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Лені Ріфеншталь, Берта Елена Амалія Ріфеншталь (; 22 серпня 1902, Берлін — 8 вересня 2003, Пеккінг, Німеччина) — німецька акторка, спортсменка та кінорежисерка епохи нацизму.

Життя і творчість

Відома акторка і режисерка була в тісних дружних відносинах з Адольфом Гітлером. Ріфеншталь за її фільми, передусім «Тріумф волі» і «Перемогу віри», досі звинувачують у прославлянні забороненої після Другої світової війни ідеології націонал-соціалізму. Ці звинувачення Ріфеншталь відкидала.

Завдяки фільму «Блакитне світло» Лені Ріфеншталь стала відомою режисеркою, і свою увагу на неї звернув сам Адольф Гітлер. У лютому 1932 року вона присутня на його виступі в берлінському Палаці спорту. В травні 1932 року Ріфеншталь пише йому лист. Незабаром між ними відбувається зустріч. Після їх першої зустрічі, Ріфеншталь виїжджає до Гренландії на знімання чергового фільму Арнольда Фанка «SOS — айсберг». Зйомки фільму завершуються в кінці травня.

У серпні 1933 року Ріфеншталь прийняла пропозицію зняти фільм про п'ятий з'їзд НСДАП в Нюрнберзі. Вона працювала над фільмом разом із відомими операторами (Зепп Алльгайер, Франц Ваймайр і Вальтер Френц) і сама монтувала фільм. Продюсером фільму виступає міністерство пропаганди на чолі з Ґеббельсом. Прем'єра «Перемоги віри» відбулася 1 грудня 1933 року. Проте, в результаті ночі довгих ножів, фільм практично відразу після прем'єри вийшов із прокату. Причиною цього, серед іншого, стало відносне рівне зображення у фільмі начальника штабу нацистських штурмових загонів Ернста Рема і Адольфа Гітлера, чого, природно, Гітлер не міг допустити.

Можна вважати, що для Ріфеншталь цей фільм став своєрідною «пробою пера» у порівнянні з її ж пізнішою картиною «Тріумф волі».

У 1936—1938 роках Лені Ріфенштайль займалася зніманням і монтажем фільму «Олімпія», присвяченого Олімпійським іграм 1936 року в Берліні. Фільм мав дві частини: «Олімпія. Частина 1: Свято народів», «Олімпія. Частина 2: Свято краси». Фільму було високо оцінено за музику і звукові ефекти, за красу гірських пейзажів і сцен світанку, а також за чудовий монтаж. Фільм отримав кілька міжнародних нагород.

1939 року для знімання фільму «Пентезіл'ї» вона заснувала власну кінокомпанію «Leni Riefenstahl Film GmbH». Ріфеншталь працювала над сценарієм і також вела підготовчі роботи до знімань. Проте робота уривається 1 вересня 1939 року через початок Другої світової війни. Вона сама і співробітники її кінокомпанії вступають до армії, як військові кореспонденти, для висвітлення військових дій в Польщі. Жорстокі вбивства солдатами вермахту польських цивільних осіб в місті Конське наводять на неї жах, і вона відмовляється від подальшої роботи. За твердженням самої Ріфеншталь, вона також написала скаргу на дії військових у відповідну інстанцію.

У період з 1949 по 1987 роки відбулося декілька судових процесів з приводу насильницького залучення циган з табору Максглан до зйомок у фільмі «Низина» під час нацистської диктатури. У деяких з них Лені Ріфеншталь була звинуваченою. У ході всіх процесів причетність Ріфеншталь до насильницького залучення циган до знімань була названа наклепом.

Її остання акторська робота — знятий 1993 року режисером-документалістом Реєм Мюллером фільм «Сила образів: Лені Ріфеншталь, або дивне, страшне життя Лені Ріфеншталь». Цей фільм отримав премію «Еммі» і спеціальний приз кінокритиків в Японії. 2001 року президент МОК Хуан Антоніо Самаранч у швейцарській Лозанні нарешті вручає їй Золоту медаль Міжнародного олімпійського комітету за фільм «Олімпія» (хоча медаль і була присуджена її ще в далекому 1938 році, проте отримати її вона довгий час не могла).

2002 року Лені Ріфеншталь святкувала свій столітній ювілей у колі безлічі зірок (серед інших, наприклад, Зігфрід і Рой).

8 вересня 2003 року, через два тижні після свого 101-го дня народження, Лені Ріфеншталь померла у власному будинку в містечку Пекинг, що на Штарнберзькому озері.

Останні фільми Лені Ріфеншталь — «Кораловий рай» і «Мрії про Африку», були показані й в Україні (старт прокату відбувся 4 жовтня 2007 року).

Особисте життя
У 1940 році на зніманнях фільму «Долина» Лені Ріфеншталь познайомилася зі своїм майбутнім чоловіком Петером Якобом (). Лейтенант альпійських стрільців Якоб перебував в Австрії на відпочинку після поранення і знімався в кіно як каскадер. Згодом він воював на східному фронті (за полярним колом) і в Італії. Ріфеншталь і Якоб одружилися 21 березня 1944 року в Кіцбюелі.

30 березня 1944 року Ріфеншталь востаннє зустрілася з Адольфом Гітлером в його резиденції Берґгоф.

Влітку 1944 року помер її батько, на східному фронті загинув її брат Гайнц (який за доносом був звинувачений в купівлі м'яса на чорному ринку й антивоєнних висловлюваннях, позбавлений звання і відправлений у штрафний батальйон).

Незадовго до кінця війни до неї до Кіцбюеля приїхала мати.

Фільмографія

Режисерські роботи
 Синє світло (Das Blaue Licht), 1932
 Перемога віри (), 1933
 Тріумф волі (Triumph des Willens), 1934
 День свободи — наш Вермахт (Tag der Freiheit — Unsere Wehrmacht), 1935
 Олімпія (Olympia), 1938
 Низина (), 1954
 Підводні враження (), 2002

 Акторські роботи
 1925: «Wege zu Kraft und Schönheit — Ein Film über moderne Körperkultur» — «Шляхи до сили і красі — фільм про сучасну фізичну культуру»
 1926: «Der heilige Berg» — «Священна гора», режисер Арнольд Фанк
 1927: «Der große Sprung» — «Великий стрибок», режисер Арнольд Фанк
 1928: «Das Schicksal derer von Habsburg» — «Доля Габсбургів», режисер Рудольф Раффе
 1929: «Die weiße Hölle vom Piz Palü» — «Біле пекло Піц Палю», режисери Арнольд Фанк і Георг Вільгельм Пабст
 1930: «Stürme über dem Montblanc» — «Бурі над Монбланом», режисер Арнольд Фанк
 1931: «Der weiße Rausch — neue Wunder des Schneeschuhs» — «Біле божевілля — нове лижне диво», режисер Арнольд Фанк
 1932: «Das blaue Licht» — «Блакитне світло»
 1933: «SOS Eisberg» — «SOS — айсберг», режисер Арнольд Фанк
 1954: «Tiefland» — «Долина»
 1993: «Die Macht der Bilder» — «Влада образів», режисер Рей Мюллер
 2003: «Leni Riefenstahl — Ein Traum von Afrika» — «Лені Ріфеншталь — мрія про Африку», режисер Рей Мюллер

 Нагороди

 Державні нагороди

 Німецький Олімпійський знак 2-го класу — за знімання різноманітних спортивних подій під час Олімпіади 1936 року.

 Джерела

 Angolia, John (1989). For Führer and Fatherland: Political & Civil Awards of the Third Reich'', p. 21.

