A lot of people ask if they really need skin toners? Yes, we need skin toners especially when the skin is oily and acne prone. Buy what does a skin toner do? A good skin toner can help make the skin look dewy and free of the excessive oils and sebum. Application of homemade toner on oily face also tends to minimize the oil production and also gives the skin matte look. People who have open pores and large pores on the face, they also notice that after the application of a skin toner, the pores are shrunk.
Here we have compiled this list of the best toners for oily skin and also for the acne prone skin with large pores. So, if you have been thinking about the skin toner then think again.
This is a very hydrating skin toner that helps to lock your pores and protect the skin from harmful pollutants. It is ideal for oily and acne prone skin. This toner for oily skin also gives a cooling sensation and brightens the face instantly. It also lightens the skin with the presence of cucumber.
Kaya clinic tone works excellent on acne prone and oily skin. The alcohol free toner really makes the skin smooth and shiny. It also clears the skin and takes away all the dirt and oil. The quantity is pretty enough to last a month or more. It comes in a very convenient packaging and does not leak from when you take out the product.
Plum is a very famous and amazing brand. Its products are superior in quality and best in usability. This toner contains green tea which has great anti-oxidants that protects the skin from free radicals and makes it healthy and refreshed. It is one of the best alcohol and paraben free toner for oily skin types.
Jovees is a completely herbal skin toner. It contains cucumber, which is great for the skin as it hydrates it. It also maintains the pH balance of the skin. The overall skin texture is improved and it looks more young and full of life. This skin toner is also very pocket friendly and easy to carry. It tones and tightens the large pores to offer spotless and toned skin.
The brand itself is very popular and has very worthful products. This toner is pretty affordable. It detoxifies the skin and also controls excessive oil secretion.
Lakme Absolute Toner is extremely effective on oily and combination skin. It comes in a spray bottle which is very easy to use. Simply dab a cotton in the toner and apply it entirely on the skin. This toner instantly refreshes your skin and adds a little spark on your face. Pox fix toner from Lakme is made especially for people with open pores on their face. So, use it before makeup to help skin look pore-less.
This bath and body oil has anti-septic properties that protect the skin from infections and spreads. It contains anti-oxidants which come from tea tree oil, it also makes skin glowing and ageless.Being rich in tea tree this toner is best for acne prone skin.
Himalaya is a very common and youth's favorite brand. And this toner is one of their finest products, it comes in a bottle which is very easy to use and contains enough amount. It clarifies the skin and prevents acne and itchiness. This is one of the best option for dry skin in terms of budget and good quality.
Lotus herbals cucumber toner is a must have this summer due to its ingredients. Cucumber and basil extracts help in making the skin look clear and fresh. It also tames down the heat effect on the skin. Basil has anti-fungal and anti-bacterial properties that prevents acne and scars.
Khadi toning lotion performs a dual action. Lemon juice cleanses the skin and pomegranate tones it up and makes it glowing and glossy. Lemon contains vitamin-C that removes the tan and pigmentation. Pomegranate improves skin color and heals dark spots. It is pure and natural and is free from all harmful chemicals.
These are the best skin toners for oily skin. Have you used these toners for your oily face and combination skin? Which is your favorite toner to tackle the oils and pores from the skin? Do share!!


I joined NVIDIA around SIGGRAPH, just as the RTX hardware for ray tracing was announced. I saw the demos, heard the stats, but these didn't mean a lot to me without hands-on experience.
Figure 1. This is what people typically think of when they think of ray tracing.
The "One Weekend" demo is fine, but the hemispherical light source and lack of denoising makes it noisy when you move through the scene. You can crank up the eye rays per pixel to around 10 and still get about 30 FPS. But, it's still a bit noisy and, well, it's "just" 433 spheres.
I decided to see how far I could push the system before it broke. 30-odd years ago I made a ray tracing benchmark suite, the Standard Procedural Databases (called that mostly so I could use the acronym SPD). I created one model I dubbed "sphereflake." It is sort of a 3D Koch snowflake, a fractal curve that defines a shape with a finite area but infinite perimeter. Similarly, at each level of the sphereflake, the radius of the spheres is a third of that of the parent sphere. With nine children for each parent, each new level of recursion adds in the same amount of surface area as the level before. This makes for a model that, taken to its limit, has a finite volume (1.5 times that of the initial sphere) and an infinite surface area. The material model is simpler than that used in Chris's and Pete's tutorial scene: just a diffuse plane (which we all fake with a giant sphere) and reflective spheres.
Figure 2. Sphereflake with a hemispherical light source, not yet converged.
The huge area light causes noise, since a single shadow ray is shot at each ground location in a random direction. Some rays hit the sphereflake, causing a shadow.
The reflections look good, and it's enough to go 5 levels deep (spheres reflecting spheres reflecting…). Also, and this was the first "Wow!" moment for me, I could push the procedural model creator up to 8 levels, meaning that we're rendering 48 million (48,427,562 exactly, since you asked) spheres. Level 9, 436 million spheres, is outside the range for a single Titan V or RTX 2080 Ti.
However, I created a separate object for each sphere. Steve Parker pointed out that I could use instancing, which should conservatively give me 20.8 trillion spheres. Maybe I'll try this next week, though realistically the scene already has a ratio of 24 spheres per pixel right now and the smallest spheres are mostly twinkly noise when I move through the scene.
NVIDIA's CEO likes to quote 10 GigaRays/sec for Turing. Me, I like to quote 48 million spheres. And don't even think about how many triangles that would be if tessellated and rasterized, not to mention forget about local reflections. Note that all rendering here is pure ray tracing throughout. Most of Chris's tutorials use rasterization for the initial eye rays, as rasterizing these can normally beat ray tracing for performance. Not so for scenes with custom primitives such as spheres.
Those shadows are sharp while moving around, not noisy. For this view I get about 60 FPS – lower than before, since I'm shooting three shadow rays instead of just the random one for the hemispherical light. If I zoom in, so that everything is reflecting and spawning a lot of reflection rays (and fewer shadow rays, as I don't compute shadows for entirely reflective surfaces), it drops to no lower than 30 FPS.
While a bad year for Winston Smith, 1984 was a great year for graphics. For example, that year saw the introduction of Radiosity. Pixar had a bunch of wonderful papers, including one by Rob Cook and all on what they called "distributed ray tracing" (and that everyone else eventually called "stochastic ray tracing"). The idea is simple: shoot more rays to approximate the effect of the material, light, motion, depth of field, etc. For example, to get soft shadows, shoot shadow rays towards random locations on an area light and average the results.
before computing isVisible in the previous code snippet. Most of my work was on getCircularAreaSample, which I derived from the hemispherical light's getCosHemisphereSample subroutine, using a radius for the directional light's area.
The images seen here are the results after a few seconds of convergence. The softer the shadow, the more rays that need to be fired, since the initial result is noisy (that said, researchers are looking for more efficient techniques for shadows). I did not have access in these demos to denoisers. Denoising is key for interactive applications using any effects that need multiple rays and so create noise.
What impressed me about adding soft shadows is how trivial it was to do. There have been dozens of papers about creating soft shadows with a rasterizer, usually involving clever sampling and filtering approximations, and few if any of them being physically accurate and bullet-proof. Adding one of these systems to a traditional renderer can be person-months of labor, along with any learning curve for artists understanding how to work with its limitations. Here, I just changed a few lines of code and done.
The shadows here are actually hard-edged again, but the depth of field effect blurs the distant one in particular, along with the ground texture.
Adding some effects to a ray tracer is dead simple, and addictive. For example, I've held myself back from adding glossy reflections; perhaps you want to add these yourself? As for me, I began collecting ray tracing related links again, after a eight-year hiatus from publishing the Ray Tracing News.
If you recently got a Turing-based card, you can grab the code here. You can try toying with the shaders or making entirely new demos. These tutorial programs are built atop Falcor and are focused on letting you modify shaders. After decades of lock-step Z-buffer rendering, being able to take arbitrary numbers of samples in arbitrary directions is wonderfully liberating. The interactivity and ability to handle a huge amount of geometry is still sinking in.


