text:
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe[a] (28 August 1749 – 22 March 1832) was a German poet, playwright, novelist, scientist, statesman, theatre director, and critic.[3] His works include plays, poetry, literature, and aesthetic criticism, as well as treatises on botany, anatomy, and colour. He is widely regarded as the greatest and most influential writer in the German language, his work having a profound and wide-ranging influence on Western literary, political, and philosophical thought from the late 18th century to the present day.[3][4]
Geheimrat
Goethe in 1828, by Joseph Karl Stieler
(1749-08-28)28 August 1749
Free Imperial City of Frankfurt, Holy Roman Empire
22 March 1832(1832-03-22) (aged 82)
Weimar, Grand Duchy of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, German Confederation
Poet, novelist, playwright, natural philosopher, diplomat, civil servant
Leipzig University
University of Strasbourg (LL.Lic., 1771)
Literary movement
Weimar Classicism
Romanticism in science
Notable works
The Sorrows of Young Werther
Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship
Elective Affinities
"Prometheus"
Zur Farbenlehre
Italienische Reise
West–östlicher Divan
Christiane Vulpius
(m. 1806; died 1816)
5 (4 died young), including August von Goethe
Catharina Elisabeth Goethe
Johann Caspar Goethe
Cornelia Schlosser (sister)
Christian August Vulpius (brother-in-law)
Johann Georg Schlosser (brother-in-law)
Ottilie von Goethe (daughter-in-law)
Walther von Goethe (grandson)
Goethe took up residence in Weimar in November 1775 following the success of his first novel, The Sorrows of Young Werther (1774). He was ennobled by the Duke of Saxe-Weimar, Karl August, in 1782. Goethe was an early participant in the Sturm und Drang literary movement. During his first ten years in Weimar, Goethe became a member of the Duke's privy council (1776–1785), sat on the war and highway commissions, oversaw the reopening of silver mines in nearby Ilmenau, and implemented a series of administrative reforms at the University of Jena. He also contributed to the planning of Weimar's botanical park and the rebuilding of its Ducal Palace.[5][b]
Goethe's first major scientific work, the Metamorphosis of Plants, was published after he returned from a 1788 tour of Italy. In 1791 he was made managing director of the theatre at Weimar, and in 1794 he began a friendship with the dramatist, historian, and philosopher Friedrich Schiller, whose plays he premiered until Schiller's death in 1805. During this period Goethe published his second novel, Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship; the verse epic Hermann and Dorothea, and, in 1808, the first part of his most celebrated drama, Faust. His conversations and various shared undertakings throughout the 1790s with Schiller, Johann Gottlieb Fichte, Johann Gottfried Herder, Alexander von Humboldt,[6] Wilhelm von Humboldt, and August and Friedrich Schlegel have come to be collectively termed Weimar Classicism.
The German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer named Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship one of the four greatest novels ever written,[7][c] while the American philosopher and essayist Ralph Waldo Emerson selected Goethe as one of six "representative men" in his work of the same name (along with Plato, Emanuel Swedenborg, Montaigne, Napoleon, and Shakespeare). Goethe's comments and observations form the basis of several biographical works, notably Johann Peter Eckermann's Conversations with Goethe (1836). His poems were set to music by many composers including Mozart, Beethoven, Schubert, Berlioz, Liszt, Wagner, and Mahler.
LifeEdit
Goethe's father, Johann Caspar Goethe, lived with his family in a large house (today the Goethe House) in Frankfurt, then a free imperial city of the Holy Roman Empire. Though he had studied law in Leipzig and had been appointed Imperial Councillor, Johann Caspar Goethe was not involved in the city's official affairs.[8] Johann Caspar married Goethe's mother, Catharina Elisabeth Textor, in Frankfurt on 20 August 1748, when he was 38 and she was 17.[9] All their children, with the exception of Johann Wolfgang and his sister Cornelia Friederica Christiana (born in 1750), died at early ages.
Goethe's birthplace in Frankfurt (Großer Hirschgraben)
His father and private tutors gave the young Goethe lessons in common subjects of their time, especially languages (Latin, Greek, Biblical Hebrew (briefly),[10] French, Italian, and English). Goethe also received lessons in dancing, riding, and fencing. Johann Caspar, feeling frustrated in his own ambitions, was determined that his children should have all those advantages that he had not.[8]
Although Goethe's great passion was drawing, he quickly became interested in literature; Friedrich Gottlieb Klopstock (1724–1803) and Homer were among his early favorites.[11] He had a devotion to theater as well, and was greatly fascinated by puppet shows that were annually arranged[by whom?] in his home; this became a recurrent theme in his literary work Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship.
He also took great pleasure in reading works on history and religion. He writes about this period:
I had from childhood the singular habit of always learning by heart the beginnings of books, and the divisions of a work, first of the five books of Moses, and then of the Aeneid and Ovid's Metamorphoses. ... If an ever busy imagination, of which that tale may bear witness, led me hither and thither, if the medley of fable and history, mythology and religion, threatened to bewilder me, I readily fled to those oriental regions, plunged into the first books of Moses, and there, amid the scattered shepherd tribes, found myself at once in the greatest solitude and the greatest society.[12]
Goethe also became acquainted with Frankfurt actors.[13] In early literary attempts he showed an infatuation with Gretchen, who would later reappear in his Faust, and the adventures with whom he would concisely describe in Dichtung und Wahrheit.[14] He adored Caritas Meixner (1750–1773), a wealthy Worms trader's daughter and friend of his sister, who would later marry the merchant G. F. Schuler.[15]
Legal careerEdit
Anna Katharina (Käthchen) Schönkopf
Goethe studied law at Leipzig University from 1765 to 1768. He detested learning age-old judicial rules by heart, preferring instead to attend the lessons of the poet and university's professor Christian Fürchtegott Gellert. In Leipzig, Goethe fell in love with craftsman and innkeeper's daughter Anna Katharina Schönkopf and wrote cheerful verses about her in the Rococo genre. In 1770, he anonymously released Annette, his first collection of poems. His uncritical admiration for many contemporary poets vanished as he became interested in Gotthold Ephraim Lessing and Christoph Martin Wieland. By this time, Goethe had already written a great deal, but he discarded nearly all of these works except for the comedy Die Mitschuldigen. The restaurant Auerbachs Keller and its legend of Johann Georg Faust's 1525 barrel ride impressed him so much that Auerbachs Keller became the only real place in his closet drama Faust Part One. As his studies did not progress, Goethe was forced to return to Frankfurt at the close of August 1768.
Goethe became severely ill in Frankfurt. During the year and a half that followed, because of several relapses, the relationship with his father worsened. During convalescence, Goethe was nursed by his mother and sister. In April 1770, Goethe left Frankfurt in order to finish his studies at the University of Strasbourg.
In Alsace, Goethe blossomed. No other landscape has he described as affectionately as the warm, wide Rhine area. In Strasbourg, Goethe met Johann Gottfried Herder. The two became close friends, and crucially to Goethe's intellectual development, Herder kindled his interest in William Shakespeare, Ossian and in the notion of Volkspoesie (folk poetry). On 14 October 1772 Goethe held a gathering in his parental home in honour of the first German "Shakespeare Day". His first acquaintance with Shakespeare's works is described as his personal awakening in literature.[16]
On a trip to the village Sessenheim, Goethe fell in love with Friederike Brion, in October 1770,[17][18] but terminated the relationship in August 1771.[19] Several of his poems, like "Willkommen und Abschied", "Sesenheimer Lieder" and "Heidenröslein", originate from this time.
At the end of August 1771, Goethe acquired the academic degree of the Licentiate of Law from Strasbourg and established a small legal practice in Frankfurt. Although in his academic work he had expressed the ambition to make jurisprudence progressively more humane, his inexperience led him to proceed too vigorously in his first cases, and he was reprimanded and lost further ones. This prematurely terminated his career as a lawyer after only a few months. At this time, Goethe was acquainted with the court of Darmstadt, where his inventiveness was praised. From this milieu came Johann Georg Schlosser (who later became Goethe's brother-in-law) and Johann Heinrich Merck. Goethe also pursued literary plans again; this time, his father did not have anything against it, and even helped. Goethe obtained a copy of the biography of a noble highwayman from the German Peasants' War. In a couple of weeks the biography was reworked into a colourful drama. Entitled Götz von Berlichingen, the work went directly to the heart of Goethe's contemporaries.
Goethe could not subsist on being one of the editors of a literary periodical (published by Schlosser and Merck). In May 1772 he once more began the practice of law at Wetzlar. In 1774 he wrote the book which would bring him worldwide fame, The Sorrows of Young Werther. The outer shape of the work's plot is widely taken over from what Goethe experienced during his Wetzlar time with Charlotte Buff (1753–1828)[20] and her fiancé, Johann Christian Kestner (1741–1800),[20] as well as from the suicide of the author's friend Karl Wilhelm Jerusalem (1747–1772); in it, Goethe made a desperate passion of what was in reality a hearty and relaxed friendship.[21] Despite the immense success of Werther, it did not bring Goethe much financial gain because copyright laws at the time were essentially nonexistent. (In later years Goethe would bypass this problem by periodically authorizing "new, revised" editions of his Complete Works.)[22]
Early years in WeimarEdit
Goethe c. 1775
In 1775, Goethe was invited, on the strength of his fame as the author of The Sorrows of Young Werther, to the court of Karl August, Duke of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach, who would become Grand Duke in 1815. (Karl August at the time was 18 years of age, to Goethe's 26.) Goethe thus went to live in Weimar, where he remained for the rest of his life[23] and where, over the course of many years, he held a succession of offices, including superintendent of the ducal library,[24] and was the Duke's friend and chief adviser.[25][26]
In 1776, Goethe formed a close relationship with Charlotte von Stein, an older, married woman. The intimate bond with her lasted for ten years, after which Goethe abruptly left for Italy without giving his companion any notice. She was emotionally distraught at the time, but they were eventually reconciled.[27]
Goethe, aside from official duties, was also a friend and confidant to Duke Karl August and participated in the activities of the court. For Goethe, his first ten years at Weimar could well be described as a garnering of a degree and range of experiences which perhaps could have been achieved in no other way. In 1779, Goethe took on the War Commission of the Grand Duchy of Saxe-Weimar, in addition to the Mines and Highways commissions. In 1782, when the chancellor of the Duchy's Exchequer left his office, Goethe agreed to act in his place and did so for two and a half years; this post virtually made him prime minister and the principal representative of the Duchy.[3] Goethe was ennobled in 1782 (this being indicated by the "von" in his name). In that same year, Goethe moved into what would be his primary residence in Weimar for the next 50 years.[28]
As head of the Saxe-Weimar War Commission, Goethe participated in the recruitment of mercenaries into the Prussian and British military during the American Revolution. The author W. Daniel Wilson [de] claims that Goethe engaged in negotiating the forced sale of vagabonds, criminals, and political dissidents as part of these activities.[29]
ItalyEdit
Goethe, age 38, painted by Angelica Kauffman 1787
Goethe, by Luise Seidler (Weimar 1811)
Goethe's residence and museum
Goethe's journey to the Italian peninsula and Sicily from 1786 to 1788 was of great significance in his aesthetic and philosophical development. His father had made a similar journey, and his example was a major motivating factor for Goethe to make the trip. More importantly, however, the work of Johann Joachim Winckelmann had provoked a general renewed interest in the classical art of ancient Greece and Rome. Thus Goethe's journey had something of the nature of a pilgrimage to it. During the course of his trip Goethe met and befriended the artists Angelica Kauffman and Johann Heinrich Wilhelm Tischbein, as well as encountering such notable characters as Lady Hamilton and Alessandro Cagliostro.
He also journeyed to Sicily during this time, and wrote that "To have seen Italy without having seen Sicily is to not have seen Italy at all, for Sicily is the clue to everything."[30] While in Southern Italy and Sicily, Goethe encountered, for the first time genuine Greek (as opposed to Roman) architecture, and was quite startled by its relative simplicity. Winckelmann had not recognized the distinctness of the two styles.
Goethe's diaries of this period form the basis of the non-fiction Italian Journey. Italian Journey only covers the first year of Goethe's visit. The remaining year is largely undocumented, aside from the fact that he spent much of it in Venice. This "gap in the record" has been the source of much speculation over the years.