Примітки

Посилання

 Офіційна сторінка
 Подробности
 Das blaue Licht. Stills of Walter Riml, photographer of the film
 Encyclopedia Britannica — Leni Riefenstahl (German director and actor)

Персоналії за алфавітом
Німецькі акторки
Німецькі кінорежисери
Кінорежисерки
Німецькі фотографи
Сторічні довгожителі
Акторки за алфавітом
Нагороджені Німецьким Олімпійським знаком 2-го класу
Уродженці Берліна


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The massive firsts that just happened for women in the US
MA is getting its first black congresswoman while Arizona and Tennessee stand to elect their first woman senators as part of historic firsts following Tuesday's midterm elections.
What is already the most diverse Congress ever will become even more so after Tuesday's elections, which broke barriers of race and gender.
Ilhan Omar, congresswoman-elect for Minnesota's 5th district.Rashida Tlaib, congresswoman-elect for Michigan's 13th district.
A Republican who served in the House will become the first woman to represent Tennessee in the Senate. Two others - Sharice Davids in Kansas' 3rd District and Deb Haaland in New Mexico's 1st District - will become the first Native American women in the chamber.
Georgia governor's race candidate Stacey Abrams, a Democrat, was in a fierce battle to become America's first black woman governor, and Florida Democrat Andrew Gillum was bidding to become the first black governor of Florida.
Women won more seats than ever before in the US House after a record number of female candidates were on ballots across the country, fueled by Democratic opposition to President Donald Trump.
Jahana Hayes similarly will join the freshman class as Connecticut's first black female representative.
Alexandria Ocasio-Cortez, congresswoman-elect for New York's 14th district. The data showed that this year, white women split their vote between Democratic and Republican candidates for the House, but they preferred Republican candidates in 2010 and 2014. On Tuesday, she defeated her Republican opponent to represent New York's Fourteenth District, which includes part of New York City.
More news: Djokovic wins Paris opener as Federer confirms return
"Together, we made history!"
Democrat Mike Espy, who will face Mississippi Republican Representative Cindy Hyde-Smith in a December runoff, could become the state's first black senator since Reconstruction.
And it's a mobilization that could lead to a Democratic majority that is more responsive to women's concerns.
Some conservatives on social media saw the irony of blaming white women for voting for a Hispanic candidate, simply because he's Republican. Democrat Janet Mills of ME and Republican Kristi Noem of South Dakota are the first women elected as governor in their state.
Tuesday's record wins for women happened not only in congressional races but all the way down the ballot, which could later set them up to run for higher office in the future.
More women ran in congressional primaries this year than ever before, mostly as Democrats. A previous tally from Rutgers' Center for American Woman and Politics had the current record total of women in the House at 84 and the overall total including the Senate at 107. And in several cases, the result was preordained one way or another because both major party candidates in a given race were women, as in the Arizona Senate contest.
Conventional political wisdom says that every election is the most important election of your life, and if you're one of the women below, then this midterm election really was the biggest possible deal. One year ago, she was working in a restaurant, she ran a grassroots campaign with a progressive agenda including universal medicare, gun control and access to affordable housing.
Xi Jinping and Uhuru Kenyatta agreed to deepen their cooperative partnership
Mr Trump has repeatedly criticised China's trade surplus with the USA which he wants to narrow through the imposition of tariffs . He said China's $12 trillion-a-year economy is "a sea, not a small pond" and can withstand shocks.
IND vs WI 1st T20I: All-round Krunal stars in India's tricky chase
In fact, Windies have beaten India five times out of the seven matches that both teams have been a part of. The latter has only two wins to its credit while one match was abandoned.
U.S. Trade Deficit With China Hits All-Time High Despite Tariffs
Trump's posture toward China has been closely watched by investors, who are looking for the possibility of tensions cooling. The Chinese president was also quoted as saying that he was willing to meet Trump in Argentina during the G-20 summit.
How will Jeff Sessions' ouster affect the Mueller probe?
Trump over his recusal from the investigation into potential coordination between Russian Federation and the Trump campaign. Senator Lindsey Graham, a Republican representing SC , vowed to help President Trump find a worthy successor for Sessions.
Utahns grieve for mayor killed in Afghanistan in 'apparent insider attack'
Indeed, Burton underscored the fact that other Afghan forces killed the suspect who had fired on Taylor with "small arms fire". The officials say another US service member is being treated for wounds sustained in the attack in Kabul on Saturday, Nov. 3.
Early voting turnout smashes previous years Johnson City Press
There are more than 13 million registered voters in Florida, where the governor's office and a Senate seat are in play. Importantly, the deadline to return mail-in ballots to the county Board of Elections for counting has changed.
UFC star Conor McGregor comments on Floyd Mayweather and his RIZIN fight
The American boxer has a 50-0 record and recently revealed he is coming out of retirement to face Nasukawa on New Year's Eve. The exact nature of the bout in terms of rules for the fight were not announced during the press conference .
U.S. midterms: Texas Republican Ted Cruz beats challenge from Beto O'Rourke
Cruz has for years warned that a Democratic Texas would mean his party would never again win the White House. Both said strong early voting statewide was a good sign for them.
Morata double gives Chelsea victory over Palace
He has also overseen unbeaten starts in the Europa League and EFL Cup, using 26 players in total. It is hard to think you can recover this gap in one season, or in six months.
India, China Among Eight Countries Allowed to Buy Iranian Oil: Mike Pompeo
Industry estimates suggest Iran's oil exports have fallen 40 to 60 percent since Trump said in May he would reimpose sanctions. Even China, locked in a bitter trade war with the United States, bowed to pressure from Washington and dialled back imports.
10 best photos from Chargers' 25-17 win over the Seahawks
At the end of the day, Seattle plays well at home and given the weakness in the Chargers' secondary, Wilson should have a great day at the office.
Woman Reveals She Made Up Allegation Against Justice Kavanaugh
A woman who claimed she was raped by Supreme Court Justice Brett Kavanaugh later recanted her claim and admitted she lied. Munro-Leighton wrote in an October 3 email, claiming to have been a victim of the judge.
IPhone XR Sales are Much Softer Than Expected
Apple closed just above $200 amid a wider tech sell-off which has seen other FAANG stocks fall in recent weeks. Foxconn initially built out 60 assembly lines for the iPhone XR, expecting extremely high demand for the unit.
Jury selection begins for El Chapo's trial
They agreed to co-operate and record phone conversations with Guzman about the size of shipments smuggled on boats and airplanes. During the trial there will be increased security, including patrols by heavily armed federal agents.
Champions League: Red Star Belgrade upset Liverpool
There were plenty of candidates for worst player , but Daniel Sturridge's terrible first half performance was noticeably awful. A few we had to make and a few we wanted to but it is easy to say it didn't work out in the end.
Almost 80 children kidnapped in Cameroon released but two teachers still held
The group was abducted in Bamenda, a commercial hub of Cameroon's restive English-speaking region , on Monday. The government responded with a crackdown and separatists fought back.
Liverpool Star Slams Strikers after Arsenal Game
Liverpool recorded a 1-1 draw on the road away to Arsenal on Saturday evening in the Premier League. "He is improving. Both sides played top quality football at the Emirates as Arsenal were on the backdrop of a 12-match unbeaten run.
Battles rock Yemen port city as United Nations warns of 'living hell'
The offer followed a surprise call by the United States for an end to the Yemen war, including air strikes by the coalition. UN Secretary-General Antonio Guterres on Friday had called for a halt to violence to pull Yemen back from the "precipice".
NC navigators available to help with ACA open enrollment
Census Bureau put that number at an 10.5 percent in 2017, still higher than the national uninsured rate of 8.7 percent. - For the first time this year, there will not be a penalty for not having minimum essential coverage.
Trump Confident of Fair Trade Deal with China
A key point of contention for the U.S. has been its allegations that China has engaged in widespread intellectual property theft. Thursday's meeting was the first telephone conversation between the leaders in six months of which is openly reported.
Trump tweets his plans to reimpose sanctions on Iranian regime
Pompeo said two of the jurisdictions, which he did not identify, will wind down Iranian oil imports to zero in "weeks". It is part of efforts by Iran and its customers to keep oil flowing ahead of a new U.S. embargo set to hit on Monday.
De Bruyne out for up to six weeks
It is the desire of them. "My opinion is not changed because of two goals or because he was not selected in any Premier League games".

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Limelight Records waren ein Sub-Label von Mercury Records überwiegend für Jazz.

Das Sublabel wurde 1963 von Quincy Jones initiiert und von Jack Tracy geleitet. Anfangs veröffentlichten sie bekannte Jazzmusiker wie Art Blakey, Dizzy Gillespie, Milt Jackson, Oscar Peterson, Les McCann, Roland Kirk, Earl Hines, Chet Baker, Eric Dolphy, Benny Carter und Gerry Mulligan. Ende der 1960er Jahre wechselten sie den Schwerpunkt zu elektronischer und experimenteller Musik, indischer Musik und psychedelischem Rock.

Der Katalog ist heute bei Verve, die einige der Alben neu auf CD herausbrachten.

Weblinks

Jazz-Label
Musiklabel (Los Angeles)

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Do you welcome the chance to interact with your potential customers?
Many small business owners often see customers as an annoyance, despite them being the source of their annual turnover. Instead of making it easy for customers to purchase, to get information or try before they buy, they become frustrated and see them as a hindrance.
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Wasting Time and Effort on Marketing?


