text:
\section{Introduction}
\label{sec:intro}

Our understanding of the formation and evolution of protostars has evolved into a highly complex and three dimensional model. Since the one dimensional inside out collapse theory of \cite{S:1977}, we now observe many distinct features such as disks, outflows, jets, HII regions and turbulence to be important in governing these systems. To develop an understanding of such features is to further our understanding of the star formation process on all scales. Of particular interest are the molecular outflows observed in low mass protostars. They have the potential to liberate accreting material of angular momentum as well as impacting dynamically on the surrounding molecular core. This creates a turbulent mixing zone which can harbour a rich and unique chemistry. Spectroscopic observations now show that many molecules are harboured in the outflow--cloud interface of these objects, particularly carbon monoxide \citep{Yea:2010}, water (\citealt{Kea:2010}, \citealt{Nea:2010}, \citealt{vKea:2010}, \citealt{Hea:2012}) and HCO$^+$ \citep{Hea:2013}. \cite{CVWB:2006} have also identified methanol, deuterated water, OCS and H$_2$CS in the high--mass analogue CepA--East. An understanding of the dynamics and chemistry of such systems is therefore clearly important for a complete understanding of the star formation process.

Observations of low mass protostellar outflows exhibit two particularly interesting chemical features that can help diagnose the physical conditions. The first is an apparent observational preference towards wide angled cavities mapped in carbon monoxide within a few thousand astronomical units of the central source (for example, B5 IRS1, \citealt{LVX:1996}, HH 46/47, \citealt{Aea:2013}, \citealt{Rea:2013}). We liken the observed morphologies to ``brandy snifters'' -- short hour--glass shapes with wide opening angles at the base and a given height at which the width becomes maximal. By analogy, there are few observed molecular outflows shaped like ``champagne flutes'' -- narrow opening angles at the base, tall and thin all the way up. The apparent absence of ``champagne flute'' shaped outflows from observations is an issue that has not been adequately addressed by current models. Many attempts have been made to understand the carbon monoxide morphologies in terms of the dynamics of the outflow--cloud system. Initially, \cite{GGB:1996} presented a model for a precessing cavity and argued that the observed CO maps were a combined result of those dynamics with radiative transfer effects. More recently, \cite{LWM:2013} modelled the cavity shape as a result of turbulent entrainment and again produced synthetic observations using radiative transfer for the high--mass source G240.31+0.07 to be compared with observations by \cite{Qea:2009}. Their results suggest that ``champagne flute'' shaped outflows should in fact be observable. While both methods can produce qualitatively accurate synthetic observations for individual objects, they both make the simplifying assumption of a fixed CO abundance with polar angle along the interface. No attempt is made to consider three dimensional variations in the carbon monoxide chemistry throughout the interface as the origin of the observed morphology. \cite{Vea:2012} attempted such a model; a static cavity with heating by ultraviolet (UV) radiation and local C--shocks driving the chemistry. However, by considering only fits to observed objects those authors were unable to address a potential chemical origin of the morphological bias.

Secondly, abundances of HCO$^+$ in the outflows are observed to be significantly higher than estimated from modelling of dark clouds (e.g. L1527, \citealt{Hea:1998}). In a previous attempt to model HCO$^+$ formation, \cite{RTW:2000} proposed that the high abundance was a result of photoionized carbon reacting with water liberated from dust grain surfaces by shocks. Follow--up work showed that chemical variations along the cavity wall could reproduce HCO$^+$ observations \citep{Rea:2004}. However, the increased abundance is only temporary as the dissociative recombination of HCO$^+$ is rapid (10--100 years) under typical conditions, especially temperatures below $100~{\rm K}$. The temporary nature of its enhancement would suggest that in a decollimating outflow, it would only be present near the central source, and requires that cavities steadily grow over time, otherwise the enhancement disappears from the system on a 100 year timescale.

Photochemistry is certainly not the only possible process driving the chemistry in such systems. In this paper we develop and investigate a model for the chemistry in these cavity walls driven by hot ions from the protostellar ejecta mixing with molecular gas, with the aim of understanding the observations of CO and HCO$^+$ summarised above.
In particular, we speculate that the degree of interaction between the outflow and the
interface (and hence the dynamically-induced molecular enrichment) is a function of
the impact angle between them. This could help explain the observed bias towards certain morphologies.

We describe in Section \ref{sec:cavity} a parametric model for the dynamics of outflows to quantify the ion injection rate and also the key dynamical timescales. In Section \ref{sec:chemistry}, we present the chemistry used in our model, discussing assumptions on the initial conditions and chemical timescales. The results of our combined chemo--dynamical model are presented in Section \ref{sec:results} and discussion with respect to observations and free parameters in Section \ref{sec:discussion}. Our final conclusions are presented in Section \ref{sec:conclusions} along with brief proposals for further work.

\section{Cavity Injection Model}
\label{sec:cavity}

\begin{figure}
\centering
\includegraphics[scale=0.4]{./fig1.eps}
\caption{Cross section of the model geometry for an example cavity--cloud interface. The shaded area shows the interface with its thickness exaggerated to be 50$\%$ of the dynamical radius for clarity. The tangent to the cavity wall is shown for a given point along with the corresponding polar angle, $\theta$, tangent gradient, $\omega$, and turbulent mixing angle, $\psi$.}
\label{fig:diagram}
\end{figure}

In order to quantify the rate at which material may be injected into the outflow--cloud interface, we must first be able to characterise its dynamical properties, critically the shape and velocity and how these may vary as a function of age. A number of possible origins for the structure of such cavity walls have been discussed, most notably magnetohydrodynamic (\citealt{Bea:2011}, \citealt{BTP:2014}) and turbulent entrainment (\citealt{Cea:2006}, \citealt{LWM:2013}). However, for the sake of our model, it is not important to understand the physical origin of the cavities but rather to be able to parametrise their typical observed shapes. An elegant example of this approach was presented by \cite{CRW:2008} for the cavity wall of Barnard 5 IRS 1. Their dynamical model is of an outflow coming from the central source with constant total mass loss rate ($\dot{M}_{\rm 0}$) and velocity ($v_{\rm 0}$) and steadily decollimating at a constant angular rate ($\epsilon$, the rate at which the outflow opening angle increases in radians per unit time). The outflow impacts on an isothermal sphere of density $\rho(R) = \kappa R^{-2}$ where $R$ is the radius and $\kappa$ is a scaling coefficient treated as a free parameter. Those authors were able to reproduce the observed shape and inferred dynamical properties whose parameters are summarised in Table \ref{table:outflowparams}. We choose to adopt this model since it not only gives the parametrised shape of a typical wide--angled source, but also defines cavity shapes as a function of dynamical age; younger ages correspond to narrower cavities, and vice versa. This allows us to directly test the chemical origin of the observational bias towards wider opening angles.

\begin{table}
\centering
\caption{Physical parameters for the cavity in B5 IRS 1 \citep{CRW:2008} used for our dynamical model.}
\label{table:outflowparams}
\begin{tabular}{ | c | c | }
  \hline
  \multicolumn{2}{|c|}{Cavity Parameters}  \\
  \hline
  Scale Length, $r_{\rm 0}$ & 350 ~{\rm au} \\
  Mass Loss Rate, $\dot{M}_{\rm 0}$ & $2.9\times10^{-6}~{\rm M_\odot~yr^{-1}}$ \\
  Outflow Velocity, $v_{\rm 0}$ & $100~{\rm km~s^{-1}}$ \\
  Decollimation Rate, $\epsilon$ & $1.05\times10^{-4}~{\rm rad~yr^{-1}}$ \\
  Isothermal Coefficient, $\kappa$ & $6.7\times10^{14}~{\rm g~cm^{-1}}$ \\
  \hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}

Given the radial shape equation for the cavity, $R_{\rm S}(\theta,t_{\rm dyn})$, as a function of polar angle, $\theta$, and cavity age, $t_{\rm dyn}$, we assume an interface forms between the cavity and gas envelope with thickness equal to 10$\%$ of the dynamical radius; a value suggested by observations (e.g. \citealt{LVX:1996}). Here, the radially outflowing material impacts on the interface at an angle $\psi$ (as derived in Appendix \ref{app:psi} and shown in Figure \ref{fig:diagram}) given by the equation:

\begin{equation}
\label{eq:psimix}
\psi = \mathrm{arctan}\left(\frac{R_{\rm S}' - R_{\rm S}\tan\theta}{R_{\rm S}'\tan\theta + R_{\rm S}}\right) + \theta - \frac{\pi}{2}
\end{equation}

\noindent where $R_{\rm S}'$ is the derivative ${{\rm d}R_{\rm S}}/{{\rm d}\theta}$. This angle is then used with the other parameters to characterise the rate at which material from the outflow mixes turbulently at each point into the interface, as derived in Appendix \ref{app:ndot}:

\begin{equation}
\label{eq:injection}
\dot{n}_{\rm inj} = \frac{5\dot{M}_{\rm 0}}{\pi m_{\rm H} [R_{\rm s}(\theta)]^3} \frac{\sin\psi}{1-\cos[\epsilon(t_{\rm dyn}-\frac{R_{\rm S}(\theta)}{v_{\rm 0}})]} \, {\rm cm}^{-3} \, {\rm s}^{-1}
\end{equation}

\noindent where $m_{\rm H}$ is the atomic mass of hydrogen. The factor sin$\psi$ is a nominal mixing efficiency chosen on the assumption that only the component of the outflow normal to the cavity wall will be able to mix turbulently into the interface. A key prediction of this work is that this mixing angle is the key parameter in determining the local injection rate at each point in the interface. We expect that only those regions where $\psi$ takes a large value are able to form significant abundances of CO and HCO$^+$ due to the enhanced chemical interaction between the gas from the envelope and the injected material. The choice of function for this mixing efficiency and its impact on the model are considered in Section \ref{sec:discussion}.

\begin{figure}
\centering
\includegraphics[scale=0.4]{./fig2.eps}
\caption{Iso--angle tracks for the timescale on which the injection rate (Equation \ref{eq:injection}) changes. Each solid line represents one fixed value of $\theta$ between 4 and 60 degrees and shows the timescale evolving with the dynamical age of the growing cavity at that polar angle. The dotted line $\tau_{\rm inj}=t_{\rm dyn}/5$ is an approximate asymptote and shows that this timescale approaches approximately 20$\%$ of the dynamical age for all angles. The dashed vertical line shows the dynamical age of B5 IRS1 ($11~{\rm kyrs}$) inferred by \protect\cite{CRW:2008}. The dashed horizontal line demonstrates that for most angles, by a cavity age of $11~{\rm kyrs}$, the timescale on which the injection rate changes is more than $1~{\rm kyr}$. As discussed in Section \ref{sec:chemistry}, the chemistry of the interface reaches a quasi--equilibrium within this time. $1~{\rm kyr}$ is therefore a suitable chemical integration time for our decoupled chemical model at all but the angles close to the opening angle. For younger cavities, shorter chemical timescales will be suitable.}
\label{fig:timescale}
\end{figure}

There are three key timescales associated with such a system. One is the timescale on which the cavity grows, which is simply $R_{\rm S}/({{\rm d}R_{\rm S}}/{{\rm d}t_{\rm dyn}})$. We note that this tends towards approximately one fifth of dynamical age of the cavity on all angular scales. The second is the timescale on which the interface density increases and its composition becomes dominated by the material injected from the outflow into the interface, given by $n_{\rm 0} / \dot{n}_{\rm inj}$ where $n_{\rm 0}$ is the initial particle density in the interface. While the interface density is a free parameter of our model, typical values for the density and cavity age give a timescale many orders of magnitude longer than the dynamical age, so that the composition of the interface is never dominated by the injected material. However, even if the composition of the cavity is not dominated by hot ions from the outflow, their presence can still drive the dominant chemical processes.