It provides energy, stamina and vitality, Useful herb for helpful in infertility.
1.Boosts immune system – In today's world we are faced with a challenge to keep fit and at the same time be alert at what we do, consumption of Shilajit Rasayan Vati that contains Amla, Ashwagandha with Shilajit boosts the immune system and revives our body, it helps in enhancing the quality of blood cells.
2.A life-saving herb for the heart – By practising its cell reinforcement "muscles," Shilajit has been appeared to shield the heart against harm resulting from artery blockages, the herb is likewise viable in treating anaemia as Shilajit contains a high amount of iron in it. Research in the past and present has proven that Shilajit helps regulate the heart rate, it tends to stabilize a speeding heart rate. One must be cautious while consuming this herb, a large dose of this herb may be injurious to the heart and may have an opposite effect.
3.Helps to quit illegal drugs and alcohol – Due to its interesting cooperation with other medicinal substances, Shilajit has been also been used to beat any kind of addiction such as alcohol, cigarettes, illegal drugs etc. When given to patients descending from narcotics, it diminishes the withdrawal syndrome of such illegal drugs and alcohol. As per a recent study, the herb has helped several drunkards depending on alcohol to quit drinking.
4.Helps cure diabetes – Shilajit helps reduce excessive glucose levels in the blood, the herb also helps to improve lipid profile in diabetes patients, several pills manufactured to cure diabetes contain Shilajit.
5.Rejuvenates brain – This mind-boggling herb may likewise show a novel treatment for patients experiencing mild instances of Alzheimer's disease. The herb contains fulvic acid along with vitamin B complex that helps rejuvenate the most important part of the human body.
Shilajit Uses, Dosage, Side effects?
Shilajit is a supplement rich in nutrients that are found fundamentally in the rocks of the great Himalayas. Shilajit has also been known as a life-saving nutrient that is created naturally over a span of hundred years from the moderate decomposition of several Ayurvedic plants, it is also proven that Shilajit has cured critical cancer in humans and revived their body to its normal condition.
Shilajit is accessible in both powder and fluid forms. In case you consume the herb in powder form, It is advisable to take it two times a day with milk or water. And to consume the herb in fluid form, then It is advisable to dilute in water and consume two to three times a day, please consult a physician about the quantity depending on your health condition.
In spite of the fact that this herb is safe but raw or unprocessed, Shilajit should not be consumed as it contains fungus and several other components that can make the consumer sick, one must ensure the purity while buying Shilajit. If your body contains excessive iron or you develop rashes in your body or experience increased heart rate, causing nausea, headache or dizziness then consult a physician before consuming Shilajit.
Calcium, Selenium, Iron, Manganese, Zinc, fulvic acid, humic acids, triterpenes, Molybdenum and copper are all very important nutrients found in Shilajit that helps develop strong enzymes a sharp mind and healthy body. Apart from the above crucial nutrients, the herb contains minimum 90 minerals in ionic form.
Shilajit in the form of powder is commonly available in the market primarily because of the way that it is simple to fake and it very well may be utilized in various forms. The fake forms just copy the genuine type of Shilajit in appearance and not under any condition in its medical advantages. What's more awful is that it really can do your body worse than good, as the fake powders are usually comprised of powdered muddy rock.
Since fake Shilajit powders are so uncontrolled, numerous makers that make authenticated Shilajit have propelled battles to expand familiarity with the reality. A genuine powder is thick resin dried and ground into a fine powder, it has a natural smoky flavour.