Gyanshree School, Sector 127 offers Pre-Nursery, Nursery, Kindergarden, Primary School, Middle School and High School and is affiliated to CBSE (2132102). This Private Co-Educational School in Noida was founded in 2014 and is located in Sector 127. Checkout its exact location and address at the school pointer on the map section.
Ranked at No. 65 for top Co-Ed Schools in the Country By Education World India School Ranking 2016, Gyanshree was founded under the guidance of a leading business house and today offers a high end R&D Centre is in partnership with two premier educational institutions from Finland and Singapore. With a campus estimated to cost Rs.85 crore, Gyanshree has modern infrastructure designed by Delhi-based architectural firm WeDesign. The campus spread over a 10 acre site and offer 2.8 acre of wi-fi enabled area. The school house 22 spacious classrooms and an open air amphitheatre that can accommodate 600 people. Gyanshree also has a double storey sports complex that offers basketball and volleyball courts, separate swimming pools for junior and senior students, a 10-metre shooting range and gymnasium.
The child needs to be minimum 3 Years as on 31 March 2019 to be eligible for Nursery admission. School Admission applications can be made Offline at the school and Online on the school website. Originals and copies of the following documents are typically required for processing application of admission: 2 Photographs of child & Parents, Birth Certificate, Proof of residence, Child's immunization record and Previous year report card. New academic session for the school starts from April. You can find further details below for reference on admission eligibility and application for Nursery and Higher Grades in the section below, but we strongly recommend that you check the school website for most accurate and up-to-date information.


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Poulton-le-Fylde Market Cross, in the English market town of Poulton-le-Fylde, Lancashire, was likely erected in the 17th century. Standing at the southern end of Market Place, it is a Grade II listed structure.

It is a Tuscan column constructed of stone, consisting of three tapered cylinders on a square pedestal, which in turn sits on a circular plinth of four steps. On top of the cylinders is a ball finial with a cross. The cross is similar to those at Kirkland and Garstang and is situated between the stocks and the fish stones.

References

Sources

External links
A 19th-century view of the market cross

Buildings and structures in Poulton-le-Fylde
Grade II listed buildings in Lancashire
Market crosses in England


OPENING up our region to Chinese investment in trade and tourism was discussed at a meeting between key stakeholders yesterday.
Representatives from Gladstone Industry Leadership Group, Gladstone Ports Corporation, Gladstone Engineering Alliance, GAPDL, Gladstone Regional Council and CQUniversity attended the meeting run by the Australia International Trade Association and Associates.
The AITAA is an association which aims in building a platform for bridging bilateral cooperation between Australia and China in various fields and promoting the establishment of friendship cities from a government level.
AITAA chief executive officer Michael Guo, who immigrated to Australia in the 1980s, facilitated the meeting with Councillor Desley O'Grady representing GRC.
The meeting followed Cr O'Grady's trip to China last year.
"We came here to meet with representatives from the Gladstone community because we had Cr Desley O'Grady join our trade mission to China in September last year," Mr Guo said, who was joined by colleague Steven Moon at the meeting.
"So with Desley's trip to China we came here to meet with all her friends.
"We want to get a deeper understanding of business opportunities available in the region after meeting with various representatives from various industries."
Tourism opportunities were also discussed during the delegation's visit.
"10 years ago I wouldn't say there's too much opportunity for a regional city like Gladstone, but now quite a lot of middle class Chinese families have been to Australia one or two times," Mr Guo.
"But they're are not only thinking of Sydney or Melbourne - they really want to see true Australia - I would say a regional city like Gladstone is really the true spirit of Australia.
"When you go to big cities there's not too much difference, they're busy like Sydney. You go to Beijing or Shanghai it's very busy.
"Here it's really relaxed but has a very special taste."
And on the subject of taste, Mr Guo will also visit Rockhampton to talk beef with Beef Australia CEO Denis Cox.
Cr Desley O'Grady was thrilled with the outcome of the meeting.
"When I went to China I met with Michael and Steven and when they had the opportunity they'd come to Gladstone to see what they thought of Gladstone and see what they had to offer," Cr O'Grady said.
"We've got so many things in common with China in import and export so it would be fantastic if we could jump on board with them and make connections with China. We need to be China-ready for tourism and I think this is a great step in the right direction."


After he had broken up with Rapture following the apparent death of their son, Dragon began to sleep around quite a bit. One of his lovers was a young woman named Claire Bono. She was with him when the Martians invaded Earth but the relationship went nowhere as she did not believe that Dragon and Rapture were truly apart.
Many years after this, Claire returned when she began dating SuperPatriot. Her relationship with a superhero made her a great friend to Debbie Grayson, the wife of Omni-Man, whose civilian guise was a writer that Claire was the publicist for. It was not long before SuperPatriot and Claire got married and soon had twins, Liberty and Justice.