In the decades which immediately followed its publication in 1816, Italian Journey inspired countless German youths to follow Goethe's example. This is pictured, somewhat satirically, in George Eliot's Middlemarch.[citation needed]
WeimarEdit
A Goethe watercolour depicting a liberty pole at the border to the short-lived Republic of Mainz, created under influence of the French Revolution and destroyed in the Siege of Mainz in which Goethe participated
In late 1792, Goethe took part in the Battle of Valmy against revolutionary France, assisting Duke Karl August of Saxe-Weimar-Eisenach during the failed invasion of France. Again during the Siege of Mainz, he assisted Carl August as a military observer. His written account of these events can be found within his Complete Works.
In 1794, Friedrich Schiller wrote to Goethe offering friendship; they had previously had only a mutually wary relationship ever since first becoming acquainted in 1788. This collaborative friendship lasted until Schiller's death in 1805.
In 1806, Goethe was living in Weimar with his mistress Christiane Vulpius, the sister of Christian A. Vulpius, and their son August von Goethe. On 13 October, Napoleon's army invaded the town. The French "spoon guards", the least disciplined soldiers, occupied Goethe's house:
The 'spoon guards' had broken in, they had drunk wine, made a great uproar and called for the master of the house. Goethe's secretary Riemer reports: 'Although already undressed and wearing only his wide nightgown... he descended the stairs towards them and inquired what they wanted from him.... His dignified figure, commanding respect, and his spiritual mien seemed to impress even them.' But it was not to last long. Late at night they burst into his bedroom with drawn bayonets. Goethe was petrified, Christiane raised a lot of noise and even tangled with them, other people who had taken refuge in Goethe's house rushed in, and so the marauders eventually withdrew again. It was Christiane who commanded and organized the defense of the house on the Frauenplan. The barricading of the kitchen and the cellar against the wild pillaging soldiery was her work. Goethe noted in his diary: "Fires, rapine, a frightful night... Preservation of the house through steadfastness and luck." The luck was Goethe's, the steadfastness was displayed by Christiane.[31]
Days afterward, on 19 October 1806, Goethe legitimized their 18-year relationship by marrying Christiane in a quiet marriage service at the Jakobskirche in Weimar [de]. They had already had several children together by this time, including their son, Julius August Walter von Goethe (1789–1830), whose wife, Ottilie von Pogwisch (1796–1872), cared for the elder Goethe until his death in 1832. August and Ottilie had three children: Walther, Freiherr von Goethe (1818–1885), Wolfgang, Freiherr von Goethe [de] (1820–1883) and Alma von Goethe [de] (1827–1844). Christiane von Goethe died in 1816. Johann reflected, "There is nothing more charming to see than a mother with her child in her arms, and there is nothing more venerable than a mother among a number of her children."[32]
Ulrike von Levetzow
Later lifeEdit
After 1793, Goethe devoted his endeavours primarily to literature. By 1820, Goethe was on amiable terms with Kaspar Maria von Sternberg.
Goethe and Ulrike, sculpture by Heinrich Drake in Marienbad
In 1821, having recovered from a near fatal heart illness, the 72-year-old Goethe fell in love with Ulrike von Levetzow, 17 at the time.[33] In 1823, he wanted to marry her, but because of the opposition of her mother, he never proposed. Their last meeting in Carlsbad on 5 September 1823 inspired his poem "Marienbad Elegy" which he considered one of his finest works.[34][35] During that time he also developed a deep emotional bond with the Polish pianist Maria Szymanowska, 33 at the time and separated from her husband.[36]
In 1821 Goethe's friend Carl Friedrich Zelter introduced him to the 12-year-old Felix Mendelssohn. Goethe, now in his seventies, was greatly impressed by the child, leading to perhaps the earliest confirmed comparison with Mozart in the following conversation between Goethe and Zelter:
"Musical prodigies ... are probably no longer so rare; but what this little man can do in extemporizing and playing at sight borders the miraculous, and I could not have believed it possible at so early an age." "And yet you heard Mozart in his seventh year at Frankfurt?" said Zelter. "Yes", answered Goethe, "... but what your pupil already accomplishes, bears the same relation to the Mozart of that time that the cultivated talk of a grown-up person bears to the prattle of a child."[37]
Mendelssohn was invited to meet Goethe on several later occasions,[38] and set a number of Goethe's poems to music. His other compositions inspired by Goethe include the overture Calm Sea and Prosperous Voyage (Op. 27, 1828), and the cantata Die erste Walpurgisnacht (The First Walpurgis Night, Op. 60, 1832).[39]
Coffins of Goethe and Schiller, Weimar vault
In 1832, Goethe died in Weimar of apparent heart failure. His last words, according to his doctor Carl Vogel [de], were, Mehr Licht! (More light!), but this is disputed as Vogel was not in the room at the moment Goethe died.[40] He is buried in the Ducal Vault at Weimar's Historical Cemetery.
Eckermann closes his famous work, Conversations with Goethe, with this passage:
The morning after Goethe's death, a deep desire seized me to look once again upon his earthly garment. His faithful servant, Frederick, opened for me the chamber in which he was laid out. Stretched upon his back, he reposed as if asleep; profound peace and security reigned in the features of his sublimely noble countenance. The mighty brow seemed yet to harbour thoughts. I wished for a lock of his hair; but reverence prevented me from cutting it off. The body lay naked, only wrapped in a white sheet; large pieces of ice had been placed near it, to keep it fresh as long as possible. Frederick drew aside the sheet, and I was astonished at the divine magnificence of the limbs. The breast was powerful, broad, and arched; the arms and thighs were elegant, and of the most perfect shape; nowhere, on the whole body, was there a trace of either fat or of leanness and decay. A perfect man lay in great beauty before me; and the rapture the sight caused me made me forget for a moment that the immortal spirit had left such an abode. I laid my hand on his heart – there was a deep silence – and I turned away to give free vent to my suppressed tears.
The first production of Richard Wagner's opera Lohengrin took place in Weimar in 1850. The conductor was Franz Liszt, who chose the date 28 August in honour of Goethe, who was born on 28 August 1749.[41]
Goethe married his long-time lover Christiane Vulpius in 1806. They had 5 children, of whom only their eldest son August von Goethe managed to survive into adulthood. One was stillborn, while the others died early. August had 3 children with Ottilie von Goethe: Walther von Goethe, Wolfgang and Alma. Alma died of Typhoid fever during the outbreak in Vienna, the month before her 17th birthday. Walther and Wolfgang neither married nor had any children. Walther's gravestone states: "With him ends Goethe's dynasty, the name will last forever.", marking the end of Goethe's personal bloodline. While he has no direct descendants, his siblings have.
Literary workEdit
First edition of The Sorrows of Young Werther
1876 'Faust' by Goethe, decorated by Rudolf Seitz, large German edition 51x38cm
OverviewEdit
The most important of Goethe's works produced before he went to Weimar were Götz von Berlichingen (1773), a tragedy that was the first work to bring him recognition, and the novel The Sorrows of Young Werther (German: Die Leiden des jungen Werthers) (1774), which gained him enormous fame as a writer in the Sturm und Drang period which marked the early phase of Romanticism. Indeed, Werther is often considered to be the "spark" which ignited the movement, and can arguably be called the world's first "best-seller". During the years at Weimar before he met Schiller in 1794, he began Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship[42] and wrote the dramas Iphigenie auf Tauris (Iphigenia in Tauris),[43] Egmont,[44] and Torquato Tasso[45] and the fable Reineke Fuchs.[46]
To the period of his friendship with Schiller belong the conception of Wilhelm Meister's Journeyman Years (the continuation of Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship), the idyll of Hermann and Dorothea, the Roman Elegies and the verse drama The Natural Daughter.[47] In the last period, between Schiller's death, in 1805, and his own, appeared Faust Part One (1808), Elective Affinities (1809), the West-Eastern Diwan (an 1819 collection of poems in the Persian style, influenced by the work of Hafez), his autobiographical Aus meinem Leben: Dichtung und Wahrheit (From My Life: Poetry and Truth, published between 1811 and 1833) which covers his early life and ends with his departure for Weimar, his Italian Journey (1816–17), and a series of treatises on art. Faust, Part Two was completed before his 1832 death and published posthumously later that year. His writings were immediately influential in literary and artistic circles.[47]
Goethe was fascinated by Kalidasa's Abhijñānaśākuntalam, which was one of the first works of Sanskrit literature that became known in Europe, after being translated from English to German.[48]
Goethe–Schiller Monument, Weimar (1857)
Details of selected worksEdit
The short epistolary novel Die Leiden des jungen Werthers, or The Sorrows of Young Werther, published in 1774, recounts an unhappy romantic infatuation that ends in suicide. Goethe admitted that he "shot his hero to save himself": a reference to Goethe's own near-suicidal with a young woman during this period, an obsession he quelled through the writing process. The novel remains in print in dozens of languages and its influence is undeniable; its central hero, an obsessive figure driven to despair and destruction by his unrequited love for the young Lotte, has become a pervasive literary archetype. The fact that Werther ends with the protagonist's suicide and funeral—a funeral which "no clergyman attended"—made the book deeply controversial upon its (anonymous) publication, for on the face of it, it appeared to condone and glorify suicide. Suicide is considered sinful by Christian doctrine: suicides were denied Christian burial with the bodies often mistreated and dishonoured in various ways; in corollary, the deceased's property and possessions were often confiscated by the Church.[49] However, Goethe explained his use of Werther in his autobiography. He said he "turned reality into poetry but his friends thought poetry should be turned into reality and the poem imitated". He was against this reading of poetry.[50] Epistolary novels were common during this time, letter-writing being a primary mode of communication. What set Goethe's book apart from other such novels was its expression of unbridled longing for a joy beyond possibility, its sense of defiant rebellion against authority, and of principal importance, its total subjectivity: qualities that trailblazed the Romantic movement.
The next work, his epic closet drama Faust, was completed in stages. The first part was published in 1808 and created a sensation. Goethe finished Faust Part Two in the year of his death, and the work was published posthumously. Goethe's original draft of a Faust play, which probably dates from 1773–74, and is now known as the Urfaust, was also published after his death.[51]
The first operatic version of Goethe's Faust, by Louis Spohr, appeared in 1814. The work subsequently inspired operas and oratorios by Schumann, Berlioz, Gounod, Boito, Busoni and Schnittke, as well as symphonic works by Liszt, Wagner and Mahler. Faust became the ur-myth of many figures in the 19th century. Later, a facet of its plot, i.e., of selling one's soul to the devil for power over the physical world, took on increasing literary importance and became a view of the victory of technology and of industrialism, along with its dubious human expenses. In 1919, the world premiere complete production of Faust was staged at the Goetheanum.
Goethe in the Roman Campagna (1786) by Johann Heinrich Wilhelm Tischbein
Goethe's poetic work served as a model for an entire movement in German poetry termed Innerlichkeit ("introversion") and represented by, for example, Heine. Goethe's words inspired a number of compositions by, among others, Mozart, Beethoven (who idolised Goethe),[52] Schubert, Berlioz and Wolf. Perhaps the single most influential piece is "Mignon's Song" which opens with one of the most famous lines in German poetry, an allusion to Italy: "Kennst du das Land, wo die Zitronen blühn?" ("Do you know the land where the lemon trees bloom?").
He is also widely quoted. Epigrams such as "Against criticism a man can neither protest nor defend himself; he must act in spite of it, and then it will gradually yield to him", "Divide and rule, a sound motto; unite and lead, a better one", and "Enjoy when you can, and endure when you must", are still in usage or are often paraphrased. Lines from Faust, such as "Das also war des Pudels Kern", "Das ist der Weisheit letzter Schluss", or "Grau ist alle Theorie" have entered everyday German usage.
Some well-known quotations are often incorrectly attributed to Goethe. These include Hippocrates' "Art is long, life is short", which is echoed in Goethe's Faust and Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship.
Scientific workEdit
As to what I have done as a poet,... I take no pride in it... But that in my century I am the only person who knows the truth in the difficult science of colours—of that, I say, I am not a little proud, and here I have a consciousness of a superiority to many.
—  Johann Eckermann, Conversations with Goethe
Goethe in 1810. Gerhard von Kügelgen
Although his literary work has attracted the most interest, Goethe was also keenly involved in studies of natural science.[53] He wrote several works on morphology and colour theory. In the 1790s, he undertook Galvanic experiments and studied anatomical issues together with Alexander von Humboldt.[6] He also had the largest private collection of minerals in all of Europe. By the time of his death, in order to gain a comprehensive view in geology, he had collected 17,800 rock samples.