Instead, it is the timescale on which the injection rate varies, $\tau_{\rm inj}=\dot{n}_{\rm inj}/({{\rm d}\dot{n}_{\rm inj}}/{{\rm d}t_{\rm dyn}})$, that is important to our problem and visualised in Figure \ref{fig:timescale}. Again, we see that it approaches approximately a fifth of the dynamical age of the cavity for all angles. As a result, any chemistry driven purely by the injecta that can reach equilibrium on timescales an order of magnitude shorter than the dynamical age can be modelled independently of the dynamics since the injection rate is effectively constant. However, if the chemical timescales are significantly longer than the dynamical age then it is necessary to integrate the dynamics and chemistry coupled in time. As we shall further argue in Section \ref{sec:chemistry}, the much simpler first situation holds for our model, with chemical equilibrium times of order $1~{\rm kyr}$ being typical.

\section{Chemical Model}
\label{sec:chemistry}

Given that the outflowing material interacts dynamically with the envelope to form the observed interface, we now wish to model the chemical interactions between the two gases as they mix turbulently. Our chemical model borrows heavily from the work of \cite{RTW:2000} in modelling outflow interface chemistry. In their work, HCO$^+$ is formed as a product of the reaction between C$^+$ and water:

\[ {\rm C^+ + H_2O \rightarrow HCO^+ + H.}\]

\noindent The available C$^+$ was presumed to have been formed from the photoionization of atomic carbon by UV radiation given off in the bow shock associated with the expansion of the cavity. At the same time, the shock was assumed to liberate the icy mantles of dust grains, giving an initial gas phase chemical composition equal to typical dark cloud dust mantle compositions, including the necessary water for processing. Indeed, \cite{BP:1997}  observed a rich array of species produced in the shocked regions of L1157, including some believed to be processed from interstellar ices. More specifically, \cite{Nea:2010} see emission from water that is spatially correlated with the outflow shock of L1157. While this reaction pathway could generate high fractional abundances of HCO$^+$ ($>$10$^{-7}$), it was only a temporary feature as the dissociative recombination reaction:

\[ {\rm HCO^+ + e^- \rightarrow CO + H}\]

\noindent was rapid at typical conditions, and especially below $100~{\rm K}$ due to its strong temperature dependence. Hence, the high abundances in \cite{RTW:2000} were only realised for 10--100 years.

Our chemical model includes the species shown in Table \ref{table:species}. We consider similar initial conditions to those adopted by \cite{RTW:2000}, with the initial gas--phase fractional chemical abundances, $Y_{\rm 0}$, coming from observationally inferred values for the ice composition of dark clouds. These values are given, as a function of the total elemental abundances, $X$, in Table \ref{table:initial}. The gas is thus assumed to
be fully molecular, apart from an atomic hydrogen abundance of $1~{\rm cm^{-3}}$,
established by the balance between cosmic ray-induced destruction and grain
surface formation of H$_2$.

\begin{table}
\centering
\caption{List of chemical species included in our model.}
\label{table:species}
\begin{tabular}{c}
\hline
Chemical Species \\
\hline
H, H$^+$, H$_2$, H$_2$$^+$, H$_3$$^+$, H$^-$ \\
He, He$^+$, Na, Na$^+$, e$^-$ \\
C, C$^+$, CH, CH$^+$, CH$_2$, CH$_2$$^+$ \\
CH$_3$, CH$_3$$^+$, CH$_4$$^+$, CH$_4$, CH$_5$$^+$ \\
O, O$^+$, O$_2$, O$_2$$^+$, OH, OH$^+$, H$_2$O, H$_2$O$^+$, H$_3$O$^+$ \\
CO, CO$^+$, HCO, HCO$^+$, H$_2$CO, H$_2$CO$^+$ \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
\null

\begin{table}
\centering
\caption[table]{Total elemental abundances and initial fractional abundances of
gas-phase species, relative to hydrogen nucleons.}
\label{table:initial}
\begin{tabular}{|l|l|l|}
\hline
 Parameter & Definition & Value \\
\hline
 $X$(He) & He/H & $0.0763$  \\
 $X$(C)  & C/H  & $2.0\times10^{-4}$ \\
 $X$(O)  & O/H  & $3.02\times10^{-4}$ \\
 $X$(Na) & Na/H & $5.2\times10^{-6}$ \\
\hline
 Y$_0$(H$_2$O) & H$_2$O/H & 0.9 $X$(O) \\
 Y$_0$(CO) & CO/H & 0.1 $X$(O) \\
 Y$_0$(CH$_4$) & CH$_4$/H & 0.84 $X$(C) \\
 Y$_0$(C) & C/H & $8.5\times10^{-3}$ $X$(C) \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table}
\null

\begin{figure}
\centering
\includegraphics[scale=0.4]{./fig3A.eps}
\includegraphics[scale=0.4]{./fig3B.eps}
\includegraphics[scale=0.4]{./fig3C.eps}
\caption{Modelled fractional chemical abundances relative to hydrogen near the base of a cavity of age $11~{\rm kyrs}$ as a function of chemical integration time. The interface temperature is $150~{\rm K}$ and the density is $10^5~{\rm cm^{-3}}$. The abundance of HCO$^+$ is seen to correlate with a variety of parent molecules including H$_2$O, OH and CH$_4$ before they are all destroyed. A quasi--equilibrium is reached after approximately $1~{\rm kyr}$.}
\label{fig:formation}
\end{figure}

The abundances of the chemical species are allowed to evolve with the gas phase reactions given in the RATE06 database \citep{Wea:2007}. In addition, H$^+$, C$^+$ and O$^+$ are continuously injected at a rate given by Equation \ref{eq:injection} multiplied by the appropriate elemental abundance and using the parameters in Table \ref{table:outflowparams}. Helium is also injected and, following previous studies \citep[e.g.][]{RTW:2000}, is assumed to be only $10\%$ ionized. Sufficient electrons to maintain overall charge neutrality are also added to the interface. The cosmic ray ionization rate is set to a standard value of $\zeta = 10^{-17}~{\rm s^{-1}}$. We set the UV radiation field in our model interface to zero throughout this paper, considering only cosmic ray induced UV photoprocesses. This allows us to compare results of our hot ion chemistry model with those of the photochemistry model \citep{RTW:2000}. \cite{RTW:2000} argue that UV photons are created in the bow shocks of the outflow. In fact, the leading initial bow shock of a jet should have propagated a long way from the regions near the central source we are examining. Instead, such jets usually have internal working surfaces that are weaker shocks caused by variations in the jet mass loss rate and speed. These weaker shocks and working surfaces should form a reasonably constant source of high temperature and local UV radiation that can ionize the outflow material near the star but with negligible effect on the interface. \cite{vKea:2009} argue that for the source HH 46 the radiation field reaching the cavity wall could be as high as 600 Draine. However, factors including weaker shocks in different sources, photoionization of outflowing gas within the cavity and geometric variations along the cavity wall could all significantly reduce this, especially close to the central source. We use this argument to justify our assumption that the outflow material is ionized while there is negligible UV radiation in the interface itself.

The density and temperature of the interface are poorly understood and are treated as free parameters. A number of works have attempted to infer these properties using observations, models and simulations and can guide us in our choice. \cite{Cea:2006} simulate turbulent interfaces with densities of $10^3$--$10^5~{\rm cm^{-3}}$, while the magnetohydrodynamic simulations of \cite{Bea:2011} and \cite{BTP:2014} are capable of much higher densities (although at earlier times). Temperatures of order $100~{\rm K}$ are also seen in the last of these works. Observational studies such as \cite{vKea:2009} suggest relatively low temperatures in the range of 80--150 K and densities of a few times $10^4~{\rm cm^{-3}}$ for the HH46 outflow, although there are uncertainties since the observed CO 3--2/6--5 line ratio is not expected to change significantly as the kinetic temperature increases above $100~{\rm K}$ \citep{vdTea:2007}. These contrast with the predictions of entrainment models where outflow temperatures of over $1000~{\rm K}$ are possible (\citealt{Cea:2006}, \citealt{LWM:2013}).

In Section \ref{sec:results} we choose to consider a grid of densities from $3\times10^4$ to $10^6~{\rm cm^{-3}}$ and temperatures from $100$ to $150~{\rm K}$ for all reactions. These ranges represent a suitable intermediate between the cold, dense molecular envelope and the hotter, more diffuse outflowing material as they mix turbulently with one another. While high--J CO \citep{Yea:2010} and HCO$^+$ \citep{Kea:2013} observations would seem to demand a much hotter interface, it is possible that such transitions could be collisionally excited by energetic electrons from the injecta due to the typically lower critical densities. In fact, our typical equilibrium ionization fractions of a few times $10^{-4}$ are close to the prediction by \cite{JSea:2006} of $10^{-3}$ in the magnetic precursor of an outflow C--shock from measurements of the excitation of H$^{13}$CO$^+$, among other species. We also note that if temperatures were significantly less than $100~{\rm K}$, freeze out of water onto grains would remove the main reagent for the formation of HCO$^+$ and a non--thermal desorption mechanism would be required to liberate the water ice. While other models may appeal to photodesorption by direct UV radiation, it may also be possible to initiate our model with secondary UV photons due to ionization by cosmic rays in such a case.