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Heraclitus and Aesthetics
On the face of it, Heraclitus seems to have little to say about aesthetics or the philosophy of art. He does anticipate Plato in criticizing the poets Homer and Hesiod for telling lies. And he also has some important things to say about harmony. One might leave it there, but I always like to look at the great philosophers from an aesthetic point of view and Heraclitus has a lot to offer in that regard. He certainly influenced Nietzsche, Heidegger and Derrida among the modern greats (Derrida's idea of a deconstructive reading seems to me just an extension of Heraclitean theory of interpretation, the dynamic of opposites playing a central role in both philosophers.) I will be using mainly the Robin Waterfield translation of the fragments as appearing in The First Philosophers: The Presocratics and the Sophists (Oxford, 2000) and my discussion is greatly influenced by his arrangement and commentary. However, that is almost arbitrary since different classical scholars arrange the fragments differently and some have interestingly different translations, or shed light on the meanings of specific terms. In particular, I am inspired by Edward Hussey "Heraclitus" in The Cambridge Companion to Early Greek Philosophy ed. A. A. Long, Cambridge University Press, 1999.
I make no claims to be a Heraclitus scholar: mainly I am interested in engaging in a dialogue with Heraclitus. On a personal note, Heraclitus is one the first philosophers I ever fell in love with, probably at the age of fifteen. I had read The Aristos by John Fowles and went from there to his source. Reading Heraclitus at a young age probably gave me a lifelong skepticism concerning rationalism and any logic-centered philosophy that does not give sufficient credit to the way that tensions can underlie harmonies and the way opposites can be internally related. Heraclitus is not an aesthetic philosopher just because he talks about harmonies but also because these harmonies, or what Hussey calls "latent structures" are metaphor-like. Looking at the world fundamentally through metaphors is, I would argue, an aesthetic way of looking. The metaphysics we get from this mirrors the epistemology and methodology insofar as aphorisms that are riddles (of the sort that make up the fragments of Heraclitus) are kinds of metaphors that reveal something that is itself essentially metaphor-like. Unlike Plato's view of essences, Heraclitus's makes the philosopher's quest not for final definitions but for deeper knowledge of this metaphorical dimension of reality. Moreover, the symbol of fire, so central to Heraclitus, I understand as referring to the quality of aura, the glowing sense of life that emerges when such a quest is successful. This aura emerges from or adheres to the interpretive object in the process of interpretation, what Heidegger refers to as an opening up of Being. We refer to this aura when we say that something is beautiful, but an aura can also be negative, as when something is ugly. Successfully deep riddles are metaphors that reveal tensions of vibrant reality beneath the superficial categorizations of everyday thought. The "logos" that Heraclitus seeks to express is, then, wrongly read as "logic" or even, as Hussey would have it, reason in the sense of the proper proportion in which everything fits (93). This would accord, I think, too nicely into our current conception of the rational as a matter of conclusions based on correct definition, valid demonstration, resistance to counterarguments, and premises grounded in sound experiment-based or data-driven evidence. All of that is a fine and workable notion of rationality, but a counter notion of logos allows another dimension of rationality that may at first seem irrational but ultimately is not, one that gives credit once again to insight into essences as expressed in metaphors and riddles and not in traditional real philosophical definition, i.e. definition in terms of necessary and sufficient conditions (what Socrates ostensibly sought).
Begin with the fragment, "Harmony: non-apparent is better than apparent." Apparent harmony is what we see easily enough in conventional modes of thinking where categories are applied in familiar ways. But when category violation occurs in metaphorical thinking (e.g. "man is a wolf to man" is a category violation since man is not literally a wolf), new and more powerful harmonies emerge, ones that are not easy but that in fact contain possibly disturbing tensions. If we add to that the idea "I searched for myself" and that "the true nature of a thing tends to hide itself" we can get the notion that the true nature of things, including the searcher him or herself, is hidden. Since it is a hidden harmony it is a better one, better because deeper.
In what way are such harmonies hidden? We know that "eyes and ears are bad witnesses for men if they have souls which cannot understand their language." So these harmonies are hidden from eyes and ears unless we can understand the language of eyes and ears, unless we interpret, i.e. unless we question the surface story. So when Heraclitus says "the things I rate highly are those which are accessible to sight, hearing, apprehension" he means that the senses have a power of penetration to hidden harmonies, one of which we are not normally aware. And of course these are the senses by which we typically apprehend aesthetic phenomena.
We also have the central metaphor of the lyre and the bow. The harmonies of these stringed instruments are hidden when we just look at them. Moreover, they are based on tensions that are hidden as well. Heraclitus says that the many are "ignorant of how while tending away it agrees with itself - a back-turning harmony, like a bow or a lyre." From this we see a way to understand the principle that "war is father and king of all." War is the principle of a conflict between principles that produces harmonies. This passage also says that war reveals some "as gods, others as men; some he makes slaves, other free." We know that actual war makes these changes: we also know that war, conflict, and change in general, can make something the opposite of what it was, a slave for example can become free.
Hussey's translation of the lyre passage adds something: "They do not understand how the diverging agrees with itself: a structure [harmonie] turning back on itself, such as that of the bow or of the lyre." Hussey observes that the "unity is more fundamental than the opposites" that "the opposites are essential features of the unity," and that "the manifestation of the opposites involves a process, in which the unity performs its essential function." (96-97)
This constant process of change in which things become their opposites is a process of harmony: here "cool things become warm, warm things cool down" and so forth. So, when Heraclitus says that "war is common, and strife is justice, and ...everything happens in accordance with strife and necessity" we see that conflict is universal and that justice is not a matter of some quiescent harmony but one based on strife. The reference to "necessity" indicates that there are laws that govern change. This is central to the philosophy of Heraclitus: there is constant change but there is also unity, and this is a unity of harmony based on opposing tensions. So, looking at his most famous saying, the reason why "on those who step into the same rivers ever different waters are flowing" is that the river is maintained as the same despite constant change of the substance of which it consists. There is unity in diversity, which is another definition of beauty, for example offered by Hogarth.
Another possible focus for an aesthetic take on Heraclitus can be found in the passage "God: day/night, winter/summer, war/peace, fullness/hunger. He changes like first which, when mixed with spices, is named according to the savor of each." It may seem superficial at first to mention here the idea of "savor" in relation to aesthetics. Hussey observes that when Heraclitus says that day and night are one he means not that they are identical but that they are one thing in different states. Further, this one thing is God, as we see in this quote, which is to say that the unity manifests something divine or divine-like insofar as there is an aura of the infinite here. God here is not seen as an unchanging entity but rather as nature itself but in its divine aspect, and manifested through the sensually pleasurable experience of tastes as associated with the savor of things when mixed with spices.
I want now to focus on one passage, originally quoted by Sextus Empiricus, and quite a long one: "we become intelligent by drawing in this divine reason, and although we become forgetful when asleep, we regain our intelligence as soon as we wake up. For since when we are asleep the sensory channels are closed, mind-in-us is separated from its natural union with what surrounds us (the only lifeline, so to speak, which is preserved being connected by means of respiration), and so, being separated, it loses the power of memory that it formerly possessed. But when we wake up, our mind again peeps out through the sensory channels, as if they were windows, makes contact with what surrounds us, and is endowed with the power of reason. Just as cinders which are brought close to a fire undergo an alteration and start to glow, but are extinguished when they are separated, so the fraction of what surrounds us which is in exile in our bodies becomes more or less irrational in a state of separation, but in a state of union, which is achieved through the numerous sensory channels, it is restored to a condition of similarity to the whole." (Waterfield T9 44-45.)
This can be read in one way as remarkably similar to Plato's Pythagorean stories of the soul as separate and distinct from the body and as containing a portion of the divine fire. But it might be read in another way (by reading it as itself an allegory or metaphor), as more deeply aesthetic, where "divine reason" is what happens when things light up in the aura of their essences revealed, this happening only when humans wake up from their usual sleepy ways of thinking, remembering by way of using their senses, not only to see in a superficial way but to see in the sense of allowing beauty to emerge. Memory here acts not just as a storage vehicle but as something active, some what like Plato's notion of recollection (perhaps Plato got the idea from Heraclitus). The "power of memory" and the "power of reason" as also "intelligence" are one on this account: it all has to do with our "natural union with what surrounds us" i.e. by way of our "sensory channels." The idea of essences being revealed can be seen in the notion of "physis" or nature when Heraclitus says "nature likes to conceal itself."
In this reading, being "endowed with the power of reason" is not a matter of learning logic or being able simply to mount arguments or even to have the skill to reject dubious premises, but the ability (also, but fundamentally so) to be open to insight concerning the emerging and constantly changing essences of things, the ability, without which, all of the other appurtenances of reason are useless or, worse, deceptive.
An important aspect of this is that access to what surrounds us is by way of the senses, hence related to the Greek "aesthesis" and that the thing perceived is not just in us but in the world, hence not merely subjective. These are not essences to be found in an ideal world of Forms of the Platonic sort. They are more like Aristotelian universals, but unlike these, as we have seen, they are accessed primarily through the senses, thus connecting Heraclitus more with Lucretius, Nietzsche and Dewey. Cinders brought close to the fire and that start to glow indicates that when essences are revealed there is a glowing aura, that the object perceived is as if more than itself. Fire, in my reading represents that aura. The cinders image indicates how the subjective/objective split may be overcome. The whole, on this account, is the aura that comes with any sense of unity, but also a reference to the background of the universe as a whole, which also provides aura as something like background radiation from the big bang (to use a metaphor). If all of this is too mystical sounding for you I would suggest that I believe it could all be expressed in the pragmatist language of Dewey.
Posted by Tom Leddy at 10:16 AM No comments: Links to this post
Neither Scientific Realism nor Skepticism but Fictionalism
This blog entry is inspired by Jay L. Garfield's 1990 essay "Epoche and Sunyata: Skepticism East and West" Philosophy East and West, 40:3, 285-307. I have always been attracted to skepticism, however based on my studies in aesthetics over the last forty years I find I have some serious reservation about skepticism as presented at least by Garfield and perhaps also as presented by his hero Nagarjuna although I know too little about Nagarjuna to be able to say anything definite there. I am all for philosophical therapy as a way of curing us of "cognitive and emotional ills born of extreme metaphysical, moral, or epistemological positions," however I suspect that another type of philosophical therapy is needed to cure us of the extremes of skepticism advocated by Garfield. Garfield wants to avoid the title of "extreme" by situating his skepticism between nihilism and scientific realism exemplified by the position of Jerry Fodor. I don't think that anyone is seriously a nihilist insofar as no-one really rejects all values. So I think that extremes are extreme skepticism on the one hand a and scientific realism on the other. I prefer extreme skepticism to this form of scientific realism, but think a much more plausible position would be in-between the two. We can call this pragmatism, but for now I will call the position I want to advocate "fictionalism." The term "fictionalism" has been used in the past and there may be an affinity between my version and these others, but I will not explore this here. Let's make the point in a short way first. Where skeptics, including for example Wittgenstein, Nagarunga, and Garfield reject essences and causal powers, I accept these sorts of things as quasi-real. They are certainly real in experience. But they are not just subjective things: they also have a reality that extends beyond the subjective. For example, they can be found in what John Dewey calls the "situation."