His focus on morphology and what was later called homology influenced 19th-century naturalists, although his ideas of transformation were about the continuous metamorphosis of living things and did not relate to contemporary ideas of "transformisme" or transmutation of species. Homology, or as Étienne Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire called it "analogie", was used by Charles Darwin as strong evidence of common descent and of laws of variation.[54] Goethe's studies (notably with an elephant's skull lent to him by Samuel Thomas von Soemmerring) led him to independently discover the human intermaxillary bone, also known as "Goethe's bone", in 1784, which Broussonet (1779) and Vicq d'Azyr (1780) had (using different methods) identified several years earlier.[55] While not the only one in his time to question the prevailing view that this bone did not exist in humans, Goethe, who believed ancient anatomists had known about this bone, was the first to prove its existence in all mammals. The elephant's skull that led Goethe to this discovery, and was subsequently named the Goethe Elephant, still exists and is displayed in the Ottoneum in Kassel, Germany.
During his Italian journey, Goethe formulated a theory of plant metamorphosis in which the archetypal form of the plant is to be found in the leaf – he writes, "from top to bottom a plant is all leaf, united so inseparably with the future bud that one cannot be imagined without the other".[56] In 1790, he published his Metamorphosis of Plants.[57][58] As one of the many precursors in the history of evolutionary thought, Goethe wrote in Story of My Botanical Studies (1831):
The ever-changing display of plant forms, which I have followed for so many years, awakens increasingly within me the notion: The plant forms which surround us were not all created at some given point in time and then locked into the given form, they have been given... a felicitous mobility and plasticity that allows them to grow and adapt themselves to many different conditions in many different places.[59]
Goethe's botanical theories were partly based on his gardening in Weimar.[60]
Goethe also popularized the Goethe barometer using a principle established by Torricelli. According to Hegel, "Goethe has occupied himself a good deal with meteorology; barometer readings interested him particularly... What he says is important: the main thing is that he gives a comparative table of barometric readings during the whole month of December 1822, at Weimar, Jena, London, Boston, Vienna, Töpel... He claims to deduce from it that the barometric level varies in the same proportion not only in each zone but that it has the same variation, too, at different altitudes above sea-level".[61]
Light spectrum, from Theory of Colours. Goethe observed that with a prism, colour arises at light-dark edges, and the spectrum occurs where these coloured edges overlap.
In 1810, Goethe published his Theory of Colours, which he considered his most important work. In it, he contentiously characterized colour as arising from the dynamic interplay of light and darkness through the mediation of a turbid medium.[62] In 1816, Schopenhauer went on to develop his own theory in On Vision and Colours based on the observations supplied in Goethe's book. After being translated into English by Charles Eastlake in 1840, his theory became widely adopted by the art world, most notably J. M. W. Turner.[63] Goethe's work also inspired the philosopher Ludwig Wittgenstein, to write his Remarks on Colour. Goethe was vehemently opposed to Newton's analytic treatment of colour, engaging instead in compiling a comprehensive rational description of a wide variety of colour phenomena. Although the accuracy of Goethe's observations does not admit a great deal of criticism, his aesthetic approach did not lend itself to the demands of analytic and mathematical analysis used ubiquitously in modern Science. Goethe was, however, the first to systematically study the physiological effects of colour, and his observations on the effect of opposed colours led him to a symmetric arrangement of his colour wheel, "for the colours diametrically opposed to each other ... are those which reciprocally evoke each other in the eye."[64] In this, he anticipated Ewald Hering's opponent colour theory (1872).[65]
Goethe outlines his method in the essay The experiment as mediator between subject and object (1772).[66] In the Kurschner edition of Goethe's works, the science editor, Rudolf Steiner, presents Goethe's approach to science as phenomenological. Steiner elaborated on that in the books The Theory of Knowledge Implicit in Goethe's World-Conception[67] and Goethe's World View,[68] in which he characterizes intuition as the instrument by which one grasps Goethe's biological archetype—The Typus.
Novalis, himself a geologist and mining engineer, expressed the opinion that Goethe was the first physicist of his time and "epoch-making in the history of physics", writing that Goethe's studies of light, of the metamorphosis of plants and of insects were indications and proofs "that the perfect educational lecture belongs in the artist's sphere of work"; and that Goethe would be surpassed "but only in the way in which the ancients can be surpassed, in inner content and force, in variety and depth—as an artist actually not, or only very little, for his rightness and intensity are perhaps already more exemplary than it would seem".[69]
EroticismEdit
Many of Goethe's works, especially Faust, the Roman Elegies, and the Venetian Epigrams, depict erotic passions and acts. For instance, in Faust, the first use of Faust's power after signing a contract with the Devil is to seduce a teenage girl. Some of the Venetian Epigrams were held back from publication due to their sexual content. Goethe clearly saw human sexuality as a topic worthy of poetic and artistic depiction, an idea that was uncommon in a time when the private nature of sexuality was rigorously normative.[70]
In a conversation on 7 April 1830 Goethe stated that pederasty is an "aberration" that easily leads to "animal, roughly material" behavior. He continued, "Pederasty is as old as humanity itself, and one can therefore say, that it resides in nature, even if it proceeds against nature....What culture has won from nature will not be surrendered or given up at any price."[71] On another occasion he wrote: "I like boys a lot, but the girls are even nicer. If I tire of her as a girl, she'll play the boy for me as well".[72]
Goethe on a 1999 German stamp
Religion and politicsEdit
Goethe was a freethinker who believed that one could be inwardly Christian without following any of the Christian churches, many of whose central teachings he firmly opposed, sharply distinguishing between Christ and the tenets of Christian theology, and criticizing its history as a "hodgepodge of mistakes and violence".[73][74] His own descriptions of his relationship to the Christian faith and even to the Church varied widely and have been interpreted even more widely, so that while Goethe's secretary Eckermann portrayed him as enthusiastic about Christianity, Jesus, Martin Luther, and the Protestant Reformation, even calling Christianity the "ultimate religion",[75] on one occasion Goethe described himself as "not anti-Christian, nor un-Christian, but most decidedly non-Christian,"[76] and in his Venetian Epigram 66, Goethe listed the symbol of the cross among the four things that he most disliked.[77] According to Nietzsche, Goethe had "a kind of almost joyous and trusting fatalism" that has "faith that only in the totality everything redeems itself and appears good and justified."[78]
Portrait of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe by Ferdinand Jagemann, 1806
Born into a Lutheran family, Goethe's early faith was shaken by news of such events as the 1755 Lisbon earthquake and the Seven Years' War. A year before his death, in a letter to Sulpiz Boisserée, Goethe wrote that he had the feeling that all his life he had been aspiring to qualify as one of the Hypsistarians, an ancient sect of the Black Sea region who, in his understanding, sought to reverence, as being close to the Godhead, what came to their knowledge of the best and most perfect.[79] Goethe's unorthodox religious beliefs led him to be called "the great heathen" and provoked distrust among the authorities of his time, who opposed the creation of a Goethe monument on account of his offensive religious creed.[80] August Wilhelm Schlegel considered Goethe "a heathen who converted to Islam."[80]
Goethe showed interest in other religions, including Islam, although Karic suggests that attempts to claim Goethe for any religion "is a pointless, Sysiphean task".[81] At age 23, Goethe wrote a poem about a river, originally part of a dramatic dialogue, which he published as a separate work called Mahomets Gesang ("Muhammad's Song"). [82][83] The poem's depiction of nature and forces within it is consonant with his Sturm und Drang years. [84] In 1819, he published his West–östlicher Divan to ignite a poetic dialogue between East and West. [85]
Politically, Goethe described himself as a "moderate liberal".[86][87][88] He was critical of the radicalism of Bentham and expressed sympathy for the prudent liberalism of François Guizot.[89] At the time of the French Revolution, he thought the enthusiasm of the students and professors to be a perversion of their energy and remained skeptical of the ability of the masses to govern.[90] Goethe sympathized with the American Revolution and later wrote a poem in which he declared "America, you're better off than our continent, the old."[91][92] He did not join in the anti-Napoleonic mood of 1812, and he distrusted the strident nationalism which started to be expressed.[93] The medievalism of the Heidelberg Romantics was also repellent to Goethe's eighteenth-century ideal of a supra-national culture.[94]
Goethe was a Freemason, joining the lodge Amalia in Weimar in 1780, and frequently alluded to Masonic themes of universal brotherhood in his work.[95] He was also attracted to the Bavarian Illuminati, a secret society founded on 1 May 1776.[96][95] Although often requested to write poems arousing nationalist passions, Goethe would always decline. In old age, he explained why this was so to Eckermann:
How could I write songs of hatred when I felt no hate? And, between ourselves, I never hated the French, although I thanked God when we were rid of them. How could I, to whom the only significant things are civilization [Kultur] and barbarism, hate a nation which is among the most cultivated in the world, and to which I owe a great part of my own culture? In any case this business of hatred between nations is a curious thing. You will always find it more powerful and barbarous on the lowest levels of civilization. But there exists a level at which it wholly disappears, and where one stands, so to speak, above the nations, and feels the weal or woe of a neighboring people as though it were one's own.[97]
InfluenceEdit
Statue dedicated to Goethe in Chicago's Lincoln Park (1913)
Goethe had a great effect on the nineteenth century. In many respects, he was the originator of many ideas which later became widespread. He produced volumes of poetry, essays, criticism, a theory of colours and early work on evolution and linguistics. He was fascinated by mineralogy, and the mineral goethite (iron oxide) is named after him.[98] His non-fiction writings, most of which are philosophic and aphoristic in nature, spurred the development of many thinkers, including Georg Wilhelm Friedrich Hegel,[99] Arthur Schopenhauer,[100] Søren Kierkegaard,[101] Friedrich Nietzsche,[102] Ernst Cassirer,[103] and Carl Jung.[104] Along with Schiller, he was one of the leading figures of Weimar Classicism. Schopenhauer cited Goethe's novel Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship as one of the four greatest novels ever written, along with Tristram Shandy, La Nouvelle Héloïse and Don Quixote.[7] Nietzsche wrote, "Four pairs it was that did not deny themselves to my sacrifice: Epicurus and Montaigne, Goethe and Spinoza, Plato and Rousseau, Pascal and Schopenhauer. With these I must come to terms when I have long wandered alone; they may call me right and wrong; to them will I listen when in the process they call each other right and wrong."[105]
Goethe embodied many of the contending strands in art over the next century: his work could be lushly emotional, and rigorously formal, brief and epigrammatic, and epic. He would argue that Classicism was the means of controlling art, and that Romanticism was a sickness, even as he penned poetry rich in memorable images, and rewrote the formal rules of German poetry. His poetry was set to music by almost every major Austrian and German composer from Mozart to Mahler, and his influence would spread to French drama and opera as well. Beethoven declared that a "Faust" Symphony would be the greatest thing for art. Liszt and Mahler both created symphonies in whole or in large part inspired by this seminal work, which would give the 19th century one of its most paradigmatic figures: Doctor Faustus.
Second Goetheanum
Mendelssohn plays to Goethe, 1830: painting by Moritz Oppenheim, 1864
The Faust tragedy/drama, often called Das Drama der Deutschen (the drama of the Germans), written in two parts published decades apart, would stand as his most characteristic and famous artistic creation. Followers of the twentieth-century esotericist Rudolf Steiner built a theatre named the Goetheanum after him—where festival performances of Faust are still performed.
Goethe was also a cultural force. During his first meeting with Napoleon in 1808, the latter famously remarked: "Vous êtes un homme (You are a man)!"[106] The two discussed politics, the writings of Voltaire, and Goethe's Sorrows of Young Werther, which Napoleon had read seven times and ranked among his favorites.[107][108] Goethe came away from the meeting deeply impressed with Napoleon's enlightened intellect and his efforts to build an alternative to the corrupt old regime.[107][109] Goethe always spoke of Napoleon with the greatest respect, confessing that "nothing higher and more pleasing could have happened to me in all my life" than to have met Napoleon in person.[110]
