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Battle of Tenochtitlan
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Siege of Tenochtitlan
Part of the Spanish conquest of Mexico
Depiction of the Spanish defeat at Metztitlan from the History of Tlaxcala (Lienzo de Tlaxcala), a sixteenth century codex.
May 26 - August 13, 1521
Tenochtitlan, present-day Mexico City, Mexico
Spanish and Tlaxcallãn victory
Tlaxcallān Aztec Empire
Pedro de Alvarado Cuitláhuac
86-96 cavalry
900-1,300 infantry[1]
16 guns[1]
80,000 native allies
100,000-300,000 warriors[2]
450-860 Spanish[1]
20,000 native allies 100,000 warriors
100,000 civilians
The Fall of Tenochtitlan, the capital of the Aztec Empire, came about through the manipulation of local factions and divisions by Spanish conquistador Hernán Cortés. Though numerous battles were fought between the Aztecs and the Spanish conquistadores' army, which was composed of predominantly indigenous peoples, it was the Battle of Tenochtitlan that was the final, decisive battle that led to the downfall of the Aztec civilization and marked the end of the first phase of the Spanish conquest of Mexico. It was one of the largest victories ever won by a force so small and entailed the capture of a vast amount of riches. The conquest of Mexico was part of the Spanish colonization of the Americas. The Spanish had been awarded this territory by Pope Alexander VI in 1493, and as far as they were concerned the land and its wealth was rightfully theirs. They saw nothing of value in the indigenous culture, and more or less set out to systematically destroy everything that had no monetary value.
1 Early events
1.1 The road to Tenochtitlan
1.2 Tensions mount between Aztecs and Spanish
2 A Rapid Deterioration of Relations
2.1 Massacre at the festival of Tóxcatl
2.2 Aztec revolt
2.3 La Noche Triste and the Spanish flight to Tlaxcalan
3 Both Sides Attempt to Recover
3.1 Shifting alliances
3.2 Smallpox decimates the local population
3.3 Aztecs regroup
4 Siege of Tenochtitlan
4.1 Cortes plans and prepares
4.2 The first battles
4.3 The Spanish advance closer
5 Fall of Tenochtitlan
5.1 The Aztecs' last stand
6 The Surrender
8.1 Primary sources
8.2 Secondary sources
Early events
The road to Tenochtitlan
In April 1519, Hernán Cortés, previously the Chief Magistrate of Santiago, Cuba, landed on the coast of Mexico at a point which he named Vera Cruz with approximately 450 soldiers. Cortes was sponsored by the Governor of Cuba, Diego de Velazquez. Velazquez appointed Cortes to lead an expedition into Mexico after the reports from few previous voyages to the Yucatan caught the interest of Spanish colonists in Cuba.[3] He soon came into contact with a number of tribes who resented the Aztec rule; Cortés skirmished with some of these natives, such as the Totonacs and Tlaxcalans, defeating them and earning their allegiance against the Aztecs. [4]
A widely-cited myth states that the Aztecs initially thought Cortés to be Quetzalcoatl, a mythical personage prophesized to return to Mexico in the year Cortes landed, and from the same direction. This god was supposed to be fair-skinned and bearded, as Cortes was, and he was said to have knowingly exploited this myth.[5] This is now widely-believed to be a post-conquest invention, and most scholars agree that the Aztecs were quite aware that Cortés wasn't a god. An encounter between Moctezuma, the Aztec ruler, and Cortes displays the notion the Aztecs realized Cortes was not a deity, but a human. Moctezuma lifted his shirt displaying his abdomen saying, "I am mortal blood as you are mortal blood," and after this gesture gifts were exchanged.
Moctezuma sent a group of noblemen and other agents of his to meet Cortes at Quauhtechcac. These emissaries brought golden jewelry as a gift, which greatly pleased the Spaniards. [6]
Cortes continued on his march towards Tenochtitlan. Before entering the city, on November 8, 1519 Cortes and his troops prepared themselves for battle, armoring themselves and their horses, and arranging themselves in proper military rank. Four horsemen were at the lead of the procession. Behind these horsemen were five more contingents: foot soldiers with iron swords and wooden or leather shields; horsemen in cuirasses, armed with iron lances, swords, and wooden shields; crossbowmen; more horsemen; soldiers armed with arquebuses; lastly, native peoples from Tlaxcalan, Tliliuhqui-tepec, and Huexotzinco. The indigenous soldiers wore cotton armor and were armed with shields and crossbows; many carried provisions in baskets or bundles while others escorted the cannons on wooden carts. Cortes's army was amicably received by Moctezuma, who was promptly taken captive without resistance. Other lords were also detained by the Spanish. [6] In exchange for their release, Cortes demanded ransom in the form of gold and other valuables.[7]
Tensions mount between Aztecs and Spanish
It is uncertain why Moctezuma cooperated so readily with the Spanish. It is possible he feared losing his life or political power. Or, perhaps it was a tactical move: Moctezuma may have wanted to gather more information on the Spanish, or wait until the end of the agricultural season, and strike at the beginning of the war season. However, he did not do either at a later date. With Moctezuma captive, Cortes did not need to worry about being cut off from supplies or being attacked. He also assumed that he could control the Aztecs through Moctezuma. Yet Cortes had little knowledge of the ruling system of the Aztecs; Moctezuma was not all-powerful as Cortes imagined. Being appointed to the throne and maintaining the position was dependent on the king's ability to rule decisively; he could be easily be replaced by another noble if he failed to do so. At any sign of weakness, Aztec nobles within Tenochtitlan and in other Aztec tributaries were liable to rebel. As Moctezuma made orders as demanded by Cortes, such as commanding tribute to be gathered and given to the Spanish, his authority was slipping, and quickly his people began to turn against him. [1] Cortes and his army were permitted to stay in the Palace of Axayacatl, and tensions continued to grow. While the Spanish were in Tenochtitlan, Governor Velazquez, the highest Spanish authority in the Americas, assembled a force of 19 ships, more than 800 soldiers, 20 cannons, 80 horsemen, 120 crossbowmen, and 80 arquebusiers under the command of Pánfilo de Narváez to capture Cortes and return him to Cuba. Velasquez felt that Cortes had exceeded his authority, and had been aware of Cortes misconduct nearly a year before.[7] He had to wait for favorable winds, though, and was unable to send any forces until spring. Narvaez's troops landed in Mexico on April 20, 1520.
After Cortes became aware of their arrival, he brought a small force of about 300 to Narvaez's camp in Cempohuallan on May 27. Cortes ambushed Narvaez's camp late at night, taking Narvaez hostage and easily gaining his surrender. Evidence suggests that two were in the midst of negotiations at the time, and Narvaez was not expecting an attack. Cortes had also divided Narvaez's forces with promises of the vast wealth in Tenochtitlan so they would surrender quicker. Narvaez was imprisoned in Vera Cruz, and his army was integrated into Cortez's forces.[1][7]
A Rapid Deterioration of Relations
Massacre at the festival of Tóxcatl
During Cortes's absence, Pedro de Alvarado was left in command in Tenochtitlan, with 80 soldiers, including 14 arquebusiers, eight crossbowmen, as well as five horses, several cannons, and the last of the powder.[1]
At this time, the Aztecs began to prepare for the annual festival of Toxcatl, in honor of the war god Huitzilopochtli. They had asked permission of Moctezuma to hold the festival, and asserted that the Spanish wanted to learn about their traditions. Alvarado agreed to allow the festival on the condition that the gatherers were unarmed. The evening before the festival, a statue of Huitzilopochtli was created and decorated in great detail. [8]
By the day of the festival, Cortes had been absent for 20 days. The Aztecs gathered very early in the morning in single file front of the image of Huitzilopochtli, and brought offerings. Many young warriors came, having had agreed beforehand to dance as best as possible to impress the Spanish. The celebrants then filed into the courtyard of the Great Temple to perform the Dance of the Serpent. When everyone had entered, the singing and dancing began. Keeping in file, the highest-esteemed warriors were in the lead, with the less experienced behind them.[8]
There are many different accounts of what next occurred. It seems that Alvarado feared for the safety of the Spanish forces, and thought the Aztecs were planning an attack. However, the assembled warriors were outfitted in regalia, not dressed and armed for combat. Another account of the situation by the Spanish relates that they attempted to prevent a human sacrifice. However, it is also possible that some Spanish wanted to strike the vulnerable Aztecs at the celebration; the Aztec forces were still superior in number, and the Spanish would not be victorious in a fair battle.[1]
While the people were singing and dancing, the Spanish came out ready for battle, armed with swords, lances, and wooden or metal shields, and closed all the escape routes behind them. They brutally slaughtered the assembled Aztecs. Those trying to escape were struck down near the exits, and those attempting to hide were also found and killed. Some of those inside were able to make it over the walls, but nearly all inside were killed. It is uncertain how many died, but it is estimated that the courtyard was capable of holding eight to ten thousand nobles and warriors.[1][8] Another source figures that 10,000 Aztecs were killed. The event came to be known as The Massacre in the Main Temple.[9]
Aztec revolt
When it became clear what was happening to the Aztecs outside the Temple, an alarm was sounded. Aztec warriors came running, and fired darts and launched spears at the Spanish forces.[6] The Spanish and their allies were driven back into the palace enclave, where they put Moctezuma in shackles.[8] The Spanish were able to repulse the Aztecs with artillery fire. Still, the Aztecs continued to lay siege to the palace, though they did not engage in a determined effort to crush Spanish forces. This may have been due to the fact that their military infrastructure was severely damaged after the attack on the festival, as the most elite and seasoned warriors were killed. [1]
Alvarado sent word to Cortes of the events, and Cortes returned to Tenochtitlan on June 24 with 1,300 soldiers, 96 horses, 80 crossbowmen, and 80 harquebusiers. Cortes also picked up 2,000 Tlaxcalan warriors on the way.[1] Cortes managed to enter the palace unscathed, though the Aztecs had planned to ambush him. The Aztecs discontinued delivering food and other supplies to the Spanish. They became very suspicious and watched closely for people trying to sneak supplies into the Spanish; many innocent people were killed because they were suspected of aiding them.[8] The roads were closed and the causeway bridges were raised. The Aztecs pushed back any Spanish offensives or attempts to leave the palace. Every Spanish solider not killed was wounded.[1]
Cortes had returned to Tenochtitlan and essentially trapped himself in the city because he thought that he could repair the damage done with the help of Moctezuma. Cortes failed to grasp the full extent of the situation, as the attack on the festival was the last straw for the Aztecs, who now were completely against Moctezuma and the Spanish. Thus, the military gains of the attack also had a serious political cost for Cortes. [1]
Cortes attempted to parley with the Aztecs, and after this failed he sent Moctezuma to tell his people to stop fighting. However, the Aztecs refused.[8] The Spanish claimed Moctezuma was stoned to death by his own people at he attempted to speak with them. The Aztecs asserted that Moctezuma was murdered by the Spanish.[8] [1] As Moctezuma had lost the favor of the people, he was no longer of any use to the Spanish. And if freed, he potentially could have united his people against the Spanish. [1] Two other local rulers were found strangled as well.[9] Moctezuma's younger brother Cuitláhuac, who had been ruler of Ixtlapalapan until then, was chosen to be the new Tlatoani.[1]
La Noche Triste and the Spanish flight to Tlaxcalan
This major Aztec victory is still remembered as "La Noche Triste," the Sad Night. Popular tales say that Cortés wept under a tree the night of his defeat at the hands of the Aztecs.
Though a flight from the city would make Cortes appear weak before his Indian allies, it was this or death for the Spanish forces. Cortes and his men were in the center of the city, and would most likely have to fight their way out no matter what direction they took. Cortes wanted to flee to Tlaxcalan, so a path directly east would have been most favorable. Nevertheless, this would require hundreds of canoes to move all of Cortes's people and supplies, which he was unable to procure in his position. Thus, Cortes had to choose among three land routes: north to Tepeyac, which was the least dangerous path but required the longest trip through the city; south to Coyohuacan and Ixtlapalapan, two towns that would not welcome the Spanish; or west to Tlacopan, which required the shortest trip through Tenochtitlan, though they would not be welcome there either. Cortes decided on the causeway to Tlacopan, needing the quickest route out of Tenochtitlan with all his provisions and people. [1]
Heavy rains and a moonless night provided some cover for the escaping Spanish.[9] On that "Sad Night," July 1, 1520, the Spanish forces exited the palace first with their Indian allies close behind, bringing as much treasure as possible. Cortés had hoped to go undetected by muffling the horses' hooves and carrying wooden boards to cross the canals. The Spanish succeeding in reaching the causeway to the mainland. They were able to pass through the first three canals, the Tecpantzinco, Tzapotlan, and Atenchicalco.[8]
However, they were discovered on the fourth canal at Mixcoatechialtitlan. One account says a woman fetching water saw them and alerted the city, another says it was a sentry. Some Aztecs set out in canoes, others by road to Nonchualco then Tlacopan to cut the Spanish off. The Aztecs attacked the fleeing Spanish on the Tlacopan causeway from canoes, shooting arrows at them. The Spanish fired their crossbows and harquebuses, but were unable to see their attackers or get into formation. Many Spaniards leaped into the water and drowned, weighed down by armor and booty.[8] When faced with a gap in the causeway, Alvarado made the famous "leap of Alvarado" using a spear to get to the other side. After crossing over the bridge, the Spanish had little reprieve before the Aztecs appeared to attack and chase them towards Tlacopan. When they arrived at Tlacopan, a good number of Spanish had been killed, as well as most of the Indian warriors, and some of the horses; all of the cannons and most of the crossbows were lost.[1] The Spanish finally found refuge in Otancalpolco, where they were aided by the Teocalhueyacans. The morning after, the Aztecs returned to recover the spoils from the canals.[8]
To reach Tlaxcalan, Cortes had to bring his troops around Lake Texcoco. Though the Spanish were under attack the entire trip, because Cortes took his troops through the northern towns, they were at an advantage. The northern valley was less populous, travel was difficult, and it was still the agricultural season, so the attacks on Cortes's forces were not very heavy. As Cortes arrived in more densely inhabited areas east of the lake, the attacks were more forceful.[1]
Before reaching Tlaxcalan, the scanty Spanish forces arrived at the plain of Otumba Valley (Otompan), where they were met by a vast Aztec army intent on their destruction. The Aztecs intended to cut short the Spanish retreat from Tenochtitlan. The Aztecs had underestimated the shock value of the Spanish cavalry because all they had seen was the horses traveling on the wet paved streets of Tenochtitlan. They had never seen them used in open battle on the plains. Despite the overwhelming numbers of Aztecs and the general poor condition of the Spanish survivors, Cortés snatched victory from the jaws of defeat when he spotted the Aztec general in his gaudy and colorful feather costume and immediately charged him with several horsemen, killing the Aztec commander. There were heavy losses for the Spanish, but in the end they were victorious. The Aztecs retreated. [9]
When Cortes finally reached Tlaxcalan five days after fleeing Tenochtitlan, he had lost over 860 Spanish soldiers, over a thousand Tlaxcalans, as well as Spanish women who had accompanied Narvaez's troops. [1] Cortes claimed only 150 Spaniards were lost along with 2,000 native allies. Than Cano, another primary source, gives 1150 Spaniards dead, though this figure was most likely more than the total number of Spanish. Francisco López de Gómara, Cortes' chaplain, estimated 450 Spaniards and 4,000 allies had died. Other sources estimate that nearly half of the Spanish and almost all of the natives were killed or wounded. [9]
The women survivors included Cortés's translator and lover Doña Marina, María Estrada and two of Moctezuma's daughters who had been given to Cortés. A third daughter died, leaving behind her infant by Cortés, the mysterious second "María" named in his will.
Both Sides Attempt to Recover
Shifting alliances
Cuitlahuac was elected to be the new king after Moctezuma's death. Immediately, it was necessary for him to prove his power and authority to keep the tributaries from revolting. Usually, the new king would take his army on a campaign before coronation; this demonstration would solidify necessary ties. However, Cuitlahuac was not in a position to do this, as it was not yet war season; therefore, allegiance to the Spanish seemed to be a good option for many tributaries. The Aztec empire was very susceptible to division: most of the tributary states were divided internally, and their loyalty to the Aztecs was based on their own interests or the possibility of punishment.
It was necessary for Cortes, too, to rebuild his alliances after his escape from Tenochtitlan before he could try again to take the city. He started with the Tlaxcalans. Tlaxcalan was an autonomous state, and a fierce enemy of the Aztecs. Another strong motivation to join forces with the Spanish was that Tlaxcalan was encircled by Aztec tributaries. The Tlaxcalans could have crushed the Spaniards at this point. In fact, the Aztecs sent emissaries promising peace and prosperity if they would do just that. The Tlaxcalans leaders rebuffed the overtures of the Aztec emissaries, deciding to continue their friendship with Cortés.
Cortés managed to negotiate an alliance; however, the Tlaxcalans required heavy concessions from Cortes for their continued support, which he was to provide after they defeated the Aztecs. They expected the Spanish to pay for their supplies, to have the city of Cholula, an equal share of any of the spoils, the right to build a citadel in Tenochtitlan, and finally, to be exempted from any future tribute. Cortés was willing to promise anything and in the name of the King of Spain, and agreed to their demands, though the Spanish complained about having to pay for their food and water with their gold and other jewels with which they had escaped Tenochtitlan. The Spanish authorities later disowned this treaty with the Tlaxcalans.
Cortes needed to gain new alliances as well. And as long as the Spaniards could protect new allies from the possibility of Aztec retribution, changing sides would not be too difficult for other tributaries It was not difficult for Cortes's forces to defeat the smaller armies of some of the tributary states, either. Once Cortes had demonstrated his political power, states such as Tepeyac, and later Yauhtepec and Cuauhnahuac, were easily won over. Cortes also used political maneuvering to assure the allegiance of other states, such as Tetzcoco. In addition, Cortes replaced kings with those who he knew would be loyal to him. Cortes now controlled many major towns, which simultaneously bolstered Cortes's forces while depriving the Aztecs.[1]
Though the largest group of Indian allies were Tlaxcalans, the Huexotzinco, Atlixco, Tliliuhqui-Tepecs, Tetzcocans, Chalca, Alcohua and Tepanecs were all important allies as well, and had all been previously subjugated by the Aztecs.[9][1] Cortes had to put down internal struggles within the Spanish troops as well. The remaining Spanish soldiers were somewhat divided; many wanted nothing more than to go home, or at the very least back to Vera Cruz to wait for reinforcements. Cortés quickly squelched this faction and was determined to finish what he started. Not only had he staked everything he had or could borrow on this enterprise, he had completely compromised himself by defying his superior Velazquez. He knew that in defeat he would be considered a traitor to Spain, but that in success he would be its hero. So he argued, cajoled, bullied and coerced his troops, and they began preparing for the siege of Mexico. Clearly, Cortes was skilled at exploiting the divisions within and between the Aztec states while hiding those of his own troops.[1]
Smallpox decimates the local population