Now most of Garfield's discussion is oriented to philosophy of science, but I always start with the philosophy of art and aesthetics, and that is where I will start here. My principle is that any philosophical theory that fails to accomodate my strongest intuitions and reasoned beliefs about art and aesthetics must fail, ast least for me, in general. Garfield wants to argue that we need no longer speak of causal powers, for example, but that we may replace such talk with talk of regularities. I think, however, of my recent experience of viewing of a painting by Bonnard at the Legion of Honor in San Francisco. A fundamental part of my experience of this painting is my awareness of the fact that it was painted by Bonnard. Regularities have no real explanatory power for me here. What helps me understand the painting is understanding a very particular causal relation between Bonnard, a real person who lived in the 19th and early 20th century, and the painting, and also between this painting and my own experience. I do not deny that causal nexus is extremely complex. It may well be that the causal power of Bonnard in creating this painting, and in inspiring certain emotional and appreciative responses in me, cannot be based on anything but a kind of fiction. But, if so, this is an extremely useful and a necessary fiction. Without it, little sense can be made of my experience or of anything for that matter. This is not metaphysics except in the Kantian way of reconstructing metaphysics in terms that that which is necessary a priori for experience: transcendental but not transcendent metaphysics. My fictionalism is really a Kantianism of a certain sort. Such things as substance, causal power, personal identity (both of Bonnard and me), and meaning are all, on this account, necessary posits for any experience whatsoever. (This is relativized and historicized for me in a way it cannot be for Kant however. I do not rule out that talk the language games these concepts involve may be irrelevant in a thousand years.) When we have an experience of a painting that is an authentic experience we search for a meaning, seek to understand ourselves, open to ourselves to communication from another, and listen to the unveiling of essences, as Heidegger might put it. None of these things (meanings, selves, essences) are eternal and unchanging in the Platonic way. None of them are entirely independent of the search to understand them. They are quasi-real and yet they are as if real.
Garfield thinks that appeal to to Madhyamika Buddhist philosophy, particularly to Nagarjuna will help the skeptics, particularly in distinguishing the skeptic from the nihilist. Based on the quotes he uses, I do not think so. Nagarjuna says "If one understands how actions are devoid of inherent existence, then he sees the suchness of actions. When he has seen suchness, he will have eliminated ignorance, and when there is no ignorance then actions which are caused by ignorance cannot arise in him and so the results of actions such as consciousness and so forth, up to acting and death will not be experienced by him." (287) This is not for me. As a Deweyan pragmatist I give primary place to experience. Sure, actions are devoid of final interpretation, and one should always try to seek beneath the surface interpretation that is currently dominant to get to something real, and yet the claim to a knowledge that transcends ordinary "ignorance" is arrogant and unsupported, or only supported by appeals to experience by those who have achieved enlightenment, which is not much help to us ordinary mortals. The end result, in escaping action, the results of action, consciousness and experience is, as Nietzsche well observed, a denial of life. "Suchness" might of course be interpreted as being much like what I call quasi-real essences, meanings, etc. But searches for suchness are denials of dialogue, whereas the process of dialogue is precisely the language game that gives meaning to the search for and the existence of the quasi-real. I applaud the Buddhist desire to abandon closed-mindedness and hatred, but am deeply skeptical of what Nagarjuna calls "elimination of wrong views." (287) There is irony in the notion that Nagarjuna may be identified with skepticism, since his insistence that there are "right views" that are only available for those who have achieved Nirvana is the height of what Sextus Empiricus would have called dogmatism. In one respect Nagarjuna is somewhat like Descartes: both of these philosophers brilliantly use skeptical arguments but in both cases they use them towards dogmatic conclusions, although in Nagarjuna's case the conclusion is an experience or a state of being rather than a set of propositions that are clear and distinct. The goal of fictionalism is not the achievement of peace or ataraxia (although this can be a worthy goal) but something closer to what Nietzsche called "will to power" understood in the way I understand it as will to creative action that is deep, a will not to be the "last man" as Nietzsche describes him in Thus Spoke Zarathustra. Heraclitus saw it long before Nietzsche, but more on that later.
Fictionalism also takes an in-between position on "suspension of belief." The fictionalist recognizes that belief is a complex thing and that the objects of belief are not unchanging and are perspectival. Yet the fictionalist believes in belief. Belief motivates creative action, even if belief is in something quasi-real. The bracketing that is needed is found in trying not to take the object of belief too seriously, as though it were really real, real in a Platonic or a factual way, real in the way that truths are supposed to be timeless, real in the way that there is only one possible correct interpretation of any meaning, real in the model of scientific truth. The myth to avoid is to take the quasi-real as really real. But Nagarjuna buys into that as well, believing as he does in Nirvana, non-ignorance, etc.
Garfield may argue that I am still confusing skepticism with nihilism, which he denies as "philosophical denial of the existence of that which - at least in some sense - clearly exists" as someone who "might deny that any of our statements about external objects, about ourselves or our moral responsibility, or about the meanings of words are true or warranted..." Garflied claims, again, that skeptics are not nihilists. Neither is the fictionalist. So perhaps there is meeting point here. But maybe not. The other extreme is supposed to be "reificationism." Reification is making something not a thing as a thing or treating it as a thing. The trouble is that fictionalists encourage reification too, up to a point: for a fictionalist there is value to be gained from thinking about persons as having essential natures, of essences as being things that can be understood and explained, as causal powers as being the source of actions and created things, and so forth. For example, we need to think that there is an essence of art in order to engage in a Socratic dialogue concerning that essence, or concerning art and what it is, which itself is a way to develop a new metaphor by which we may understand and develop future actions in the realm of art. Only by debating about what art is can the future of art be assured. The quest for essences in all of these domains, personal identity, causal powers, meaning, etc., is the fount of creativity, something that both the dogmatists and the skeptics seek, usually unconsciously, to turn off.
The skeptical response is to defend "the practices the nihilist seeks to undermine" by not grounding these practices on the kinds of things the dogmatists posit. Yet the practices mean nothing if they do not have ideals. The search for understanding of a text, a search for its meaning, posits that meaning as an ideal. Fictionalism, or one could call it quasi-realism, does not deny ideals. Each product of the quest for meaning is an actualization of the posited ideal. The ideal itself has no content or at least none aside from that of its many actualizations. Further, the practice of creating a work of art that has meaning is meaningless if one does not posit meanings at least as quasi-real.
According to Garfield the reificationist like Descartes "argues that experience presupposes a persistent self as its subject." The fictionalist joins the skeptic in denying this, and yet experience presupposed an idea of the self and the idea of a search for the self, an attempt to answer the question "who am I" which the skeptic denies. That answer can be better or worse, can change over time, can sometimes be very powerful and then wane in power. The standard of truth for the fictionalist is pragmatist.
The nihilist according to Garfield believes that there is no self or at least no self-knowledge. This too is false. The skeptical solution says Garfield is to hold that the self is a "forensic concept" and "conventional." (290) This is better, but leaves us in a sea of the conventional, denuding the Socratic or Heraclitean quest for the logos of any value. To seek out the self is in no way to seek out something conventional. To seek the self is more to break the bonds of the conventional. Similarly Garfield holds that the skeptical solution to the problem of meaning "requires us to note that word meaning and the assertability of correctness regarding word use rests not upon [special semantic facts] but upon a network of social conventions regarding word use." (290) The fictionalist replies that that is not enough. The network of social conventions regarding word use only provides us with material needed in the Socratic quest for meaning. It is the background against which the real action occurs. It is not sufficient, for example to answer the question "what is art?" simply by saying that are is something to be understood in terms of the social conventions regarding how we use that word. That tells us nothing about how to move forward. It is essentially a shallow solution to the problem. It looks only to what is now, not to what is possible or necessary. It tells us no story we can live with any authenticity. It refuses to play the language game of seeking out the hidden, if we may combine Heraclitus and Wittgenstein in an unorthodox way.
Finally, the skeptic, says Garflied, understands causal powers as replaced by understanding causal explanation as "grounded in regularities." I would suggest that although this might work well for the natural sciences, it makes nonsense of the idea that in appreciating a work by Bonnard I am appreciated something created by Bonnard i.e. by way of a special causal power he had. Plato's story in the Ion of the magnets of inspiration going from the Muse to Bonnard to me makes better sense of my experience than "grounded in regularities." The reificationist is closer to the truth than the skeptic in saying that, causal powers involve a "necessary connection" that explains. I would only insist that the necessity is relativized and bracketed: it is necessity within a perspective or relative to a situation, not absolute necessity.
The skeptic engages in suspension of judgment. The fictionalist, contrary to refusing to assent to a position while refusing to assert its negation would assent heartily to a position provisionally, hopefully in the act of creating that position by creating a powerful new metaphor that serves as a basis of understanding and creative action, followed by, later, for other purposes, or as an experiment, heartily assenting to its opposite, while constructing a new metaphor that allows this move to generate future creative activity.
So the fictionalist heartily opposes the position Garfield adopts from Sextus: "that the external world is not more than what we observe, that personal identity is not more than an aggregation of experiences and capacities, that meaning is not more than convention, that causation is not more than regularity." (291) For the fictionalist there is more in every case, although not as much as the dogmatist or the scientific realist of Fodor's sort would hold. Oddly, the fictionalist agrees with Garfield that "Custom and the particular practices of the arts and sciences...yield all the knowledge, certainty, and justification we need in order to navigate the world, identify ourselves and others, speak intelligently, and explain natural phenomena" but with the proviso that all of these things already operate according to language games that have a philosophical side, that seek out something quasi-real, that seek to create new metaphors of understanding.
The disagreement relates to how one approaches everyday life. Garfield's skeptic (quoting from Hallie) says that in living undogmatically we observe the requirements of everyday life which are "the guidance of nature, the compulsion of feelings, the tradition of laws and customs, and the instruction of the arts." Notice how static this all is, as though everyday life never included creative activity, as though it was nothing more than following convention. Don't rock the boat is the motto of this "everyday life." Whereas, again, this is just background for the real business of life, creative making.
Garfield says that "to understand the conventional as conventional, and as empty of any reality or foundation beyond convention, is the goal of philosophical inquiry." I say that to understand the conventional as full of potential as more than what it appears to be, as gateway to that which we experience as the most real not, as something foundational only in the sense that a new powerful metaphor is an inspiration moment that provides the beginning of new valuable processes, is the true goal of philosophical inquiry.
Posted by Tom Leddy at 7:36 PM 1 comment: Links to this post
Labels: Buddhism, causal powers, creativity, essences, fictionalism, Jay L. Garfield, Nagarunga, nihilism, personal identity, Skepticism
Diotima's Truth: The Symposium Deconstructed