Figure \ref{fig:formation} shows chemical abundance profiles as a function of time for a typical parameter set. As with the photochemical pathway presented in \cite{RTW:2000}, our injection model can give an enhancement in the HCO$^+$ abundance to $\approx10^{-8}$, but only on timescales of 10--100 years. Beyond that time, dissociative recombination becomes significant and a lower abundance remains. An approximate chemical equilibrium is reached by the system on timescales of the order 100 years for all species, roughly independent of the physical parameters. With reference to Figure \ref{fig:timescale}, for a cavity of age over $10~{\rm kyrs}$ such as B5 IRS1, the injection evolution timescale is more than $1~{\rm kyr}$ on all angular scales and so the interface can reach this equilibrium. We are therefore justified in using a chemical integration time of $1~{\rm kyr}$ to represent the equilibrium state of older cavities like B5 IRS1. For younger cavities, this injection evolution timescale becomes shorter and so a shorter chemical integration time will be necessary. Note that small abundance variations are seen at approximately $10~{\rm kyrs}$ due to reactions with He$^+$, but these are only temporary fluctuations lasting a few ${\rm kyrs}$.

As in the work of \cite{RTW:2000}, the main pathway to HCO$^+$ formation on timescales of approximately 10 years is the reaction of water from the initial chemical composition of the gas with ionised carbon. The material injected into the interface is a much weaker source of ionised carbon than photoionisation, meaning this reaction alone does not produce as much HCO$^+$ in our model. However, two other routes to HCO$^+$ are initiated by hydrogen ions present in the injected material in our model but typically absent in photochemical reaction networks. The first involves the formation of the CH$_5^+$ ion which can then react with carbon monoxide:

\[ {\rm CH_4 + H^+ \rightarrow CH_4^+ + H}\]
\[ {\rm CH_4^+ + H_2 \rightarrow CH_5^+ + H}\]
\[ {\rm CH_5^+ + CO \rightarrow HCO^+ + CH_4.}\]

\noindent The other pathway involves the formation of CO$^+$ ions, either by the cosmic ray ionization of carbon monoxide or the reaction of OH with injected carbon ions:

\[ {\rm H_2O + H^+ \rightarrow H_2O^+ + H}\]
\[ {\rm H_2O^+ + H_2 \rightarrow H_3O^+ + H}\]
\[ {\rm H_3O^+ + e^- \rightarrow OH + H + H}\]
\[ {\rm OH + C^+ \rightarrow CO^+ + H.}\]

\noindent CO$^+$ then readily reacts with available molecular hydrogen to produce HCO$^+$:

\[ {\rm CO^+ + H_2 \rightarrow HCO^+ + H.}\]

\noindent These three reaction pathways together lead to abundances of HCO$^+$ that are comparable to the results of \cite{RTW:2000}; typically between 10$^{-7}$ and 10$^{-9}$ relative to hydrogen in the first 100 years of chemical integration.

\section{Results}
\label{sec:results}

\begin{figure*}
\centering
\includegraphics[scale=0.8]{./fig4.eps}
\caption{Fractional abundances of CO relative to hydrogen for a cavity of dynamical age 2 (dot), 6 (dot--dash), 11 (dash) and 14 (solid)$~{\rm kyrs}$ as a function of distance from the central source. The temperatures used are $100~{\rm K}$ (left), $125~{\rm K}$ (centre) and $150~{\rm K}$ (right). Densities are fixed at $3\times10^4~{\rm cm^{-3}}$ (top) through $10^5~{\rm cm^{-3}}$, $3\times10^5~{\rm cm^{-3}}$ and $10^6~{\rm cm^{-3}}$ (bottom). The chemical integration time at which the abundances are plotted are 100, 300, 1000 and 1000 years for the 2, 6, 11 and 14 $~{\rm kyrs}$ cavities respectively.}
\label{fig:multiCO}
\end{figure*}

\begin{figure*}
\centering
\includegraphics[scale=0.8]{./fig5.eps}
\caption{The same as Figure \ref{fig:multiCO} except showing the fractional abundances of HCO$^+$ relative to hydrogen.}
\label{fig:multiHCO}
\end{figure*}

\begin{figure}
\centering
\includegraphics[scale=0.66]{./fig6A.eps}
\includegraphics[scale=0.66]{./fig6B.eps}
\caption{Cross--sectional fractional chemical abundance maps of CO (top) and HCO$^+$ (bottom) for cavities of dynamical age 2 (narrowest), 6, 11 and 14 (widest) kyrs. The interface density is $3\times10^5~{\rm cm^{-3}}$ and the temperature is $T=150~{\rm K}$ giving the best qualitative fit to the observed chemical properties. The chemical integration time at which the abundances are plotted are 100, 300, 1000 and 1000 years for the 2, 6, 11 and 14 $~{\rm kyrs}$ cavities respectively. The interface thickness has been exaggerated to 50\% of the dynamical radius for clarity. Note that the youngest cavity is not seen in either plot due to the fractional abundances of both species being off the bottom of their respective scales.}
\label{fig:maps}
\end{figure}

In this section we present the grid of outputs from our model for a range of parameters. First, we took four cavity dynamical ages ($t_{\rm dyn}$ = 2, 6, 11, $14~{\rm kyrs}$) and calculated the turbulent injection rate (Equation \ref{eq:injection}) as a function of position. We then integrated the resulting chemistry for a chemical age, $t_{\rm chem}$, \text{of} up to $10~{\rm kyrs}$ at all positions and using a grid of densities ($n = 3\times10^4$ to $10^6~{\rm cm^{-3}}$) and temperatures ($100~{\rm K}$, $125~{\rm K}$ and $150~{\rm K}$). The spatial abundance profiles of the interfaces in CO and HCO$^+$ are presented in Figures \ref{fig:multiCO} and \ref{fig:multiHCO} respectively. The $2~{\rm kyrs}$ interface is plotted after a chemical integration time of 100 years, the $6~{\rm kyrs}$ interface after 300 year and the older 11 and $14~{\rm kyrs}$ interfaces after a chemical age of $1~{\rm kyr}$; motivated by the results of Figure \ref{fig:timescale} and Section \ref{sec:chemistry}.

A number of features are apparent and allow us to constrain the physical conditions of the interface. Over the observed range of parameters, the chemical composition is more strongly dependent on density than on temperature. Below densities of $10^5~{\rm cm^{-3}}$, carbon monoxide is unable to saturate due to  the dissociation by injected He$^+$:

\[ {\rm He^+ + CO \rightarrow C^+ + O + He.}\]

\noindent At $10^5~{\rm cm^{-3}}$ a transition to CO saturation is seen, with the regions of the interface at larger radii (and hence lower ion injection rates) able to sustain a significant amount of carbon monoxide. With higher densities, the injected material has a lower impact on molecular abundances and saturation is achieved for all but the regions closest to the central source. The CO dependence on temperature is minimal over this range. What is of most interest is that at the density of $10^5~{\rm cm^{-3}}$ there is a marked variation in CO abundance patterns over the age of the cavity. The youngest, narrowest interface modelled has a severely diminished carbon monoxide fractional abundance of less than 10$^{-6}$ over all angles. By comparison, the $6~{\rm kyrs}$ cavity exhibits a small band of CO saturation at radii greater than approximately 4000~{\rm au}. The two older and wider angle interfaces show a significantly increased band of CO saturation in to closer radii. We argue in Section \ref{sec:discussion} that this variation is not sensitive to the choice of chemical timescales at each cavity age.

This feature of more CO at wider angles in the model can be compared with the observational preference towards wide angled outflows observed in CO. It raises the possibility that if the dynamics of protostellar outflows causes a decollimation effect then there could be an observational bias against the youngest of these objects due to the lower abundance of carbon monoxide. This would reproduce the apparent observational selection of wide angled ``brandy snifter'' shaped outflows in preference to narrower ``champagne flute'' shapes as noted in Section \ref{sec:intro}. However, at the smallest radii, the model yields negligible CO abundances at all ages, failing to reproduce the observations that continue all the way in to the central object. Since our injection function (Equation \ref{eq:injection}) scales as $R_{\rm S}^{-3}$, the density of hot ions is greatest nearest the central source and as such, helium ions more readily dissociate any carbon monoxide present in this region. Potential resolutions to this issue are considered in Section \ref{sec:discussion}.

The modelled HCO$^+$ abundance distributions exhibit similar properties to CO. Below the density of $10^5~{\rm cm^{-3}}$ almost none is able to form, while fractional abundances of up to $\approx$ 3$\times$10$^{-9}$ can form above this threshold. HCO$^+$ abundances are also marginally higher at higher temperatures due to the reduced dissociative recombination rate. Furthermore, HCO$^+$ is more prominent at larger radii due to the reduced electron injection rate leading to a slower rate of dissociative recombination.
At densities of $3\times10^5~{\rm cm^{-3}}$ and $10^6~{\rm cm^{-3}}$ there is also evidence for a preferential distance (or equivalently polar angle) at which the abundance of HCO$^+$ peaks in equilibrium. Whether or not such a feature would be observable is unclear, but it does show the fine balance between needing enough H$^+$ from the injecta to form a large fractional abundance of HCO$^+$ in equilibrium and not adding too many electrons to destroy it all.

The features of the model discussed above suggest that the physical conditions leading to the qualitative observations of abundant carbon monoxide and HCO$^+$ are quite finely tuned. The combination of density $n=3\times10^5~{\rm cm^{-3}}$ and temperature $T=150~{\rm K}$ appears to give the best qualitative match. Such parameters are in broad agreement with the various observations, models and simulations discussed in Section \ref{sec:chemistry}. The abundance cross-sectional maps of CO and HCO$^+$ for that combination of parameters is shown in Figure \ref{fig:maps}. Most strikingly, the youngest 2 kyr cavity fails to reach CO saturation and would therefore likely be unobservable, in agreement with the hypothesis that the morphological bias towards wide--angled outflows is chemical in origin. While the equilibrium abundances of HCO$^+$ shown in the figure are somewhat lower than observed, it is still true that a short lived burst in fractional abundance is seen on timescales of approximately 10 years as shown previously in Figure \ref{fig:formation} and the same as in the previous photochemical model \citep{RTW:2000}.