text:
Constitution of Mexico
(Redirected from Mexican constitution)
The Constitution of Mexico, formally the Political Constitution of the United Mexican States (Spanish: Constitución Política de los Estados Unidos Mexicanos), is the current constitution of Mexico. It was drafted in Santiago de Querétaro, in the State of Querétaro, by a constituent convention, during the Mexican Revolution. It was approved by the Constituent Congress on 5 February 1917. It is the successor to the Constitution of 1857, and earlier Mexican constitutions.
Political Constitution of the United Mexican States
Cover of the original copy of the Constitution
5 February 1917; 102 years ago (1917-02-05)
General Archive of the Nation in the Lecumberri Palace
Constituent Congress of 1917
National constitution to replace the Constitution of 1857
The current Constitution of 1917 is the first such document in the world to set out social rights, serving as a model for the Weimar Constitution of 1919 and the Russian Constitution of 1918.[1][2][3][4] Some of the most important provisions are Articles 3, 27, and 123; adopted in response to the armed insurrection of popular classes during the Mexican Revolution, these articles display profound changes in Mexican political philosophy that helped frame the political and social backdrop for Mexico in the twentieth century.[5] Aimed at restricting the Roman Catholic Church in Mexico, Article 3 established the basis for a free, mandatory, and secular education;[6][7] Article 27 laid the foundation for land reforms;[7] and Article 123 was designed to empower the labor sector, which had emerged in the late nineteenth century and which supported the winning faction of the Mexican Revolution.[7]
Articles 3, 5, 24, 27, and 130 seriously restricted the Roman Catholic Church in Mexico,[8] and attempts to enforce the articles strictly by President Plutarco Calles (1924–1928) in 1926 led to the violent conflict known as the Cristero War.[8]
In 1992, under the administration of Carlos Salinas de Gortari, there were significant revisions of the constitution, modifying Article 27 to strengthen private property rights, allow privatization of ejidos and end redistribution of land—and the articles restricting the Roman Catholic Church in Mexico were largely repealed.[9][10][11][12][13]
Constitution Day (Día de la Constitución) is one of Mexico's annual Fiestas Patrias (public holidays), commemorating the promulgation of the Constitution on 5 February 1917. Although the official anniversary is on 5 February, the holiday takes place on the first Monday of February regardless of the date.[14]
1 Essential principles
2 Organization
3.1 The Mexican Revolution and the 1916–1917 Constituent Congress
3.2 Amendments on Presidential Terms
3.3 Amendment Restricting Agrarian Women's Rights
3.4 Anticlerical articles and the 1934 and 1946 Amendments
3.5 Constitutional Reform of Anticlerical Articles and Land Reform under President Salinas
3.6 Capital punishment and 2005 Amendment
3.7 Constitutional Right to Food 2011
4 Current articles of the constitution
4.1 Article 1
4.10 Article 10
4.39 Article 123
Essential principlesEdit
The constitution was founded on seven fundamental ideals:
A declaration of rights
Sovereignty of the nation
Representative government
Constitutional remedy
Supremacy of the State over the Church[15]
OrganizationEdit
Original inside cover of the Political Constitution of the United Mexican States.
The Constitution is divided into "Titles" (Títulos) which are series of articles related to the same overall theme. The Titles, of variable length, are:
First Title:
Chapter I: Of Human Rights and their Guarantees (Capítulo I: de los Derechos Humanos y sus Garantías)
Chapter II: On Mexicans (Capítulo II: de los Mexicanos)
Chapter III, On Foreigners (Capítulo III: de los Extranjeros)
Chapter IV: On Mexican Citizens (Capítulo IV: de los Ciudadanos Mexicanos)
Second Title:
Chapter I: On National Sovereignty and Form of Government (Capítulo I, de la Soberanía Nacional y de la Forma de Gobierno)
Chapter II: On the Parts That Make Up the Federation and the National Territory (Capítulo II, de las Partes Integrantes de la Federación y del Territorio Nacional)
Third Title:
Chapter I: On the Separation of Powers (Capítulo I, de la División de Poderes)
Chapter II: On the Legislative Power (Capítulo II, del Poder Legislativo)
Chapter III: On the Executive Power (Capítulo III, del Poder Ejecutivo)
Chapter IV: On the Judicial Power (Capítulo IV, del Poder Judicial)
Fourth Title:
About the responsibilities of the public service and the patrimony of the State (De las responsabilidades de los servidores públicos y patrimonial del Estado)
Fifth Title:
About the States of the Federation and the Federal District (De los estados de la Federación y del Distrito Federal)
Sixth Title:
About Work and Social Welfare (Del Trabajo y la Previsión Social)
Seventh Title:
General Provisions (Prevenciones Generales)
Eighth Title
About Reforms to the Constitution (De las Reformas a la Constitución)
Ninth Title:
About the Inviolability of the Constitution (De la Inviolabilidad de la Constitución)
The Mexican Revolution and the 1916–1917 Constituent CongressEdit
Venustiano Carranza, leader of the victorious faction, convoked the elected body to draft the new constitution.
The Political Constitution of the United Mexican States is one of the outcomes of the Mexican Revolution of 1910 won by the Constitutionalist faction led by Venustiano Carranza. Carranza convoked a congress specifically to draft the new constitution. Carranza excluded the villista and zapatista factions from this congress; however, the demands (and political threat) of these factions pushed the delegates to adopt social demands not originally in Carranza's plan –i.e. articles 27 and 123.[5]
It replaced the liberal Constitution of 1857, extending that constitution's restrictions on the Roman Catholic Church in Mexico. Its innovations were in expanding the Mexican state's power into the realms of economic nationalism, political nationalism, and protection of workers' rights. Unlike the congresses that produced the 1824 Mexican Constitution and the 1857 Constitution over a lengthy period, the Constituent Congress produced the final draft in a matter of a few months, between November 1916 and February 1917.[16] The constitution was "a means to confer legitimacy on a shaky regime."[17] One interpretation of the speed with which the document was drafted and Carranza's acceptance of some provisions that were radical "suggests that what Carranza and his colleagues chiefly wanted was a Constitution, the hypothetical contents of which could be later reviewed, rewritten and ignored (all of which happened)."[17]
Parts of the program of the radical Liberal Party of Mexico (1906) were incorporated into the 1917 Constitution
The Liberal Party of Mexico's (PLM) 1906 political program proposed a number of reforms that were incorporated into the 1917 Constitution. Article 123 incorporated its demands for the 8-hour day, minimum wage, hygienic working conditions, prohibitions on abuse of sharecroppers, payment of wages in cash, not scrip, banning of company stores, and Sunday as an obligatory day of rest.[18] Article 27 of the Constitution incorporated some of the PLM's demands for land reform in Mexico. Requiring landowners to make all their land productive, and if left idle, subject to government expropriation; the granting of a fixed amount of land to anyone who asks for it, provided they bring it into production and not sell it.[19] Points in the PLM's call for improvement in education were also incorporated, such as completely secular education, compulsory attendance up until age 14, and the establishment of trade schools.[20] Not surprisingly, the PLM also called for restrictions on the Roman Catholic Church, which were incorporated in the constitution. These included treating religious institutions as businesses and required to pay taxes; nationalization of religious institutions' real property; and the elimination of religious-run schools.[21]
The Political Constitution of the United Mexican States was drafted by the Constituent Congress in Querétaro, not the capital. Carranza chose the site because it was where Emperor Maximilian of Mexico was executed, bringing to an end the French Intervention in 1867.[22] Delegates to the congress were to be elected, with one per jurisdiction that had existed in 1912,[23] when congressional elections had been held during the Francisco I. Madero presidency. Those who had been "hostile to the Constitutionalist Cause" were banned from participating, but voting was by universal manhood suffrage.[24] Carranza was pressured to amnesty those who had been hostile as well as allow those who had gone into exile to return to Mexico, but he refused.[24]
The congress formally opened in November 1916, with delegate elections and then a credentials fight preceding that. The final draft was approved on 5 February 1917. The membership of the congress was not representative of all regions, classes, or political stripes in Mexico. The 220 delegates were all Carrancistas, since the Constitutionalist faction had been victorious militarily. However, that did not mean they were of one mind.[25] Most delegates were middle class, not workers or peasants. Middle class professionals predominated, with lawyers, teachers, engineers, doctors, and journalists.[26][27] Villa's home state of Chihuahua had only one delegate.[28] The predominantly civilian composition of the Constituent Congress was in contrast with the place of real power in revolutionary Mexico, which was in the military. Most senior generals did not participate directly in the congress.[29]
An important group of delegates elected to the congress were the "Bloc Renovador", who had been elected in 1912 to the Mexican legislature during Madero's presidency. Some considered them tainted for their continuing to serve during Victoriano Huerta's regime (February 1913-July 1914). Although some had voted to accept Madero's forced resignation from the presidency, in a failed move to save his life, this group had blocked Huerta's moves in the legislature to the point that in October 1913 Huerta dissolved the congress and ruled as a dictator.[30] Some congressmen fled Mexico, others were jailed by Huerta. With the Constitutionalist victory, some Renovadores, namely Alfonso Cravioto, José Natividad Macías, Félix F. Palavicini, and Luis Manuel Rojas, were now ready to serve in the Constituent Congress to draft the new constitution. There was opposition to them from other Carrancistas for their history of serving in the Huerta regime and those opponents attempted to block their being seated as delegates. Carranza supported the Renovadores, saying he had instructed them to continue serving in Congress during the Huerta regime as a way to gather information about the regime and to block its attempts to act constitutionally.[31] At the Constituent Congress, there were bitter fights over the seating of particular delegates, so that the division between the Renovadores and a more radical group of leftists (sometimes called Obregonistas) was sharp even before the congress actually opened.[32] The most bitter fight was over the seating of Palavincini, which was finally settled in a closed session. Carranza's foreign minister, Cándido Aguilar, brought the matter to conclusion by saying that the Constituent Congress was losing time with the debate of Palavincini, while Villa remained strong in Chihuahua and the United States might intervene in Mexico to oppose the new constitution.[33]
Foreign governments were concerned with the deliberations at the Palace of Fine Arts in Querétaro. According to Cándido Aguilar, "The American Government does not under any circumstances want this constitution completed."[34] The German ambassador to Mexico, Heinrich von Eckardt, wrote his government that the constitution was "the result of two months' worth of labor by men of whom only a handful, by general consensus, are really up to the task."[35]
The new constitution was approved on 5 February 1917, and it was based in the previous one instituted by liberal Benito Juárez in 1857. This picture shows the Constituent Congress of 1917 swearing fealty to the newly created Constitution.
Carranza himself presented a draft of the new constitution on 1 December 1916, but it "reflected little of the turmoil that had been going on for the past four years. It was indeed simply a rewording and reorganization of the Constitution of 1857."[36] Carranza's advisers who had prepared the draft expected that it "would 'serve as a starting pont for the constituyentes' discussions," and that "no one should lose sight of the 'profound change taking place in our fundamental institutions'."[37] There is evidence that the "people of Mexico City were cynical: they expected the congress to rubberstamp the draft presented to it by Carranza."[38] Delegates read Carranza's draft, but did not accept it as a whole.