Germaine de Staël, in De l'Allemagne (1813), presented German Classicism and Romanticism as a potential source of spiritual authority for Europe, and identified Goethe as a living classic.[111] She praised Goethe as possessing "the chief characteristics of the German genius" and uniting "all that distinguishes the German mind."[111] Staël's portrayal helped elevate Goethe over his more famous German contemporaries and transformed him into a European cultural hero.[111] Goethe met with her and her partner Benjamin Constant, with whom he shared a mutual admiration.[112]
In Victorian England, Goethe's great disciple was Thomas Carlyle, who wrote the essays "Faustus" (1822), "Goethe's Helena" (1828), "Goethe" (1828), "Goethe's Works" (1832), "Goethe's Portrait" (1832), and "Death of Goethe" (1832) which introduced Goethe to English readers; translated Wilhelm Meister's Apprenticeship (1824) and Travels (1826), "Faust's Curse" (1830), "The Tale" (1832), "Novelle" (1832) and "Symbolum" at a time when few read German; and with whom Goethe corresponded.[113][114] Goethe exerted a profound influence on George Eliot, whose partner George Henry Lewes wrote a Life of Goethe (dedicated to Carlyle).[115][116] Eliot presented Goethe as "eminently the man who helps us to rise to a lofty point of observation" and praised his "large tolerance", which "quietly follows the stream of fact and of life" without passing moral judgments.[115] Matthew Arnold found in Goethe the "Physician of the Iron Age" and "the clearest, the largest, the most helpful thinker of modern times" with a "large, liberal view of life".[117]
Goethe memorial in front of the Alte Handelsbörse, Leipzig
It was to a considerable degree due to Goethe's reputation that the city of Weimar was chosen in 1919 as the venue for the national assembly, convened to draft a new constitution for what would become known as Germany's Weimar Republic. Goethe became a key reference for Thomas Mann in his speeches and essays defending the republic.[118] He emphasized Goethe's "cultural and self-developing individualism", humanism, and cosmopolitanism.[118]
The Federal Republic of Germany's cultural institution, the Goethe-Institut, is named after him, and promotes the study of German abroad and fosters knowledge about Germany by providing information on its culture, society and politics.
The literary estate of Goethe in the Goethe and Schiller Archives was inscribed on UNESCO's Memory of the World Register in 2001 in recognition of its historical significance.[119]
Goethe's influence was dramatic because he understood that there was a transition in European sensibilities, an increasing focus on sense, the indescribable, and the emotional. This is not to say that he was emotionalistic or excessive; on the contrary, he lauded personal restraint and felt that excess was a disease: "There is nothing worse than imagination without taste". Goethe praised Francis Bacon for his advocacy of science based on experiment and his forceful revolution in thought as one of the greatest strides forward in modern science.[120] However, he was critical of Bacon's inductive method and approach based on pure classification.[121] He said in Scientific Studies:
We conceive of the individual animal as a small world, existing for its own sake, by its own means. Every creature is its own reason to be. All its parts have a direct effect on one another, a relationship to one another, thereby constantly renewing the circle of life; thus we are justified in considering every animal physiologically perfect. Viewed from within, no part of the animal is a useless or arbitrary product of the formative impulse (as so often thought). Externally, some parts may seem useless because the inner coherence of the animal nature has given them this form without regard to outer circumstance. Thus...[not] the question, What are they for? but rather, Where do they come from?[122]
Schiller, Alexander and Wilhelm von Humboldt, and Goethe in Jena, c. 1797
Goethe's scientific and aesthetic ideas have much in common with Denis Diderot, whose work he translated and studied.[123][124] Both Diderot and Goethe exhibited a repugnance towards the mathematical interpretation of nature; both perceived the universe as dynamic and in constant flux; both saw "art and science as compatible disciplines linked by common imaginative processes"; and both grasped "the unconscious impulses underlying mental creation in all forms."[123][124] Goethe's Naturanschauer is in many ways a sequel to Diderot's interprète de la nature.[124]
His views make him, along with Adam Smith, Thomas Jefferson, and Ludwig van Beethoven, a figure in two worlds: on the one hand, devoted to the sense of taste, order, and finely crafted detail, which is the hallmark of the artistic sense of the Age of Reason and the neo-classical period of architecture; on the other, seeking a personal, intuitive, and personalized form of expression and society, firmly supporting the idea of self-regulating and organic systems. George Henry Lewes celebrated Goethe's revolutionary understanding of the organism.[123]
Thinkers such as Ralph Waldo Emerson would take up many similar ideas in the 1800s. Goethe's ideas on evolution would frame the question that Darwin and Wallace would approach within the scientific paradigm. The Serbian inventor and electrical engineer Nikola Tesla was heavily influenced by Goethe's Faust, his favorite poem, and had actually memorized the entire text. It was while reciting a certain verse that he was struck with the epiphany that would lead to the idea of the rotating magnetic field and ultimately, alternating current.[125]
Books related to GoetheEdit
The Life of Goethe by George Henry Lewes
Goethe: The History of a Man by Emil Ludwig
Goethe by Georg Brandes. Authorized translation from the Danish (2nd ed. 1916) by Allen W. Porterfield, New York, Crown publishers, 1936. "Crown edition, 1936." Title Wolfgang Goethe
Goethe: His Life and Times by Richard Friedenthal [de]
Lotte in Weimar: The Beloved Returns by Thomas Mann
Conversations with Goethe by Johann Peter Eckermann
Goethe's World: as seen in letters and memoirs ed. by Berthold Biermann
Goethe: Four Studies by Albert Schweitzer
Goethe Poet and Thinker by E.M. Wilkinson and L.A. Willoughby
Goethe and his Publishers by Siegfried Unseld [de]
Goethe by T.J. Reed
Goethe. A Psychoanalytic Study, by Kurt R. Eissler
The Life of Goethe. A Critical Biography by John Williams
Goethe: The Poet and the Age (2 Vols.), by Nicholas Boyle
Goethe's Concept of the Daemonic: After the Ancients, by Angus Nicholls
Goethe and Rousseau: Resonances of their Mind, by Carl Hammer, Jr.
Doctor Faustus of the popular legend, Marlowe, the Puppet-Play, Goethe, and Lenau, treated historically and critically. – A parallel between Goethe and Schiller. – An historic outline of German Literature , by Louis Pagel
Goethe and Schiller, Essays on German Literature, by Hjalmar Hjorth Boyesen
Goethe-Wörterbuch (Goethe Dictionary, abbreviated GWb). Herausgegeben von der Berlin-Brandenburgischen Akademie der Wissenschaften, der Akademie der Wissenschaften in Göttingen und der Heidelberger Akademie der Wissenschaften. Stuttgart. Kohlhammer Verlag; ISBN 978-3-17-019121-1
West-Eastern Divan: Complete, annotated new translation, including Goethe's 'Notes and Essays' & the unpublished poems, translated by Eric Ormsby, 2019. Gingko, ISBN 9781909942240
Goethe's Path to Creativity: A Psycho-Biography of the Eminent Politician, Scientist and Poet, translated by Deanna Stewart, New York, NY, Routledge, 2019. ISBN 9780429459535
Young Goethe in Love (2010)
Dora Stock – her encounters with the 16-year-old Goethe.
Goethe Basin, a large crater on the planet Mercury
Johann-Wolfgang-von-Goethe-Gymnasium
W. H. Murray – author of misattributed quotation "Until one is committed ..."
"Nature", essay often mis-attributed to Goethe
Awards named after him
Goethe Awards
Goethe Prize
Hanseatic Goethe Prize
WorksEdit
Johann Wolfgang von Goethe bibliography
^ Pronounced /ˈɡɜːrtə/ GUR-tə, also US: /ˈɡʌtə, ˈɡeɪtə, -ti/ GUT-ə, GAY-tə, -ee;[1][2] German: [ˈjoːhan ˈvɔlfɡaŋ fɔn ˈɡøːtə] (
listen).[2]
^ In 1998, both of these sites, together with nine others, were designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site under the name Classical Weimar.[5]
^ The others Schopenhauer named were Tristram Shandy, La Nouvelle Héloïse, and Don Quixote.[7]
^ "Goethe". Merriam-Webster Dictionary.
^ a b Wells, John (2008). Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (3rd ed.). Pearson Longman. ISBN 978-1-4058-8118-0.
^ a b c Nicholas Boyle, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe at the Encyclopædia Britannica.
^ "Johann Wolfgang von Goethe -- Biography". knarf.english.upenn.edu. Retrieved 3 January 2023.
^ a b "Classical Weimar UNESCO Justification". Justification for UNESCO Heritage Cites. UNESCO. Retrieved 7 June 2012.
^ a b Daum, Andreas W. (March 2019). "Social Relations, Shared Practices, and Emotions: Alexander von Humboldt's Excursion into Literary Classicism and the Challenges to Science around 1800". The Journal of Modern History. University of Chicago. 91 (1): 1–37. doi:10.1086/701757. S2CID 151051482.
^ a b c Schopenhauer, Arthur (January 2004). The Art of Literature. The Essays of Arthur Schopenahuer. Retrieved 22 March 2015.
^ a b Herman Grimm: Goethe. Vorlesungen gehalten an der Königlichen Universität zu Berlin. Vol. 1. J.G. Cotta'sche Buchhandlung Nachfolger, Stuttgart / Berlin 1923, p. 36
^ Catharina was the daughter of Johann Wolfgang Textor, sheriff (Schultheiß) of Frankfurt, and of Anna Margaretha Lindheimer.
^ Kruse, Joseph A. (2018). "Poetisch-religiöse Vorratskammer – Die Hebräische Bibel bei Goethe und Heine". In Anna-Dorothea Ludewig; Steffen Höhne (eds.). Goethe und die Juden – die Juden und Goethe (in German). Walter de Gruyter. p. 71. ISBN 9783110530421.
^ Oehler, R 1932, "Buch und Bibliotheken unter der Perspektive Goethe – Goethe's attitude toward books and libraries", The Library Quarterly, 2, pp. 232–249
^ Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von. The Autobiography of Goethe: Truth and Poetry, From My Own Life, Volume 1 (1897), translated by John Oxenford, pp. 114, 129
^ Valerian Tornius [de]: Goethe – Leben, Wirken und Schaffen. Ludwig-Röhrscheid-Verlag, Bonn 1949, p. 26
^ Emil Ludwig: Goethe – Geschichte eines Menschen. Vol. 1. Ernst-Rowohlt-Verlag, Berlin 1926, pp. 17–18
^ Karl Goedeke: Goethes Leben. Cotta / Kröner, Stuttgart around 1883, pp. 16–17.
^ "Originally speech of Goethe to the Shakespeare's Day by University Duisburg". Uni-duisburg-essen.de. Retrieved 17 July 2014.
^ Herman Grimm: Goethe. Vorlesungen gehalten an der Königlichen Universität zu Berlin. Vol. 1. J. G. Cotta'sche Buchhandlung Nachfolger, Stuttgart / Berlin 1923, p. 81
^ Karl Robert Mandelkow, Bodo Morawe: Goethes Briefe. 2. edition. Vol. 1: Briefe der Jahre 1764–1786. Christian Wegner, Hamburg 1968, p. 571
^ Valerian Tornius: Goethe – Leben, Wirken und Schaffen. Ludwig-Röhrscheid-Verlag, Bonn 1949, p. 60
^ a b Mandelkow, Karl Robert (1962). Goethes Briefe. Vol. 1: Briefe der Jahre 1764–1786. Christian Wegner Verlag. p. 589
^ Mandelkow, Karl Robert (1962). Goethes Briefe. Vol. 1: Briefe der Jahre 1764–1786. Christian Wegner Verlag. pp. 590–592
^ See Goethe and his Publishers.
^ Robertson, John George (1911). "Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von" . In Chisholm, Hugh (ed.). Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 12 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 183.
^ Gosnell, Charles F., and Géza Schütz. 1932. "Goethe the Librarian." Library Quarterly 2 (January): 367–374.
^ Hume Brown, Peter (1920). Life of Goethe. pp. 224–225.
^ "Klassik Stiftung Weimar". www.klassik-stiftung.de (in German). Retrieved 3 January 2023.
^ Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "Stein, Charlotte von" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 25 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 871.
^ "The Goethe Residence". Klassik Siftung Weimar. Retrieved 29 July 2022.
^ Craig, Gordon A.; Wilson, W. Daniel. "The Goethe Case | W. Daniel Wilson". The New York Review of Books 2022. ISSN 0028-7504. Retrieved 22 July 2022.
^ Desmond, Will D. (2020). Hegel's Antiquity. Oxford University Press. p. 10. ISBN 978-0-19-257574-6.
^ Safranski, Rüdiger (1990). Schopenhauer and the Wild Years of Philosophy. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-79275-3.
^ Chamberlain, Alexander (1896). The Child and Childhood in Folk Thought: (The Child in Primitive Culture), p. 385. MacMillan.
^ Gersdorff, Dagmar von [in German] (2005). Goethes späte Liebe (in German). Insel Verlag. ISBN 978-3-458-19265-7.
^ "Ulrika von Levetzowová". hamelika.cz (in Czech).
^ The encounter is described in Stefan Zweig's 1927 book, Decisive Moments in History
^ Briscoe, J. R. (Ed.). (2004). New Historical Anthology of Music by Women (Vol. 1). Indiana University Press. pp. 126–127.
^ Todd 2003, p. 89.
^ Mercer-Taylor 2000, pp. 41–42, 93.
^ Todd 2003, pp. 188–190, 269–270.
^ Carl Vogel [de]: "Die letzte Krankheit Goethe's". In: Journal der practischen Heilkunde (1833).
^ Grove's Dictionary of Music and Musicians, 5th ed., 1954[page needed]
^ Ludwig, Emil (1928) Goethe: The History of a Man 1749–1833, Schiller and Wilhelm Meister Translated by Ethel Colburn Mayne, New York: G.P. Putnum's Sons.
^ Johann Wolfgang von Goethe (1966). Iphigenia in Tauris. Manchester University Press. p. 15.
^ Sharpe, Lesley (July 1982). "Schiller and Goethe's 'Egmont'". The Modern Language Review. 77 (3): 629–645. doi:10.2307/3728071. JSTOR 3728071.
^ Lamport, Francis John. 1990. German Classical Drama: Theatre, Humanity and Nation, 1750–1870. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-36270-9. p. 90.
^ "Johann Wolfgang von Goethe: Return to Weimar and the French Revolution (1788–94)". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 18 July 2021.
^ a b See, generally Schiller, F. (1877). Correspondence between Schiller and Goethe, from 1794 to 1805 (Vol. 1). G. Bell.