\section{Discussion}
\label{sec:discussion}

\begin{figure*}
\centering
\includegraphics[scale=0.8]{./fig7.eps}
\caption{Fractional abundances of CO (top) and HCO$^+$ (bottom) relative to hydrogen for a cavity of dynamical age 2 (dot), 6 (dot--dash), 11 (dash) \& 14 (solid)$~{\rm kyrs}$. The temperature is fixed at $150~ {\rm K}$ and the density at $10^5~{\rm cm^{-3}}$. A multiplicative prefactor to the injection rate of Equation \ref{eq:injection} is used, ranging from 0 (left) through 0.1, 1 and 10 (right). The chemical integration time at which the abundances are plotted are 100, 300, 1000 and 1000 years for the 2, 6, 11 and 14 ${\rm kyrs}$ cavities respectively.}
\label{fig:inj}
\end{figure*}

\begin{figure*}
\centering
\includegraphics[scale=0.8]{./fig8.eps}
\caption{Fractional abundances of CO (top) and HCO$^+$ (bottom) relative to hydrogen for a cavity of age 2 (dot), 6 (dot--dash), 11 (dash) \& 14 (solid)$~{\rm kyrs}$. The temperature is fixed at $150~{\rm K}$ and the density at $10^5~{\rm cm^{-3}}$. The chemical integration time is varied from 1 year (left) through 10, 100 and 1000 years (right).}
\label{fig:chemAge}
\end{figure*}

We have produced a model for the chemistry in protostellar outflow interfaces driven by injected ions that is able to broadly reproduce some of the quantitative and qualitative features of those systems. For the right choice of density, bands of carbon monoxide are observed in the edges of cavities with opening angles larger than $\approx50^\circ$. For a cavity with a symmetry axis inclined in the plane of the sky, this would yield column densities of the order a few times $10^{18}~{\rm cm^{-2}}$ which is easily observable. Furthermore, the critical density for CO(2--1) observations as taken from the Leiden Atomic and Molecular Database \citep{Sea:2005} is approximately $10^5~{\rm cm^{-3}}$. This value of critical density supports the view that interfaces with this density should be readily observable and, according to the model presented here, should show a wide--angled morphology. HCO$^+$ is also produced in our model, although not in quite the quantities inferred from observations. However, temporary enhancements to 10$^{-8}$ occur on timescales of 10--100 years as in \cite{RTW:2000}.

One key shortcoming is the inability to form carbon monoxide all the way into the central source. The cubic radial dependence $\propto$$R_{\rm S}^{-3}$ was the main factor in determining the local ion injection rate and not $\sin\psi$ as predicted. Due to this strong dependence on radius, CO is rapidly destroyed close to the opening angle due to too much He$^+$ being injected. There are, however, a number of potential refinements that may correct this deficiency. The first point of note is that while the ejected material is presumed to be uniform with solid angle in our model, it could be argued that the presence of any magnetic field (for example) may collimate it, with more material ejected towards the poles, so that the injection rate at wide angles is reduced. This could take the form of a further geometric factor in the injection rate equation, e.g. $\propto\cos(\theta/\theta_{\rm m})$; maximal near the pole, zero at the opening angle and normalised over solid angle. Another consideration is that the cavity wall thickness may not be proportional to the dynamical radius. In their simulations, \cite{Cea:2006} observe interfaces that are not only approximately constant thickness as a function of angle, but in fact grow with time. While the way in which this growth may be parametrised is not clear, it is evident that the thickness of the interface in our model could have been underestimated close to the central source. Increasing it would have the effect of diluting the injected helium ion abundance and hence reducing the rate of CO destruction. Finally, while reasonably argued from geometric considerations, the turbulent mixing efficiency $\sin\psi$ is surely uncertain. If it were a stronger function of the mixing angle (for example, $\sin^2\psi$), this would have the effect of again reducing the injection rate near the central source where the mixing angle $\psi\rightarrow0$ and could yield an enhanced CO abundance.

The model features mentioned above are not considered explicitly in this exploratory paper, rather reserved for future work. However, variations in some of the parameters that were considered fixed in previous chapters can shed some light on the response of the model that can be expected. The simplest of these is to allow a global multiplicative pre--factor to scale the injection rate in Equation \ref{eq:injection}. The results of varying this pre--factor are summarised in Figure \ref{fig:inj}. Reassuringly, on the timescales we considered before, our initial conditions are in equilibrium in the absence of injection, while scaling the injection rate up by a factor of 10 removes both CO and HCO$^+$ from the system on all angular scales of interest. However, reducing the injection rate (as given by Equation \ref{eq:injection}) by a factor of ten demonstrates quite how
sensitive
the system is to the rate of turbulent injection. The interface then contains somewhat more HCO$^+$ on all angular scales and CO is observed in to much closer radii, although the discrimination between CO abundances in older and younger cavities is lost. All of the issues discussed above -- interface thickness, mixing efficiency and collimation of the ejecta -- could be realised in terms of a reduction in the injection efficiency, particularly close to the central source.

One other choice of parameter that was discussed thoroughly in Sections \ref{sec:cavity} and \ref{sec:chemistry} is the chemical integration time, $t_{\rm chem}$. This choice was made to be shorter than the typical timescale on which the injection rate changes for its age. However, as shown in Figure \ref{fig:timescale} the timescales near the cavity base are significantly shorter than further out; this was not considered in Section \ref{sec:results}. Figure \ref{fig:chemAge} shows the evolution of the interface carbon monoxide and HCO$^+$ fractional abundances with chemical integration time. The relative stability of CO and the flare up of HCO$^+$ between 1 and 10 years of chemical integration is evident. However, between 100--1000 years, the profiles of both remain roughly constant, with only a small amount lost to the usual reaction channels. Figure \ref{fig:timescale} shows that the chemical age is greater than 100 years for all angles and cavity ages. Therefore, we argue that the choice of chemical age between 100--1000 years from Section \ref{sec:results} has limited effect on the overall results.
From Figure \ref{fig:formation} we can see that the abundances of both
CO and HCO$^+$ dip at t$\sim$6,000 years. This {\em could} inhibit emission
from some older outflow cavities, suggesting that, rather than just a minimum,
there may be a range of cavity opening angles that are conducive to observable
emission. However, the abundances recover at later times, so the effect may be
marginal.

As a part of their work to model the abundance of CO$^+$ in outflow systems, \cite{Bea:2009} considered a similar mixing mechanism driving the chemistry. While their model injected only ionised atomic hydrogen and electrons, they concluded it could only produce column densities $N(CO^+)\approx10^8~{\rm cm^{-2}}$; some two orders of magnitude less than their two dimensional photochemical model that matches the observational data. While our chemical scheme produces comparable peak abundances ($Y(CO^+)\approx10^{-10}$), in some regions this abundance is sustained for as long as $10^{4}~{\rm yrs}$ by comparison with less than one year in their model. We can therefore assume in our model that CO$^+$ is present through the full width of our cavity wall giving column densities for a cavity in the plane of the sky as high as $N(CO^+)\approx10^{12}~{\rm cm^{-2}}$. Although this maximal value may be larger than the inferred column density, it is possible that our full injection model can provide an adequate explanation of the observed CO$^+$ signal. The high peak abundance ($Y(CO^+)>10^{-4}$) as well as the strong correlation with HCO$^+$  over the chemical integration time make it an interesting species for comparison with other models. Another chemical signature of our model is the high abundance of OH seen in Figure \ref{fig:formation}. While previous studies have not provided a prediction on the presence of the OH radical, it would be expected in photochemical models following the photodissociation of water.

A number of potential chemical mechanisms were neglected in our modelling that could have an effect on the numerical results of our study. Importantly, the presence of small dust grains and polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs) is believed to reduce the abundance of free electrons by combining with them rapidly to form negatively charged particles. This could significantly reduce the rate for dissociative recombination of HCO$^+$ by electrons; the dominant destruction pathway. While the negatively charged PAHs can themselves react to dissociate HCO$^+$, they move significantly slower than electrons and so the rate coefficient for that process will be significantly lower than with electrons, leading to an expected increase in the HCO$^+$ abundance in the presence of PAHs. This argument would suggest that the HCO$^+$ abundances in our model are therefore underestimates of the true column densities. On the other hand, negatively charged PAHs provide further chemical pathways for recombination, such as mutual neutralization reactions with C$^+$ ions \citep{BT:1998}. This could reduce the formation rate of HCO$^+$ meaning that our modelled fractional abundances are actually overestimates. Since the model of \cite{Bea:2009} also contained PAH chemistry, such reactions might also provide an explanation for the significant drop in CO$^+$ abundances that they found after one year. In the case of high mass young stellar objects, \cite{SDvDB:2005} demonstrated that the presence of X--ray photons from the central source acted to provide an enhancement in the HCO$^+$ abundance due to more C$^+$ ions produced by secondary photons from excited molecular hydrogen. Low mass analogues are expected to have similar X--ray luminosities \citep{M:2001} and so we expect that the presence of X--rays would complement our model by enhancing the HCO$^+$ abundance while leaving CO abundances roughly the same.

We also note that the origin of the cavity is not explicitly considered. Whilst we adopt the model of a decollimating outflow of constant total mass loss rate as in \cite{CRW:2008}, the physics leading to such a system was never considered; the model was simply fit to the observed shape to constrain the physical parameters of the ejecta and envelope. In fact, the model of \cite{LWM:2013} is static by comparison, with the ram pressure of the outflow balanced by the turbulence in the interface. It is possible to apply our model to such static systems by considering the full chemical equilibrium as $t_{\rm chem}\rightarrow\infty$. Once again, Figure \ref{fig:chemAge} suggests that this would have the effect of reducing the HCO$^+$ abundance but also removing most CO from the two younger cavities. This then fits even better with the observed bias, with only more powerful outflows that lead to wider opening angles being observable. Furthermore, our ignorance of the dynamics of the mixing in the cavity wall means we are unable to comment on the observed broad line profiles of CO \citep{Yea:2012} and HCO$^+$ \citep{Kea:2013} at high--J. While a shock origin has been proposed, a more detailed dynamical model of the mixing in the cavity walls may tell us if a turbulent origin may also be valid.

Finally, it is noted that a two dimensional photochemical model could produce a similar morphological bias. However, the main source of UV radiation in the cavity is uncertain. In their model, \cite{Vea:2012} considered the central protostellar object as a source of isotropic UV radiation, meaning the local radiation field varies along the cavity wall in a similar manner to our ion injection rate due to the same geometric spreading and impact angle. The resulting chemistry is therefore likely to have a qualitatively similar spatial dependence to our turbulent mixing model. The same is also likely to be true for UV photons originating from the accretion luminosity of the inner protostellar accretion disk \citep{Sea:1995}. However, \cite{Vea:2012} also suggest local shocks in the cavity wall as it expands into the surrounding cloud could be a source of UV radiation that is more uniform along the cavity wall leading to a more uniform abundance profile. Furthermore, shocks from the the internal working surfaces of the optical jet (\citealt{RTW:2000}, \citealt{vKea:2009}) could lead to the local radiation field and hence chemical abundances in the cavity wall being enhanced in the vicinity of knots in the jet. The spatial variations in the CO and HCO$^+$ abundances should be uniquely sensitive to the morphology of the system driving the chemistry, whether driven by photochemistry or turbulent mixing of ions.

