis Vadon
See Hurricane Katrina first hand through the eyes of Brian Williams, MSNBC's news reporter. Hopefully your racism and prejudices become a thing of the past.
Refuge of Last Resort – The true Hurricane Katrina Story
TheyClownPeopleDown
This no holds documentary chronicles the days before, during and after Hurricane Katrina. Told from the viewpoint of several families stuck in New Orleans, this moving and unflinching story says so much by saying so little. Most of this footage has never been seen by the public, and there is absolutely no stock footage used in this film.
Lost City Of New Orleans (BBC Documentary)
ScienceWorId
Modern day New Orleans was a city that defied the odds. Built on a mosquito-infested swamp surrounded by water, it sits in a bowl 2.5m below sea-level. Its very existence seemed proof of the triumph of engineering over nature.
But on the 29 August 2005 the city took a direct hit from Hurricane Katrina and overnight turned into a Venice from hell. In the chaos that followed the worst natural disaster in American history, a forensic investigation has begun to find out what went wrong and why. Scientists are now confronting the real possibility that New Orleans may be the first of many cities to face extinction.
Professor Ivor Van Heerden of Louisiana State University's Hurricane Centre used computer modelling to simulate hurricane paths across New Orleans. He had been appointed by the state to discover why New Orleans flooded so catastrophically and had his own unique methods of gathering data. By collecting eye-witness testimonies from residents and the stopped clocks from their flooded homes, Van Heerden pieced together a timeline of the levee breaches. He also took samples from the breach sites for analysis.
His results were shocking. He believed they showed that there was a design fault in the levees. "The old system that led to the design and the building of them, the funding, the decision making process, didn't work. We've got to change that and part of that is going to be for the federal government and the engineers corps to step up to the plate and say we screwed up."
Over the years the levees and dams stopped annual floods from the Mississippi River. As a result sediments that were brought down by the river to replenish the land were prevented from reaching their natural destination. Gradually Louisiana started to lose its coast. Today it has the highest rate of coastal land loss in North America. Every 20 minutes an area the size of Wembley stadium is swallowed up by the sea.
Shea Penland, a coastal geologist at the University of New Orleans, knows every inlet, every cove and every stretch of marsh that surrounds the city. He also knows that Louisiana's wetlands, thought of as wasteland for years, are in fact critical to the survival of the city. Providing protection against storm surges, these wetlands are a natural defence against the onslaught of hurricanes. As he says: "The first line of defence isn't the levee in your backyard, the first line of defence is that marsh in your back yard and we're learning what that means."
After the disaster, he chartered a seaplane to investigate the overnight loss to Louisiana's precious wetlands. What he discovered sounded like the death knoll for the city. In just one night, Louisiana had lost three-quarters of the wetland that it usually loses in one year. Without this protection, New Orleans is a sitting duck against future storms.
And the problems don't just stop there. The city itself is sinking. Since 1878 it has dropped by 4.5m, one of the highest rates of subsidence in the entire United States. Once again it's mainly human intervention that is to blame. According to Professor Harry Roberts, a geologist at the Louisiana State University: "It's been accelerated by man's efforts to keep the water out of the city. When you pump the water out of those kinds of soils they start to collapse and even more importantly the organic material oxidises and goes away so you've taken out one component of the soil, and all that adds up to subsidence."
http://courses.dce.harvard.edu/~envre130
Clearing House for Environmental Course Material
https://environmentaljusticetv.wordpress.com/
Cyprus International Institute (CII) (Harvard School of Public Health) http://Cyprus-Institute.us


text:
Q: Converting dictionary to dataframe, and then melting / stacking columns to rows I am a bit confused about how to use melt or stack correctly in order to transform my dataframe.
Currently have a dataframe which looks as follows:

My objective is to transform this data frame, (probably using melt or stack), and I'm having some trouble doing so.  My objective is to have my dataframe look like this:

My data is currently stored in a dict :
{'K_T1': [84.51865079365093,
  84.51865079365093,
  83.80912698412698,
  83.80912698412698,
  86.56468253968255,
  86.56468253968255],
 'K_T2': [77.26309523809515,
  77.26309523809515,
  77.57777777777771,
  77.57777777777771,
  77.09999999999992,
  77.09999999999992],
 'Z_T1': [83.80912698412698,
  83.80912698412698,
  86.61111111111107,
  86.61111111111107,
  87.81746031746032,
  87.81746031746032],
 'Z_T2': [77.57777777777771,
  77.57777777777771,
  75.8619047619048,
  75.8619047619048,
  74.79007936507927,
  74.79007936507927]}

Pseudocode:

*

*Convert my dict to a dataframe: K_Z_Averages_df = pd.DataFrame.from_dict(K_Z_Averages)

*Add a column, for Part Name.