^ Baumer, Rachel Van M.; Brandon, James R. (1993) [1981]. Sanskrit Drama in Performance. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 9. ISBN 978-81-208-0772-3.
^ "The Stigma of Suicide – A history". Pips Project. Archived from the original on 6 October 2007. See also: "Ophelia's Burial".
^ Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von (1848). "The Auto-Biography of Goethe. Truth and Poetry: From My Own Life". Translated by John Oxenford. London: Henry G. Bohn. p. [page needed] – via Internet Archive.
^ Goethe's Plays, by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe, translated into English with introductions by Charles E. Passage, Publisher Benn Limited, 1980, ISBN 978-0-510-00087-5, 978-0-510-00087-5
^ Wigmore, Richard (2 July 2012). "A meeting of genius: Beethoven and Goethe, July 1812". Gramophone. Haymarket. Retrieved 6 July 2012.
^ "Johann Wolfgang von Goethe". The Nature Institute. Retrieved 28 August 2008.
^ Darwin, C.R. (1859). On the origin of species by means of natural selection, or the preservation of favoured races in the struggle for life (1st ed.). John Murray.
^ K. Barteczko; M. Jacob (1999). "A re-evaluation of the premaxillary bone in humans". Anatomy and Embryology. 207 (6): 417–437. doi:10.1007/s00429-003-0366-x. PMID 14760532. S2CID 13069026.
^ Goethe, J.W. Italian Journey. Robert R Heitner. Suhrkamp ed., vol. 6.
^ Versuch die Metamorphose der Pflanzen zu Erklären. Library of Congress. Retrieved 2 January 2018.
^ Magnus, Rudolf; Schmid, Gunther (2004). Metamorphosis of Plants. ISBN 978-1-4179-4984-7. Retrieved 28 August 2008.
^ Frank Teichmann (tr. Jon McAlice) "The Emergence of the Idea of Evolution in the Time of Goethe" first published in Interdisciplinary Aspects of Evolution, Urachhaus (1989)
^ Balzer, Georg (1966). Goethe als Gartenfreund. München: F. Bruckmann KG.
^ Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich; Miller, Arnold V. (2004). Hegel's Philosophy of Nature: Being Part Two of the Encyclopedia of the Philosophical Sciences (1830), Translated from Nicolin and Pöggeler's Edition (1959), and from the Zusätze in Michelet's Text (1847). Clarendon Press. ISBN 978-0-19-927267-9.
^ Aristotle; Ross, George Robert Thomson (1906). Aristotle De sensu and De memoria; text and translation, with introduction and commentary. Robarts - University of Toronto. Cambridge The University press.
^ Bockemuhl, M. (1991). Turner. Taschen, Koln. ISBN 978-3-8228-6325-1.
^ Goethe, Johann (1810). Theory of Colours, paragraph No. 50.
^ "Goethe's Color Theory". Retrieved 28 August 2008.
^ "The Experiment as Mediator between Subject and Object". Archived from the original on 10 November 2011. Retrieved 26 June 2014.
^ "The Theory of Knowledge Implicit in Goethe's World Conception". 1979. Retrieved 28 August 2008.
^ "Goethe's World View". Retrieved 28 August 2008.
^ 'Goethe's Message of Beauty in Our Twentieth Century World', (Friedrich) Frederick Hiebel, RSCP California. ISBN 978-0-916786-37-3
^ Outing Goethe and His Age; edited by Alice A. Kuzniar.[page needed]
^ Goethe, Johann Wolfgang (1976). Gedenkausgabe der Werke, Briefe und Gespräche. Zürich : Artemis Verl. p. 686. Retrieved 27 April 2016.
^ Bullough, V.L. (1990). History in adult human sexual behavior with children and adolescents in Western societies (Pedophilia: Biosocial Dimensions ed.). Springer-Verlag New York. p. 72. ISBN 978-1-4613-9684-0. Retrieved 27 April 2016.
^ The phrase Goethe uses is "Mischmasch von Irrtum und Gewalt", in his "Zahme Xenien" IX, Goethes Gedichte in Zeitlicher Folge, Insel Verlag 1982 ISBN 978-3-458-14013-9, p. 1121
^ Arnold Bergsträsser, "Goethe's View of Christ", Modern Philology, vol. 46, no. 3 (February 1949), pp. 172–202; Martin Tetz [de], "Mischmasch von Irrtum und Gewalt. Zu Goethes Vers auf die Kirchengeschichte", Zeitschrift für Theologie und Kirche [de] 88 (1991) pp. 339–363
^ Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von; Eckermann, Johann Peter; Soret, Frédéric Jacob (1850). Conversations of Goethe with Eckermann and Soret, Vol. II, pp. 423–424. Retrieved 17 July 2014.
^ Boyle 1992, 353[incomplete short citation]
^ Thompson, James (1895). Venetian Epigrams. Retrieved 17 July 2014. Venetian Epigrams, 66, ["Wenige sind mir jedoch wie Gift und Schlange zuwider; Viere: Rauch des Tabacks, Wanzen und Knoblauch und †."]. The cross symbol he drew has been variously understood as meaning Christianity, Christ, or death.
^ Friedrich Nietzsche, The Will to Power, § 95
^ Letter to Boisserée dated 22 March 1831 quoted in Peter Boerner, Johann Wolfgang von Goethe 1832/1982: A Biographical Essay. Bonn: Inter Nationes, 1981 p. 82
^ a b Krimmer, Elisabeth; Simpson, Patricia Anne (2013). Religion, Reason, and Culture in the Age of Goethe. Boydell & Brewer. p. 99.
^ Karic, Enes, "Goethe, His Era, and Islam". p. 100. Retrieved 14 December 2022.
^ "Mahomets Gesang". The LiederNet Archive. Retrieved 15 November 2022.
^ Jolle, Jonas (2004). The River and its Metaphors: Goethe's "Mahoments Gesang".
^ Jolle, Jonas (2004). "The River and its Metaphors: Goethe's "Mahomets Gesang"". MLN. 119 (3): 431–450. doi:10.1353/mln.2004.0111. ISSN 1080-6598. S2CID 161893614.
^ Dallmayr, F. (2002). Dialogue Among Civilizations. NY: Macmillan Palgrave. p. 152.
^ Eckermann, Johann Peter (1901). Conversations with Goethe. M.W. Dunne. p. 320. 'Dumont,' returned Goethe, 'is a moderate liberal, just as all rational people are and ought to be, and as I myself am.'
^ Selth, Jefferson P. (1997). Firm Heart and Capacious Mind: The Life and Friends of Etienne Dumont. University Press of America. pp. 132–133.
^ Mommsen, Katharina (2014). Goethe and the Poets of Arabia. Boydell & Brewer. p. 70.
^ Peter Eckermann, Johann (1901). Conversations with Goethe. M.W. Dunne. pp. 317–319.
^ McCabe, Joseph. 'Goethe: The Man and His Character'. p. 343
^ Unseld 1996, pp. 36–37.
^ Gemünden, Gerd (1998). Framed Visions: Popular Culture, Americanization, and the Contemporary German and Austrian Imagination. University of Michigan Press. pp. 18–19.
^ Unseld 1996, p. 212.
^ Richards, David B. (1979). Goethe's Search for the Muse: Translation and Creativity. John Benjamins Publishing. p. 83.
^ a b Beachy, Robert (2000). "Recasting Cosmopolitanism: German Freemasonry and Regional Identity in the Early Nineteenth Century". Eighteenth-Century Studies. 33 (2): 266–274. doi:10.1353/ecs.2000.0002. JSTOR 30053687. S2CID 162003813.
^ Schüttler, Hermann (1991). Die Mitglieder des Illuminatenordens, 1776–1787/93. Munich: Ars Una. pp. 48–49, 62–63, 71, 82. ISBN 978-3-89391-018-2.
^ Will Durant (1967). The Story of Civilization Volume 10: Rousseau and Revolution. Simon&Schuster. p. 607.
^ "Goethite Mineral Data". webmineral.com. Retrieved 3 January 2023.
^ Dahlin, Bo (22 June 2017). Rudolf Steiner: The Relevance of Waldorf Education. Springer. p. 45. ISBN 978-3-319-58907-7. It is known —but seldom paid much attention to— that Goethe's natural studies had some influence on Hegel's philosophy.
^ Rockmore, Tom (3 May 2016). German Idealism as Constructivism. University of Chicago Press. p. 131. ISBN 978-0-226-34990-9. Goethe's view attracted interest at the time; someone else influenced by Goethe is Schopenhauer.
^ Assiter, Alison (29 April 2015). Kierkegaard, Eve and Metaphors of Birth. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 126. ISBN 978-1-78348-326-6. Carl Linnaeus, the botanist, physician, and zoologist, who laid the foundation for modern biological naming, was a major influence on Goethe. The latter, a well-known influence on Kierkegaard, writes of Linnaeus, [...]
^ Murphy, Tim (18 October 2001). Nietzsche, Metaphor, Religion. SUNY Press. p. 53. ISBN 978-0-7914-5087-1. No one would deny that Goethe influenced Nietzsche, but it is important to understand that relationship in very specific terms.
^ Luft, Sebastian (2015). The Space of Culture: Towards a Neo-Kantian Philosophy of Culture (Cohen, Natorp, and Cassirer). Oxford University Press. p. 124. ISBN 978-0-19-873884-8. Goethe influenced Cassirer in a crucial aspect of his philosophy of the symbolic.
^ Bishop, Paul (13 July 2020). Reading Goethe at Midlife: Ancient Wisdom, German Classicism, and Jung. Chiron Publications. p. 198. ISBN 978-1-63051-860-8. Goethe's influence on Jung was profound and far-reaching.
^ Nietzsche, Friedrich: The Portable Nietzsche. (New York: The Viking Press, 1954)
^ Friedenthal, Richard (2010). Goethe: His Life & Times. Transaction Publishers. p. 389.
^ a b Broers, Michael (2014). Europe Under Napoleon. I.B. Tauris. p. 4.
^ Swales, Martin (1987). Goethe: The Sorrows of Young Werther. CUP Archive. p. 100.
^ Merseburger, Peter (2013). Mythos Weimar: Zwischen Geist und Macht. Pantheon. pp. 132–133.
^ Ferber, Michael (2008). A Companion to European Romanticism. John Wiley & Sons. p. 450.
^ a b c Gillespie, Gerald Ernest Paul; Engel, Manfred (2008). Romantic Prose Fiction. John Benjamins Publishing. p. 44.
^ Wood, Dennis (2002). Benjamin Constant: A Biography. Routledge. p. 185.
^ Sorensen, David R. (2004). "Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von". In Cumming, Mark (ed.). The Carlyle Encyclopedia. Madison and Teaneck, NJ: Fairleigh Dickinson University Press. p. 200. ISBN 9780838637920.
^ Tennyson, G. B. (1973). "The Carlyles". In Clubbe, John (ed.). Victorian Prose: A Guide to Research. New York: The Modern Language Association of America. p. 65. ISBN 9780873522502.
^ a b Röder-Bolton, Gerlinde (1998). George Eliot and Goethe: An Elective Affinity. Rodopi. pp. 3–8.
^ Wagner, Albert Malte (1939). "Goethe, Carlyle, Nietzsche and the German Middle Class". Monatshefte für Deutschen Unterricht. 31 (4): 162. JSTOR 30169550 – via JSTOR.
^ Connell, W.F. (2002). The Educational Thought and Influence of Matthew Arnold. Routledge. p. 34.
^ a b Mundt, Hannelore (2004). Understanding Thomas Mann. Univ of South Carolina Press. pp. 110–111.
^ "The literary estate of Goethe in the Goethe and Schiller Archives". UNESCO Memory of the World Programme. Retrieved 29 September 2017.
^ Richter, Simon J. (2007). Goethe Yearbook 14. Harvard University Press. pp. 113–114.
^ Amrine, F.R.; Zucker, Francis J. (2012). Goethe and the Sciences: A Reappraisal. Springer Science & Business Media. p. 232.
^ Scientific Studies, Suhrkamp ed., vol. 12, p. 121; trans. Douglas Miller
^ a b c Roach, Joseph R. (1993). The Player's Passion: Studies in the Science of Acting. University of Michigan Press. pp. 165–166.
^ a b c Fellows, Otis Edward (1981). Diderot Studies. Librairie Droz. pp. 392–394.
^ Seifer, Marc J. (1998). Wizard: The Life and Times of Nikola Tesla : Biography of a Genius. Citadel Press. ISBN 978-0-8065-1960-9.
Mercer-Taylor, Peter (2000). The Life of Mendelssohn. Cambridge, England: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 978-0-521-63972-9.
Todd, R. Larry (2003). Mendelssohn – A Life in Music. Oxford, England; New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-511043-2.
Unseld, Siegfried (1996). Goethe and His Publishers. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 9780226841908.
Bell Matthew. 1994. Goethe's Naturalistic Anthropology : Man and Other Plants. Oxford: Clarendon Press.
Browning, Oscar (1879). "Johann Wolfgang von Goethe" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. X (9th ed.).
Calder, Angus (1983), Scott & Goethe: Romantiscism and Classicism, in Hearn, Sheila G. (ed.), Cencrastus No. 13, Summer 1983, pp. 25–28, ISSN 0264-0856
Von Gronicka, André. 1968. The Russian Image of Goethe. Volume 1 Goethe in Russian Literature of the First Half of the Nineteenth Century. Philadelphia Pa: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Von Gronicka, Andrè. 1985 The Russian Image of Goethe. Volume 2 Goethe in Russian Literature of the Second Half of the Nineteenth Century. Philadelphia Pa: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Hatfield Henry Caraway. 1963. Goethe: A Critical Introduction. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
Jane K. n.d. Goethe's Allegories of Identity. Philadelphia Pa: University of Pennsylvania Press.
Maertz Gregory. 2017. Literature and the Cult of Personality: Essays on Goethe and His Influence. New York, NY:Columbia University Press.
Robertson, John George; Phillips, Walter Alison (1911). "Goethe, Johann Wolfgang von" . Encyclopædia Britannica. Vol. 12 (11th ed.). pp. 182–189.
Robertson, Ritchie. 2016. Goethe : A Very Short Introduction. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Santayana, George (1910). "Goethe's Faust". Harvard Studies in Comparative Literature, Volume 1: Three Philosophical Poets: Lucretius, Dante, and Goethe, Critical Edition. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press. pp. 139–202. Retrieved 22 September 2022.
Viëtor Karl and Bayard Quincy Morgan. 1950. Goethe the Thinker. Cambridge Mass: Harvard University Press.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Johann Wolfgang von Goethe.
Wikiquote has quotations related to Johann Wolfgang von Goethe.
Wikisource has original works by or about:
Poetry portal
Philosophy portal
Works by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe in eBook form at Standard Ebooks
Works by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe at Project Gutenberg
Works by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe at Faded Page (Canada)
Works by or about Johann Wolfgang von Goethe at Internet Archive
Works by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe at LibriVox (public domain audiobooks)
Goethe on In Our Time at the BBC
"Goethe and the Science of the Enlightenment" In Our Time, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Nicholas Boyle and Simon Schaffer (10 February 2000).
"Works by Johann Wolfgang von Goethe". Zeno.org (in German).
At the Linda Hall Library, Goethe's:
(1810) Zur Farbenlehre (Atlas)
(1840) Goethe's Theory of Colours; translated from the German: with notes by Charles Lock Eastlake
Works by and about Johann Wolfgang von Goethe in University Library JCS Frankfurt am Main: Digital Collections Judaica
Free scores of Johann Wolfgang von Goethe's texts in the Choral Public Domain Library (ChoralWiki)
Goethe in English at Poems Found in Translation
Poems of Goethe set to music, lieder.net
Goethe Quotes: New English translations and German originals