\section{Conclusions}
\label{sec:conclusions}

We have developed a model for the chemistry at the interface between the outflow and the molecular envelope for low mass protostars. The chemistry is driven by turbulent mixing of hot ions from the ejecta with cold molecular gas in the envelope. In particular we observe the following features of the model:

\begin{itemize}

    \item A preference towards systems with wider opening angles in the modelled CO abundances.

    \item High abundances of HCO$^+$ without the need for photochemistry.

    \item Approximate chemical equilibrium reached on the timescale at which the injection rate changes, leaving the results independent of the choice of chemical integration times greater than 100 years.

    \item The results are acutely sensitive to the interface density, with $10^5~{\rm cm^{-3}}$ providing the best  fit to observed CO morphologies.

    \item Temperatures of $150~{\rm K}$ give the maximum possible stable HCO$^+$ abundance within the range investigated.

    \item The assumed magnitude of the injection rate is critical in determining if CO and HCO$^+$ form or are destroyed by injected He$^+$ and e$^-$ respectively.

\end{itemize}

These results are quantitatively similar to those of \cite{RTW:2000} using photochemistry, with the addition that observed CO maps are qualitatively matched by the model abundances. This provides a possible explanation for the observational preference towards wide opening angle outflows:  higher injection rates of dissociating ions for narrower opening angles reduce the CO abundance and make it unobservable. A three dimensional radiative transfer treatment would allow us to consider the degree to which a realistic abundance profile affects the inferred CO map, and to determine if such a treatment is necessary to understand the observations. It would also be interesting to consider photochemistry and ion driven chemistry in these systems side by side and in combination, to look for unique tracers that might reveal the true nature of the chemistry at work. We reserve these considerations for future work.

\section*{Acknowledgements}

The authors wish to thank the anonymous referee for their in--depth comments that let to significant clarification of the text and main results, as well as pointing out a number of previous works in the field that provided useful insight and direct comparison with our model. RR acknowledges the financial support of the Science and Technology Facilities Council via a postgraduate studentship.

\bibliographystyle{mn2e}

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaArXiv


It's ok to be alone. Think about it hard. Would you rather be sitting home alone or out with a group of "friends" who may not be doing the right thing? You can decide what you think after I tell you what it means to me. Making friends is easy, but the hard part is making the right friends. What do I mean when I say the right friend? A good friend is someone you can be honest with. For example, you and your friend are walking home from school together. Your friend says, "What did you do to your hair? Did you even brush it?" You respond with, "Hey, I didn't really like that, I didn't find it funny or nice." Real friends should have the liberty to stand up to each other without getting angry.
Now, the making choices part. This section is probably the most difficult thing you will have to deal with in friendship. Bad choices, good choices, choices are everywhere! Making choices means choosing a friend that does not make you participate in something that makes you feel uncomfortable. Also, making sure that your friend is not only just nice to you, but to everyone. This means that your friend treats everyone with respect. If not, they may turn on you one day. Imagine, for example, that you have a really nice friend who you love to hang out with. The problem is that she isn't nice to everyone. The scary thing is thinking that she may turn on you eventually. So, that is when you must make a choice, even if it means giving up a friend.
I realize it isn't easy to say no, but it is very important. However, you don't always have to say no. Sometimes you can try suggesting something else to do. For example, your group of friends want to go to a party. It is 9:00 pm and your parents would never let you go to a party, especially this late. You don't have to leave yet! Try another place you guys could all go to. Maybe suggest a movie or a safe activity. If your friends say no, then what I believe, it is ok to go home.
What I am trying to say is that don't just make choices in a blink of an eye. Listen to your conscience, think about it, and then decide. So, did you think of an answer to my question: would you rather be home alone or with a group of "friends" that many not be doing the right thing? The choice is yours, but make the right one.
Note from the editor: My daughter wrote this article for a school assignment and she agreed to share her perspective on OneDublin.org.
Thank you Evelyn for sharing your assignment with us – It's a great article and I applause you for not only considering your choices in your decisions but also foreseeing the consequences, especially at your age. It will be much more fun every year to be with true friends, who share your values, and enjoy the successful results of your actions.
You sound like a very conscientious and insightful young lady. Congratulations to your parents as well.


text:
Uzbekistan and Hungary: implementation of 37 investment projects aimed at the development of industrial cooperation has begun
ГлавнаяMedia centerNews and eventsUzbekistan and Hungary: implementation of 37 investment projects aimed at the development of industrial cooperation has begun
On November 27, in the format of a video conference, negotiations were held between Deputy Prime Minister – Minister of Investments and Foreign Trade of the Republic of Uzbekistan S. Umurzakov and Minister of Foreign Economic Relations and Foreign Affairs of Hungary P. Siyarto.
The parties exchanged views on the current epidemiological situation in the two countries and measures taken to prevent the spread of coronavirus infection, and also discussed topical issues on the agenda of the Uzbek-Hungarian partnership and prospects for its expansion in priority areas.
Potential areas of investment cooperation aimed at creating joint ventures for the production of products with high added value were discussed and priority tasks for further deepening industrial cooperation were noted.
Currently, with Hungarian partners, the implementation of 37 investment projects of industrial cooperation in the fields of agriculture, animal husbandry, poultry farming, processing of agricultural products, as well as textile, pharmaceutical and food industries has begun.
In this vein, the parties agreed to consider the possibility of an early signing of an agreement on the establishment of the Uzbek-Hungarian Business Council as a platform for strengthening and expanding ties between representatives of the business circles of the two countries. Positive trends in mutual trade were noted, which made it possible to significantly increase the volume of trade between Uzbekistan and Hungary following the results of 10 months of this year. In this vein, specific measures were considered to further expand bilateral trade, ensure its diversification and balance, including by organizing mutual trade missions, opening trading houses and organizing exhibitions of products of Uzbek and Hungarian manufacturers in both countries.
The parties also discussed further steps aimed at enhancing the activities of the Uzbek-Hungarian Intergovernmental Commission on Trade and Economic Cooperation, the next meeting of which is scheduled to be held in January 2021 in Budapest.
In a separate order, the issues of interaction in the scientific and educational sphere were raised – the practical significance of the agreement being worked out on the opening of a branch of the Debrecen University in Hungary in Uzbekistan was noted. An agreement was reached on organizing a visit of the leadership of the Debrecen University of Hungary to Uzbekistan to discuss issues of further cooperation. As a result of the talks, an agreement was reached on the development of a regular dialogue in the framework of areas of mutual interest, which will allow to promptly resolve emerging issues and provide mutual assistance in the implementation of joint initiatives.
https://mift.uz/

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


text:
Fuel or folly? / Ethanol and the law of unintended consequences
News // Politics
April 2, 2008 Updated: Jan. 14, 2012 7:50 p.m.
In the pantheon of well-intentioned governmental policies gone awry, massive ethanol biofuel production may go down as one of the biggest blunders in history. An unholy alliance of environmentalists, agribusiness, biofuel corporations and politicians has been touting ethanol as the cure to all our environmental ills, when in fact it may be doing more harm than good. An array of unintended consequences is wreaking havoc on the economy, food production and, perhaps most ironically, the environment.
Biofuels are fuels distilled from plant matter. Ethanol is corn-based, but other common biofuel sources include soybeans, sugar cane and palm oil, an edible vegetable oil. In the search for alternatives to fossil fuels, many countries have turned to biofuels, which has led to a booming business for those involved. In the United States, ethanol is the primary focus and, as a result, corn growers and ethanol producers are subsidized heavily by the government.
But it turns out that the use of food for fuel is wrought with difficulties. Corn, or some derivative thereof, is a common ingredient in a variety of packaged food products. So it's only natural that, as it becomes a rarer commodity due to the conflicting demands of biofuel production, the prices of those products will go up. The prices of food products containing barley and wheat are also on the rise as farmers switch to growing subsidized corn crops. During a time of economic instability, the last thing Americans need is higher prices at the grocery store, but that's exactly what they're getting.
At the same time, corn is the main ingredient in livestock feed and its dearth is causing prices of those products to rise as well. Farmers have had to scramble to find alternative sources of feed for their livestock and, in some cases, have had to sell off animals they can no longer afford to feed. This, in turn, has led to an increase in the price of meat and dairy products for consumers.
The hit on the livestock industry has also affected jobs, with countless employees being laid off due to the downturn. Pilgrim's Pride Corp., the nation's largest chicken producer, announced in March that it was closing a North Carolina chicken processing plant, and six of 13 U.S. distribution centers, due to the jump in feed costs. Even Iowa, the state that produces the most corn and therefore the supposed beneficiary of new jobs due to ethanol production, has seen its unemployment rate rise over the past year. The plant layoffs and closings already underway due to global competition and the fluctuating market have continued unabated.
Another adverse impact of ethanol production is potential water shortage. One gallon of ethanol requires four gallons of water to produce. According to a recent report from the National Research Council, an institution that focuses on science, engineering, technology and health, "increased production could greatly increase pressure on water supplies for drinking, industry, hydropower, fish habitat and recreation."
Not only is ethanol less productive than gasoline as a fuel source, its production is hurting the environment it was intended to preserve, particularly in the Third World. The amount of land needed to grow corn and other biofuel sources means that their production is leading to deforestation, the destruction of wetlands and grasslands, species extinction, displacement of indigenous peoples and small farmers, and loss of habitats that store carbon.
Scientists predict that the Gulf of Mexico, already polluted by agricultural runoff from the United States, will only get worse as demand for ethanol, and therefore corn, increases. Meanwhile, rain forests throughout Central and South America are being razed to make way for land to grow biofuel components. Tortilla shortages in Mexico, rising flour prices in Pakistan, Indonesian and Malaysian forests being cut down and burned to make palm oil, and encroachments upon the Amazon rainforest due to Brazilian sugar cane production — all these developments indicate that biofuels are turning out to be more destructive than helpful.
The latest issue of Time magazine addresses the subject in frightening detail. Michael Grunwald, author of the cover story, "The Clean Energy Scam," posits a worldwide epidemic that could end up being a greater disaster than all the alleged evils of fossil fuels combined. As he puts it:
"Deforestation accounts for 20 percent of all current carbon emissions. So unless the world can eliminate emissions from all other sources — cars, power plants, factories, even flatulent cows — it needs to reduce deforestation or risk an environmental catastrophe. That means limiting the expansion of agriculture, a daunting task as the world's population keeps expanding. And saving forests is probably an impossibility so long as vast expanses of cropland are used to grow modest amounts of fuel. The biofuels boom, in short, is one that could haunt the planet for generations — and it's only getting started."
Shopping This portable charger is $14 and can charge your phone 6...
Accordingly, the United Nations has expressed skepticism about ethanol and other biofuels. But the European Union seems to have bought into the biofuel craze with proposed legislation to mandate its use. This proposal has set off alarm bells in the United Kingdom, particularly with the British government's chief science advisor, Professor John Beddington, who has warned that a food and deforestation crisis is likely to overtake any climate concerns. "The idea that you cut down rainforest to actually grow biofuels seems profoundly stupid," he stated. Similarly, the British government's top environmental scientist, Professor Robert Watson, called the policy "totally insane."
Some British environmentalists apparently agree, as do members of the American environmental movement. As noted in the aforementioned Time article, the Natural Resources Defense Council's Nathanael Greene, the author of a 2004 report that rallied fellow environmentalists to support biofuels, is "looking at the numbers in an entirely new way," now that biofuel production exists on such a large scale.
None of this has deterred American politicians from jumping on the ethanol bandwagon. No doubt, they see it as a means of garnering political support from the farm lobby and in particular ethanol producers, to whom they have provided generous federal subsidies. Indeed, President Bush, who according to his 2006 State of the Union address is a switchgrass enthusiast, has signed a bipartisan energy bill that will greatly increase support to the ethanol industry, as well as mandating the production of 36 billion gallons of biofuel by 2022.
In an election year, there has been no shortage of environmental platitudes aimed at voters and, inevitably, ethanol has been a mainstay. Democratic presidential candidate Hillary Clinton has been singing the praises of ethanol in Iowa, while her rival, Barack Obama, merely criticized her for not doing so earlier. Republican candidate John McCain, once an ardent opponent of ethanol, has suddenly become a convert.
The motto among both Democrats and Republicans on this issue seems to be "If it sounds good, push it," and a gullible public — seduced by climate change hysteria and a "Going Green!" advertising onslaught — is buying into it.
While the search for alternatives to fossil fuels, and in particular the dependence upon foreign sources thereof, is laudable, future avenues must be considered more carefully. As the looming ethanol disaster has demonstrated, yet again, the road to hell is paved with good intentions.