While Cortes was rebuilding his alliances and garnering more supplies, a smallpox epidemic struck. The disease was brought by a Spanish slave from Narvaez's forces, who had been abandoned in the capital during the Spanish flight.[1] The disease broke out in Tenochtitlan in late October; the epidemic lasted 60 days, ending by early December. Many of the residents of Tenochtitlan died from disease, but starvation also devastated the population. Since so many were afflicted, people were unable to care for others, and many starved to death. While the population of Tenochtitlan was recovering, the disease continued to Chalco, a city on the southeast corner of Lake Texcoco.[6] The disease killed 40 percent of the native population in the area within a year. The Spanish were much more immune to the disease so they mainly survived whilst the Aztecs were dying.
Cuitlahuac contracted the disease and died after ruling for only eighty days. Because the disease has a 26-six day course, Cuitlahuac was probably too sick to rule effectively by November 22. Though the disease drastically decreased the numbers of warriors on both sides, it had more dire consequences for the leadership on the side of the Aztecs. The new Aztec rulers had little experience or time to solidify their authority.[1]
Aztecs regroup
It is often debated why the Aztecs took little action against the Spanish and their allies after they fled the city. One reason was that Tenochtitlan was certainly in a state of disorder: the smallpox epidemic ravaged the population, killing still more important leaders and nobles, and a new king, Cuauhtémoc, son of King Ahuitzotl, was placed on the throne in February 1521. The people were in the process of mourning the dead and rebuilding their damaged city. Also, it is possible that the Aztecs truly believed that the Spanish were gone for good. In any case, staying within Tenochtitlan as a defensive tactic may have seemed like a reliable strategy at the time. This would allow them the largest possible army that would be close to its supplies, while affording them the mobility provided by the surrounding lake. And any Spanish assault would have come to through the causeways, where the Aztecs could easily attack them.[1]
Cortes plans and prepares
Cortes's plan for his siege was to trap the Aztecs within their capital. Cortes intended to do that by increasing his mobility on the lake, previously one of his main weaknesses. He ordered the construction of thirteen brigantines by his master shipbuilder, Martín López, and sent to Vera Cruz for the ships he had previously had scuttled and any other supplies that had arrived. Cortes continued to receive a steady stream of supplies from Vera Cruz, some of it intended for Narvaez, since he had left the city.
Cortes originally decided to have his ships assembled in Tlaxcalan, while moving his base of operations to Tetzcoco. With his headquarters in Tetzcoco, he could keep his forces from being spread too thin around the lake, and from there could send them where they were needed. Nonetheless, this plan proved ineffective, and he moved his shipbuilders and his other supplies to Tetzcoco in the beginning of February 1521.
Cortes had 86 horsemen, 118 crossbowmen and harquebusiers, and 700 Spanish foot soldiers. He put 25 soldiers plus artillerymen on each ship, since each was equipped with a cannon. He partitioned his remaining land forces into three groups. Under the command of Alvarado were 30 horsemen, 18 crossbowmen and harquebusiers, 150 Spanish foot soldiers and 25,000 Tlaxcalans, to be sent to Tlacopan. Cristobel de Olid commanded 20 crossbowmen and harquebusiers, 175 foot soldiers, and 20,000 Indian allies, who would go to Coyohuacan. Gonzalo de Sandoval was in charge of 24 horsemen, 14 harquebusiers, 13 crossbowmen, 150 foot soldiers, and 30,000 Indians, who would go to Ixtlapalapan. One of the three major causeways that connected Tenochtitlan to the mainland was in each of these cities. Cortes' forces set out for their positions on May 22.[1]
The first battles
The forces under Alvarado and Olid marched first towards Chapultepec to disconnect the Aztecs from their water supply. There were springs there that supplied much of the city's water by aqueduct; the rest of the city's water was brought in by canoe. The two generals then tried to bring their forces over the causeway at Tlacopan, resulting in the Battle of Tlacopan.[1] The Aztec forces managed to defeat the Spanish and halt the march to the capital in a brilliant, though bloody and long, land and naval attack.[8]
The Aztec canoe fleets worked well for attacking the Spanish because they allowed the Aztecs to surround the Spanish on both sides of the causeway. Cortes decided to make an opening in the causeway so that his brigantines could also be used on both sides of the causeway. Now the Aztecs could no longer attack from their canoes on the opposite side of the Spanish brigantines.
With his brigantines, Cortes could also send forces and supplies to areas he previously couldn't, which put a kink in Cuauhtémoc's plan. To make it more difficult for the Spanish ships, the Aztecs dug deep pits in shallow areas of the lakes and also stuck pointed sticks into the lake bottom to spear ships.
Cortes was forced to adapt his plans again, as his initial land campaigns were ineffective. He had planned to attack on the causeways during the daytime and retreat to camp at night; however, the Aztecs moved in to occupy the abandoned areas as soon as the Spanish forces left. Consequently, Cortes had his forces set up on the causeways at night to defend their positions. This allowed the Spanish to progress closer and closer towards the city.[1]
The Spanish advance closer
As the Spanish employed more successful strategies, their stranglehold on Tenochtitlan grew, and famine began to affect the Aztecs. The Aztecs were cut off from the mainland because of the occupied causeways. In addition, Cortes maintained a blockade with the help of the canoes of his Indian allies, as his brigantines were not so useful in this situation. Both sides utilized ambushes in naval battles for a while, attempting to lure enemy ships or canoes into a trap or separate them from the group.
Cortes also had the advantage of fighting a mostly defensive battle. Though Cuauhtémoc organized a large-scale attack on Alvarado's forces at Tlacopan, the Aztec forces were pushed back. As Cortes attained victory after victory, more tributary states joined his side. Even smaller states were useful for contributing food, laborers, and supplies. This only worsened the position of the Aztecs. Throughout the siege, the Aztecs had little aid from outside of Tenochtitlan. The remaining loyal tributaries had difficulty sending forces, because it would leave them vulnerable to Spanish attack. Many of these loyal tributaries were surrounded by the Spanish.
Though the tributaries often went back and forth in their loyalties at any sign of change, the Spanish tried hard not to lose any allies. They feared a "snowball effect," in that if one tributary left, others might follow. Thus, they brutally crushed any tributaries who tried to send help to Tenochtitlan. Any shipments of food and water were intercepted, and even those trying to fish in the lake were attacked.[1] Many Aztecs drank salt water because of their severe thirst and contracted dysentery. The famine was so severe that the Aztecs ate anything, even wood, leather, and bricks for sustenance.[6]
The Spanish continued to push closer to Tenochtitlan. The Aztecs changed tactics as often as the Spanish did, preventing Cortes's forces from being entirely victorious. However, the Aztecs were severely worn down. They had no new troops, supplies, food, nor water. The Spanish received a large amount of supplies from Vera Cruz, and, somewhat renewed, finally entered Tenochtitlan.[1]
Fall of Tenochtitlan
The Aztecs' last stand
When the Spanish forces made it into the city, virtually every rooftop was an enemy stronghold. Once again, the Aztecs adopted new tactics, and now attacked the Spanish from their buildings.[1] This held back the Spanish for a while, but it could not prevent their advance through the city. By early August, most of the population of the city had retreated into Tlatelolco.[8] Cortés sent Indian emissaries from a conquered Aztec city to invite the Tlatelolcas to join his side and surrender the Aztec refugees, but the Tlatelolcas remained loyal to the Aztecs. In the chronicles of Tlatelolco, they told they took the last burden of the battle, and at the end the women cut their hair and joined the battle.
The Aztecs faced another major obstacle when the people of Tetzcoco who were still loyal to the Aztecs fell into Spanish hands. For four days, all three armies of Alvarado, Olid, and Sandoval pushed towards the Tlatelolco marketplace. They eventually gained control of seven-eighths of the city. Even in the final days of the siege, when the Aztecs were pitted in open combat against the Indian allies of the Spanish, the exhausted Aztecs were far superior, and crushed their opponents.[1]
In these last desperate days, the Aztecs decided to send the quetzal owl warrior, an Aztec warrior outfitted in a ceremonial costume, into battle: they believed if he succeeded in battle, this would be a sign from the gods that the Aztecs should continue fighting against the Spanish. Throughout their encounters with the Spanish, the Aztecs continued to practice their traditional ceremonies and customs. The warrior Tlapaltecatl Opochtzin was chosen to be dressed in the quetzal owl costume. Once outfitted, he was supplied with darts sacred to Huitzilopochtli, with wooden tips and flint tops. When he appeared, the Spanish soldiers seemed genuinely frightened and intimidated. They pursued the owl-warrior, but he was not captured or killed. The Aztecs took this is as a good sign, especially because the Spanish forces did not attack for the rest of the day or the day after. Yet, the Aztecs could fight no longer, and after consulting with the surviving nobles, Cuauhtémoc commenced negotiations with the Spanish.[6]
The Aztecs surrendered on August 13, 1521. Supposedly, Cortes demanded the gold lost during La Noche Triste soon after. Cuauhtémoc was taken hostage and later executed.
Aztecs fled the city as the Spanish forces continued to attack the city even after the surrender, slaughtering thousands of the remaining population and looting the city.[8] As this practice was generally not done in European warfare, it suggests that Cortes's Indian allies had more power over him than he suggested. The survivors marched out of the city for the next three days.[1] Almost all of the nobility were dead, and the remaining survivors were mostly very young children.[9] Two-hundred and forty thousand Aztecs are estimated to have died during the siege, which lasted 80 days. The remaining Spanish forces consisted of 900 Spaniards, 80 horses, 16 pieces of artillery, and Cortes's 13 brigantines. [1]
It is well accepted that Cortes's Indian allies, which may have numbered as many as 200,000, were responsible for his success, though their aid was virtually unacknowledged and they derived little benefit. As there were several major allied groups, no one in particular was able to take power, and the person who benefited was Cortes. [4]
The Spanish government would laud his success and delight in the 7,000 tons of riches he had secured for the country. The battle would provide Spain with a foothold in Central America, a region that continues to primarily speak Spanish still today. The riches would help to fund later expeditions into the South American continent. Spain would become the dominant world power as a result and remain so until after the defeat of the Spanish Armada by England in 1588. Cortes was named the Captain General of New Spain and would continue to function as a conquistador until he returned home to Spain a hero later in his life and died there in 1547.[10]
↑ 1.00 1.01 1.02 1.03 1.04 1.05 1.06 1.07 1.08 1.09 1.10 1.11 1.12 1.13 1.14 1.15 1.16 1.17 1.18 1.19 1.20 1.21 1.22 1.23 1.24 1.25 1.26 1.27 1.28 1.29 1.30 1.31 1.32 1.33 Ross Hassig, Mexico and the Spanish Conquest. (New York: Longman, 1994).
↑ George Edwin Mueller, The Last Stand: An Aztec Iliad, PBS: Conquistadors - Cortés. Retrieved September 17, 2007.
↑ Michael Wood, Conquistadors, The Fall of the Aztecs. Retrieved September 17, 2007.
↑ 4.0 4.1 Jeremy Black. (ed.), World History Atlas. (London: Dorling Kindersley, 2000 ISBN 9780756609672).
↑ Michael Lee Lanning. The Battle 100: The Stories Behind History's Most Influential Battles. (Naperville: Sourcebooks, Inc., 2003 ISBN 9781570717994), 40.
↑ 6.0 6.1 6.2 6.3 6.4 6.5 Bernardino de Sahagun, "General History of The Things of New Spain," in The Human Record: Sources of Global History, Volume II, eds. Alfred J. Andrea and James H. Overfield (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2005 ISBN 9780618583331), 128-133.
↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 Lanning, 41.
↑ 8.00 8.01 8.02 8.03 8.04 8.05 8.06 8.07 8.08 8.09 8.10 8.11 8.12 Miguel León-Portilla, ed., The Broken Spears: The Aztec Account of the Conquest of Mexico. (Boston: Beacon Press, [1959] 1992 ISBN 9780807054994)
↑ 9.0 9.1 9.2 9.3 9.4 9.5 9.6 Serge Gruzinski. The Aztecs: Rise and Fall of an Empire. (New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1987 ISBN 9780810928213)
↑ Lanning, 42.
Cortés, Hernán. Letters from Mexico, Translated by Anthony Pagden. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1986. ISBN 0300090943
Díaz del Castillo, Bernal. The Discovery and Conquest of Mexico: 1517-1521. Cambridge: De Capo Press, 2004. ISBN 030681319X
León-Portilla, Miguel, ed. The Broken Spears: The Aztec Account of the Conquest of Mexico. Boston: Beacon Press, [1959] 1992. ISBN 0807055018
López de Gómara, Francisco. Historica general de las Indias. Linkgua US/Casavaria of Spain, 2006. ISBN 8496290131
Black, Jeremy, ed. World History Atlas. London: Dorling Kindersley, 2000.
Davis, Paul K. Besieged: 100 Great Sieges from Jericho to Sarajevo. Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003.
Gruzinski, Serge. The Aztecs: Rise and Fall of an Empire. New York: Harry N. Abrams, 1987.
Hassig, Ross. Mexico and the Spanish Conquest. New York: Longman, 1994.
Jacobs, W.J. Hernando Cortés. New York: Franklin Watts, Inc., 1974.
Lanning, Michael Lee. The Battle 100: The Stories Behind History's Most Influential Battles. Naperville: Sourcebooks, Inc., 2003. ISBN 1570717990
Manchip White, Jon. Cortés and the Downfall of the Aztec Empire. New York: Carroll & Graf, 1971. ISBN 0786702710
Mueller, George Edwin. The Last Stand: An Aztec Illiad. PBS: Conquistadors - Cortés. Retrieved August 19, 2019.
Prescott, William H. History of the Conquest of Mexico. New York: Modern Library, 2001. ISBN 0375758038 History of the Conquest of Mexico, with a Preliminary View of Ancient Mexican Civilization, and the Life of the Conqueror, Hernando Cortes. Retrieved August 19, 2019.
Restall, Matthew. Seven Myths of the Spanish Conquest. New York: Oxford University Press, 2003. ISBN 0195160770
Ricard, Robert. The Spiritual Conquest of Mexico, translated by Lesley Byrd Simpson. University of California Press, 1966. (originally 1933 in French, and 1947 in Spanish translation.)
de Sahagun, Bernardino. "General History of The Things of New Spain." In The Human Record: Sources of Global History, Volume II, edited by Alfred J. Andrea and James H. Overfield, 128-133. Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 2005.
Stein, R.C. The World's Greatest Explorers: Hernando Cortés. Chicago: Chicago Press Inc., 1991.
Thomas, Hugh. Conquest: Cortés, Montezuma, and the Fall of Old Mexico. New York: Simon & Schuster, 1993. ISBN 0671511041
Todorov, Tzvetan. The Conquest of America. New York: Modern Library, 1996. ISBN 0061320951
Wood, Michael. Conquistadors. The Fall of the Aztecs. PBS. Retrieved August 19, 2019.
Catholic Encyclopedia - Hernando Cortes
Conquistadors, with Michael Wood - website for 2001 PBS documentary
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History of "Battle of Tenochtitlan"
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It was 1893, and the World's Fair was coming to Chicago. Although Galesburg native George Washington Gale Ferris Jr. was living in Pittsburgh at the time, the challenge proposed by the fair's organizers to create a monument greater than the Eiffel Tower drew him back to his home state. Ferris' giant rotating wheel, designed to allow visitors to view the entire exposition, is now a fixture at almost every state fair and amusement parks worldwide.
It was the sort of project that would have made his grandfather proud. George Washington Gale, founder of Knox College, had challenged convention by allowing women and African Americans to attend Knox since its conception; likewise, Ferris had overcome widespread opposition to a device that would take people hundreds of feet into the air.
Although Ferris did not go to Knox, instead attending the Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute for engineering, his passion for innovation seems to have rubbed off on several generations of Knox alumni. From the zipper to the Center for American Progress, former Knoxians have produced a plethora of inventions and founded organizations that have affected business, politics and academic integrity. While their usefulness and longevity have varied, all have been a testament to their creators' willingness to get new ideas, however crazy they may seem, off the ground.
Williston contributed significantly to the college from 1844 until 1860, leading to the naming of Williston Hall after him in 1959. He also contributed to the printing industry via his invention of indelible ink, which is waterproof and therefore useful on clothing. Indelible ink has also been used in elections in several countries to mark people who have already voted in an effort to minimize electoral fraud.
An electrical engineer, William Phelps held 16 patents for lamps and lamp-related devices, as well as a "type-writing machine." Perhaps his most well known invention was the Hylo lamp, which allowed for the adjusting of the intensity of the lamp's light. Phelps also invented the motorless flasher, which allows an electrical sign to flash on and off by temporarily breaking the flow of electrical current.
Fed up with the time it took to fasten his high-buttoned boots, Whitcomb Judson invented a "clasp-locker" that would eventually become the modern zipper. While his first request for a patent was rejected, he would later exhibit his device at the same World's Fair where the Ferris wheel debuted. Despite encountering obstacles — early zippers tended to break apart easily — Judson's new fastener eventually appeared on flying suits for the United States Navy and rubber galoshes called Zippers, before taking off across the apparel industry.
An 1891 Knox graduate, Earnest Calkins knew he wanted to go into printing from a very young age. He was also completely deaf by age 14, which led to a difficult academic career, but he found extracurricular success at Knox as the editor-in-chief of the college's newspaper, then called Coup d'État. Calkins immersed himself in the advertising world after graduation, but he quickly realized that the industry was focusing too much on text and not enough on visual presentation. He founded his own agency in 1902, Calkins and Holden, which became one of the first agencies to use artwork in advertisements. Today, Calkins is referred to in the ad world as the "Dean of Advertising Men" for his efforts to revolutionize modern advertising.
Although 1903 Knox graduate Allen Green is best remembered for his poetry and photography, he also dabbled in inventing. While working as the official photographer for the CB&Q Railroad, Green investigated ways to get around the problem of capturing speeding trains with a camera, eventually developing a camera that would be triggered by the train itself and snap a picture. Other photography-related inventions would follow — as well as seemingly random ones, including a machine to pump up tennis balls. Negatives from Green's train-triggered camera are stored in the Knox College Special Collections and Archives.
A 1950 graduate, Thomas Kurtz entered the workforce just as computers were beginning to emerge and quickly jumped on the bandwagon. He and fellow Dartmouth professor John Kemeny developed the Beginner's All-Purpose Symbolic Instruction Code, or BASIC programming language, in order to simplify computer usage for non-computer science students. At the time, nearly all computer usage required writing custom software; with BASIC, Kurtz and Kemeny made computers more widely accessible through the use of logical commands such as if-then-else, which instructs a computer on how to respond to specific data inputs. Today, the BASIC language is the basis for Microsoft's Visual Basic, one of the most widely used programming languages in the world.
One-time President of the United Nations General Assembly Ismat Kittani '51 got his start in leadership at Knox. After six students were suspended for cheating in 1950, Kittani and fellow student Glenn LeFevre '50 championed an Honor System that would shift responsibility for maintaining academic honesty from faculty and administrators to students through the creation of the Honor Board and the Honor Code. Sixty years later, Kittani's system remains a major foundation of Knox's educational system; Kittani himself worked in various capacities for the U.N. until his death in 2001.
While at Knox in the late 1960s and early 1970s, John Podesta was well known for his involvement in progressive politics, something he continued as President Bill Clinton's Chief of Staff from 1998-2001 and as co-chairman of President Barack Obama's transition to office. Most recently, Podesta founded the Center for American Progress, a major progressive think tank in Washington, D.C. that develops and critiques policies surrounding "21st-century challenges," according to its website. Since its creation in 2003, CAP has emerged as one of the major liberal policy organizations in the D.C. area and has also opened a branch in Los Angeles.


