text:
Geographical Focus
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Focus on sustainability
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Partners, alliances & relationships
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John Paulson Calls Puerto Rico Singapore of Caribbean
By KATHERINE BURTON
Billionaire hedge-fund managerJohn Paulson said today that Puerto Rico's economy is at the beginning of a turnaround and predicted the island will become the Singapore of the Caribbean.
Paulson, speaking today at the 2014 Puerto Rico Investment Summit in San Juan, a conference designed to promote the territory and attract investors, said he's building a home in the commonwealth. The hedge-fund manager, who last year considered relocating to Puerto Rico to take advantage of new tax laws, said opportunities to buy real estate in the region won't last much longer, and he's looking to purchase sites that can be developed to serve people he expects to move here because of the legislation.
"We are interested in future development opportunities," said Paulson, 58, adding that what he builds will be higher-end than what currently exists on the island.
The $22.8 billion Paulson & Co. is adding to its investments as the commonwealth and its agencies wrestle with a $73 billion debt load and an economy that's shrunk in five of the past seven fiscal years. The three biggest ratings companies cut the island's credit ranking to junk earlier this year.
Different Opportunities
The New York-based firm, which took a stake in the St. Regis Bahia Beach Resort and the Bahia Beach Resort & Golf Club last September, plans to invest $1 billion in Puerto Rican projects over the next two years, according to island officials.
Paulson & Co. "continues to negotiate different opportunities in Puerto Rico," Alberto Baco Bague, Secretary of Economic Development and Commerce, said during a webcast in February with bondholders hosted by the Government Development Bank. "These commitments are over $1 billion, half a billion in 2014 and half a billion in 2015."
In March, Paulson & Co. bought resort complex La Concha Resort and the Condado Vanderbilt, neighboring beachfront hotels in the capital city of San Juan for $260 million, including costs to complete construction of the Vanderbilt. He's the largest investor in the biggest bank, Popular Inc. (BPOP), and according to a person with knowledge of the situation, owns Puerto Rico municipal bonds. Paulson's new residence will be a vacation home at the St. Regis resort, said the person, who asked not be named because the information is private.
Paulson is best known for making $15 billion betting against subprime mortgages as the financial crisis hit. He considered a move to Puerto Rico to take advantage of a new law that would eliminate taxes on his gains from money he has invested in his own hedge funds, four people who had spoken to him said last year. He later said he decided against such a move.
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text:
Is everything in the world a little bit conscious? (MIT Technology Review)
13/09/2021 UncategorizedComputação, Consciência, Filosofia, Inteligência artificial, neurociências, Neurofisiologia, Panpsiquismo, Psicologia, Teste de Turingrenzotaddei
Christof Koch – August 25, 2021
The idea that consciousness is widespread is attractive to many for intellectual and, perhaps, also emotional reasons. But can it be tested? Surprisingly, perhaps it can.
Panpsychism is the belief that consciousness is found throughout the universe—not only in people and animals, but also in trees, plants, and bacteria. Panpsychists hold that some aspect of mind is present even in elementary particles. The idea that consciousness is widespread is attractive to many for intellectual and, perhaps, also emotional reasons. But can it be empirically tested? Surprisingly, perhaps it can. That's because one of the most popular scientific theories of consciousness, integrated information theory (IIT), shares many—though not all—features of panpsychism.
As the American philosopher Thomas Nagel has argued, something is conscious if there is "something that it is like to be" that thing in the state that it is in. A human brain in a state of wakefulness feels like something specific.
IIT specifies a unique number, a system's integrated information, labeled by the Greek letter φ (pronounced phi). If φ is zero, the system does not feel like anything; indeed, the system does not exist as a whole, as it is fully reducible to its constituent components. The larger φ, the more conscious a system is, and the more irreducible. Given an accurate and complete description of a system, IIT predicts both the quantity and the quality of its experience (if any). IIT predicts that because of the structure of the human brain, people have high values of φ, while animals have smaller (but positive) values and classical digital computers have almost none.
A person's value of φ is not constant. It increases during early childhood with the development of the self and may decrease with onset of dementia and other cognitive impairments. φ will fluctuate during sleep, growing larger during dreams and smaller in deep, dreamless states.