Has A Place: Trees... Well sorta!
Well hello, I hope your weekend was great. Mine went quite well. Just finishing up the dining room makeover. A few little things to be done then I will reveal it!
But.. I have an awesome project for everyone. My mom helped on this one again, I really do admire her creativity. We compliment each other quite well when it comes to decorating.
Do you see where my mind is going? How it works. What if you flipped it over, what does it look like? A tree right.
Ok, here's the back store. I told you about these great urn vases I got from Lowe's back when I showed you my front porch makeover. I have been looking for "trees" to fill those for winter, after the mums kicked the bucket.
I stuck it in the hole and it stood up.
I also buried them a bit in the dirt in the urn's. Just so they don't fall over or blow away. So here you go!
What do you think? Let me know? Also remember to link back to me if you decide to do this project and share, I would really appreciate it!
Those look fabulous. Love the idea of using a block to make them stand up.
I love it, love it, love it!! What a great mom you have to help you "see" these. $8.99? Awesome.
What a great idea! I think I will be heading to my local AC Moores today!


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We specialize in M&A and strategic growth advisory services for middle-market technology businesses with revenues up to $75 million. We help our clients prepare for a merger or acquisition, build shareholder value, and sell their business (or divest a division). We also work with companies that wish to acquire other companies as part of their growth strategy. Contact us if you are thinking about selling your company (or part of your company), buying a company, developing an exit strategy, or making your business more valuable. We also have monthly and quarterly programs to increase the value of your technology company and help you get ready for a transaction – whether you are a potential buyer or seller.
My advisors at Austin Dale Group were indispensable in managing the sale of my long-held business. This included helping to organize my financial information, identifying and contacting potential buyers, assessing buyers, evaluating offers, negotiating offers, navigating due diligence, and tying up so many details. It was a big comfort having them manage all the information and communications with the buyers. Bob, John and Clint complemented each other well, and were always available, patient, amicable and persistent. I can't thank them enough.
I was thinking about retiring from the engineering firm that I founded. I wanted to take care of my family, my business partners, and all the associates. Austin Dale Group spent time with me and my partners to learn about the business and our goals. They came back with a strategic plan that included a valuation, strengthening our core business, and identifying potential acquirers. Austin Dale Group is extremely knowledgeable about the M&A process, has the highest professional integrity, and they are personable and creative. They were very good in communicating with all parties and were accessible at all hours. We had a successful transaction and I would recommend Austin Dale to others who need M&A advisory services.
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I approached Austin Dale Group because I needed some help figuring out what drives the value of my managed IT services company. They've helped me to understand my financial drivers, set priorities, maintain focus, and become a better leader and manager. As a result I am consistently in the top quartile of MSPs and looking for new avenues of growth, including acquisitions. One thing I like about working with Austin Dale is they care about my long-term success. They're always willing to go the extra mile to help me balance my goals and make sure that I understand what really drives value in my company. I would recommend Austin Dale Group to others who need a trusted advisor to help them build a better, more valuable company prior to an M&A transaction.
We wanted to prepare our high-tech instrument development and integration business to sell the business and maximize our proceeds. Austin Dale Group offered numerous suggestions to improve our business and even helped us find specialists to reorganize our accounting and job tracking procedures and software. When we went to market they handled the detailed negotiations of the sale so that it was financially rewarding and we were able to maintain the good relations needed for a successful transition. I really liked their ability to relate to and advise technical people who were essentially self-taught businessmen, and to keep the process of developing and selling the company grounded in reality. I would recommend Austin Dale Group to other technology company owners who need assistance with developing and selling their business.
Dr. Ralph Brewer, Industrial Monitor and Control Corp.
I approached Austin Dale Group because I was ready to retire and a third-party sale was the only viable succession plan for my business. Austin Dale made sure that my company sale opportunity was given maximum exposure to potential buyers and that my interests were well represented. We started the process at the beginning of the financial collapse so the time to sell was longer than either of us had expected. Austin Dale Group stayed with me throughout the process until we completed a successful sale. Two things that stood out were their knowledge of the marketplace and willingness to listen. I would recommend Austin Dale Group to business owners who need someone they can trust to focus on disposition of their business, so the owner can stay focused on the health of their business.


The Brooklyn Dodgers, the 1955 World Series Champs, played championship baseball yesterday. They built a 5-0 lead after 7 innings, then after their opponents, the Cincinnati Reds scored 4 times in the 8th and tied it in the ninth, the Bums of Brooklyn scored three runs in the top of the 10th – then held on to win 8-5.
Gil Hodges doubled and homered for Brooklyn.
Brooklyn's starter Sal Maglie (former star pitcher for the NY Giants) had a 4-hit, shutout going into the last of the eight. Bob Thurman pinch-hitting lined a fastball from Maglie for a single, Johnny Temple popped out, Frank Robinson singled, loading the bases, Gus Bell made out and with two outs, Reds strongman, first baseman Ted Kluszewski hit a grand slam homer, making the score 5-4 Bums still up. Clem Labine now pitching for Brooklyn and he got Wally Post to make out.
Eddie Bailey pinch-hitting in the last of the ninth, tied the game with his second homer in two days off Clem Labine. It was Ed Bailey's 7th homer of 1956.
The 10th inning featured Dodgers RBIs by Jackie Robinson (a sacrifice fly pinch-hitting), Clem Labine and Gino Cimoli.
The winning pitcher was reliever Clem Labine 4-1 who gave up one hit in 2.1 innings.
Cincinnati reliever Hersh Freeman had 4 straight wins to open 1956 and with this loss his record also is 4-1.


text:
package org.carrot2.util;

import org.apache.mahout.math.function.DoubleComparator;

/**
 * A number of implementations of {@link DoubleComparator}s.
 */
public final class DoubleComparators
{
    /**
     * Compares int in their natural order.
     */
    public static final DoubleComparator NATURAL_ORDER = new NaturalOrderDoubleComparator();

    /**
     * Compares int in their reversed order.
     */
    public static final DoubleComparator REVERSED_ORDER = new ReversedOrderDoubleComparator();

    /**
     * Natural order.
     */
    private static class NaturalOrderDoubleComparator implements DoubleComparator
    {
        public int compare(double v1, double v2)
        {
            return Double.compare(v1, v2);
        }
    }

    /**
     * Reversed order.
     */
    private static class ReversedOrderDoubleComparator implements DoubleComparator
    {
        public int compare(double v1, double v2)
        {
            return -Double.compare(v1, v2);
        }
    }

    /**
     * No instantiation.
     */
    private DoubleComparators()
    {
    }
}