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Microsoft Windows 11 is Coming…
You may have, or you may start hearing, about Windows 11, the latest version of the Microsoft Windows family.
Not that long ago, Microsoft said that Windows 10 "was the last major upgrade and that there would be no further Windows releases".
And now we have a new Windows release!
So what exactly is Windows 11?
Windows 11 is really a cosmetic upgrade to the Windows 10 operating system. It will bring a new look with the start menu moving to a bar centred along the bottom, along with new features, widgets and easier integration with Microsoft Teams.
Most new devices will start to ship with Windows 11 pre-installed and ready to go, with the update released to existing devices over the coming months, into 2022.
The upgrade will be available as a free update to existing Windows 10 users, so there is no additional license cost. The upgrade will be offered automatically, although currently most devices may not meet the minimum hardware requirements.
So with only cosmetic and small functional changes planned, for now we can sit back and wait for the updates to start rolling out. Once we have access to a copy of Windows 11, we can help understand the changes and impact better, and advice.
Please do not try to upgrade to Windows 11 yet. There is no official release for current computers running Windows 10 and with little wide-spread use, we are unsure of the exact changes and stability of the Operating Systems. Windows 10 will continue to receive important security updates, which will be applied automatically, so in 2022 after greater visibility and testing of Windows 11, we will release information on preparing for the upgrade.
Microsoft have also reversed their decision on Windows 10 with the announcement that it will stop supporting it come 2025. From then all machines will need to be on at least Windows 11. So whilst there is no chance to hide from the update, we have a few years to accept and adopt.
But for now – please sit tight and wait.
Author: Marketing
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Dr. Pamela Moss
Johnson City, New York, USA
Website: www.thesoulguide.com
A former Ivy League academic and homeschooling mom, Dr. Pamela Moss joyfully expresses her true purpose as your Soul Guide. She is on a mission to "Light Up the Lights" — to empower and connect light workers (coaches, healers, therapists, visionary artists, new paradigm leaders) in this time of planetary transition, so we can together assist the Shift and co-create the more beautiful world our hearts know is possible.
Pamela loves to help you fully access your own inner guidance, and systematically remove all your inner blocks, so you can shine your light, speak your truth, and live your purpose as the agent of transformation you are here to be.
The intuitive guidance and alignment work that flow through Pamela rapidly transform deep subconscious programming, freeing clients around the world to meet their highest potential. Her forthcoming book,"The Soul Guide to a Magical Life: How to Remove Your Blocks to Your Greatest Calling" introduces her Soul Alignment System to the world.
Her work is also featured in the #1 Mysticism bestseller, "The Vision Board: Secret to an Extraordinary Life", private art collections across the USA, numerous global telesummits, and sharing the stage with luminaries like Lisa Sasevich and John Assaraf of The Secret.
Pamela graduated magna cum laude from Barnard College where she majored in English and Philosophy and received the Sidney Minor Prize for excellence in writing. She received her PhD. in Philosophy of Education from Cornell University, where she was awarded the prestigious A.D. White University Fellowship and co-authored an ethics textbook. She loves to dance, sing, make art and garden, and lives in the beautiful countryside of upstate New York with her beloved soulmate and beloved cat.
Dr. Pamela's Books