The most highly contentious discussions were over the articles dealing with education and with the Roman Catholic Church, while the more "revolutionary" articles on the state's power to expropriate and distribute resources (Article 27) and the rights of labor (Article 123) passed easily.[39] Although the Constituent Congress has been characterized as a polarized battle of "moderate" and radical" delegates, Carranza's advisers expected his draft to be revised. In the words of one scholar it was "mauled."[40] The drafting of the two most revolutionary articles was by a small committee and the congress voted unanimously in favor within hours of their presentation.[40] Pastor Rouaix was the guiding hand behind the final versions of both Article 123, passed first, and Article 27. The initial draft of Article 27 was done by Andrés Molina Enríquez, author of influential 1909 work, The Great National Problems.[41]
Article 3, dealing with education, was highly contentious. Carranza's draft of Article 3 reads "There is to be full liberty of instruction, but that given in official educational establishments will be secular, and the instruction imparted by these institutions will be free at both the upper and lower levels."[42]
Francisco Múgica proposed a much more strongly worded alternative. "There will be liberty of instruction; but that given in official establishments of education will be secular, as will be the upper and lower primary instruction given in private schools. No religious corporation, ministry of any cult, or any person belonging to a similar association may establish or direct schools of primary instruction, nor give instruction in any school [colegio]. Private primary schools may be established only subject to the supervision of the Government. Primary instruction will be obligatory for all Mexicans, and in official establishments it will be free."[43]
There were significant debates on the anticlerical articles of the constitution. The liberal Constitution of 1857 already restricted the Roman Catholic Church as an institution, but the constitutional revision went even further. The 1914 Convention of Aguascalientes had already brought together victorious revolutionary factions, including Constitutionalists, Zapatistas, and Villistas, but discussions there did not center on anticlericalism.[44] However, the 1916–1917 constitutional congress had lengthy and heated debates over anticlericalism. A contention that fits the content of the debates is that for Constitutionalists anticlericalism was a nationalist rather than religious issue.[45] The Roman Catholic Church as an institution was seen to be antiliberal and antinationalist, so that "the Catholic Church was an enemy of Mexican sovereignty and an obstacle to the triumph of liberalism and progress."[46] From this ideological viewpoint, the implementation of the Catholic Church's agenda "was exercised through its control of education, oral confession, etc."[46]
It has been argued that Article 3 and Article 130 restricted the Catholic Church as a consequence of the support given by the Mexican Church's hierarchy to Victoriano Huerta dictatorship,[47][48][49] However, it has been argued that the Revolution did not begin in 1910 with anticlericalism as a significant issue, but emerged as one only after the victory of the Constitutionalist faction.[50] The anticlericalism of the Constitutionalists was a part of their aim to build a strong nation-state. "[D]elegates viewed the church as a political enemy to the establishment of a liberal, secular nation-state...The church seemed to be viewed by most of the delegates as a foreign body that worked against the development of a progressive and independent nation."[45] Rather than anticlericalism being a religious stance, in this interpretation "the militant anti-church stance of the congress was another expression of nationalism."[51]
Article 27 stated in particular that foreign citizens cannot own land at the borders or coasts as a consequence of the United States occupation of Veracruz,[7][52] and Article 123 was designed to empower the labor sector as a consequence of the brutal repression at Cananea and Río Blanco.[7][52] Nevertheless, Venustiano Carranza declared himself against the final redaction of the articles that enacted anticlerical policies and social reform;[53] namely Articles 3, 5, 24, 27, 123, 130. But the Constituent Congress contained only 85 conservatives and centrists close to Carranza's brand of liberalism, and against them there were 132 more radical delegates.[54][55][56]
This constitution is the first one in world history to set out social rights, serving as a model for the Weimar Constitution of 1919 and the Russian Constitution of 1918.[1][2][3][4] Articles: 3, 27, and 123 displayed profound changes in Mexican political philosophy that would help frame the political and social backdrop for the rest of the century. Article 3 established the bases for a mandatory and lay education;[6][7][52] Article 27 led the foundation for land reform in Mexico as well as asserting state sovereignty over the nation's subsoil rights ;[7][52] and Article 123 was designed to empower the labor sector.[7][52]
Amendments on Presidential TermsEdit
The constitution was amended in 1926 to allow presidential re-elections as long as the president did not serve consecutive terms.[57] This amendment allowed former president Álvaro Obregón to run for the presidency in 1928, an election he won, but he was assassinated before taking office. The amendment was repealed in 1934.[58]
The Constitution was amended in 1927 to extend the president's term for four years to six years.[59] President Lázaro Cárdenas was the first to serve out a full six-year term, beginning in 1934 and stepping down from power in 1940.
Amendment Restricting Agrarian Women's RightsEdit
One of the major impacts of Article 27 was to empower the government to expropriate property for the good of the nation. This tool was used to break up large landed estates and created ejidos, small-scale, inalienable peasant holdings. In 1927, Article 27 was revised to restrict the rights of peasant women to hold ejidos in their own name, unless they were "the sole support of the family unit."[60] Female holders of ejidos lost their ejido rights if they married another ejidatario. "Essentially, land was viewed as a family resource, with only one ejido membership allotted per family."[61] In 1971, these restrictions were removed via the Ley de Reforma Agraria (Agrarian Reform Law), so that spouses and their children could inherit.[62]
The 1992 amendment to Article 27 that allowed ejidos to be converted to private property and sold were designed to create a market in real estate and allow for the creation of larger, more productive agricultural enterprises. Women were seen to be more vulnerable economically with this change, since they were a small proportion of ejidatarios.[63] In practice, in one 2002 study of four different site, despite the change in the law, women (mothers and widows) retained considerable economic status within the family.[64]
Anticlerical articles and the 1934 and 1946 AmendmentsEdit
The neutrality of this article is disputed. Relevant discussion may be found on the talk page. Please do not remove this message until conditions to do so are met. (March 2014) (Learn how and when to remove this template message)
Articles 3, 5, 24, 27, and 130 as originally enacted in 1917 were anticlerical and restricted the role of the Roman Catholic Church in Mexico, as well as well as other organized churches. Although it has been argued that these restrictions were included in part due to a desire by anticlerical framers to punish the Mexican Church's hierarchy for its support of Victoriano Huerta,[47][48][49] the Mexican Constitution of 1857 enacted during the Liberal Reform in Mexico, already significantly curtailed the role of religious institutions.
Article 3 required that education, in both public and private schools be completely secular and free of any religious instruction and prohibited religions from participating in education – essentially outlawing Catholic schools or even religious education in private schools.[8] Article 3 likewise prohibited ministers or religious groups from aiding the poor, engaging in scientific research, and spreading their teachings.[8] The constitution prohibited churches to own property and transferred all church property to the state, thus making all houses of worship state property.[8]
Article 130 denied churches any kind of legal status[65] and allowed local legislators to limit the number of ministers, (essentially giving the state the ability to restrict religious institutions) and banned any ministers not born in Mexico.[8] It denied ministers freedom of association, the right to vote and freedom of speech, prohibiting them and religious publications from criticizing the law or government.[8]
Presidents Venustiano Carranza (1917–1920) and Alvaro Obregón (1920–1924) did not implement the anticlerical articles of the constitution, which was the stance that Porfirio Díaz had taken with the anticlerical articles of the 1857 Constitution and the Catholic Church.
Revolutionary general Plutarco Elías Calles was a fierce anticlerical. When he became president of Mexico in 1924, he began enforcing the constitutional restrictions on the Roman Catholic Church, leading to the Cristero War (1926–29)
Starting in 1926 President Plutarco Elías Calles (1924–1928) sought to enforce them. In 1926 Pope Pius XI, in the encyclical Acerba animi, stated that the anticlerical articles of the constitution were "seriously derogatory to the most elementary and inalienable rights of the Church and of the faithful" and that both he and his predecessor had endeavored to avoid their application by the Mexican government.[66]
The escalation of church-state tensions led to fierce regional violence known as the Cristero War.[8] Some scholars have characterized the constitution in this era as a "hostile" approach to the issue of church and state separation.[67]
Although the Cristero War came to an end in 1929, with U.S. Ambassador to Mexico Dwight Morrow acting as mediator between the Mexican government and the hierarchy of the Roman Catholic Church, the end of the violent conflict did not result in constitutional changes.
The constitution was made even more anticlerical from 1934 to 1946, when an amendment mandating socialist education was in effect. On 13 December 1934[68] Article 3 now mandated socialist education, which "in addition to removing all religious doctrine" would "combat fanaticism and prejudices", "build[ing] in the youth a rational and exact concept of the universe and of social life".[8]
In 1946 socialist education was formally removed from the constitution and the document returned to the generalized secular education.[8] In practice, however, socialist education ended with President Manuel Avila Camacho, who said at the beginning of his presidential term in 1940 "I am a [religious] believer" (Soy creyente), signaling the end of the enforcement of the anticlerical articles.
The flexibility in enforcement meant that even though the constitution prohibited any worship outside of a church building,[8] which made Pope John Paul II's outdoor masses and other religious celebrations during his 1980 and 1990 visits illegal acts under the law,[69][70] the government turned a blind eye. The anticlerical articles remained in the Constitution until the reforms of 1992.
Constitutional Reform of Anticlerical Articles and Land Reform under President SalinasEdit
Mexican President Carlos Salinas de Gortari (1988–1994), whose administration significantly amended the 1917 Constitution.
In his inaugural address, President Carlos Salinas de Gortari (1988–1994) announced a program to "modernize" Mexico via structural transformation. "The modern state is a state which … maintains transparency and updates its relation with political parties, entrepreneurial groups, and the church."[71] His declaration was more an articulation of the direction of change, but not list of specifics.
The implementation of reforms entailed amending the constitution, but before that overcoming opposition on the Left but also in the Catholic Church itself.[72] After considerable debate, the Mexican legislature voted for these fundamental revisions in Church-State policy.[73][74]
The Constitution of 1917 had several anticlerical restrictions. Article 5 restricted the existence of religious orders; Article 24 restricted church services outside of church buildings; Article 27 which empowered the State over fundamental aspects of property ownership and resulted in expropriation and distribution of lands, while limiting the right to sell communally-held ejido lands, and most famously in 1938, the expropriation of foreign oil companies. Article 27 also prevented churches from holding real property at all. For the Catholic hierarchy, Article 130 prevented the recognition of the Church as a legal entity, denied to clergy the exercise of political rights, and prevented the Church from participating in any way in political matters.