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


Melissa R has such a pretty face. A look that could be out of a Merchant-Ivory period film. Lovely fine skin, delicate features and breasts that look perfect for her.
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Samsung produces a new interactive Hologram display, WIMI MR Head Mounted Display accelerates the deployment of 5G communication services
Hong Kong – Tailor Insight, the fintech market research organization, recently released a research report "Samsung produces a new interactive Hologram display, WIMI MR Head Mounted Display accelerates the deployment of 5G communication services". Samsung has made a breakthrough in Hologram Display. Samsung's scientists have invented an interactive, thin-panel Hologram display that can increase the viewing angle of 3D video by 30 times. Scientists have proposed an ultra-thin interactive Hologram display screen that can provide high-resolution, highly realistic 3D videos from multiple angles. It can be integrated into mobile devices in the future to support office or home applications.
The reason why this display screen is treated as revolutionary is that the existing Hologram display screen can only produce high-definition 3D images when it was viewed from the front. However, Samsung's latest Hologram display screen can see high-definition 3D images from 30 viewing angles, which is a huge achievement.
In the current market, many technology companies, such as Facebook, Google, Microsoft, Snapchat, and Apple, have already entered the market. Moreover, they are actively competing in the augmented reality market and devoting themselves to the research and development of AR filed. This is enough to explain the importance of AR to the current market. Indeed, there is such a voice, the future will be the era of augmented reality.
As a leader in Hologram AR technology, WIMI has recently released a new product of mixed reality ("MR") head-mounted displays, called "Hologram SoftLight Cinema", to further expand the company's Hologram product portfolio matrix.
The product has been greatly improved in image color management, docking equipment, and wearing experience, and it is scheduled to be officially launched at the end of this year. In terms of image color management, combined with a powerful image processing engine and cooperation with SONY, this product can show customers more transparent colors and more delicate picture quality. At the same time, the product supports the docking with drones and professional cameras, which is highly expandable. In addition, the new product uses far-focus imaging technology to relieve customers' long-term short-distance eye fatigue and greatly optimizes the customer's wearing experience.
WIMI is China's leading Hologram cloud integrated technology solution provider. Through its strong technical capabilities and infrastructure, WIMI can provide excellent products and services, and it also can conduct business in an efficient manner. WIMI's core business is Hologram AR technology for software engineering, media manufacturing services, as well as cloud and big data.
WIMI plans to continue to improve and strengthen existing technologies, maintain its industry leadership, and create an ecological business model. At present, WIMI's Hologram face recognition technology and Hologram face change technology are being applied to the existing Hologram advertising and entertainment business. In the meantime, the technology is also being continuously upgraded to achieve breakthroughs in more industry fields. WIMI's goal is to establish a business ecosystem based on the application of Hologram technology.
Compared with its domestic counterparts, WIMI has established a comprehensive Hologram AR content library. This content database covers a wide range of categories, including animals, cartoon characters, vehicles, and food. Among them, 2,961 are used for educational scenes, 851 are used for tourism, 739 are used for art and entertainment, and 103 are used for popular science. In addition, WIMI's content library has been enriched with copyrighted content licensed from third parties. WIMI cooperates with various content owners, including brand owners, film producers, and talent agents, to transform high-quality IP into AR.
WIMI intends to continue to invest significant resources to strengthen its ability to develop Hologram AR content. WIMI is committed to enriching the Hologram content portfolio and providing its customers and end-users with a high-quality Hologram experience. WIMI plans to continue to expand the Hologram content library through various approaches.
About Tailor Insight
Tailor Insight provides easy and quick solutions that allow customers to capture, monitor, and audit market data from a holistic view down to an individual task on market research and industry trend insights. For more information, please visit http://www.TailorInsight.com
Company Name: Fintech Research Team, TailorInsight Research
Contact Person: Alex Xie, Senior Analyst
Country: HongKong
Website: http://www.TailorInsight.com
Sonobuoy Launcher Market – Development, Trends, Demand, Size, Share, Segmentation and Forecast till 2023
ESD Wrist Strap Market Production, Revenue, Price and Gross Margin by 2023 With Palyers : Rosewill, Vastar & Kingwin : Radiant Insights, Inc.
Sales Acceleration Software Market Is Booming Worldwide| Lessonly, LevelEleven, Brainshark


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BLM extremists threaten Chicago: 'We have demands ...You can listen to us or you can get ran over'
BLM extremists threaten Chicago: 'We have demands …You can listen to us or you can get ran over'
August 22, 2020 | Vivek Saxena | Print Article
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During a gathering of Black Lives Matter extremists in downtown Chicago earlier this week, various rioters told the victims of their crimes to "get over it" and warned that if their demands aren't acknowledged, there will potentially be violent consequences.
In the video below, a BLM extremist reportedly identified as Taylor Norwood could be heard toward the end threatening that "you can listen to us, or you can get ran over" (*Language warning):
.#BlackLivesMatter activist in Chicago: "We have demands and they need to be met … we're not asking you anything. We're telling you what's about to happen with your permission or not. … You can listen to us or you can get ran over." pic.twitter.com/yEXFT4LOv9
— Tom Elliott (@tomselliott) August 22, 2020
Earlier in the clip, she laid out her beef, and it seemed to basically center around the decision by local authorities to arrest looters and rioters …
"In the past two months, two of my sisters, my friends, have been arrested and brutalized by the Chicago Police Department," she claimed.
"Our mayor has said nothing about it. Our black, gay mayor is not protecting the black women in this city. I have a personal problem with that."
Chicago has been rocked by endless rioting ever since the death of Minneapolis criminal suspect George Floyd in late May.
While the rioting eventually kind of died down, it re-erupted again earlier this month after local authorities shot a black suspect, Latrell Allen, who'd opened fire on them.
Much of this round of rioting has involved suspects, some of them black women, vandalizing and/or looting people's personal property.
Just earlier this month, one of these black women defended the looting by arguing that the property stolen from innocent victims counts as "reparations."
Similarly, Taylor believes that those black women who are arrested for rioting and/or looting are the real victims. As an example of one of these "victims," she mentioned Miracle Boyd, a fellow extremist who became famous after the cops allegedly knocked out her teeth during a riot in late July.
"Miracle had her teeth knocked out of her mouth. … These are women that we are talking about. These are women that are not committing any crimes except for exercising their First Amendment rights to speak their voice," Norwood complained.
Below is a video that shows Boyd exercising her First Amendment rights:
https://youtu.be/jRtk7yLbQaY
Boyd was later exposed as a possible scammer after video footage emerged of her mocking "white people" who'd chosen to donate to a GoFundMe she'd had set up on her behalf.
"The young activist faced some criticism after she said 'these white people love a sad sob story' while speaking about the campaign live on social media. … Other posts from the past month appear to show her bragging about vandalism during riots and looting in June," local station WGN reported at the time.
Continuing her rant seen in the video up top, Norwood slammed Chicago authorities for closing off certain parts of town to allegedly "protect white people." In reality, the closures were instituted to prevent the looting and rioting that Taylor supports from expanding into other neighborhoods.
Morning in Fort Chicago:
As a deterrent to more looting & vandalism over the weekend, the city has lifted almost all the bridges downtown to restrict movement of people & cars, using the Chicago River as a natural barrier against the unrest #Chicago #ChicagoRiots #ChicagoProtest pic.twitter.com/qi1CW1LZQT
— Brendan Gutenschwager (@BGOnTheScene) August 15, 2020
After ranting for a bit longer, Taylor eventually concluded by saying, "You can listen to us, or you can get ran over. And that's all I have to say."
Her remarks weren't the only disturbing ones to be spoken at the rally. Another extremist at the rally told the victims of her looting to "get over it."
"People are worried about looting, and there are literal lives being taken away? There are people who are dying, and y'all are mad about people looting Mag Mile? Get over it! These buildings are insured. Materials will come back, but we will not come back if they kill us!" she said.
Which side are you on? (4/4) pic.twitter.com/iU23CJqlQn
— BLMChicago (@BLMChi) August 20, 2020
But nobody is having their "literal lives … taken away" in Chicago, including Latrell Allen, the black suspect whose non-fatal shooting triggered the second round of riots. However, had Allen had his way, at least one cop would have had his life taken away
"Prosecutors say Allen was armed with a gun at an Englewood park where children were playing Sunday afternoon. When police arrived, they say he took off and then fired at them during a chase. Officers returned fire, striking Allen in the shoulder, according to CPD Superintendent David Brown," local station WLS reported after his shooting.
Remember, it's because of this non-fatal shooting that BLM extremists have been rioting and looting throughout Chicago.
See some of that looting below:
19 people looting a nail salon?!?? #Bteam #Chicago pic.twitter.com/y2hk3pyOJu
— CWBChicago (@CWBChicago) August 21, 2020
Looters broke into a Chicago mall and are looting the place clean tonight. #BlackLivesMatter pic.twitter.com/wKJZbcvpoZ
— Andy Ngô (@MrAndyNgo) August 10, 2020
Looters in Chicago calmly walk in and out of businesses with stolen merchandise at the BLM riot. #BlackLivesMatter #ChicagoRiots pic.twitter.com/JdvNahwXWm
BLM rioters loot a @Walgreens in Chicago tonight. #BlackLivesMatter pic.twitter.com/Q1upzid1MF
Aftermath of one area looted in Chicago last night. #BlackLivesMatter pic.twitter.com/f9GsrjwS8m
Of course, according to Taylor, these looters are the good guys, and the police who've worked endlessly to apprehend them and hold them accountable are somehow the bad guys. While certainly unorthodox, it's a message that the modern Democrat Party would likely endorse.


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IESBA Clarifies Definition of "Those Charged With Governance"
Sep 23, 2013 | New York, New York | English
The International Ethics Standards Board for Accountants (IESBA, the Ethics Board) today released final changes to the definition of "those charged with governance" in its Code of Ethics for Professional Accountants (the Code).
The changes are intended to more closely align the definition of "those charged with governance" in the Code with that in the International Auditing and Assurance Standards Board (IAASB)'s International Standard on Auditing (ISA) 260, Communication with Those Charged with Governance, thereby eliminating any potential confusion. The Ethics Board does not expect any changes will be necessary to accounting firms' systems and methodologies or common practice.
The changes clarify that a subgroup of those charged with governance of an entity, such as an audit committee, may assist the governing body in meeting its responsibilities. In those cases, if a professional accountant or firm communicates with such a subgroup, the Code requires the professional accountant or firm to determine whether communication with all of those charged with governance is also necessary so that they are adequately informed.
"The changes to the definition reflect the Ethics Board's ongoing commitment to eliminate unnecessary differences with the IAASB's standards, which serves to enhance our shared stakeholders' understanding of our standards and guidance," said Jörgen Holmquist, chair of the IESBA. "Furthermore, by clarifying the definition, the Ethics Board aims to promote more consistent application of the Code, which is critical to its mission to ultimately foster a consistent and high level of ethical behavior by professional accountants around the world."
As with all revisions to the Code, the changes have been approved following confirmation by the Public Interest Oversight Board that due process in developing the changes was followed. The changes, effective on July 1, 2014, will be printed in the 2014 Handbook of the Code of Ethics for Professional Accountants. The 2013 Handbook is currently available to download or purchase.
About the IESBA
The International Ethics Standards Board for Accountants (IESBA) is an independent standard-setting board that develops and issues, in the public interest, high-quality ethical standards and other pronouncements for professional accountants worldwide. Through its activities, the IESBA develops the Code of Ethics for Professional Accountants, which establishes ethical requirements for professional accountants. The structures and processes that support the operations of the IESBA are facilitated by IFAC. Please visit www.ethicsboard.org for more information.
About IFAC
IFAC is the global organization for the accountancy profession dedicated to serving the public interest by strengthening the profession and contributing to the development of strong international economies. IFAC is comprised of 173 members and associates in 129 countries and jurisdictions, representing approximately 2.5 million accountants in public practice, education, government service, industry, and commerce.