IIT starts by identifying five true and essential properties of any and every conceivable conscious experience. For example, experiences are definite (exclusion). This means that an experience is not less than it is (experiencing only the sensation of the color blue but not the moving ocean that brought the color to mind), nor is it more than it is (say, experiencing the ocean while also being aware of the canopy of trees behind one's back). In a second step, IIT derives five associated physical properties that any system—brain, computer, pine tree, sand dune—has to exhibit in order to feel like something. A "mechanism" in IIT is anything that has a causal role in a system; this could be a logical gate in a computer or a neuron in the brain. IIT says that consciousness arises only in systems of mechanisms that have a particular structure. To simplify somewhat, that structure must be maximally integrated—not accurately describable by breaking it into its constituent parts. It must also have cause-and-effect power upon itself, which is to say the current state of a given mechanism must constrain the future states of not only that particular mechanism, but the system as a whole.
Given a precise physical description of a system, the theory provides a way to calculate the φ of that system. The technical details of how this is done are complicated, but the upshot is that one can, in principle, objectively measure the φ of a system so long as one has such a precise description of it. (We can compute the φ of computers because, having built them, we understand them precisely. Computing the φ of a human brain is still an estimate.)
Debating the nature of consciousness might at first sound like an academic exercise, but it has real and important consequences.
Systems can be evaluated at different levels—one could measure the φ of a sugar-cube-size piece of my brain, or of my brain as a whole, or of me and you together. Similarly, one could measure the φ of a silicon atom, of a particular circuit on a microchip, or of an assemblage of microchips that make up a supercomputer. Consciousness, according to the theory, exists for systems for which φ is at a maximum. It exists for all such systems, and only for such systems.
The φ of my brain is bigger than the φ values of any of its parts, however one sets out to subdivide it. So I am conscious. But the φ of me and you together is less than my φ or your φ, so we are not "jointly" conscious. If, however, a future technology could create a dense communication hub between my brain and your brain, then such brain-bridging would create a single mind, distributed across four cortical hemispheres.
Conversely, the φ of a supercomputer is less than the φs of any of the circuits composing it, so a supercomputer—however large and powerful—is not conscious. The theory predicts that even if some deep-learning system could pass the Turing test, it would be a so-called "zombie"—simulating consciousness, but not actually conscious.
Like panpsychism, then, IIT considers consciousness an intrinsic, fundamental property of reality that is graded and most likely widespread in the tree of life, since any system with a non-zero amount of integrated information will feel like something. This does not imply that a bee feels obese or makes weekend plans. But a bee can feel a measure of happiness when returning pollen-laden in the sun to its hive. When a bee dies, it ceases to experience anything. Likewise, given the vast complexity of even a single cell, with millions of proteins interacting, it may feel a teeny-tiny bit like something.
Debating the nature of consciousness might at first sound like an academic exercise, but it has real and important consequences. Most obviously, it matters to how we think about people in vegetative states. Such patients may groan or otherwise move unprovoked but fail to respond to commands to signal in a purposeful manner by moving their eyes or nodding. Are they conscious minds, trapped in their damaged body, able to perceive but unable to respond? Or are they without consciousness?
Evaluating such patients for the presence of consciousness is tricky. IIT proponents have developed a procedure that can test for consciousness in an unresponsive person. First they set up a network of EEG electrodes that can measure electrical activity in the brain. Then they stimulate the brain with a gentle magnetic pulse, and record the echoes of that pulse. They can then calculate a mathematical measure of the complexity of those echoes, called a perturbational complexity index (PCI).
In healthy, conscious individuals—or in people who have brain damage but are clearly conscious—the PCI is always above a particular threshold. On the other hand, 100% of the time, if healthy people are asleep, their PCI is below that threshold (0.31). So it is reasonable to take PCI as a proxy for the presence of a conscious mind. If the PCI of someone in a persistent vegetative state is always measured to be below this threshold, we can with confidence say that this person is not covertly conscious.
This method is being investigated in a number of clinical centers across the US and Europe. Other tests seek to validate the predictions that IIT makes about the location and timing of the footprints of sensory consciousness in the brains of humans, nonhuman primates, and mice.
Unlike panpsychism, the startling claims of IIT can be empirically tested. If they hold up, science may have found a way to cut through a knot that has puzzled philosophers for as long as philosophy has existed.
Christof Koch is the chief scientist of the MindScope program at the Allen Institute for Brain Science in Seattle.
This story was part of our September 2021 issue
← A notável atualidade do Animismo (Outras Palavras)	Metaverso pode ser nova Internet e vira prioridade das Big Techs (MIT Technology Review) →