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Another Horrific Gun Massacre: Children Slaughtered At Will
December 16, 2012 by PJV Contributor Leave a Comment
Time for the American Faith Community to Acknowledge Gun Violence as Religious and Moral Issue and Demand Action
— by Bryan Miller
According to press reports, as many as 27 people, including 18 elementary school children, were shot and killed by a lone gunman who attacked a school for 1st to 4th graders in Western Connecticut this morning.
Rabbi Linda Holtzman, Vice Chair of Heeding God's Call and Senior Rabbi of Mishkan Shalom Synagogue in the Manayunk section of Philadelphia said:
In this time of year sacred for so many Americans it is beyond rational comprehension how such a massacre of innocents could occur, but it did. How much more obvious can it be that such senseless loss of life — loss of God's Children, as we all are — demands that the American faith community call on all people and communities of faith to address gun violence as the religious and moral issue it is.
The Reverend James F. McIntire, Board Chair of Heeding God's Call, the growing faith-based and grassroots movement to prevent gun violence, and Pastor of Hope United Methodist Church in Havertown, PA, said:
First, we pray for the lost and all that knew and loved them. Second, we pray for our country to heal from the deep psychic wound this morning's slaughter has opened. Thirdly, and most importantly, we pray that the American faith community goes beyond prayer – to demand action to move this country to safety from mass shootings and the daily carnage of illegal guns that cities like Philadelphia suffer every day.
The Reverend Belita Mitchell, Chair of Heeding God's Call's Harrisburg Chapter and Pastor of Harrisburg First Church of the Brethren said: We at Heeding God's Call have long recognized gun violence as hostile to God's peaceable kingdom, so we believe it is absolutely a religious and moral problem that demands that all people of faith take activist roles in diminishing it – which is exactly what we are about. We call today and everyday on our sisters and brothers in faith to join with us in seeking an end to the carnage, for God's sake and ours.
The Reverend Todd Stavrakos, Heeding God's Call Board Member and Pastor of Gladwyne Presbyterian Church in Gladwyne, PA said: "This is the time of the year when Christians witness to the birth of a child, yet we just lost eighteen."
Heeding God's Call is the faith-based and grassroots movement to prevent gun violence. Headquartered in Philadelphia, Heeding is growing rapidly and has active chapters in NW, NE and West Phila, in its western suburbs, in Harrisburg, Baltimore and Washington, DC. Heeding seeks to bring faithful and public pressure on gun shops to persuade them to avoid selling to those who would put guns on the street. Heeding was instrumental in leading federal authorities to shutter notorious Colosimo's Gun Center on Spring Garden Street in late '09. Heeding is currently active at two gun shops in NE Philadelphia.
Filed Under: Uncategorized Tagged With: CT, GVP, Heeding God's Call, Holtzman, McIntire, Miller, Mitchell, Stravrakos
Jews and Latinos: Natural Allies
Does Temple University Condone Historical Revisionism?
Israel Turns 71: What Israelis May Be Thinking About
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This should be a very short blog! I was surprised to receive a gift from my wife: a keyboard for my tablet! And it is of my favourite kind: one with actual keys! very smooth! I just need to get used to not hitting F1 with I want the exclamation point!
Last week I picked up my new glasses! Now It can see better, yet things are still not perfect. It was three years ago when glasses last adorned my rugged and handsome face. I stopped wearing the old pair because they were scratched, and out of style! Bah! Now I can see much sharper images and clearer signing. Yeah!
Things are turning around for myself and my family!