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Next Book Club pick is a story of two kids alone in the woods
A family canoe trip takes a terrifying turn leaving two small children battling for survival in the wilderness.
Antonia Whyatt Updated February 8, 2014
What it's about: While on a camping trip in Ontario's Algonquin Park, a family is attacked by a black bear. Five-year-old Anna is woken by the sound of yelling but thinks it's her mother getting angry — she's too young to understand her mother is being mauled. Anna's father grabs her and her little brother and locks them inside a cooler to keep them safe. They survive; their parents do not.
Why we love it: With Anna as narrator, the novel explores our deepest fears from a child's unique point of view. As her mother lies dying (Anna thinks she is resting), she instructs Anna to take her brother and paddle away in the canoe, but Anna can't focus. She's bickering with her brother, distracted by an overturned pot and unaware of the danger they're in. Experiencing the tragedy through a five-year-old's eyes takes some getting used to but is also part of the book's brilliance: You become swept up in the children's world and emotionally invested in their harrowing survival story. Anna's a character who stays with you long after you've put the book down. (And you won't be able to put it down until the end, so prepare for a couple of sleepless nights.) This is a thrilling and utterly captivating tale.
The inspiration: Claire Cameron was a camp counsellor leading canoe trips in Algonquin in the early '90s. During that time, a black bear killed two adults in a rare predatory attack. "We would gather around the campfire at night and trade the few details we knew," says Cameron. "It felt like hearing ghost stories, and they haunted me."
Book Club chat sheet
1. How we use fiction to confront our darkest fears and cope with loss.
2. Children's instinctive ability to survive and the complexity of sibling relationships.
3. Bear stories!
The Bear, Claire Cameron, $23. Want a chance to get a copy of the book? We're doing a Twitter giveaway on February 11th at 12pm EST!
Born: Toronto
Lives: Toronto
On writing: "I originally wanted to be a rock star and thought my biggest obstacle was that I like to go to bed at 9:30 p.m. Then I discovered larger ones: namely, that I sing like I'm still in a choir and am quite bad at the guitar. After much frustration, all I had was one halfway decent song called 'Painting Lines.' I knew my typing was better than my strumming, so I started to write. That song became my first book, The Line Painter."
What's next: "I wrote three novels between my first book and this one. I call them my dead books. I needed to write them in order to learn. I'm back to writing, researching and experimenting with voices. But I guess what I'm working on is trying not to write any more dead novels before I come up with one that's worthy."
FILED UNDER: adventure fiction fiction


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Bubba's Test Drive
Vehicle Awards
MSU Athletics
U of M Athletics
The Family Deal Blog
Official Blog of the LaFontaine Automotive Group in Michigan
8 Worst Calls In Detroit Sports History
January 6, 2015 by Jeremy Sheldon
After completing a season long series of Fantasy Football articles, my bosses were so impressed that I was asked to write a weekly column covering the current hot topics of Detroit sports.
At first I wasn't sure because I'm pretty busy with my regular job, but after minutes of negotiation I decided that their offer of not firing me if I did this was more than enough to persuade me to take the gig.
So now that Fantasy Football is over, I am going to dive right into the Detroit sports scene giving you the coverage you crave in an exciting and unique way.
I had hoped my first post would be about something happy like the hiring of Jim Harbaugh or a Lions playoff victory. But due to unforeseen flag pick-ups, plans have changed!
So as we collectively sit back and bemoan the opportunity that was ripped out from under us by the poor officiating in our recent playoff (fix) loss at Dallas, that got me thinking – how does the Flax Fix of the 2014 NFL Wild Card Playoff game rank among the all-time worst calls in Detroit Sports History?
I'm going to warn you, reliving these 8 terrible calls may make you a little sad and angry all over again, so grab some tissues and a pillow to punch just in case.
8. Detroit Red Wings vs Washington Capitals Goalie Interference Call
This play has been called the worst goalie interference call in NHL History.
It all started on October 29th of last year when Red Wings Center Luke Glendening skated by Capitals Goalie Braden Holtby as he went to play the puck behind the net.
Holtby sent the puck into the corner and as he skated back to the front of the net he fell down. The Red Wings would put the puck in the net, and then the unthinkable happened. Whistle!!
NO GOAL, goalie interference was called on Glendening who actually never touched Holtby during the play. The Red Wings still went on to win the game 4-2 but this play was what everybody was talking about.
7. Brandon Inge HBP – Tigers vs Twins Game 163
The Tigers were playing the Twins in a one game playoff for the right to move on in the postseason.
Brandon Inge stepped to the plate in the 12th inning after Keppel had intentionally walked Ryan Raburn with one out to load the bases and set up a potential double play.
Keppel threw a first-pitch fastball that came inside on Inge and grazed his jersey.
The umpire just called it a ball stating that it didn't hit Inge. The replay would say otherwise and the non-call cost the Tigers the go ahead run and momentum with the bases still loaded with only one out.
The Tigers would go on to lose during the bottom half of the inning and the Twins moved on while the Tigers were left to wonder what could have been.
6. Justin Forsett Thankful the Refs can't see on Thanksgiving TD
Justin Forsett takes the handoff and is clearly tackled where you can see his elbow hit the ground and then his knee but he gets back up and runs 81 yards for the TD.
Lions Coach Jim Schwartz was so incensed that he threw the challenge flag (whoops).
NFL rule states that all scoring plays are reviewed and that if a challenge flag is thrown on a scoring play the play will therefore not be reviewed and will stand as called.
To top it off the Lions would receive a 15 yard unsportsmanlike penalty as well.
The Lions would go on to lose in Overtime.
5. Michigan vs MSU & Sparty Bob
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yoFZIBY-IVU
Before I get in to this one I should note that I'm a U of M (Dearborn, it counts!) grad. If you're a MSU fan, then this one would probably rank as one of the best calls of all time. But since this is my article, it's one of the worst!
In 2001 Michigan traveled to East Lansing for another meeting with arch rival Michigan State and nobody knew that the ending of this game would be talked about for years to come.
Michigan was up 24-20 and Michigan State was driving in the final seconds of the game.
With 17 Seconds remaining in the game QB Jeff Smoker takes the snap and has nothing, so he scrambles down to the 2 yard line.
The clock is now winding down and they scramble to get back to the line to spike the ball and it appears as once they go to snap it the clock stopped at :01 second as they were going to spike it.
In all actuality the clock should have hit double zeros and the game should have been over. This time keeping error was the birth of whom they call "Sparty Bob".
Sparty Bob was running the clock and was the one who prematurely stopped the clock at :01. This play changed college football and no longer does anybody with any affiliation to either school run the clock.
4. Calvin Johnson VS Chicago Bears – Complete the Process
The Lions traveled to Chicago to face the Bears in week 1 of the season back in 2010.
The game was tight the whole way and as the 4th Quarter was nearing its end Lions QB Matthew Stafford connected with Calvin Johnson for what looked to be the game winning TD and a 21-19 lead for the Lions with mere seconds remaining.
Not so fast!! The closest field judge with the best angle on it called it a TD but a second official came in and said that he didn't believe Calvin completed the process.
After reviewing the play Calvin would come down with the ball in bounds and as he goes to get up he uses the ball palmed in his hand to help him up and then lets go of it.
They decided that he did not complete the full process of the catch and the Touchdown was taken away.
A new controversy was born!
3. Detroit Lions vs Dallas Cowboys – Pass Interference Flag Fix
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=md1kkyULb1o
Lions fans were cheering everywhere because on 3rd and 1 in Cowboys territory already up three points a blatant Pass Interference flag was thrown when Dallas OLB Anthony Hitchens prevented Lions TE Brandon Pettigrew from a shot at catching the pass.
Hitchens was grabbing, holding and did not have his head turned around to make a play on the ball, which my friends is basically the definition of Pass Interference.
But then the unthinkable happened we started to hear the cheers of the Dallas crowd and we were thinking either there are a lot of Lions fans there or the Dallas faithful are severely confused about what just happened.
Then BOOM, the pass interference flag that was thrown, announced to the crowd and already re-spotted was picked up! UH WHAT??
There was no explanation to the crowd and we were all left dumbfounded.
I have watched hundreds of football games and have never seen this happen before especially at such a crucial time of the game, where the Lions were on the field and that this is a playoff game.
We all know what happened next the Lions would punt it away on 4th and 1 for a putrid 10 yard shank.
The Cowboys would then drive down the field for the game winning TD and with Stafford fumbling on the final drive it was over.
2. Bill Laimbeer Phantom Foul on Kareem Abdul-Jabbar
In 1988 the Pistons were looking to win their first NBA Championship in the history of the team and were on the verge of winning until the infraction known as the phantom foul was called.
The Pistons were up 3-2 in the series and with :14 seconds remaining Kareem Abdul-Jabbar, being guarded by the Pistons Bill Laimbeer, went to shoot his famous skyhook but was unsuccessful and the ball rattled out.
Bill Laimbeer who only slightly touched Kareem was called for a shooting foul and Kareem was awarded two free throws which he went on to make.
The replay confirmed that there was no foul but it was over, the Lakers went on to win by one and would finish the Pistons off in Game 7.
1. Armando Galarraga – Almost Perfect Game
Armando Galarraga lost his bid for a Perfect Game on a blown call with two outs in the 9th inning.
The Indians Jason Donald came to the plate with two outs and hit a grounder to the right of 1st Baseman, Migeul Cabrera who fielded it cleanly and threw a strike to Galarraga who went to cover 1st base.
Armando stepped on the bag before Donald reached the bag but first base umpire Jim Joyce called him safe.
The fans at Comerica Park, Galarraga and the rest of the Detroit Tigers sat stunned in disbelief.
An emotional Joyce later admitted that he blew the call and said that it was the biggest call of his entire career.
Armando would go on to retire the next batter to finish the game but the damage was done and history was changed with one blown call.
Which Call Do You Think is the Worst?
I have to admit, putting together this article was pretty hard. Having to relive all of these terrible moments that affected my beloved Detroit sports teams was quite emotional.
How would you rank these 8 terrible calls? Do you agree or disagree with my rankings? Are there any other bad calls that you think should be on the list?
Share your thoughts in the comments section below.
Filed Under: Sports Tagged With: Detroit Lions, Detroit Pistons, Detroit Red Wings, Detroit Tigers, Michigan State University, NFL, University of Michigan


This is an angled drip tip adapter for your eGo Mega cartomizers to allow for a 510 drip tip to be used. The angle makes for a comfortable vaping experience as the angle eliminates the twisting motion of bringing most cartos up to vape. The adapter is black and looks great with any mod or device.
Price is for 1 adapter. Pictures are for display purposes.
Image 2 shows the adapter on a variety of eGo Mega cartomizers sold separately.


After we revealed the cover for Method Man's upcoming album Tical 0: The Prequel (See: [nburl=http://www.wutangcorp.com/clan/methodman/news/show/484/]Tical 0: The Prequel Revealed & new video online[/nburl]), Def Jam recordings changed the cover. The new and, in our opinion, better cover for Tical 0 is displayed below!
Meanwhile the official Method Man website has been changed a little, displaying a 'Mef for President' campaign. The album will be dropping May 18th.