The Church had contested all these restrictions from the beginning. With the possibility of changed relations between Church and State, "the main demand of the Catholic hierarchy was centered on the modification of Article 130" to recognize the Church as a legal entity, restore political rights to priests, and to end restrictions "on the social actions of the Church and its members."[75]
The initial reaction to changing the constitution was quite negative from members of the Institutional Revolutionary Party who saw anticlericalism as an inherent element of post-Revolution Mexico. It was clear that given the contested nature of the 1988 elections that Salinas could not expect to operate with a mandate for his program. However, the debate was now open. Leftists led by Cuauhtémoc Cárdenas opposed any change in the anticlerical articles of the constitution, since they were seen the foundation for the power of the secular state. However, the National Action Party (Mexico) in alliance with the weakened PRI became allies to move toward fundamental reforms.
The Vatican likely sensed a sea-change in the Mexican ruling party's stance on anticlericalism. In 1990, John Paul II visited Mexico, his first since 1979 for the Puebla conference of Latin American bishops. After the announcement of his intentions, the Mexican Minister of the Interior (Gobernación) stated flatly that the government would not amend Article 130. Nonetheless, the Mexican government began moves to normalize diplomatic relations with the Vatican. The pope's second 1990 trip in May put increased pressure on the Mexican government to take steps to normalization, particularly after the Vatican and the Soviet Union did so that year. Although Salinas planned a trip to the Vatican in 1991, the Catholic hierarchy in Mexico did not want normalization of relations with the Vatican without discussion of significant changes to the constitution.[76]
An even more significant change came when in Salinas's official state of the nation address in November 1991. He stated that "the moment has come to promote new judicial proceedings for the churches," which were impelled by the need "to reconcile the definitive secularization of our society with effective religious freedom."[77] The government proposed changes to the constitution to "respect freedom of religion," but affirmed the separation of Church and State, kept in place secular public education, as well as restrictions on clerics' political participation in civic life and accumulating wealth.[77]
The bill to amend the constitution was submitted to the legislature to reform Articles 3, 5, 24, and 130.[78] The bill passed in December 1991 with the support of the conservative National Action Party (Mexico) (PAN). The enabling legislation was debated far more than the initial bill, but in July 1992, the enabling legislation, Ley de Asociaciones Religiosas y Culto Público (Religious Associations Act), passed 408-10. The leftist Partido Revolucionario Democrático struggled with whether to support this significant change to Mexico's anticlericalism, but most PRD legislators did in the end.[79]
The constitution still does not accord full religious freedom as recognized by the various human rights declarations and conventions; specifically, outdoor worship is still prohibited and only allowed in exceptional circumstances generally requiring governmental permission, religious organizations are not permitted to own print or electronic media outlets, governmental permission is required to broadcast religious ceremonies, and ministers are prohibited from being political candidates or holding public office.[8]
The end of constitutional support for land reform was part of a larger program of neoliberal economic restructuring that had already been weakening support for ejidal and other forms of small-scale agriculture and negotiation of the North American Free Trade Agreement (NAFTA), and the modifications of Article 27 also permit the privatization and the sale of ejidal land and was a direct cause of the Chiapas conflict.[80]
The changes to the ejidal system have largely failed to improve ejidal productivity, and have been implicated as significant contributing factors to worsening rural poverty, forced migration, and the conversion of Mexico, where the cultivation of maize originated, into a net-importer of maize and food in general.[81]
Capital punishment and 2005 AmendmentEdit
On 8 November 2005, The Senate of Mexico adopted a final decree amending the Constitution as approved by the majority of the Federated States, modifying Articles 14 and 22 of said Constitution[82] banning the use of capital punishment in its entirety within Mexican territory.
Constitutional Right to Food 2011Edit
Article 4 and Article 27 were revised to guarantee the right of food In Mexico. "[T]he State has an obligation to guarantee the right [to food]... and to assure sufficient supply of basic foods through integral and sustainable development (Article 27)."[83] The formal language is "Article 4: Every person has the right to adequate food to maintain his or her wellbeing and physical, emotional and intellectual development. The State must guarantee this right."[84] For Article 27, Clause XX, the revision is "Sustainable and integral rural development (...) will also have among its objectives that the State guarantee sufficient and timely supply of basic foods as established by law."[84]
Current articles of the constitutionEdit
Commemoration of the 100 year anniversary of the Constitution at the Teatro de la República, Santiago de Querétaro on 5 February 2017.
The main ideas or an abstract of the current contents of the articles of the Political Constitution of the United Mexican States is as follows. Not all articles are presented. See[85] for the full English text of the articles (edition published in 2005).
Article 1Edit
This article states that every individual in Mexico (official name, Estados Unidos Mexicanos or United Mexican States) has the rights that the Constitution gives. These rights cannot be denied and they cannot be suspended. Slavery is illegal in Mexico; any slaves from abroad who enter national territory will, by this mere act, be freed and given the full protection of the law. All types of discrimination whether it be for ethnic origin, national origin, gender, age, different capacities, social condition, health condition, religion, opinions, sexual preferences, or civil state or any other which attacks human dignity and has as an objective to destroy the rights and liberties of the people are forbidden.
This article states the nature of the Mexican nation.
The Mexican nation is unique and indivisible. The nation is pluricultural based originally on its indigenous tribes which are those that are descendants of the people that lived in the current territory of the country at the beginning of the colonization and that preserve their own social, economic, cultural, political institutions. The awareness of their indigenous identity should be fundamental criteria to determine to whom the dispositions over indigenous tribes are applied. They are integral communities of an indigenous tribe that form a social, economic and cultural organization.
The education imparted by the Federal State shall be designed to develop harmoniously all the faculties of the human being and shall foster in him at the same time a love of country and a consciousness of international solidarity, in independence and justice. Said education must be free of bias. (As per the full definition of the word "Laica" as used in the original document)
I. According to the religious liberties established under article 24, educational services shall be secular and, therefore, free of any religious orientation.
II. The educational services shall be based on scientific progress and shall fight against ignorance, ignorance's effects, servitudes, fanaticism and prejudice.[85]
It shall be democratic, considering democracy not only as a legal structure and a political regimen, but as a system of life founded on a constant economic, social, and cultural betterment of the people;
It shall be national insofar as – without hostility or exclusiveness – it shall achieve the understanding of our problems, the utilization of our resources, the defense of our political independence, the assurance of our economic independence, and the continuity and growth of our culture; and it shall contribute to better human relationships, not only with the elements which it contributes toward strengthening and at the same time inculcating, together with respect for the dignity of the person and the integrity of the family, the conviction of the general interest of society, but also by the care which it devotes to the ideals of brotherhood and equality of rights of all men, avoiding privileges of race, creed, class, sex, or persons.
Private persons may engage in education of all kinds and grades. But as regards elementary, secondary, and normal education (and that of any kind or grade designed for laborers and farm workers) they must previously obtain, in every case, the express authorization of the public power. Such authorization may be refused or revoked by decisions against which there can be no judicial proceedings or recourse.
Private institutions devoted to education of the kinds and grades specified in the preceding section must be without exception in conformity with the provisions of sections I and II of the first paragraph of this article and must also be in harmony with official plans and programs.
Religious corporations, ministers of religion, stock companies which exclusively or predominantly engage in educational activities, and associations or companies devoted to propagation of any religious creed shall not in any way participate in institutions giving elementary, secondary and normal education and education for laborers or field workers. The State may in its discretion withdraw at any time the recognition of official validity of studies conducted in private institutions.
Elementary education shall be compulsory.
All education given by the State shall be free.
The Congress of the Union, with a view to unifying and coordinating education throughout the Republic, shall issue the necessary laws for dividing the social function of education among the Federation, the States and the Municipalities, for fixing the appropriate financial allocations for this public service and for establishing the penalties applicable to officials who do not comply with or enforce the pertinent provisions, as well as the penalties applicable to all those who infringe such provisions.
All people, men and women, are equal under the law. This article also grants all people protection to their health, a right to housing, and rights for children. Everyone has a right to an appropriated ecosystem for their development & welfare.
All Citizens of the United Mexican States are free to work in the profession of their choosing, as long as it does not attack the rights of others.
This article establishes freedom for the expression of ideas with limitations for speech that is morally offensive, infringes on others' rights, or encourages crime or public disorder.
This article states that no law or authority can "previously" censor the press, or ask for a bail to the authors or printers. The freedom of the press has its limits in respect to private life, morality, and public peace. Incarceration or censorship cannot occur before charges of "press crimes" can be proven, but it can happen when responsibility has been judicially established. In no case shall printers be seized as crimes' instruments.[85]
Public functionaries and employees will respect the public exercise to their right to petition, as long as it is formulated in writing, in a peaceful and respectful manner. In political petitioning, only citizens of the republic have this right.
Only citizens of the Republic of Mexico may take part in the political affairs of the country.[86]
Article 10Edit
Inhabitants of the Republic may, for their protection, own guns and arms in their homes. Only arms approved by the Army may be owned, and federal law will state the manner in which they can be used (Firearms are prohibited from importation into the Republic without proper licensing and documentation. Foreigners may not pass the border with unlicensed firearms; the commission of such act is a felony, punishable by prison term. See Gun politics in Mexico).
"Everyone has the right to enter the Republic, exit it, travel through its territory, and change his residence without the need of a security card, passport, or any similar device. The exercise of this right will be subordinated to the faculties of judicial authority, in the cases of criminal or civil responsibility, and to the limits of the administrative authorities, on the limits imposed by laws on emigration, immigration, and health safety laws in the Republic, or over foreigners residing in our country."