*Identify if the initial column name has T1 or T2 listed and place it into the correct column, T1 or T2 using melt or stack.

Thanks for any support which can be offered!

A: Use str.split first by _ in columns, then reshape by DataFrame.stack with some data cleaning:
df.columns = df.columns.str.split('_', expand=True)
df = (df.stack(0)
        .sort_index(level=1)
        .rename_axis([None, 'Part Name'])
        .reset_index(level=1)
        .reset_index(drop=True))
print (df)
   Part Name         T1         T2
0          K  84.518651  77.263095
1          K  84.518651  77.263095
2          K  83.809127  77.577778
3          K  83.809127  77.577778
4          K  86.564683  77.100000
5          K  86.564683  77.100000
6          Z  83.809127  77.577778
7          Z  83.809127  77.577778
8          Z  86.611111  75.861905
9          Z  86.611111  75.861905
10         Z  87.817460  74.790079
11         Z  87.817460  74.790079

Another idea with wide_to_long and rename columns with change order before and after _:
df.columns = [f'{b}_{a}' for a, b in df.columns.str.split('_')]

df = (pd.wide_to_long(df.reset_index(),
                      stubnames=['T1','T2'],
                      i='index',
                      j='Part Name',
                      sep='_',
                      suffix='\w+')
       .reset_index(level=1).reset_index(drop=True))
print (df)
   Part Name         T1         T2
0          K  84.518651  77.263095
1          K  84.518651  77.263095
2          K  83.809127  77.577778
3          K  83.809127  77.577778
4          K  86.564683  77.100000
5          K  86.564683  77.100000
6          Z  83.809127  77.577778
7          Z  83.809127  77.577778
8          Z  86.611111  75.861905
9          Z  86.611111  75.861905
10         Z  87.817460  74.790079
11         Z  87.817460  74.790079


Between our intimate interior dining room, with its crackling fire, and the outdoor patio built around a majestic, century old magnolia tree, you'll find year round options for the perfect meal. Lunch enjoyed al fresco on a warm day offers the promise of people watching, and the soft rustling of leaves. When the sun goes down, and the temperatures dip, warm up inside with a perfectly matched bottle of wine, and a leisurely Italian meal taken near the fireplace, where the smell of wood-fired pizza will whet the appetite, and delight the senses. Experience Poulsbo's only courtyard restaurant, though it may feel a world away.
Upstairs, nearly nestled in the branches of the magnolia tree, you'll find our full bar and lounge area. Enjoy picturesque views of Poulsbo and Liberty Bay, while sipping handcrafted cocktails from our talented, and top-rated bartenders. The Sogno Lounge offers a low-key, but sociable atmosphere, with a nightly Happy Hour from 4-6 pm.
The Sogno Lounge often features talented, local musicians on Friday, Saturday, and Sunday nights, who add to the relaxed ambience, rather than overpower it. Visit our Facebook page for the latest information on music sessions.
Aside from our extensive wine menu, we invite you to discover our carefully curated selection of bottles, on display in the beautiful, brick-lined wine cellar. Inside, you'll find a diverse array of our favorites from the outstanding Northwest region, California, and Italy. Our wine list has been voted #1 every year since our opening in 2008, so we're confident you'll find plenty to love. Please browse the cellar at your own pace, and when you've found the perfect pairing for your meal, we'd be happy to open it for you with no extra corkage fee. Whether you're dining with us, returning to your boat, or want a special bottle to bring home for later, we'll do our best to ensure that you leave with exactly what you need.
Since 2010, Sogno di Vino has been proud to call Willem Reinders our Executive Chef. Originally from the Netherlands, Chef Reinders brings decades of experience in world class restaurants to the kitchen of Sogno di Vino. Trained in France, with positions in Paris, London, Belgium, and throughout the Netherlands, Reinders has called the Pacific Northwest home since 1998, when he met his wife Kathy, and settled on Bainbridge Island. Since then, Reinders has worked in such kitchens as Seattle's Sorrento Hotel, the Wing Point Golf and Country Club, and the late Four Swallows Restaurant. Chef Reinders believes that great food begins at the source, with the freshest, most local ingredients, prepared with passion and care. He greatly values the close relationships he's formed over the years with local purveyors, such as Painted Hills Beef, Full Tilth Farms, Persephone Farm, Mount Townsend Creamery, Carlton Farms, and many, many more. But don't just take his word for it, come in and experience the difference for yourself.
With over 25 years experience owning and operating restaurants throughout Southern California, Angela dreamed of continuing her passion for great wine and Italian food when she and husband Rob relocated to the Northwest nearly a decade ago. They immediately fell in love with the inviting, and rustic feel of the space, and the historic charm of downtown Poulsbo. Rob's experience as a yacht captain makes a boating town like Poulsbo a perfect fit. Together, they are living their dreams, and helping to bring first-class cuisine to this vibrant community and its visitors.