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


Another "I get this question pretty regularly" post… and the answer is usually pretty good news, in comparison to a parent's dreaded fear.
Well, it depends on where the child is right now. If she's here, as indicated in your question, do everything you can to keep her here. Set aside the threat to take her abroad, and focus on the threat to take her– anywhere. Know too, though, that if it does happen, the situation may not be as grave as it seems.
In many cases, the inserted country name also happens to be on the list of countries who have implemented the Convention of 25 October 1980 on the Civil Aspects of International Child Abduction— known more commonly as the Hague Child Abduction Convention (HCAC). While the treaty may not prevent a child being taken out of the country, it aims to provide a streamlined mechanism by which she can be returned home. So even if the child is taken abroad against the remaining parent's wishes, the odds are better that she can be returned. I wrote previously about the mechanism for return of children once they've been abducted– or as the treaty also addresses, taken with permission but not returned as agreed. That earlier post came about in order to distinguish the Child Abduction Convention from the Hague Service Convention.
In short, I stressed that the way to secure the prompt return of the child is to get local law enforcement to engage HCAC channels, rather than pursuing a custody order in a U.S. court– and enduring all of the procedural delays that such a petition entails. Instead of treading water while a Hague Service Request is processed, it's far more effective to raise a HCAC claim.
What I didn't point out, though, were the preventive measures necessary to avoid the need for a HCAC claim in the first place.
If he does, keep it in a secure place– or if the threatening parent has it, notify the police and get them to contact the State Department so the passport can be flagged.
Absent a passport, the threatening parent won't get very far. Sure, if the child has dual citizenship, a foreign-born (abducting) parent might try to get the other country to issue one, but flags can still be raised with the country's diplomatic legation and U.S. law enforcement. Again, if there's a credible threat of abduction, make a stink about it. Make noise. Put both countries' authorities on notice in the most vocal way possible.
Above all else, petition the local court for a custody order immediately, with whatever form of injunctive relief is available in that jurisdiction, and serve the action before the other parent leaves the U.S., with or without the child. The more clear the court's intent, the easier it will be later to demonstrate an abductor's wrong-doing to foreign authorities.