The Mexican state does not have a peerage and cannot confer a title of nobility upon any person. (The Mexican Congress does confer awards such as the Order of the Aztec Eagle to notable persons.)
There are no private courts (i.e.: feudal or manorial courts) in Mexico. Military courts-martial cannot be used to judge civilians.
Prohibits the enactment of ex post facto (retroactive) laws. All persons punished under the law are entitled to due process, punishments must follow what is dictated by written law. Note that due process under Mexican law is not the same as US law as Mexico is not a common law country.
Disallows international treaties for extradition when the person to be extradited is politically persecuted, or accused while having the condition of slave, or when the foreign country contravenes the civil rights granted in the Mexican constitution (like the right to life and the abolishment of the death penalty in Article 22).
"In cases of flagrante delicto, any person may arrest the offender and his accomplices, turning them over without delay to the nearest authorities." In other words, a citizen's arrest is allowed.
Prohibits vigilante justice, all civil and criminal disputes must be resolved before courts. Mandates speedy trials in both civil and criminal matters. Prohibits levying of "court costs" and fees, judicial service is free to all parties. Courts are to be free and independent. Imprisonment for debts is prohibited. This article makes provisions relating to arrest and imprisonment. The article's emphasis on "social readjustment of the offender" was interpreted for a time after 2001 as forbidding sentences of life imprisonment, which led to the refusal of some extradition requests from the United States.
Mandates gender segregation of inmates and separation of those held for trial from those who have been convicted. Limits the government's authority to arrest only those suspected of crimes for which imprisonment is an allowed punishment.
Prohibits detention in excess of 72 hours (3 days) without formal charges. Mandates due process for imprisonable charges. Separate crimes discovered during an investigation must be charged separately. Mistreatment during detention by authorities, all discomforts that are inflicted without legal motive, and all fees or contributions (forced bribes) in jails are abuses that will be prohibited by law and curbed by the authorities.
Allows people charged to remain silent.
Crime investigation corresponds to the Public Ministry and different police corps, which will be under the command of whoever is in the exercise of that function. This article proceeds to explain the functions of the Public Ministry, police, and trials.
Cruel and unusual punishment is prohibited. Specifically, penalties of death, mutilation, infamy, marks, physical punishments, torments, excessive fines, confiscation of assets, and others are abolished.
Confiscation of assets does not include the application of said assets to pay for civil responsibilities caused by a crime, or when used to pay taxes or other fines. Nor will it be confiscation when said assets are part of illegal activities, or when they are related to organized crime, or when proof of ownership cannot be established.
No trial should have more than three instances. No one can be judged twice for the same crime, whether the person is declared guilty or non-guilty.
"Every man is free to pursue the religious belief that best suits him, and to practice its ceremonies, devotions or cults, as long as they do not constitute a crime. Congress cannot dictate laws that establish or abolish any given religion. Ordinarily, all religious acts will be practiced in temples, and those that extraordinarily are practiced outside temples must adhere to law."
The State will plan, determine, and carry out the development of the Nation, so that it guarantees its integrity, strengthens national sovereignty, and allows for a broader exercise of freedom and dignity of the individuals through an economic growth that distributes wealth with justice.
The State will encourage the development of democracy which will support economic growth.
The property of all land and water within national territory is originally owned by the Nation, who has the right to transfer this ownership to particulars. Hence, private property is a privilege created by the Nation.
Expropriations may only be made when there is a public utility cause.
The State will always have the right to impose on private property constraints dictated by "public interest". The State will also regulate the exploitation of natural resources based on social benefits and the equal distribution of wealth. The state is also responsible for conservation and ecological considerations.
All natural resources in national territory are property of the nation, and private exploitation may only be carried out through concessions.
Nuclear fuel may only be exploited and used by the State. The use of Nuclear elements in the Nation may only have peaceful purposes (i.e., Mexico cannot build nuclear weapons).
This article also deals with other subtleties on what constitutes Mexico's territory.
Foreign nationals cannot own land within 100 km of the borders or 50 km of the coast; however, foreigners can have a beneficial interest in such land through a trust (fideicomiso), where the legal ownership of the land is held by a Mexican financial institution. The only precondition sine qua non to granting such a beneficial interest is that the foreigner agree that all matters relating to such land are the exclusive domain of Mexican courts and Mexican jurisdiction, and that in all issues pertaining to such land, the foreigner will conduct him or herself as a Mexican, and settle any issues arising from their interest in such land exclusively through Mexican courts and institutions. The stipulated consequence of a failure to abide by these terms is forfeiture to the nation of their interests in all lands where the foreigner has such beneficial interests.
That an area of land at the coast (20 meters from the highest tide line) is federal property which cannot be sold.
All monopolies are prohibited.
The areas of the economy in direct control of the government, such as post, telegraph, oil and its derivatives, basic petrochemical industries, radioactive minerals, and the generation of electricity are not considered to be monopolies.
The State will protect areas of priority in the economy, such as satellite communications and railroads.
The Nation will have a Central Bank with the primary objective of procuring the stability of the national currency. The Central Bank and its activities will not be considered monopolies either.
Unions and workers associations will not be considered monopolies. Guilds will not be considered to be monopolies when their purpose is the economic equality of the industry, as long as the guild is overseen by the Federal Government.
Copyrights and patents will not be considered monopolies.
"In the case of an invasion, a serious disrupt of public peace or any event that puts society in danger or conflict, only the President of the United Mexican States, in accordance with the Secretaries of State and the General Attorney of the Republic, and with approval of the Congress of the Union and, on its recesses, the Permanent Commission, may suspend in all the country or in a specific place any guarantee which were an obstacle to face quickly and easily the situation; but the president shall only do it for a limited time. If the suspension had place when the Congress is gathered, then the Congress will grant any authorization that it deems necessary for the Executive to face the situation.
This article speaks about the Mexican nationality.
This article speaks about obligations of Mexicans.
"Mexicans shall have priority over foreigners under equality of circumstances for all classes of concessions and for all employment, positions, or commissions of the Government in which the status of citizenship is not indispensable." Foreigners, immigrants, and even naturalized citizens of Mexico may not serve as military officers, Mexican-flagged ship and airline crew, or chiefs of seaports and airports.
"The Federal Executive shall have the exclusive power to compel any foreigner whose remaining he may deem inexpedient to abandon the national territory immediately and without the necessity of previous legal action." It also states: "Foreigners may not in any way participate in the political affairs of the country."[86]
National sovereignty is bestowed essentially and originally upon the people. Every public power derives from the people and is instituted for their benefit. The people possess, at all times, the inalienable right to alter or change their form of government.
About Mexican Citizenship.
A deputy or senator must be "a Mexican citizen by birth."
Cabinet officers must be Mexicans by birth.
Supreme Court justices must be Mexican by birth.
Article 123Edit
Covers the rights of workers, including the eight-hour work day, the right to strike, the right to a day's rest per week, and the right to a proper indemnification following unjustified termination of the working relationship by the employer. This article also established equality regardless of race or gender.[citation needed] The language of the draft passed in 1917 restricted the employment of women in dangerous industries or in work after 10 p.m.; there were provisions for prenatal relief from onerous work three months before birth and one month following birth, as well as provisions to allow mothers to nurse their babies.[87]
Article 123 was perhaps the most radical of the provisions of the 1917 Constitution and was intended to give the working class a relief to the many abuses and hardships they had previously faced from uncontrolled labor managers.
States that church(es) and state are to remain separate. It provides for the obligatory state registration of all "churches and religious groupings" and places a series of restrictions on priests and ministers of all religions (ineligible to hold public office, to campaign on behalf of political parties or candidates, to inherit from persons other than close blood relatives, etc.).
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^ Cumberland, Mexican Revolution, p. 328
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^ quoted in Cumberland, Constitutionalist Years, p. 337.
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^ quoted in Knight, The Mexican Revolution, vol. 2, p. 472.
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^ Knight, The Mexican Revolution, vol. 2, p. 475–76
^ quoted in Cumberland, Mexican Revolution, pp. 343–344.
^ quoted in Cumberland, Mexican Revolution, p. 344.
^ Richard Roman, "Church-State Relations and the Mexican Constitutional Congress, 1916–1917". Journal of Church and State Vol. 20, No. 1 (Winter 1978), 73.
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^ Richard Roman, "Church-State Relations and the Mexican Constitutional Congress, 1916–1917." Journal of Church and State. Vol. 20, No. 1 (winter 1978), p. 73.
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^ Blancarte, "Recent Changes in Church-State Relations" p. 2.
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^ Bello, Walden (2009). The Food Wars. New York, USA: Verso. pp. 39–53. ISBN 978-1844673315.
^ "On June 23, 2005, Mexico's House approved a measure striking the death penalty". English.nessunotocchicaino.it. Archived from the original on 4 March 2012. Retrieved 5 February 2013.
^ Alfredo Acedo, "Mexican Constitution Now Recognizes Right to Food." CIP Americas. http://www.cipamericas.org Archived 13 August 2015 at the Wayback Machine
^ a b translation in Acedo, "Mexican Constitution Now Recognizes Right to Food.
^ a b c "tradconstcpv.PDF" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 18 February 2015. Retrieved 30 January 2011.
^ a b "Mexico's glass house". The Institute of World Politics. Archived from the original on 8 March 2016.
^ N. Andrew and N. Cleven, "Some Social Aspects of the Mexican Constitution of 1917." Hispanic American Historical Review, vol. 4, No. 3, No. 3 (August 1921), p. 479.
Maier, Hans (2004). Totalitarianism and political religions. Routledge. ISBN 978-0-7146-8529-8.
Niemeyer, E. Victor, Jr. Revolution at Querétaro: the Mexican constitutional convention of 1916–1917 Austin : University of Texas Press, 1974. ISBN 0-292-77005-7
Spanish Wikisource has original text related to this article:
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Constitutions of Mexico.
(in Spanish) The most recent text of the Constitution in the Government website (in Spanish)
Full text in English (translation by Carlos Pérez Vázques) of the Political Constitution of the United Mexican States (2005 edition by the Institute of Juridical Research, UNAM)
A History of the Mexican Constitution
Alfredo Acedo. "Mexican Constitution Now Recognizes Right to Food" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 January 2016.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Constitution_of_Mexico&oldid=935284851"