The Partnership for a Healthy Mississippi (PHMS) has awarded grants of $1,000 each to seven JPS schools. The Improving the Culture of Health in Schools Grant provides funds to assist with projects that are designed to create healthier learning environments. Grants may be used for initiatives that address family engagement, community involvement, academic enrichment, chronic absenteeism, health education, and physical activity.
The Partnership for a Healthy Mississippi presents Barack Obama Elementary School with a grant check that will be used for playground equipment. Participants are (from left) D'Angelique Lister, PHMS School Health Coordinator (Jackson); David Schommer, Barack Obama teacher and playground project coordinator; Sandra Shelson, PHMS Executive Director; Dr. Kathleen Grigsby, Barack Obama Principal; and LaCiana McIntyre, PHMS Director of Health and Wellness.
One of this year's grant recipients, Barack Obama Elementary, will use the award to help with renovations to the school's playground. A swing set, a basketball goal, and a tetherball pole will be added as part of the overall project. The type of equipment they want to install offers enjoyable and structured play options for students. One of the state's most successful schools, Barack Obama recognizes that healthy bodies and strong minds go hand-in-hand. The project has support from faculty, parents, partners and neighbors of the school. The school's health council has guided this and other health and wellness initiatives with assistance from the Partnership for a Healthy Mississippi.
Participating in the check presentation at Hardy are (from left) Dr. Samecia Minter Stokes, Assistant Principal; Demarcion Curtis, student; Dr. Cindy Thomas, Assistant Principal, April Amos, health teacher; Nhoa Moore, student; D'Angelique Lister, PHMS School Health Coordinator, and Vertis Holmes, Principal.
In an effort to strengthen community and family engagement, Hardy Academy of Career Exploration is using its $1,000 grant to support initiatives to reduce chronic absenteeism among students. The school's EWS (Early Warning System) team, along with other community supporters, work on key activities that include: Parents Count Day, a reward system for monthly perfect attendance; nine-weeks perfect attendance celebration; and R.O.A.R. (Respect Our Attendance Rules) competition among homeroom classes. Assistant Principal Dr. Samecia Stokes wrote the grant and oversees the success and maintenance of the projects it supports.
D'Angelique Lister of the Partnership for a Healthy Mississippi (from left) presents a grant award for $1,000 to Marshall Elementary teachers Margaret Jurden and Dawn Barnhill, Principal Helen Young, and Assistant Principal John Johnson.
Marshall Elementary will launch "It Pays to be at School." The idea is to reduce tardiness and absences by motivating and encouraging regular school attendance. Students will receive weekly incentives and monthly celebrations for being on time and at school. The program seeks to instill in students the importance of attending school every day and being consistently punctual.
Murrah High School will launch a campaign to educate students about a variety of skills that will help them beyond high school. The school will hold monthly seminars and invite guest speakers to interact with the students about life after high school. Topics will include etiquette, self-esteem, proper hygiene, and physical education.
Galloway and G.N. Smith Elementary Schools and Siwell Middle School also received Improving the Culture of Health in Schools Grants for projects that will improve the well-being of their students and staff.
The Partnership for a Healthy Mississippi got its start in 1994 to increase awareness about the impact of tobacco on Mississippians. The organization's interactive educational and training programs make it a national leader in reducing tobacco prevalence among youth. The organization's mission extends to improving the overall culture of health in Mississippi through programs like the school health grant.