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A Weblog API and XML-RPC
One of the mildly irritating things about XML-RPC is that it doesn't support named parameters directly. This makes it slightly more awkward to have standard function calls with optional parameters. But there's a simple fix for this which is to encase all the parameters into a struct in which case all the data is held in name-value pairs. I think this is actually a strength of XML-RPC because it provides two ways of encoding parameters at a very small cost in extra complexity for one of them.
In the last few days, we've seen another outburst of creativity among the various people thinking about a universal weblog API. The push to build a replacement and extension to the original Blogger API had already thrown up 3 or 4 attempts. Now Userland has thrown another into the ring and done so with an implementation as well as a spec. This has also caught the attention of Ev and so might easily find it's way into Blogger and Blogger Pro. At which point the sheer weight of deployment will make it a de facto standard that everyone else has to support as well. Interestingly, most of the new attempts including the one from Radio holds most (but not all) of the parameters in a struct. This is a good thing but if you're going to use a struct for some of them, why not use it for all?
Which is all well and good except that the original API had a number of highly Blogger Specific features and was brittle as it used plain parameters. And it's pretty easy to see that every attempt so far has the same problem that some aspect is unique to the specific system that the author is really trying to support. It doesn't feel like any of the authors have completely taken on board the idea that this API should be universal across as many different blog system architectures as possible.
Then there's the social problem of how standards like this are developed. Very occasionally a standard is developed and succeeds as a group effort. But in almost all other cases, a single (more or less benevolent) dictator in the form of an individual or organization drives the standard forward and makes it happen. So we have Ev and Blogger creating the first. And Dave and Userland creating the second. The rest of us can scream and shout and moan that they got it wrong and we may think that they have a duty to listen and take our comments on board. But in reality, there is no duty. The standard will succeed or fail on a combination of it's merits and the extent of the deployment. We may not like this, but it's the way it is.
So why am I saying all this? Well I wrote a Blogger API for Drupal and Drupal specific extensions and I use the Drupal version every day to communicate between a Delphi desktop blog editor and this blog in PHP. But frankly, I put no effort into promoting it beyond the Drupal community and in retrospect I got the API wrong. It works for me and gets my job done, but like everyone else I made it specific to the system I wanted to use.
I suspect the window has now closed for a while and the chances of producing an elegant and global standard are pretty slim. No matter how flawed the Blogger and Userland versions are, they've got the critical mass of deployment. But that doesn't stop me thinking about it and trying to come up with a solution in my head. I'm just not sure I've got the energy or time to justify and argue the case on the weblog-devel mailing list.
Enough ranting, here's some pointers.
Put everything in a struct and use named parameters. If a server gets a param it doesn't know, ignore it.
Have a bare minimum of primary function calls. I reckon you only need 4
setBlog() If you supply a postid, update, if you don't insert.
getBlog() Return a complete post
delBlog() delete a post identified with a postid
listBlogs() return a list of postids.
Use type string everywhere. You can't hope to get any commonality on the exact format of things like postid.
A post only has three elements. These are almost common across all systems. But if a system doesn't support one just ignore it. And if one is not supplied then auto-generate it.
Postid Every system has a unique id for identifying a post
Title If there's no title and you need one just come up with a heuristic to use the first n words of the body
Body self evident.
Every system uses a userid/password to identify the user so we better put those in.
Quite a lot of systems allow multiple blogs. by no means all, but enough to make it worthwhile including something for this. So we better have BlogId as well.
So that leaves us with:-
setBlog(struct(userid, password, blogid, postid, title, body)) returns postid; //postid=0 for failure
getBlog(struct(userid, password, blogid, postid)) returns struct(postid, title, body);
delBlog(struct(userid, password, blogid, postid)) returns boolean;
listBlogs(struct(userid, password, blogid, count, [start])) returns array(postids);
//return the last count postids, unless start is specified in which case return count postids starting at postid=start.
So there you have it. Simple, elegant, minimal. Everything else is an extension for a specific system. Guess I better go and write some code now.
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How To Watch Attack 2022 Full Movie, Starring John Abraham, Jacqueline Fernandez, Rakul Preet Singh
January 15, 2022 by moviespie
Watch Attack Full Movie: John Abraham is back after Satyameva Jayate 2, opposite Jacqueline Fernandez, Rakul Preet Singh in 2022's Attack film. The film was postponed many times due to corona creases. Here is the full information regarding Attack movie, how can you watch it, is it available online on OTT streaming platforms or releasing theatrically? Let's know everything about this movie.
Watch Attack Full Movie In Theaters
Attack is a Hindi action-thriller film directed and co-written by Lakshya Raj Anand. The film produced by Jayantilal Gada, John Abraham, and Ajay Kapoor, stars John Abraham alongside Jacqueline Fernandez and Rakul Preet Singh. The film is based on a hostage crisis, inspired by true events.
The film was originally scheduled for theatrical opening worldwide on 14 August 2020. However, it was delayed due to the shooting and COVID suspension. It is now scheduled for release on 28 January 2022 theatrically.
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Attack Movie OTT Release
The filmmakers have not given any statements if Attack movie releasing on Netflix, Prime Video, Hotstar or any other streaming services. We will tell you once it will be available to watch online.
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Attack Movie Story
A murder with no evidence. Based on today's time Kashmiri Pandit issue, The Hindus of the Kashmir Valley, a large majority of whom were Kashmiri Pandits, were forced to flee the Kashmir valley as a result of terrorism.
Attack (2022) Movie Full Details
Lakshya Raj Anand
Lakshya Raj Anand, Sumit Batheja, Vishal Kapoor
Jayantilal Gada, John Abraham, Ajay Kapoor
John Abraham, Jacqueline Fernandez, Rakul Preet Singh
P. S. Vinod, Soumik Mukherjee, Will Humphris
Aarif Sheikh
Shashwat Sachdev
JA Entertainment, Pen India Limited, AK Productions
Pen India Limited
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Attack Action, Sci-Fi, Thriller | January 28, 2022 (India)
Director: Lakshya Raj AnandWriter: John Abraham, Lakshya Raj Anand, Sumit BathejaStars: John Abraham, Jacqueline Fernandez, Rakul Preet Singh
Summary: A murder with no evidence. Based on today's time Kashmiri Pandit issue, The Hindus of the Kashmir Valley, a large majority of whom were Kashmiri Pandits, were forced to flee the Kashmir vall... Read all
Countries: IndiaLanguages: Hindi
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"And it is our last hot water bottle!" she exclaimed. As in the West, it is no good crying over spilled milk, so in Central Africa it might be considered no good crying over burst water bottles. They do not grow on trees, and there are no drugstores down forest pathways.
During prayer time, one ten-year old girl, Ruth, prayed with the usual blunt conciseness of our African children. "Please, God," she prayed, "Send us a hot water bottle today. It'll be no good tomorrow, God, as the baby will be dead, so please send it this afternoon."
As often with children's prayers, I was put on the spot. Could I honestly say, "Amen"? I just did not believe that God could do this. Oh, yes, I know that He can do everything, the Bible says so. But there are limits, aren't there? The only way God could answer this particular prayer would be by sending me a parcel from the homeland. I had been in Africa for almost four years at that time, and I had never, ever, received a parcel from home.
From the top, I lifted out brightly colored, knitted jerseys. Eyes sparkled as I gave them out. Then there were the knitted bandages for the leprosy patients, and the children looked a little bored. Then came a box of mixed raisins and sultanas - that would make a batch of buns for the weekend. Then, as I put my hand in again, I felt the.....could it really be? I grasped it and pulled it out - yes, a brand new, rubber hot water bottle. I cried.
I had not asked God to send it; I had not truly believed that He could. Ruth was in the front row of the children. She rushed forward, crying out, "If God has sent the bottle, He must have sent the dolly too!"
Rummaging down to the bottom of the box, she pulled out the small, beautifully dressed dolly. Her eyes shone! She had never doubted! Looking up at me, she asked: "Can I go over with you and give this dolly to that little girl, so she'll know that Jesus really loves her?" Of course, I replied!
Thank you for uploading this testimony of answered prayer.