Is the tour guaranteed to depart ?
Do you offer tours for groups ?
Why should you explore the Philippines with us ?
We are living here in the Visayas since 2002, and since then we are almost not doing anything else than exploring the country by bicycle. We know trails which are not knows by locals and our contact to the people helps us to find new remote and not yet exposed spots.Besides that we are more valuable then bigger companies coz we do it all by ourselves, that why we can offer you a good deal.
How safe is traveling in the Philippines ?
Do I need an insurance ?
Is the bike rental inclusive ?
Is the tour garanteed to depart ?
Just send us an email. We will confirm your booking.
For our day tours, we don't ask for a downpayment.
Payment has to be done in the morning of the tour.
For our longer tours we need a down payment.
How safe is it to travel in the Philippines ?
We travelled quite in a lot of countries and there is almost no country as safe as the Philippines.
All our tours are taking place in safe areas and we survey the areas on a regular bases.
in the suthern part of the country, an area where we are not going on our tours.
Even though, we have already explored the southern areas and never had any issue.
where it is not safe to travel.
Bike rental is inclusive for our short tours. For longer tours we sk for en extra rental price (see respective tour description. Check out our rental bikes.
We have 4 different levels for our tour ?
Easy Tour, daily around 30 to 45 km, mostly on paved roads not a lot of climbing.
Middle Tour, daily around 40 to 70 km with 500 to 900 hight meters Höhenmetern; mostly rough road. You should e in good shape.
hard Tour, daily between 50 and 80 km with serious climbs (900 to 1800 Hight meters, mostly rough road.
Extreme Tour, daily 50 to 100 km with height meters up to 2000. Very tecnical terrain.
What technical level do I need ?
easy The roads are mostly paved. Everybody can do it.
middle The roads are mosly paved and the rough roads are easy. Some parts are a bit "challenging".
difficult the road is mostly rough and technical. Lose gravel pot holes a lot to expect. Maybe also some river crossings.
Whoever books with us again (which happens quite often) gets 5% on the 2.nd Tour and 10% from then on.
For every new customer you recommend you will get 10% on your next tour (per Tour you can only claim 10% - not valid for discounted tours and special offers.
Is the guaranteed to depart ?
For some tours we need a minimum of participants. If you see the ok sign, then the tour is guaranteed to depart.
Yes, of course. Just tell us what you want and which date you like to have your tour and we put something tofgether for you.


text:
Kuolemasaari kan syfta på följande platser:

Finland

 Kuolemasaari (ö i Norra Karelen), Mellersta Karelen,
 Kuolemasaari (ö i Birkaland), Tammerfors,

Robotskapade Finlandförgreningar

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


text:
Traveling on Tehra
"Before we can begin to discuss how large 'Tehra' is, we must clarify whether we're referring to Tehra the world, or Tehra the universe. Both are quite large, of course, but there's a difference of degree."
Sage Alaura, Lectures to First-Year Aspirants
The Isles are actually a very small part of the world of Tehra. Compared to Earth, Tehra is a much larger planet. Tehra, in my writing, describes the planet but also the universe Tehra occupies. The people of the Isles refer to the planet as Tehra and to their star, their Sun, as Pha Rann or Daystar. Being much larger, a day is longer - so is night, but the planet still revolves around the Daystar in about 365 days. There are seasons depending on where you are on Tehra.
The Forsaken Isles are actually a fragmented continent, about the size of Australia, New Zealand, and New Guinea including the oceans... but it is very far northwards crossing the arctic pole. The eastern half of the isles were destroyed in a cataclysm long ago that left a barrier reef or dotted islands too small to support life for the storms that rage through that area. Other continents of note:
Merakor, an 18 week sea voyage west of the Isles
Western Lands, a 12 week sea voyage east of the Isles; this is where the minotaurs come from
Burning Lands & Unholy Lands, south of Merakor and on the equator. There are only a few places to get south of the equator. Because of the effort and time, the minotaurs keep these southern routes secret and the dragons have not cared to investigate. Being on the equator and not having oceans to offset heat, the equatorial continents burn from early spring to early autumn. Rainfall, if sufficient enough, will fill up interior basins into lakes the size of Lake Superior, but they are all temporary except for a few interior salt lakes. At night, temperatures can fluctuate wildly. Only monsters and those with extreme adaptability survive. But, there are stories from Merakor of vast underground empires.
Southern Half is a big question mark
There are Dual Moons. Though each civilization has names for them, the predominant night moon was named the Moon by Merakor. It's sister is a smaller and fragmented into three broken chunks. It is visible mostly during the day. The day moon was called Gates, where each fragment was said to be a nexal gate. Gates eclipses the Moon and the Daystar about every 1,000 years. This triple alignment was the basis of the Merakoran calendar. Tides and storm intensify for the 50 years leading into and out of a triple alignment.
Underground races. There are many but of note are two main ones:
Thri Keen - Krentismar is their racial god and Tehra is Krentismar's throneplane. Unaligned with any of the Gates (Tehra is essentially a nexus), Krentismar is content to let things play out as a grand experiment to see if Tehra actually does belong within either Creation or Chaos. At the end of the Kinslayer Wars, the thri-keen went underground in the Isles and are not really seen or interacted with except on the Isle of Mondsa, where Krentismar has a temple.
Drow & Underdark - Merakoran elves practicing dark magic and demon worship eventually found Lolth and were driven underground by the elves in the Race Wars. While the term "dark elf" can also mean an "evil elf", it is not necessarily a reference to drow. The drow became a distinct race through the worship of Lolth. In their flight to the underground, facilitated by magic and gates, the drow created a series of gates that actually put the Underdark not in Tehra, but in an abyssal realm. This brought them a few nexal steps closer to Lolth and is why the Underdark and drow have their own enhanced powers and behaviors.... and lose them when out of the Underdark.
Underwater Races. There are many but Morbatten has not encountered any worth noting except the Aboleth and Kua-toa, which were more of a Merakoran issue than a Forsaken Isles one. A sea dragon patriarch existed once upon a time, but has not been seen or heard of since Merakor's fall.