Waterslides Canyon, AZ - Technical canyoneering description, location, GPS route, photos, topographic map, and weather information.
Waterslides canyon makes for a fun day out in the Sierra Ancha Wilderness where you can hang out, play around in the pools and run laps on the natural slides. Its best to catch the canyon in early spring when the water is flowing cold and clean. Driving in is accomplished by taking the Globe/Young highway a short distance where you then turn onto Cherry Creek road and wind your way in. The following description is for the shuttle route where you work your way into the slides through a scenic section of quartzite rock followed by a conglomerate layer, with roughly 5 drops and a down-climb or two . The slide area can also be reached by hiking up from the bottom starting at Cherry Creek Road if desired. Many prefer to come in the night before and sleep at either the lower or upper camp area, but a long day trip to the area is not uncommon. The lower camp is just a decently flat sandy area next to the creek where sleep can be had if your arriving late or waiting to meet up with others before driving up. The upper camp is a pull off on the right hand side as your headed to the top just prior to the upper parking area that is next to a small grouping of trees. With your vehicle at the lower shuttle area, it typically takes around 35 minutes to make your way up to the top. This road to the top is primitive and not regularly maintained, high clearance can be helpful, but we have taken many stock full size trucks up this road without issues. Once up top it is a short walk to the creek bed and the action begins almost immediately with the first rappel. In total, there are about 7 rappels (we typically bring a pair of 120' ropes) and only need the second as a pull on the last drop or keep both out to speed things up. Throughout the fist section on your way to the slides it is easy to avoid getting soaked, but typically there will be flow that trickles down onto your head in a spot or two while on rope. A short section of walking down the creek bed will eventually turn into smooth granite and indicates the beginning of the slide area. Depending on the weather and water temp you may want to drag on your wet suit or dry suit around this area, although some of the pools prior to the slides are nice to wade through on a warm day. There are three major slides in the area along with several small slides, down climbs, hand lines, jumps, and pools. It is always best to check for debris before committing to a pool as a log or rock just below the surface can make for an extremely bad day. With the major slide area completed two more drops lie ahead before you gear down for the hike out. With the technical section completed the hike out consists of making your way down the stream bed, utilizing the occasional cow trails on each side when available to make it as easy as possible. You should be able to see your vehicle on many occasions in the distance to keep you on track during your exit.