2004. Instituto Nacional de Estadística, Geografía e Informática (Mexico), Geological Survey (U.S.), and Canada Centre for Remote Sensing. This line shapefile shows the coastline, linear hydrographic features, and area hydrographic features in North America. This data set was produced ... Geological Survey (U.S.).
2004. Instituto Nacional de Estadística, Geografía e Informática (Mexico), Geological Survey (U.S.), and Canada Centre for Remote Sensing. This polygon shapefile shows areas of coastline, and other hydrographic features in North America. This data set was produced using digital files s... Geological Survey (U.S.).
2004. Instituto Nacional de Estadística, Geografía e Informática (Mexico), Geological Survey (U.S.), and Canada Centre for Remote Sensing. This polygon shapefile depicts the political boundaries of North America, including: international boundaries, provincial boundaries, state or terr... Geological Survey (U.S.).
2004. Instituto Nacional de Estadística, Geografía e Informática (Mexico), Geological Survey (U.S.), and Canada Centre for Remote Sensing. This line shapefile depicts the political boundaries of North America, including: international boundaries, provincial boundaries, state or territo... Geological Survey (U.S.).
2004. Geological Survey (U.S.), Instituto Nacional de Estadística, Geografía e Informática (Mexico), and Canada Centre for Remote Sensing. A joint venture involving the National Atlas programs in Canada (Natural Resources Canada), Mexico (Instituto Nacional de Estadística Geografía e I... Geological Survey (U.S.).
2004. United States. Bureau of Transportation Statistics and United States. Federal Transit Administration. This polyline shapefile depicts the Fixed-Guideway Transit Network, a network database of the nation's fixed-guideway transit systems. Fixed-Guidew... United States. Bureau of Transportation Statistics.
2004. Instituto Nacional de Estadística, Geografía e Informática (Mexico), Geological Survey (U.S.), and Canada Centre for Remote Sensing. This line shapefile represents roads in North America at 1:1,000,000 scale. The roads included in this layer are either those that connect major ce... Geological Survey (U.S.).
2004. U.S. Geological Survey in cooperation with U.S. Environmental Protection Agency. U.S. Rivers and Streams represents detailed rivers and streams in the United States.


The intention of Akaitcho Treaty 8 negotiations is to eventually transition to self-government and management of Akaitcho Dene Title Land. Upon completion of negotiations, each Akaitcho First Nations will self govern.
As an Akaitcho member it is important to understand the differences between how Akaitcho Dene are governed through the Indian Act (Self Administration) vs. Self-Determination (Self-Government).


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If you have actually had problem with weight management in the past, or if you are just trying to find something you can be certain to see cause by, PhenQ is most likely your best bet on the marketplace today. PhenQ is the most reliable and risk-free weight reduction option on the marketplace.
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PhenQ from BauerNutrition has been a large success worldwide as well as appears to be very popular in Nigeria particularly. Nevertheless on-line searches do not raise any kind of outcomes regarding distributors based in Nigeria or specialised firm offered for this supply. Indeed, any kind of search engine result that do show up are typically dead web links or hyperlink back to the exact same web page under various names.
Purchasing Phtermine 37.5mg items on the internet can be a bit challenging. If you're wanting to purchase these items on the internet, do your homework and shop around for the best bargain. Buying Phentermine Diet Pills products on the internet can be more effective than buying the products in stores. When buy Phentermine Alternative online, be sure to use we have the most common payment methods. The routine credit card, debit card, and Paypal are a must. Extra choices will also be useful in driving up conversion rates. Plus, if you are a regional shop then "pay at door action" may also be a practical choice because a number of users still are unsure of offering credit card details online.
Labels on Phentermine Alternative product should include the following info: statement of identity, net quantity of contents, instructions for use, a supplement realities panel, noting serving size, quantity and active ingredients, other ingredients in coming down order of predominance, and the name and business of the manufacturer, packer or supplier. Constantly follow the producer's daily recommended dose - more isn't really constantly much better. If a producer says to take 2 pills each day, that's all you need to take. If you take numerous supplements, check to see if you are getting the very same ingredient from numerous sources to make sure you do not exceed the recommended day-to-day allowance for any private active ingredient.
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