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


text:
==Using COMDAT Sections to Reduce the Size of DWARF Debug Information== ''Cary Coutant''
 ''Modified: August 14, 2008'' ===Objective=== DWARF debugging information for a typical C++ application can consume a large amount of disk space in both the relocatable object files and the final executable or shared library. Depending on the application and compilation options, the debug information can consume as much as 75% of the object file. The bulk of the debug information is in the .debug_info section, the bulk of that section contains type information, and the bulk of the type information is made up of duplicate copies of types that are emitted by the compiler in each compilation unit. There are several approaches to reducing the overhead of the debug information. The Gnu compiler supports several options, such as -femit-struct-debug-baseonly, to reduce the total amount of debug information generated at compile time, but these are heuristics that can often produce insufficient debug information. One common approach, used by Sun, Apple, and HP, has been to leave most of the debug information in the relocatable objects, copying only a summary of the types defined in each object into the linker's output file. This approach works well for some, but obviously requires that the original relocatable objects remain accessible to the debugger. It also imposes additional complexity on the debugger itself, which must be able to identify which object file contains the desired information, then must apply the relocations in order to use the data. Another possible approach is to post-process the linker's output, eliminating duplicate information in the debug information, and rewriting it. While this approach can achieve the desired reduction in size, the time required to link the application in the first place is not reduced at all, and additional time after the link is required to compress the debug information. Ideally, the linker would be able to eliminate the duplicate debug information during the link, at the least avoiding the extra time it would take to write out the duplicate data. The structure of DWARF, however, makes this a difficult and expensive task, and results in much longer link times. Attempts have been made to use ELF comdat section groups to help the linker identify and discard duplicate information, and the DWARF specification actually contains a discussion of how this may be implemented (see Appendix E of the draft DWARF-3 specification). The suggested mechanism, however, relies on partitioning the debug information by header file, so that the debug information produced by the compiler for a particular header file is equivalent in each separate compilation. This allows the linker to discard all but one copy of the debug information for each header file using its existing (and efficient) comdat mechanism. This scheme, however, requires the compiler to keep track of the debug information by header file, which is not always practical, and it requires that it produce substantially the same debug information each time it encounters that header file. This latter requirement cannot always be met, as conditional compilation can introduce changes in what source the compiler sees from one compilation to the next. It also requires the compiler to output debug information for the entire contents of the header file, rather than just those declarations that are actually referenced by the rest of the source file; this can actually cause the size of the relocatable objects to grow significantly, even if the final linked output might be smaller. The design presented here takes advantage of the linker's handling of comdat sections, but without the disadvantages of the approach described above. Rather than use a comdat group for each header file, it uses a comdat group for each type definition (except for base types and other trivial definitions). This allows the compiler to trim unused debug information from its output, while allowing the linker to remove duplicate type definitions without processing the contents of the DWARF sections. This design also makes it convenient to implement a hybrid scheme where subprogram and variable definitions are copied to the output file at link time, along with line number tables, but the type definitions, living in separate sections, are not copied. This scheme would allow for full stack traces with line numbers with substantially-reduced space overhead, while access to the original relocatable object files would be required only for more detailed debugging. Furthermore, type definitions in DWARF generally do not require link-time relocation, so they can be left in the relocatable objects without requiring the debugger to process relocations at debug time. ===Design Highlights=== ====The .debug_types Section==== A new debug section, .debug_types, is used to hold DWARF type definitions. This section is structurally similar to the .debug_info section, consisting of a header followed by a single tree of debug information entries (DIEs) describing a type. No type definition is required to be placed in this section, nor is it advisable to place all type definitions in this section. Instead, only type definitions whose DWARF description is large enough to merit this treatment should be placed in the .debug_types section. The likelihood of duplication across multiple compilation units and the additional overhead of separating the type definition should be taken into account when determining what type definitions to move out of the .debug_info section. In practice, structure and union types declared in header files are good candidates. Incomplete types and declarations are not suitable. When the compiler determines that a type definition should be moved out of the .debug_info section, it places the type definition in a new .debug_types section and makes that section a member of a COMDAT group whose key is a signature of the type definition itself. The linker's existing ability to discard duplicate COMDAT groups based on the key will be used to eliminate duplicate definitions of that type. In the linked output file, a single .debug_types section will contain the concatenated contents of the input sections that were not discarded. In DWARF, a DIE that describes any typed object contains a DW_AT_type attribute that refers to a target DIE describing the type itself. For types defined in the .debug_info section, this reference is made using a reference-class form, which provides a direct offset of the target DIE within the .debug_info section. For types defined in the .debug_types section, the reference is made with one of two new forms, DW_FORM_sig4 and DW_FORM_sig8, which provides the type signature. These two new forms are members of the reference class, as they are still used to reference debugging information entries. The DWARF consumer must scan the .debug_types section and construct a table that maps from a signature to the location of the DIE that provides the type definition. Each type definition is preceded by a type header. Similar to the compilation unit header (as described in Section 7.5.1 of the DWARF spec), it consists of the following fields: # unit_length (initial length) # version (uhalf) # debug_abbrev_offset (section offset) # address_size (ubyte) # signature (8-byte unsigned integer) # odr_signature (8-byte unsigned integer) # type_offset (section offset) The first four fields are the same as a normal compilation unit header, as described in Section 7.5.1 of the DWARF spec. Like a compilation unit, the DIEs following the header are associated with a particular abbreviations table. While the .debug_types section may use its own abbreviation table, it may also use the same abbreviation table as the corresponding compilation unit. The header allows a DWARF consumer to scan the .debug_types section for the signatures quickly, without having to process the DIEs themselves. The signature field contains the 8-byte signature of the type described immediately following the header. References using DW_FORM_sig4 are compared to the low-order 4 bytes of this value; references using DW_FORM_sig8 are compared to the full 8 bytes. The odr_signature field contains a shallower 8-byte signature of the type described immediately following the header. This signature includes just the names of surrounding namespaces and classes and the name of the type itself, and is meant to be used for link-time detection of ODR violations. The type_offset field contains the section offset of the DIE for this type definition. Because the type may be nested inside a namespace or other structures, it may not be the first DIE in the unit. The first DIE following the type header is a DW_TAG_compile_unit DIE to serve as the root of the tree of DIEs in the unit. The compile unit DIE typically will have no attributes. It will have at least one child: the DIE that describes the type, and to which the type_offset field refers. It may have additiona children as well. In the case of a type that is nested within a namespace or another type, there may be a declaration tree establishing the context, and the actual type DIE will be a specification referring to the declaration within that tree. If the type's definition contains references to other types that have not been given type units of their own (e.g., base types or pointer types), definitions or declarations for those types may also be present as additional children of the compile unit DIE. ====Computing a Type Signature==== The method for computing a type signature does not need to be formally specified, because the DWARF producer needs only a unique identifier that it can use to label the type in the .debug_types section and to reference the type from elsewhere. If two or more separate compilers are used in the same application, however, the use of differing methods will lessen the effectiveness of duplicate identification, so a suggested method is presented here. To compute the signature for a type definition, start with the top-level DIE T0 and compute a byte-stream signature for the type, using the function S(T0, {T0}), defined below. If the type is nested within another type or namespace, also compute a byte-stream signature for that context, as described below, and insert that signature at the beginning of the type signature. Finally, generate an MD5 hash of that byte stream and use the low-order 64 bits of the result. The byte stream for the context of a nested type is formed by starting at the outermost enclosing namespace or type DIE, initializing the stream s with the one-byte tag of the enclosing DIE followed by the name (from the DW_AT_name attribute), not including the trailing null byte. If a DIE has no DW_AT_name attribute, use the empty string as the name. Repeat this step for each enclosing layer, from outermost to innermost. The byte stream for a type DIE is generated by the function S(T, V), where T is a DWARF DIE and V is a list of DIEs representing visited type definitions, as follows: # Initialize the stream s with the single byte representing the DIE's tag (e.g., DW_TAG_structure_type). # If the DIE has a DW_AT_name attribute, append the attribute code DW_AT_name, followed by the name itself (not including the trailing null byte), to s. # If the DIE represents a pointer or reference type, or a DW_TAG_friend entry, find the name of the target type and append the DW_AT_name attribute code, followed by the name itself (not including the trailing null byte), to s. Skip Steps 4-6. # For each of the following attributes that are present in the DIE, in the order listed, append the one-byte attribute code (e.g., DW_AT_encoding) and the value of the attribute to s: #* DW_AT_accessibility #* DW_AT_address_class #* DW_AT_allocated #* DW_AT_artificial #* DW_AT_associated #* DW_AT_binary_scale #* DW_AT_bit_offset #* DW_AT_bit_size #* DW_AT_bit_stride #* DW_AT_byte_size #* DW_AT_byte_stride #* DW_AT_const_value #* DW_AT_count #* DW_AT_data_location #* DW_AT_data_member_location #* DW_AT_decimal_scale #* DW_AT_decimal_sign #* DW_AT_default_value #* DW_AT_digit_count #* DW_AT_discr #* DW_AT_discr_list #* DW_AT_discr_value #* DW_AT_encoding #* DW_AT_endianity #* DW_AT_is_optional #* DW_AT_location #* DW_AT_lower_bound #* DW_AT_ordering #* DW_AT_picture_string #* DW_AT_prototyped #* DW_AT_small #* DW_AT_segment #* DW_AT_start_scope #* DW_AT_string_length #* DW_AT_threads_scaled #* DW_AT_upper_bound #* DW_AT_use_location #* DW_AT_variable_parameter #* DW_AT_visibility # If a DW_AT_type attribute is present in the DIE, and the referenced type is in the list V, append the attribute code DW_AT_type, followed by the index of the type in V, to s. # If a DW_AT_type attribute is present in the DIE, and the referenced type Tn is not in the list V, append the attribute code DW_AT_type to s, then generate a byte stream S(Tn, V + {Tn}) for the referenced type and append it to s. # For each child DIE Cn, generate a byte stream s(Cn, V) and append it to s. # Return the value of s as the result of the function. DWARF producers should always generate a 64-bit signature for each type, but in order to save space, they may use just the low-order 32 bits of the signature to reference a type (using DW_FORM_sig4) as long as there are no collisions in the reduced space. ===Scope=== These changes are being proposed as an extension of DWARF-3, to appear in the DWARF-4 specification. In gcc, the ability to separate type information into .debug_types sections will be conditioned on a compile-time option -gdwarf-4. Most of the source changes to provide this functionality will be in the file dwarf2out.c, and will be of a similar nature to the existing functionality for separating debug info into COMDAT groups based on include files. In gdb, most of the source changes to support the new section will be in the file dwarf2read.c. It will need to read the .debug_types section and make a quick scan of the section to record the signatures contained therein. When processing an attribute of form DW_FORM_sig4 or DW_FORM_sig8, it should lookup the signature and convert the attribute into an equivalent reference form with a pointer to the DIE as read from the .debug_types section. The referenced DIE will need to be treated as a separate compilation unit that will need to be loaded if it has not already been loaded. The readelf and objdump utilities, and the DWARF support in bfd, will also require changes to support this extension.


text:
define(["ember"], function (Ember) {
Ember.TEMPLATES["templates/custom_name"] = Ember.Handlebars.template({"compiler":[6,">= 2.0.0-beta.1"],"main":function(depth0,helpers,partials,data) {
  data.buffer.push("A simple template");
  },"useData":true}); });

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


The perfect driving machine our 2019 Chevrolet Corvette Stingray Z51 Coupe greets you in Black and is anything but subtle! Powered by a massive 6.2 Litre V8 that offers 460hp while connected to a 8 Speed Automatic transmission. Buckle up and hold on as you reach 60mph in just 3.7 seconds and a top speed of 190mph. Designed for savvy drivers with a desire for high performance our Corvette makes a powerful statement and still provides you with near 8.1L/100km! Be prepared for some extra attention behind the wheel of our Stingray. Settle into our Z51 with the power adjustable heated and cooled leather seats that feel as though they were tailor-made for your comfort. Take note of the push-button start a rear vision camera and a power tilt and telescoping steering column. Staying connected is a breeze with our available 4G LTE WiFi connection Bluetooth 2 prominent HD colour displays and a tremendous Bose audio system with satellite radio. Every driving enthusiast can appreciate the quality of our Corvette that keeps you assured behind the wheel with traction control stability control advanced airbags and other safety features. Bred with brilliant engineering and precision performance our Corvette exceeds your expectations! Why let someone else have all the fun? Reward yourself! Print this page and call us Now... We Know You Will Enjoy Your Test Drive Towards Ownership!


text:
Karosa C 943 je příměstský kloubový autobus, který vyráběla společnost Karosa Vysoké Mýto v letech 1997 až 2001. Jedná se o nástupce typu C 744.