Local-government financing vehicles (LGFVs) issued by Chinese companies for G3 bonds have shown dynamic growth over the past three years. While government policies have improved liquidity and increased transparency, Fitch Ratings (Fitch) believes these government related entities (GREs) face headwinds in the year ahead.
Q: What is Fitch's definition of LGFVs? Are all entities rated under Fitch's top down approach classified as LGFVs?
Fitch adopts a wide definition of LGFVs and treats them as a segment of GREs. LGFVs are entities set up by local governments that carry policy missions including urban development, rail transit and transportation.
Under Fitch's GRE criteria, we assess GREs on the strength of linkages with the government sponsor, and on the government sponsor's incentive to support the GREs. Within Fitch's portfolio, the majority of GREs are rated under a top down approach.
Fitch views these functional GREs' debt to be indirect liabilities of the government sponsor. For more commercially driven entities with less functional roles, Fitch has rated them under a bottom up approach.
Q: What is the outlook for Chinese LGFVs in 2019?
The ongoing effort by central authorities to increase the transparency of local governments' (LG) budget and debt management has made some progress. The current performance indicator has given local officials more incentive to balance economic growth and local debt management, as well as reining in the growth of indirect LG debts. Sanctions imposed on several LG officials incurring illegitimate LG financing in the past year further demonstrated Beijing's determination to ensure proper and transparent funding for LGs.
Fitch believes these measures will improve the supervision of local governments' indebtedness, enable authorities to better manage potential systemic risks arising from LG debt, and put LG financing on a more sustainable long-term path.
Q: What challenges does the LGFVs sector face?
The credit quality of LGs is constrained by the indirect liability burden from their satellite state-owned entities, especially the LGFVs. The authorities' deleveraging policies amid China's economic rebalancing, government fee and tax reduction initiatives and Sino-US trade tension could add more pressure to LGs' fiscal budgets in the medium term.
Moreover, headwinds also arise from the volatility in the property market. This particularly applies to third and fourth tier LGs whose budgets rely more heavily on land sales. Given the challenging external environment, we expect government policies to swing between boosting economic growth and deleveraging, and to see more policies potentially with competing objectives and implementation schedules. This will also create more uncertainty in the sector.
Although the authorities have set a clearer boundary between LGs and their financing vehicles from a legal and regulatory perspective, Fitch expects LGFVs will continue to play a critical role in rolling out local infrastructure investment and public expenditure. LGFVs will continue to undertake socio-economic policy mandates and support local economic development – owing to the structural mismatches between LGs' revenue and expenditure.
We believe LGFVs will gradually transform into local state-owned asset management and investment companies, and government service providers. As such, there may be several rounds of sector consolidation resulting in the polarisation of LGFVs. Those having strong policy mandates are likely to benefit, while others with weak policy mandates will eventually be sidelined and closed.
Q: How's the pipeline for LGFV bond issuance in 2019?
The liquidity and policy condition of LGFVs has largely improved since July 2018 when central authorities issued a policy statement to "ensure the proper funding needs of LGFVs".
The interest rate spread of LGFV bonds between onshore and offshore market has narrowed or even reversed – i.e. onshore funding cost is lower than offshore, especially for those with a credit profile above average. As such, we expect there will be less offshore issuance for this type of issuers.
For those with weak credits, Fitch expects their liquidity will still be quite tight in both onshore and offshore markets.
Q: Several LGFVs have issued green bonds. How are green bonds developing in this sector?
There is no doubt that the growth of green bonds has gained real momentum in the Asia-Pacific region (APAC). Chinese authorities have made a top down effort to encourage this asset class. By issuance volume, China has become the largest green bond market in APAC and the second-largest globally, just behind the US.
China's railway and metro companies are frequent issuers of green bonds due to the environmentally friendly nature of massive transit systems. Fitch has rated the offshore green bonds issued by Wuhan Metro Group (A/Stable) and Tianjin Rail Transit Group (A/Stable) in 2018, and these notes have been well received by the investors.
Urban developers could also become green bond issuers for developing the energy efficient and ecological friendly infrastructure facilities and buildings. Increasingly, LGFVs are starting to realise that being a green bond issuer could make them better aligned with the demands of regulators, investors, internal and external stakeholders.
Q: It seems Chinese LGFVs are unique. Are there similar entities in other counties?
LG funding via its satellite companies is a common practice around the world. We have observed and rated thousands of these entities from Europe (e.g. France and Italy), as well as in Asia-Pacific nations (e.g. New Zealand, India and China). Some smaller LGs want to collectively set up a financing vehicle to achieve a better funding cost – one example is the New Zealand Local Government Funding Agency Limited (AA/Stable).
Others might do so for better project management and higher efficiency, e.g. India's Kerala Infrastructure Investment Fund Board (BB/Stable) and SEMAPA (AA-/Stable) in France.
Although these LGFVs might carry different purposes and legal setups, they normally have close operational and financial links with their sponsors and their defaults will also potentially cause significant social, political and financial impact to their sponsors. As such, Fitch assesses the creditability of these LGFVs by using our unified GRE criteria globally.
Q: Does fundamental analysis matter for LGFVs' credit profile?
Fitch assesses the stand-alone credit profile of GREs, i.e. excluding potential extraordinary support from the government.
The majority of the GREs have a weak credit profile, with a likely rating in the 'B Category'. For typical urban developers, they tend to have limited profitability and high leverage with a net debt to EBITDA in double digits. The revenue of these entities is primarily derived from contracted works with the government, with substantial receivables due from the government.
Part of the debts of LGFVs will be settled via the repayment of these receivable or LGs' capital injection. These debt repayment sources might not be captured by the conventional profit and loss credit metrics. Such LGFV debts are therefore consolidated in the analysis of the LG indebtedness. The standalone credit profile of the LGFVs may have very limited value, explaining why those entities are rated top down from their "parent".