This is a bit of an unorthodox reading of the Symposium, so students beware: your teachers may not like this. But I also think it is true. The Symposium is not what it seems to be. Diotima takes us down a rosy path, or rather the endpoint is not the end. There is a myth at the center of the Symposium, and perhaps a secret truth. The secret truth is to be found in something somewhat more mundane than one would think. The unorthodox reading, in short, is that the lesser mysteries of love are actually the deeper mysteries, or at least the lesser mysteries are key to understanding the deeper mysteries. This reading is partly inspired by Nietzsche's Birth of Tragedy. Nietzsche well saw that the Apollonian world of Forms, what we find at the end of the ladder of love in the Symposium, is a myth. This is not to say that it is not valuable. Ultimately, the point of the story is not, as it may seem to most readers, the static world of Forms, but rather the dynamic path of the seeker, the philosopher, the lover of beauty...a path that leads us, it is true, to the mythology-like realm of Forms, a clever replacement for the Olympian world of the gods, but then back down into the world that Socrates only superficially denigrates. This deep reading of the dialogue goes radically against the usual surface reading. Hence my strategy is deconstructive in the tradition of Derrida. But don't worry I have no intention to talk about Derrida here or use any of his more explicit ideas.
So, let us look first at the lesser mysteries of Diotima. She informs us that the nature of love is the "everlasting possession of the good" or more circularly "love of the everlasting possession of the good." This comes after a significant expansion of the notion of poetry, interestingly similar to recent efforts to expand the notions of art and aesthetics. I believe that this expansion is no accident. i.e. that this is not a randomly chosen example, but that it points to a close connection between the theory of love/beauty to be offered and a theory of creative art that is implicit and that is much more positive towards the arts than the one presented famously in Book X of the Republic.
Diotima then tells us that the object of love is the beautiful. This introduction of the beautiful marks this discussion as a cornerstone document for aesthetics, which studies aesthetic properties, beauty being the most famous and perhaps the most important. In particular, as Socrates agrees, what is loved is possession of the beautiful, i.e. "that the beautiful be his [the lover's]." Now when a person loves the good (which Diotima seems to assume is ontologically equivalent to the beautiful) he or she wishes to possess the good, which means that he/she wishes to gain something, which it turns out is happiness, i.e. the happy are made happy by the acquisition of good things. (No surprise here...rather surprising only in that it is such a mundane comment coming from Plato.) All men desire this.
Diotima's illustration to explain this, which is more than just an illustration, is that poetry, which was generally considered to be a matter of creative making in ancient Greece, is now defined, very broadly, as "all creation or passage of non-being into being" thus equating poetry with any making at all (indeed, any change!), and yet she then says "and the processes of all art are creative; and the masters of arts are all poets or makers," even though they are not actually called poets, that term usually limited to people who produce music and rhymed verse. The idea is to recognize that there is an important sense in which all makers are, or at least can be, creative in the way poets are. People usually take Plato to be using this as a way to once again denigrate poetry, but I think he (and Diotima) more importantly is upgrading the other forms of making, the practices of everyday life, which are now seen as aesthetic in the strong sense that they participate in this overall process called the love of beauty. In short, poetry is no longer the key example of poetic making.
Diotima uses this extension of the concept of poetry to set up a similar point for love, that love is much broader than we think, where all desire for the good and for happiness is "only the great and subtle power of love" and lovers are not then limited to romantic lovers. Rather, the class of lovers is extended to include various other paths, including those of money-making and gymnastics, as well as philosophy. That is, even money-making, gymnastics and philosophy can be forms of creative making. All of these involve love. What humans love, once again, is everlasting possession of the good, and all of their activities, whether money-making, gymnastics, or philosophy are directed to that. All of these activities are ultimate directed to aesthetic ends.
Then Diotima takes us to another level: "the object which they have in view is birth in beauty, whether of body or soul." This is perhaps the key to the entire dialogue. The object of love is not beauty itself so much as that which can come out of the love of beauty, i.e. the births and the creative discoveries. This is the dynamic soul, the lack of static end point, that is essential to the dialogue, and which is somewhat occluded by a shallow reading of the passages on the ladder of love at the end of Diotima's speech.
But we need to understand what is meant by "everlasting" and it turns out that this is radically other than everlasting presence in the everlasting unchanging world of the Forms. That's a nice myth for beginners in the art of philosophy and the love of beauty. But the true story is to be found earlier. "There is a certain age at which human nature is desirous of procreation" says Diotima, and this procreation is "in beauty" and is a "divine thing." Socrates was accused, says the Apology, of introducing new divine things which were perhaps not actually divinities: this is why he died, since although in the Apology, he insists that divine things must be divinities or children of divinities, there is an irony in the pronouncement, since divine things could just replace divinities and children of divinities. These divine things are precisely things of the a non-divine world. They are, in short, things that can be considered "divine" in an atheistic sense of the word. The divine as traditionally conceived, as a world of eternal things, is not a realm of procreation, since change is contrary to such a realm. So we find something in our world, i.e. procreation, which is to say both conception and generation, which makes up "an immortal principle in the mortal creature" says Diotima.
Diotima begins with bodily procreation, but what she says about it can also be applied to the non-bodily sort: she says, personifying the conceiving power within each of us, that "when approaching beauty, the conceiving power is propitious, and diffusive, and benign, and begets and bears fruit; at the sign of ugliness she frowns and contracts and has a sense of pain, and turns away, and shrivels up, and not without a pang refrains from conception." The easy interpretation, the first level, would be that we are talking about a heterosexual male who is sexually excited by a woman of great physical beauty but runs when confronted with her ugly counterpart. But something else is meant. We have a specific process in mind which is best understood in terms of how it would be applied to creativity in non-sexual productive friendship and also in creative making described broadly under the concept of poetry earlier expanded. So when Diotima says "when the hour of conception arrives, and the teeming nature is full, there is such a flutter and ecstasy about beauty whose approach is the alleviation of the pain of travail" she is talking about the creative process. Beauty is necessarily connected with the creative birth of a virtue, discovery or idea. We all know about the moment of ecstasy that comes with inspiration: we are prepared to conceive, and yet the process of creative making is painful since contrary to conventions and habit, it is not the easy path, and yet again it is alleviated by the presence of beauty, where the object of one's creative activities, the thing coming to birth shines with beauty. Diotima insists again, to stress the point, "love is not, as you imagine, the love of the beautiful only" but "love of generation and the birth in beauty." Beauty pervades creative making. Moreover, this generation to the mortal creature is "a sort of eternity and immortality." It is, indeed, from the atheist perspective, all the immortality we are going to get...and it is enough too, since the other immortality is little more than a destructive illusion (one that Diotima and Socrates never saw, but Freud, Marx and Nietzsche did). It is important that the next passage is one in which Diotima explains her ideas in terms of procreation amongst animals. She at least dimly (perhaps unconsciously) recognizes what Dewey saw clearly that man in an animal interacting with his environment.
The explanation of why generation gives us immortality that follows is central to understanding the truth about love and beauty that Diotima is trying to teach the dim young Socrates. She says, and mark the end of the quote, "the mortal nature is seeking as far as is possible to be everlasting and immortal: and this is only to be attained by generation, because generation always leaves behind a new existence in the place of the old." Immortality in our world, the only world there is, happens by way of the new thing generated by love (in beauty which replaces the old. Moreover this is explained in terms of the fact that in life the same individual is the result of succession, "not absolute unity" (take that! Descartes). Even though we are "called the same" there is a "perpetual process of loss and reparation" in which all parts of us, skin, hair, etc., are changing. She insists that this is also true for the soul and most notably for knowledge since "not only do the sciences in general spring up and decay, so that in respect of them we are never the same; but each of them individually experiences a like change." At this point Plato reintroduces the doctrine of recollection which he had explored in the Meno and the Phaedo. Here it has a specific use: the word "recollection" means the "departure of knowledge, which is ever being forgotten, and is renewed and preserved by recollection, and appears to be the same although in reality new, according to that law of succession by which all moral things are preserved, not absolutely the same, but by substitution, the old worn-out mortality leaving another new and similar existence behind - unlike the divine, which is always the same and not another." So the mortal takes part in immortality by way of a series of substitutions by which the illusion of sameness is achieved and maintained. Moreover, this is in, and by way of, moments of beauty associated with procreation and hence with love. Socrates asks if this is true and Diotima gives, as evidence, something very different but interestingly related: the quest for the immortality of fame. Someone, after all, can have the somewhat delusive unity achieved through "recollection" without being concerned at all with creative making or fame, or vice versa, pursuing fame with no interest in the kind of unity of knowledge called "recollection," that is, if we were to interpret "recollection" in a flat-footed way. But let's not. Diotima explains the search for fame in terms of the desire to leave behind a reputation, a name, that is eternal. If the memory of our virtues is passed down we are immortal in some sense. But there is a deeper story here, and we understand it further from the next paragraph, when we find that souls that are pregnant and "mean who are more creative in their souls than in their bodies" conceive "wisdom and virtue in general" which Diotima immediately and at first associates with "poets and all artists who are deserving of the name inventor." So the expanded notion of the poet appears again at this critical juncture! This of course is quite contrary to what is said of the poet literally speaking in the Republic or in Ion, although Ion also tells another story at another level as I have argued in other posts. Of course Diotima then insists that the greater wisdom is to be found in "ordering states and families." That does fit the vision of the Republic. But it is followed by something that seems right our of Phaedrus and has to do with the lover/beloved relationship in philosophical friendship. I will stop here, and in the next revised version of this post I hope to explain the role of this friendship and how the lesser mysteries illuminate the true meaning of the ladder of love which reaches beyond Beauty itself to that which is generated from grasping Beauty.
Labels: beauty, Diotima, love, Plato, Symposium
Plato's Apology from an Aesthetic Point of View
Most people who read the Apology think about the ethical issues involved. However, there are some points relevant for aesthetics that are worth considering. I will only consider one here. It comes at the beginning of the dialogue. Socrates begins by making a big distinction between the way that he will speak in court and the way an orator would. Presumably, an orator would be an artist of speech. Socrates insists that he will only speak the truth. His sayings will not be "expressed in elegant language like theirs [the orators], arranged in fine words and phrases," which style he also refers to as "polished" and "artificial" (I will be using the Reeve translation as found in Introductory Readings in Ancient Greek and Roman Philosophy, Hackett, 2015). By contrast, he will be speaking "extemporaneously in whatever words come to mind" with a view to what is "just" or true. Again, he wants his judges not to pay attention to his "manner of speaking" but to what is true. So he is not claiming just that he has a different style than the orators, but that his style is irrelevant: only the truth is relevant. This of course assumes that truth value of a statement is radically other than its style, and that the second feature may be ignored in favor of the first. It is implied that there is something wrong about elegant language, fine words, the polished and the artificial. Aesthetically pleasurable language is likely to disguise the truth. This is not to say that he is opposed to the orator's art: it is just that that art lies in "telling the truth."
I am not convinced that Socrates is without style, that his "spontaneous" style is not a style, or that there is such as thing as simply telling the truth in a way that radically separates manner from content. What we love about Socrates is in part his ironic style. Can we separate his style from the truth value of what he says?
Posted by Tom Leddy at 12:43 PM No comments: Links to this post
Labels: elegance, orator, Socrates, style, truth
Neither Scientific Realism nor Skepticism but Fict...