Konstrukce

Autobus C 943 je posledním modelem meziměstského kloubového autobusu z Karosy. Konstrukčně je odvozen ze základního typu řady 900, standardního vozu C 934. C 943 je třínápravový kloubový autobus s polosamonosnou karoserií panelové konstrukce, která je maximálně shodná s typem C 934. Vůz se skládá ze dvou částí, které jsou navzájem spojeny kloubem a krycím měchem. Motor s automatickou převodovkou jsou uloženy za zadní, hnací nápravou od firmy Detva. Střední náprava pochází od stejného výrobce, přední tuhou pak vyrobila společnost LIAZ. Vstup do vozu zajišťují troje dvoukřídlé výklopné dveře. První jsou užší a nacházejí se před první nápravou. Druhé a třetí jsou stejně široké jako u městských autobusů B 941 (kvůli unifikaci), druhé jsou umístěny ještě v předním článku před střední nápravou, třetí dveře se potom nacházejí za kloubem v zadním článku, před zadní nápravou. Polstrované sedačky pro cestující jsou rozmístěny 2+2.

Vozy C 943 nebyly, jako jediný typ z řady 930/940, vyráběny v provedení E, ačkoliv o tom bylo dle propagačního letáku uvažováno. Pravděpodobně kvůli malému zájmu dopravců o typ C 943 však k výrobě autobusů C 943E nikdy nedošlo.

Výroba a provoz
Výroba autobusů C 943 probíhala v letech 1997 až 2001, aniž by byly nějak inovovány. V tomto období opustilo brány Karosy celkem 27 kusů vozů tohoto typu. Autobusy C 943 jsou využívány meziměstskými dopravci na linkách, kde jsou potřebná kapacitnější vozidla než standardní vozy C 934. Z 27 vyrobených autobusů bylo v prosinci 2015 v provozu čtrnáct kusů, v červenci 2016 jedenáct, v listopadu 2018 již pouze šest vozů. Posledním provozovatelem tohoto typu byl dopravce ČSAD autobusy Plzeň, jehož poslední vůz vydržel v provozu do března 2020. V září 2022 se v Pražské integrované dopravě z důvodu nedostatku řidičů na linkách 171, 367 a 368 v rámci subdodávky pro ČSAD Střední Čechy objevil vůz č. 1516, který byl dříve provozován právě tímto dopravcem (krátce i s č. 8201), v tomto případě však uvedené výkony zajistil již ve vlastnictví soukromé osoby.

Historické vozy
 Martin Uher (vůz ev. č. 1129)
 Veteran Bus Diamant (ex Karlovy Vary ev. č. 113)
soukromá osoba (ex ČSAD Střední Čechy ev. č. 8201)

Odkazy

Reference

Externí odkazy

 Článek s fotografiemi o pražských autobusech Karosa C 943
  Článek o autobusu C 943 v Nitře
 Fotogalerie autobusů C 943

C 943

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


text:
#pragma once

#include <yasync/futuredispatch.h>
#include "../stream.h"
#include "netaddr_win.h"

namespace basin {

	unsigned int waitForSocket(SOCKET s, unsigned int flags, unsigned int timeout);

	using yasync::Promise;
	using yasync::Void;
	using yasync::Timeout;

	class SocketInputBuffer : public yasync::RefCntObj, public WSAOVERLAPPED {
	public:
		SocketInputBuffer()
			:buffStart(0), buffUsed(0), eof(false) {}

		static const unsigned int bufferSize = 1500;
		unsigned char buffer[bufferSize];
		unsigned int buffStart;
		unsigned int buffUsed;
		bool eof;
		yasync::Promise<BinaryView> res;

		///Read for sync mode
		/**
		@param processed bytes
		@param receives whether need more data
		@return read bytes
		*/
		BinaryView read(unsigned int processed, bool &needData);
		void updateBuf(unsigned int received);
		///Creates WSABUF structure
		WSABUF getWSABuf();

		///Resolves promise instantly if applicable
		/**
		* @param res promise to resolve
		* @param processed processed bytes
		* @retval true promise resolved, operation done
		* @retval false need to read data, promise stored, buffer expecting
		ether setError or updateBuf
		*/
		bool readAsync(yasync::Promise<BinaryView> res, unsigned int processed);
		void updateBufAsync(unsigned int received);
		void setErrorAsync(DWORD error);
	};

	class SocketOutputBuffer : public yasync::RefCntObj, public WSAOVERLAPPED {
	public:
		unsigned int pos;
		BinaryView buffer;
		Promise<Void> complete;

		SocketOutputBuffer(BinaryView data, Promise<Void> complete)
			: pos(0)
			, buffer(data)
			, complete(complete) {}

		WSABUF getWSABuf();
		///
		/**
		@retval true complete - promise set
		@retval false incomplete - please continue sending
		*/
		bool updateBuf(unsigned int sent);
		void setError(DWORD error);

	};

	typedef yasync::RefCntPtr<SocketInputBuffer> PInputBuffer;
	typedef yasync::RefCntPtr<SocketOutputBuffer> POutputBuffer;

	class Socket : public AbstractStream
	{
	public:
		Socket(SOCKET s, const NetworkAddress &peerAddr, const StreamParams &streamParams);
		~Socket();

		// Inherited via AbstractStream
		virtual BinaryView readSync(unsigned int processed) override;
		virtual void writeSync(const BinaryView & data) override;
		virtual Future<BinaryView> readAsync(unsigned int processed);
		virtual Future<Void> writeAsync(const BinaryView &data);
		virtual NetworkAddress getPeerAddress() const;

	protected:

		SOCKET s;
		PInputBuffer inbuf;
		NetworkAddress peerAddr;

		yasync::Future<BinaryView> curRead;
		yasync::Future<Void> curWrite;;

	};

}


Tyre/rubber machinery maker VMI MI Group has expanded its Polish production facility, which started up in 2017. The Dutch firm has added on two further manufacturing halls, following what it says has been "unprecedented success" of the Lezsno plant.
The Poland factory opened in 2017 to enhance the global manufacturing base of the VMI Group. In order to facilitate continuing growth and deliver the service that the modern tyre industry demands, plans for a second phase, which doubles the size of the plant, were brought forward.
In the first phase, a 13,500 sq m facility was built on an 8 hectare plot of land to extend the current manufacturing capabilities of the company. Leszno in Poland was selected because of its ability to attract highly qualified technically skilled employees as universities and technical schools are situated nearby.
The newly appointed General Manager of VMI Poland, Magda Sadowska, who is an expert in lean manufacturing and quality systems, together with General Manager Jos van Oosterbosch, built the Leszno facility from scratch, and is now responsible for a work force of over 150, from the 40 when the facility first started.
The VMI Group now has entities in eight countries on five continents.


Per the Pennsylvania State Guidelines the Plaintiff is responsible for the initial $250 per child, per calendar year, of unreimbursed medical expenses. Once this obligation is met the Order of Court will have a breakdown as far as the percentage that each party is responsible for, which will be noted in the Order. Medical expenses do not include cosmetic, chiropractic, psychiatric or psychological services unless specifically directed in the Order of Court. When the initial deductible is met by the Plaintiff he/she will then need to submit the information to the Defendant along with the unreimbursed medical form. This information will need to be sent to the Defendant by both certified and regular mail. If 30 days elapse and the Defendant did not pay the expenses the Plaintiff may then submit the information to Domestic Relations. The Conference Officer will review the information, and if correct, will forward to the Defendant giving him/her 14 days to dispute the expenses. If a dispute is not filed the expenses will be added to the arrears balance. If the bills are disputed a conference will be scheduled or an administrative review will be conducted. The Defendant may also file for any unreimbursed medical expenses should they incur any that exceed the portion they are ordered to pay.
If a case is closing due to spousal/APL support ending or a child emancipating, the parties will have 30 days from the date of the Order to submit any unreimbursed medical expenses for the year that have been acquired during the time the case was active.