One night, in a Church Diaconate meeting, three issues of Church discipline came up in the same meeting -- however just one did not rest peacefully at the end of the meeting. Such issues are always unfortunate, and cause much awkwardness, soul-searching, and tension. One would rather not have them in the Church. In fact, some would think that something has gone wrong with the Church if such things come up at all. Yet my late wife Mirjam kept reminding me -- and I agree -- that such things are just as much a part of a thriving Church as are the things that bring joy and encouragement. One cannot separate them from each other. The result may be that one has neither.


text:
Le logis de Fontenay est un manoir situé à Fontenay-sur-Vègre, dans le département français de la Sarthe. Il bénéficie d'une inscription au titre des monuments historiques.

Localisation
Le monument est situé dans le département français de la Sarthe, à l'ouest du bourg de Fontenay-sur-Vègre, dominant la vallée de la Vègre.

Historique
Le logis a servi de décor, en 1997, à certaines scènes du film L'Homme au masque de fer avec Leonardo DiCaprio, Gérard Depardieu, Jeremy Irons, John Malkovich, Gabriel Byrne.

Architecture
Le corps de logis est inscrit au titre des monuments historiques le , tandis que les bâtiments fermant la cour avec le pigeonnier ainsi que les murs de soutènement et le sol de la cour sont inscrits depuis le .

Voir aussi

Articles connexes
 Liste des monuments historiques de la Sarthe

Bibliographie

Liens externes

Notes et références

Monument historique dans la Sarthe
Monument historique inscrit en 1926
Monument historique inscrit en 1995

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


text:
Brawl Stars Hack, Cheats & Mod APK to Get Unlimited Coins
by Harshil Patel
Brawl Stars Hack & Cheats
Brawl Stars is the new game that has been released recently by the infamous SuperCell as their fifth game. The franchise has already released many games previously that went viral across the world. Therefore as soon as the confirmation of the game has been announced, it spread virally on various social media platforms like Facebook, Instagram & Twitter.
The game is gossiped to have a Slug style gameplay which is played by a group of players under the multiplayer mode, known as 'Gangs.' The Gangs are formed either by your friends or people that you find online in the multiplayer mode who will go on the streets and fight against opponents to protect the city streets from enemies.
As interesting as the game sounds, it will take a while for the game to be released on iOS and Android devices, given that it will be the first released for the iDevices and then within the duration of 3 months, it will be released for the Android devices on Play Store.
About SuperCell – Making of Brawl Stars
Supercell is one of the prominent companies that develop mobile games for both iOS and Android devices. The company was first established in 2010 in Finland. The debut game of the company has been released under the name GunShine.net which is basically a web browser game, released in 2011; a year after the company has started. Ever since the company has been developing innovative mobile games for smartphones.
It successfully released four different popular games like Clash of Clans, Clash Royale, Boom Beach and Hay Day. All of these games are freemium games and have brought an extensive game to the company, and today it generates revenue of 2.4 Million Dollars in a day. The new game, Brawl Stars Hack has been released as the fifth game to bring the amusing gaming experience to the users.
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Brawl Stars Hack is a freemium game, and you don't have to purchase it as a premium game even on iTunes and App Store. However, there are few default inbuilt purchases that you may or may not purchase to acquire more coins, free upgrades and unlocks.
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The bands of Brawl Stars Hack are important here as they will help you in pitching players against each other so that the battles can be played with very well worked out strategies and by upgrading the brawlers and winning matches, you can reach the top of the leaderboard.
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Game Play of Brawl Stars MOD APK
Supercell has been the developer of impeccable Clash of Clans that gained many players across the world and with the release of Clash Royale, the Second Edition; the franchise became even more appealing to the gamers who love to play mobile games. As the company confirmed the release of a new game, it's time for everyone to anticipate for the new game given that it is rumored of containing Super Rowdy modes is in the air.
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Brawl Stars Hack is supposed to contain 4 different game modes which will have rough characters that have unique abilities along with the exclusive features, innovative battles, and intricate characters. You can shoot the people, knock them out, punch them right, blow the city streets and win the game irrespective the mode, that have been chosen.
#1. Crystals: The game contains crystals that are usually located at the map's center, and as a player, it is your responsibility to collect them while you fight the opponents to refrain them from collecting the same. The team which collects the 10 crystals first and hold the crystals with them without letting the enemies steal them will win the game in Smash & Grab mode.
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#3. Stars: Along with the coins, elixir, and chips, the Brawl Stars Hack also contains stars that are to be collected by the team in the multiplayer mode when the opponent team focuses on picking your team up. You should start fighting with them simultaneously while you focus on terminating the enemies to win the game with the most number of collected stars in Bounty mode of Brawl Stars Hack.
#4. Safe: The Heist mode of Brawl Stars Hack contains a safe which contains a treasure that has to be safeguarded. As a team, you should secure the crack while trying to crack open the opponent's safe. You will only be given two minutes to open the safe of the enemy and win with all the coins, crystals and everything that is inside their safe.
Must Read: How to Play Android Games on PC using Emulator?
Hack Brawl Stars by Downloading Brawl Stars Mod APK
While the game Brawl Stars Mod APK brings you a truckload of fun, you will reach a state of despair where the game becomes saturated, and you will lose the interest to play Brawl Stars Hack even after strategical planning. This is either because you don't want to spend money for in-app purchases or because of the limitations that have been set by the developers.
There is an option where you can trespass all these limitations and play the game in whichever way you want. These days as soon as the game is released as a part of Brawl Star Hack, the modded version of the app is being released to enable you in playing the game in whichever way you want.
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Before downloading on the mobile browser, enable the download option from unknown sources by visiting System Settings>Security>Unknown Sources and by checking it.
Access the Brawl Stars Hack file and click on it to run the installation process. Follow the instructions and wait for the installation to complete which will take few minutes.
Once it is done, check if the vanilla version of the game that you have downloaded from Play Store is uninstalled. If not, manually uninstall it and then reinstall this Brawl Stars Mod APK file.
Find the app on your home tray menu along with the logo and click on it to launch and run the Brawl Stars Hack game on your device. By doing this, you can play the game to collect unlimited coins, crystals, chips and even unlock many items from the purchase section.
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Wrapping up, Brawl Stars Mod APK game already has immense hype, and it has been released first on the iOS devices of Canada as a test version. After that, the bug-free version will be released, and within three months, you will have the Android version released on Play Store as well. The Brawl Stars Mod APK and Brawl Stars Hack will be soon made available after the release, and you can subscribe to our blog for more techniques, tips cheats to play the game.
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Harshil Patel
Harshil is a tech enthusiast with the zeal of changing the way people look at technology. He is often found testing out new gadgets when he's free!.
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text:
Дерево принятия решений (также называют деревом классификации или регрессионным деревом) — средство поддержки принятия решений, использующееся в машинном обучении, анализе данных и статистике. Структура дерева представляет собой «листья» и «ветки». На рёбрах («ветках») дерева решения записаны признаки, от которых зависит целевая функция, в «листьях» записаны значения целевой функции, а в остальных узлах — признаки, по которым различаются случаи. Чтобы классифицировать новый случай, надо спуститься по дереву до листа и выдать соответствующее значение.