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Pinhans (en francès Pignans) és un municipi francès, situat al departament del Var i a la regió de Provença – Alps – Costa Blava.

Demografia

Administració

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Municipis del Var


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Country Stores
by Virginia Gunn Fick, 2006
See also: Mast General Store, Ray Wyche (Pierce & Company)
Country stores emerged in great numbers in North Carolina's rural, agricultural society following the Civil War, although some had appeared in the early 1800s. Person County, for example, had more than a dozen scattered stores by 1835. These commercial establishments grew out of farmers' need to obtain supplies beyond what they could produce themselves without making a daylong trip to town by wagon over rough roads. Farmers also needed a market for surplus produce. The number of stores in Wake County grew from 11 in 1867-68 to more than 80 by 1872, partially as a result of the 1867 crop lien law that allowed farmers to buy goods on credit, using a future cash crop as collateral.
Usually located at a crossroads, country stores had more than a commercial function, often serving as a post office, polling place, or militia muster site. Storekeeper Ben Wilder, at Mitchiner's Crossroads (Franklin County), also made mechanical repairs, barbered, pulled teeth, and, as a justice of the peace, performed marriages. John Allen Gunn's store in Oak Forest (Iredell County) boasted the first telephone switchboard in the vicinity. In whatever location, the country store became a place to exchange news, tell stories, read broadsides heralding upcoming events in the area, play checkers on an upended barrel, register complaints about politics and the weather, and perhaps drink whiskey.
Unlike stores in towns, which tended to specialize, country stores offered a wide range of merchandise related to everyday life, from straight razors to plows, timepieces to guns, eggs to overalls, fiddle strings to fishing tackle, seed to sorghum, and calico to coffee pots. Stocks were necessarily small because of the investment needed to maintain a deep inventory, and often merchants ran out of the most popular items. While the country storekeeper carried the risk of a large, wide-ranging inventory to meet the needs of farm families and sometimes experienced low sales, profits were generally good, about 35¢ on the dollar.
A gristmill, cotton gin, doctor's office, or blacksmith's shop often would be adjacent to a country store. In Graham County a store that began as a trading post in the 1840s expanded to include the post office and, with a cluster of other buildings, formed the nucleus of what became the town of Robbinsville. A Stokes County community took its name from a country store, Wilson's Store, and in Wayne County, Adams' Store at the crossroads became the name of a community that grew into the town of Adamsville.
When automobiles and paved roads began to cover the landscape, country stores fell into decline. By the end of the twentieth century, few had survived. A. D. Gibsons's store in Scotland County near Snead's Grove operated continuously from 1879 into the middle of the twentieth century. It changed from a place to tie up and water horses to a place with gasoline pumps for automobiles. Another store, dating from 1900 and operated since 1924 by the Bowman family, stands at the juncture of Highway 150 and Brown Summit Road in northern Guilford County. The plank road that once ran by its door and the railroad depot that stood across the road are gone, but the old pot-bellied stove remains inside. The Mast General Store in Valle Crucis, dating from the early 1880s, retains the atmosphere of an old country store and sells some of the same goods but has added such merchandise as ski boots and camping equipment. The country store has been elevated to museum status near Chapel Hill, where Patterson's Mill Country Store displays genuine artifacts and replicates the look and feel of stores that were once important fixtures in North Carolina's rural landscape.
Thomas D. Clark, Pills, Petticoats, and Plows: The Southern Country Store (1944).
Sydney Nathans, The Quest for Progress: The Way We Lived in North Carolina, 1870-1920 (1983).
Craig, Tony. Country Stores in North Carolina. Mount Clemens, Mich.: Mock Turtle Press. 2008.
Woody, Londa L. All in a Day's Work: Historic General Stores of Macon and Surrounding North Carolina Counties. Boone, N.C.: Parkway Publishers. 2001.
Atherton, Lewis Eldon. The Southern Country Store, 1800-1860. Baton Rouge:Louisiana State University Press, 1949.
Lamreth-Crutchfield store at Moncure in Chatham County, ca. 1918. North Carolina Collection, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Library.
Cary Durham store in Bynum, 1952. People have gathered to watch one of the first television sets in the community. Photograph by Roland Giduz. North Carolina Collection, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill Library.
100 North Carolina Icons
Fick, Virginia Gunn
1 January 2006 | Fick, Virginia Gunn


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Mehmood-ur Rehman (Mahmoodur Rehman or Mehmood-ur-Rehman) was an Indian civil servant, best known as the chairman of the 2008 Committee on Socio-Economic Backwardness of Muslims in Maharashtra. He was Vice-Chancellor of Aligarh Muslim University from 1995 to 2000 and served as the chairman of Bombay Mercantile Cooperative Bank.

Education
He graduated in Law in 1962 and secured a master's degree in Persian from Allahabad University before joining the Uttar Pradesh civil services in 1965.

Other training included:
 Diploma in Agriculture Extension from International Training Institute NSW, Australia in 1977.
 Conferred D. Litt (Honoris Causa) by Banaras Hindu University for outstanding administrative skills and invaluable contribution towards the cause of education.

Civil service
A year after joining the civil service, he was selected to the Indian Administrative Service and served as the Assistant Commissioner in Anantnag District, Jammu and Kashmir during 1967–68. He also served as Sub Divisional Magistrate, Deputy Planning Secretary, Additional Deputy Commissioner, Deputy Commissioner, Development Commissioner, Ladakh and Agriculture Commissioner and Secretary. During his tenure as the Development Commissioner of Ladakh, he is reported to have introduced the Karakul sheep to the region. When the Vilas Rao Deshmukh ministry of Maharashtra decided to set up a committee to propose recommendations for the betterment of the socio-economic and educational conditions of the Muslim community, Rehman was selected to chair the committee. The committee stressed the social and educational backwardness of the Muslims and, after 16 months, submitted its report proposing 8 percent reservation for the community. His contributions are also reported behind the establishment of the Jammu and Kashmir Agriculture University and the Horticulture Processing and Marketing Corporation (HPMC).