text:
Q: Suggestions on database model design/ performance I'm currently building an 'online examination' type of web app using Ruby on Rails and PostgreSQL (or MySQL), which is going to be part of a bigger application once pushed to production. Since I just recently got into RD design I'd appreciate some feedback on the following design.
App Specifications

*

*There are 1000+ different questions. Each question can have 2-5
different options, only 1 option is correct.

*The user is presented with 10 questions at a time.

*If a user answers a question correctly 2 times, the question will not
be shown to him again (let's call those questions now completed).

*If a user answers a question incorrectly then he needs to answer the
question 2 MORE times correctly.

*The user passes the exam when there are no more questions left to
show.

My current database schema is:
user
-user_id
-name etc

question
-question_id
-text
-correct_id (or option_id, stores the correct option id)

option
-option_id
-text
-question_id

user_answer
-user_id
-question_id
-is_correct

So in order to create a '10 question test' we could:

*

*create a list of every completed question querying the user_answer table

*create a list of possible questions (all questions - completed questions)

*finally serve the user with 10 random questions from the last list.
Is there a better approach to represent "the remaining times a question needs to be answered" inside the database? Please feel free to suggest even a completely different design.
What concerns me is that for each single user there would be more than 2x1000 user_answer rows. This quickly becomes a huge number, so I guess there must be a better way.
Would using a json array be okay in this case? But as far as I understand it'd quickly become a hassle to add more questions etc.

A: As you are at the DBA site, it is likely we will give you database solutions :-)
As far as I can see, you are stuck with your two options - a row for every users answer or a large list. Best bet in terms of database design is to go for a row for every users answer and to make the columns as narrow as possible.
My solution to this would be to change your field "is_correct" in the "user_answer" table to "answer_status" and make it a tinyint. If the user gets the answer wrong, this is set to 0. If the user gets the answer right, it is incremented by 1. For displaying non correctly answered questions, you would scan for all questions where "answer_status" is < 2. Now the column would represent:

*

*0 = question not yet answered or answered incorrectly

*1 = question answered correctly once

*2 = question answered correctly

When the user starts their exam, you will make an entry for every question in the question table for that user, with the default answer_status = 0.
If your "question_id" column and "user_id" column are both ints, you will store 9 bytes per row - which means if you use 100MB for this table, you would be storing ~119 million rows. If 10,000 rows per user, you will be storing data for ~12,000 users. You would most likely want to cluster this table on "user_id".
In addition, you could clean up the "user_answer" table by setting a flag in a "user_exam" table. It is likely you will need this table to encapsulate the questions into an exam and to list which exams users are enrolled for. This table could have a "status" field which could be set to "Completed" when a user has passed the exam. Subsequently all of the rows in the "user_answer" table can be deleted for that exam, for that user, once they have completed all the answers (save possibly getting some statistics like length of time taken). This would reclaim space in your database when the tables clustered index is rebuilt.

A: You can also see below web page on online examination database design help .
https://databaseinmysql.blogspot.com/2019/04/introduction-of-online-examination.html

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


Synopsis: Human cop Ward (Will Smith) and his Orc partner Jakoby (Joel Edgerton) inadvertently stumble upon a powerful wand and a destructive elvish plot headed by Noomi Rapace's Leilah.
About an hour in I took a break. Then another thirty minutes and another break, before finally biting the bullet and finishing it off. Which I suppose is the main benefit of Bright being confined to Netflix. At least it can be consumed in bite-sized chunks. It would be tough to do it any other way.
The question I kept coming back to: Who is it even for? Its world is compiled of fairies, elves, orcs and magic wands, yet it's coloured by blood splattered shootouts and f-bombs. As if that somehow adds maturity to the outlandish setting. Perhaps the foundation of an interesting idea is there – fantastical beasts living side by side with us, and the tensions caused by this – but it's just far too underdeveloped, overstuffed and heavy-handed.
A film which serves as an allegory for interracial tensions becomes weirdly packed with undoubtedly offensive racial stereotypes all of its own. Putting aside the shortcomings of its message, not even Will Smith and the prosthetic-covered Joel Edgerton (who have a reasonable chemistry) can polish the dodgy dialogue that they're forced to spout throughout ("dude, you can't go through elf town!").
David Ayer's last film Suicide Squad was bad. This is even worse.


Rather than have more bells and whistles you can shake a stick at, we've developed only the core features you need. It's better this way.
This isn't one size fits all; this is designed for the modern lawn care business. LawnStarter Pro is designed to save you time so you can spend more time fishing chasing down commercial clients.
Our lawn care software allows your crews to mow more yards per day while reducing sunk cost from down time.
Keeping track of a schedule is a breeze. Simply enter your jobs and what type of recurring schedule you'd like, and check em off as you complete them. Additionally, your customers are notified each time a job is completed or rescheduled.
Stop wasting your operating capital and your crews time by automatically giving them the optimal route to complete all jobs on any given day.
Powered by OptiMOWzation™, you can rest assured that your routes don't send your crews zig zagging around town. You can also adjust your routes according to your preferences before updating your crew's schedule.
Making sure you get paid is one of your top priorities. With easily accessible and printable invoices, you can make sure your customers always have the latest bill. Recording received payments is just one click away.
Doesn't sending out paper invoices get kind of old? Well guess what, your customers don't like it any better than you do.
With LawnStarter Pro, you can opt to either send an email invoice or have a customer's card charged automatically after each job is completed. Either way, it beats picking checks up from under the doormat.


It is Friday and time to catch up on the entertainment news of the week. Let's kick off with the so ngstress butterfly loving lady herself Miss Mimi aka Mariah Carey who recently got engaged to her beau of 7 months billionaire James Packer. James threw a private dinner for the singer and a few of their close friends and family and pop popped the question and Miss Mimi scream YES, OK I am exaggerating I don't know if that happened but I am sure she must have given a happy reaction especially as I read that the ring cost a whopping $7.5 m; I wonder if Nick is even bothered or breathing a sigh of relief.
Congratulations going out to Brit actor David Ajala; who I just love in the series Beowulf. He has landed a new role in a new US drama, nice one. You may also remember him in The Fast & Furious 6 (I was in that movie).
The Oscars debate continues on with Chris Rock's brother Tony now getting in on the argument givin g his brother some much needed back up. He has however reiterated something that Jada Pinkett said which is that' black people need to stop repeatedly begging for white acceptance'. Will and Jada have both confirmed that they will be boycotting this year's Oscars.
I felt sad this weeks as pictures of a distraught looking Celine Dion emerged online as she attended her beloved husband memorial service. Celine, family, friends and members of the public attended the viewing of Rene's body in a service held in Old Montreal. Celine has suffered a double loss, with her brother dying just two days after she lost her husband to throat cancer.
On a lighter note, Jennifer Lopez (J-Lo) kicked off her residency in Las Vegas this week with a few stars joining her out on stage, Ja Rule, Ne-Yo and Pitbull came out at one stage or another to sing hits that they have made with the star. Las Vegas is proving to be the big bucks state for many of the US big hit singers. J-Lo is said to be earning a cool £13 million for her gigs there.
The news was awash last week with news that Kanye West was to do a tribute album of David Bowie songs. A petition against this was soon raised, calling for Kanye to boycott the idea; and that's me putting it politely. Kanye's reps have now cleared up what he says was a misunderstanding. The rapper was never going to do an album; the petition raised over 10,000 signatures.
#TheProfessor Andy Hunter is on air now and until 10 pm BST with another great selection of #soul #jazz #fusion in this evening's #FoundationShow. Online https://t.co/9AyMUx0pZt and #DAB #Cambridge #Norwich #Glasgow as well as @tunein (photo by @justjaqphoto).


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NIFTY Future Following a pre– Budget rally during the previous three trading session, the market may tread with caution, amid mixed cues and ahead of key earnings next week.
NIFTY Future Following a pre– Budget rally during the previous three trading session, the market may tread with caution, amid mixed cues and ahead of key earnings next week, but last session nifty future closed near day's with a bullish candlestick in daily chart, So we advise you Buy NIFTY Future around 8570-8575 for the targets of 8625-8675 with strict stop loss of 8520.
Last trading session BANKNIFTY Future given positive performance in all sector and gain around 1.8%. and cross major resistance level and ended with a bullish candlestick in daily chart, and since last session it rose with rising OI in long side. So We advise you to buy around 19350-19360 for the targets of 19450-19600 with strict stop loss of 19200.
Last trading session MARUTI future show positive strength and cross strong resistance level and ended near this level with big green candle in daily chart. So if future cross yesterday high . We may see sharp rise for that it will be good to buy above 5850 for the target of 5900-6000 with SL of 5795.
Last trading session BPCL future show positive performance and cross major resistance level and made a new 52 week high and close above this level with strong bullish candle in daily chart. And since last session it rose with rising OI long side in Feb month. So we expect the lead to good upside ahead. So we advise you to Buy BPCL Future around 690-692 for the target of 699-714 with SL of 677.