Подобные деревья решений широко используются в интеллектуальном анализе данных. Цель состоит в том, чтобы создать модель, которая предсказывает значение целевой переменной на основе нескольких переменных на входе.

Каждый лист представляет собой значение целевой переменной, изменённой в ходе движения от корня по рёбрам дерева до листа. Каждый внутренний узел сопоставляется с одной из входных переменных.

Дерево может быть также «изучено» разделением исходных наборов переменных на подмножества, основанные на проверке значений признаков. Это действие повторяется на каждом из полученных подмножеств. Рекурсия завершается тогда, когда подмножество в узле имеет те же значения целевой переменной, таким образом, оно не добавляет ценности для предсказаний. Процесс, идущий «сверху вниз», индукция деревьев решений (TDIDT), является примером поглощающего «жадного» алгоритма, и на сегодняшний день является наиболее распространённой стратегией деревьев решений для данных, но это не единственная возможная стратегия.

В интеллектуальном анализе данных, деревья решений могут быть использованы в качестве математических и вычислительных методов, чтобы помочь описать, классифицировать и обобщить набор данных, которые могут быть записаны следующим образом:

Зависимая переменная Y является целевой переменной, которую необходимо проанализировать, классифицировать и обобщить. Вектор  состоит из входных переменных , ,  и т. д., которые используются для выполнения этой задачи.

Основные определения
При анализе решений посредством «дерева решений» используют визуальный и аналитический инструмент поддержки принятия решений для расчёта ожидаемых значений (или ожидаемой пользы) конкурирующих альтернатив.

Дерево решений состоит из трёх типов узлов:
 Узлы решения — обычно представлены квадратами
 Вероятностные узлы — представляются в виде круга
 Замыкающие узлы — представляются в виде треугольника

На рисунке, представленном выше, дерево решений следует читать слева направо. Дерево решений не может содержать в себе циклические элементы, то есть каждый новый лист впоследствии может лишь расщепляться, отсутствуют сходящиеся пути. Таким образом, при конструировании дерева вручную, мы можем столкнуться с проблемой его размерности, поэтому, как правило, дерево решений мы можем получить с помощью специализированного программного обеспечения.
Обычно дерево решений представляют в виде схематического чертежа, благодаря которому его проще воспринимать и анализировать.

Типология деревьев
Деревья решений, используемые при добыче данных, бывают двух основных типов:
 Дерево для классификации, когда предсказываемый результат является классом, к которому принадлежат данные;
 Дерево для регрессии, когда предсказываемый результат можно рассматривать как вещественное число (например, цена на дом, или продолжительность пребывания пациента в больнице).

Упомянутые выше термины впервые были введены Брейманом и др. Перечисленные типы имеют некоторые сходства (рекурсивный алгоритмы построения), а также некоторые различия, такие, как критерии выбора разбиения в каждом узле.

Некоторые методы позволяют построить более одного дерева решений (ансамбли деревьев решений):
 Бэггинг над деревьями решений, наиболее ранний подход. Строит несколько деревьев решений, неоднократно интерполируя данные с заменой (бутстреп), и в качестве консенсусного ответа выдаёт результат голосования деревьев (их средний прогноз);
 Классификатор «Случайный лес» основан на бэггинге, однако в дополнение к нему случайным образом выбирает подмножество признаков в каждом узле, с целью сделать деревья более независимыми;
 Бустинг над деревьями может быть использован для задач как регрессии, так и классификации. Одна из реализаций бустинга над деревьями, алгоритм XGBoost, неоднократно использовался победителями соревнований по анализу данных.
 «Вращение леса» — деревья, в которых каждое дерево решений анализируют первым применением метода главных компонент (PCA) на случайные подмножества входных функций.

Алгоритмы построения дерева
Есть различные способы выбирать очередной признак:

 Алгоритм ID3, где выбор признака происходит на основании прироста информации (), либо на основании критерия Джини.
 Алгоритм C4.5 (улучшенная версия ID3), где выбор признака происходит на основании нормализованного прироста информации ().
 Алгоритм CART и его модификации — IndCART, DB-CART.
 Автоматический детектор взаимодействия Хи-квадрат (CHAID). Выполняет многоуровневое разделение при расчёте классификации деревьев;
 MARS: расширяет деревья решений для улучшения обработки цифровых данных.

На практике, в результате работы этих алгоритмов часто получаются слишком подробные деревья, которые при их дальнейшем применении дают много ошибок. Это связано с явлением переобучения. Для сокращения деревьев используют  ().

Достоинства метода
В отличие от остальных методов добычи данных, метод дерева принятия решений имеет несколько достоинств:
 Прост в понимании и интерпретации.
 Не требует специальной подготовки данных, как например: нормализации данных, добавления фиктивных переменных, а также удаления пропущенных данных.
 Способен работать как с категориальными, так и с интервальными переменными. (Прочие методы работают лишь с теми данными, где присутствует лишь один тип переменных. Например, метод отношений может быть применён только на номинальных переменных, а метод нейронных сетей только на переменных, измеренных по интервальной шкале.)
 Использует модель «белого ящика», то есть если определённая ситуация наблюдается в модели, то её можно объяснить при помощи булевой логики. Примером «черного ящика» может быть искусственная нейронная сеть, так как полученные результаты сложно объяснить.
 Позволяет оценить модель при помощи статистических тестов. Это даёт возможность оценить надёжность модели.
 Метод хорошо работает даже в том случае, если были нарушены первоначальные предположения, включённые в модель.
 Позволяет работать с большим объёмом информации без специальных подготовительных процедур. Данный метод не требует специального оборудования для работы с большими базами данных.

Недостатки метода
 Проблема получения оптимального дерева решений является NP-полной задачей, с точки зрения некоторых аспектов оптимальности даже для простых задач. Таким образом, практическое применение алгоритма деревьев решений основано на эвристических алгоритмах, таких как алгоритм «жадности», где единственно оптимальное решение выбирается локально в каждом узле. Такие алгоритмы не могут обеспечить оптимальность всего дерева в целом.
 В процессе построения дерева решений могут создаваться слишком сложные конструкции, которые недостаточно полно представляют данные. Данную проблему называют переобучением. Для того, чтобы её избежать, необходимо использовать метод «регулирования глубины дерева».
 Существуют понятия, которые сложно понять из модели, так как модель описывает их сложным путём. Данное явление может быть вызвано проблемами XOR, чётности или мультиплексарности. В этом случае мы имеем дело с непомерно большими деревьями. Существует несколько подходов решения данной проблемы, например, попытка изменить репрезентацию концепта в модели (составление новых суждений), или использование алгоритмов, которые более полно описывают и репрезентируют концепт (например, метод статистических отношений, индуктивная логика программирования).
 Для данных, которые включают категориальные переменные с большим набором уровней (закрытий), больший информационный вес присваивается тем признакам, которые имеют большее количество уровней.

Регулирование глубины дерева
Регулирование глубины дерева — это техника, которая позволяет уменьшать размер дерева решений, удаляя участки дерева, которые имеют маленький вес.

Один из вопросов, который возникает в алгоритме дерева решений — это оптимальный размер конечного дерева. Так, небольшое дерево может не охватить ту или иную важную информацию о выборочном пространстве. Тем не менее, трудно сказать, когда алгоритм должен остановиться, потому что невозможно спрогнозировать, добавление какого узла позволит значительно уменьшить ошибку. Эта проблема известна как «эффект горизонта». Тем не менее, общая стратегия ограничения дерева сохраняется, то есть удаление узлов реализуется в случае, если они не дают дополнительной информации.

Регулирование глубины дерева должно уменьшить размер обучающей модели дерева без уменьшения точности её прогноза или с помощью перекрестной проверки. Есть много методов регулирования глубины дерева, которые отличаются измерением оптимизации производительности.

Методы регулирования
Сокращение дерева может осуществляться сверху вниз или снизу вверх. Сверху вниз — обрезка начинается с корня, снизу вверх — сокращается число листьев дерева.
Один из простейших методов регулирования — уменьшение ошибки ограничения дерева. Начиная с листьев, каждый узел заменяется на самый популярный класс. Если изменение не влияет на точность предсказания, то оно сохраняется.

Пример задачи
Предположим, что нас интересует, выиграет ли наша любимая футбольная команда следующий матч.
Мы знаем, что это зависит от ряда параметров; перечислять их все — задача безнадёжная, поэтому ограничимся основными:
 выше ли находится соперник по турнирной таблице;
 дома ли играется матч;
 пропускает ли матч кто-либо из лидеров команды;
 идёт ли дождь.
У нас есть некоторая статистика на этот счёт:

Хочется понять, выиграет ли наша команда в очередной игре.

См. также
 Random forest — классификатор, основанный на применении комитетов из решающих деревьев
 Переобучение
 Машинное обучение — класс методов искусственного интеллекта, характерной чертой которых является не прямое решение задачи, а обучение в процессе применения решений множества сходных задач
 Таблица принятия решений

Примечания

Ссылки
 Конспект лекции по деревьям принятия решений
 Decision trees applet provides several sample data sets of examples to learn and classify

Литература

Машинное обучение