Administrative positions
While in the civil service he held the posts of:
 Assistant Commissioner in Anantnag District of Kashmir in J & K, July 1967 to June 1968.
 Sub Divisional Magistrate – June 1968 to July 1969 in Sopore in Kashmir.
 Deputy Secretary to Government in the Planning Department in J & K from July 1969 to March 1970.
 Additional Deputy Commissioner, Jammu from March 1970 to April 1971.
 Deputy Commissioner, Udhampur from April 1971 to April 1973.
 Deputy Commissioner and Development Commissioner, Ladakh from April 1973 to October 1976. While there, he introduced Karakul Sheep of Russian Origin into Ladakh.
 Commissioner and Secretary Agriculture, Department of Agriculture, JK. In this role, he establishes the Agriculture University of JK and for this conducted study tour at Thailand, Malaysia, Australia and New Zealand. He established the Horticulture Processing and Marketing Corporation (HPMC) and worked achieving self-sufficiency in food grains production in J & K. Visiting the US on the invitation of World Bank in March 1978, he negotiated a loan of 22 million dollars for horticulture development in J & K. He visited Australia on a course in Agriculture Extension and Lectures in NSW and Perth in Australia.
 Held the first Panchyat Election in J & K in 1978.
 Secretary Industries, Government of Jammu & Kashmir and also headed group of Industrial Undertaking and made them profit earning.
 Secretary (Health), Government of Jammu & Kashmir and worked on the expansion of Family Welfare Programme.
 Secretary (Revenue), Government of Jammu & Kashmir.
 Commissioner, Planning and Development, Jammu & Kashmir and started a number of power development projects.
 Principal Secretary to Chief Minister with additional powers of Special Secretary to Cabinet
 Held posts including that the Chairmanship of J & K Cements Ltd., Jammu & Kashmir Minerals and the Himalayan Wool Chambers

In the capacity as Principal Secretary, also held charge of the Department of Trade, Agencies, Tourism, Parks & Garden and Hospitality and Protocol. He was also:
 Additional Chief Secretary, Industries, Commerce and Power Development.
 Additional Chief Secretary (Home), Government of Jammu & Kashmir from December 1989 to April 1995.

Aligarh Muslim University
During his tenure as the Vice Chancellor of the Aligarh Muslim University (1995 to 2000), he was appreciated for timely start of academic sessions and reviving the campus mess system. He was also appreciated for ending the possibility of corruption in the selection process for various courses of the university, by personally supervising the entire process and reducing the time taken in result declaration by up to 95% in some cases, thereby eliminating the scope of corruption. In a historic step, he also ended interview process for courses like Engineering to cater to the wide spread allegations of selective admissions based on communal lines, in past.  Rehman is also credited to give AMU its First woman Proctor since the establishment of the varsity,  by making Dr. Shad Bano Ahmad, a professor in Sociology at AMU,  as proctor from 1996 to 1999. Being tough on the criminal elements present in the university, he also received criticism for pulling out a revolver at protesting students and was termed as "more a general than a scholar" by India Today.

Later career
After his time as Vice Chancellor, he was:
 Secretary to Government of India,  Ministry of Parliamentary Affair from September 2000 to August 2002.
 Administrator, Punjab Wakf Board, from August 2002 to October 2003.
 Member, Central Wakf Council, August 2002 to October 2003.

He was also a member of:
Central POTA Review Committee, since May 2003;
Exec. Council of the University of Hyderabad;
Maulana Azad National Urdu University (MANU);
Board of Governors, IIM Indore;
Padma Award Committee, Ministry of Home Affairs, New Delhi.

Achievements
 Worked on rehabilitation of Tibetan Refugees in the difficult climatic conditions of Ladakh and travelled extensively into Ladakh, Himachal and Siachin Glacier.
 Established new rehabilitation centres of Tibetan Refugees after holding discussions and obtaining approval of the Dalai Lama.
 In November 1991 worked on the release of Indian Oil Official, Shri K. Doraiswami and Miss Nahid Soz, D/o Prof. Saifuddin Soz, former Minister of Environment, Government of India.
 Worked as the Chief Negotiator of the Government of J & K in the peaceful resolution of Hazratbal crisis in Kashmir in November 1993.
 In Ladhakh a programme of systematic preservation and promotion of Buddhist culture and relics was initiated.  This has been acknowledged by all noted scholars including Professor David Snellgrove in his book "Heritage of Ladakh".  Similarly, Ms. Aung San Suu Kyi of the National League of Democracy of Myanmar during her prolonged study of Ladhakh in 1975 appreciated the promotion of Ladakh as a tourist destination.
 During the initial years of service in Udhampur, remained associated with the famous Mata Vaishno Devi shrine at Udhampur District in Jammu Province and also for the first time made the proposal to construct an alternate exit route at the main shrine, providing relief to a large number of pilgrims.  This exit route was made by cutting open the hill-side and this measure resulted in the increase of pilgrims from about ten lakhs to fifty lakhs in a year.
 Organised Amarnath Yatra twice in 1967 and 1968 in which on account of proper management no casualties took place.
 As Incharge of Home in Jammu & Kashmir continued to organise Amarnath Yatra in the most turbulent days from 1990 to 1995.
 Worked as Chairman of the Board of Translation of the Urdu Biography of Dr. Zakir Hussain and personally translated 200 pages.
 As member of Central Prevention of Terrorism Act (POTA) delivered a number of orders as per the Act and proposed a number of amendments to the existing provisions.
 As the present Chairman and Administrator of Bombay Mercantile Co-op. Bank Ltd. since 16 August 2002 contributed to the growth of the Bank and earned unprecedented profit of Rs. 37 crores in 2003 and Rs. 41 crores in 2004.  The Bank is now making steady progress.
 Chairman of the Search Committees for the Vice-Chancellors of: i. Dharwad Agriculture University, Dharwad in 1997.  ii. Mangalore University, Mangalore in 1998. iii. Gulbarga University, Gulbarga in 1999.  iv. Kashmir University, Jammu and Kashmir in 2007 v. Islamic University of Science & Technology, J & K in January 2009 vi. Nalanda Open University Bihar, 28.4.2009

Death
Mahmudur Rahman died in Lucknow on 9 July 2017. After suffering a Brain Hemorrhage.

Awards
The Government of India awarded him the fourth highest civilian award of the Padma Shri, in 1991. Other awards include:
K.G. Gold Medal from Allahabad University in 1962 for academic excellence in the entire Faculty of Arts in Allahabad University.
Allahabad Jubilee Gold Medal (1962) for being the best student of the University.
Queen Victoria Silver Medal (1962) for showing extraordinary merit in all the post-graduate examinations.
Gold Medal for outstanding work for the rehabilitation of Ex-Servicemen from the Rajya Sainik Board, J & K.
Conferred D. Litt. (Honoris Causa – BHU) in 1997.

References

Further reading

Recipients of the Padma Shri in civil service
Indian civil servants
People from Uttar Pradesh
University of Allahabad alumni
Vice-Chancellors of the Aligarh Muslim University
Indian Muslims
2017 deaths
Year of birth missing


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The Committee issued a call for written evidence on three proposed Scottish Government amendments to the Bill on Thursday 14 November 2013. These were:
The imposition of fixed penalties as part of enforcement of carrier bag charging offences.
To allow Scottish Ministers to authorise fuels which can be burnt in smoke control areas and allow exemption of boilers, stoves, fireplaces etc. for use in smoke control areas administratively rather than by regulations or order.
To amend the abandoned mines provisions in Control of Pollution Act 1974 to better deal with cases where land falls to the Crown.
Letter from the Minister for Energy, Enterprise and Tourism - Primary Authority Partnerships - 12 November 2013 (1,581KB pdf)
Letter from the Minister for Environment and Climate Change - additional information on proposed stage 2 amendments - 14 November 2013 (252KB pdf)
Fact-finding meetings
Committee members undertook a number of fact-finding meetings on 21 May 2013. Notes of these meetings are available below:
Meeting with Environmental Health Officers (137KB pdf)
Meeting with Planning Officers (164KB pdf)
Meeting with SME's (141KB pdf)
Work By Other Committees
The Rural Affairs, Climate Change and Environment Committee examined part 2 of the Bill relating to environmental regulations and on the element of part 1, as it relates to the RACCE Committee's remit, that places a duty on stakeholders in respect of sustainable economic growth and reported its findings to the Economy, Energy and Tourism Committee on 28 June 2013.
The Delegated Powers and Law Refrom Committee considered the Delegated Powers Memorandum and reported its findings to the Economy, Energy and Tourism Committee on 25 June 2013.
The Finance Committee concluded its consideration of the Financial Memorandum for the Regulatory Reform (Scotland) Bill on 19 June 2013:
Letter from the Convener of the Finance Committee - 19 June 2013 (113KB pdf)
The Committee published its Stage 1 Report on 8 October 2013.
Read the response from the Scottish Government to the Committee's Stage 1 report (188KB pdf)
Summary of Scottish Government Stage 2 amendments (98KB pdf)
Diane Barr
Assistant Clerk
Tel: 0131 348 5214.
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