text:
Q: What Layer does a Query Builder belong in? In my project I have specified 5 sublayers for my DBAL:

*

*Database Layer ( the database itself)

*Database Connection Layer ( \PDO and a class that handles the database connections)

*Database Request Layer( classes that actually query the database )

*Database Model Layer ( All classes that represent 1 Database table each and a Factory class that gives easy access to all Model class)

*Model Layer ( classes that combines several Database Model class t make them work together )

Now I have set the restriction that each layer SHOULD only have access to classes of its own layer or classes directly below (Layer 4 MAY access Layer 4 and 3 but MUST NOT access Layer 5 and SHOULD NOT access layers 1 and 2).
But when it comes to a Query Builder ( I've decided to use https://github.com/nilportugues/php-sql-query-builder as it does not require a database connection) I wonder what layer this should be assigned to and where I should use it.
Clearly the resulting query should be passed to Layer 3, so the Query Builder should be either 3 or 4, but then in most cases I seem to more likely need to build a query in layer 5 when I want to create some Layer 4 objects.
Currently my code that uses the Query Builder looks like this (in Layer 5):
$builder = $this->entityFactory->getDbRequest()->getQueryBuilder();
// build the $query
$entity = $this->entityFactory->makeEntityByQuery( Entityname::class, $query);

So currently I located the QueryBuilder in Layer 3 but that forces me access Layer 3 from Layer 5 which I'd like to avoid. I could move it to layer 4 but then I'd either have to make it a dependency for most Classes of the Model Layer or make it accessible directly from that EntityFactory. But then again the EntityFactory would have 2 responsibilities, which violates SRP.
In which layer do you or would you use the Query Builder?

A: It feels like Layer 3, the Database Request layer needs this. First, to be honest, the layering could use fixing. If you have "layers" and the question "which layer does this go in?" is not easily answered then you either don't have enough layers, or don't have the right layers.
What you have:

*

*Database layer

*Database connection layer

*Database Request Layer

*(this is your problem) Database Model Layer

*(and so is this) Model Layer
Layer 3, the Database Request Layer is where your Query Builder belongs. Nothing outside of that layer should be doing ad hoc queries. Really, Layer 3 is more commonly referred to as the Data Access Layer (DAL) or Repository Layer. This is the layer that knows about the database. It should even know about the factories required to generated your entity objects.
Think of the DAL or Repository as a coordinating layer between two sub layers: The Database Request and Entity Factory layers.
What you really need:
         +----------+
         | Database |
         +----------+
              /\
              ||
              ||
              \/
+----------------------------+    +---------------+    +----------------+    +--------+
| Database Request (Gateway) |    | Query Builder |    | Entity Factory |    | Entity |
+----------------------------+    +---------------+    +----------------+    +--------+
              /\                      /\                       /\                /\
              ||                      ||                       ||                ||
              ||                      ||                       ||                ||
              ||                      ||      ++===============++                ||
              ||                      ||      ||                                 ||
              ||                      ||      ||                                 ||
              ||                      \/      \/                                 ||
              ||                    +------------+                               ||
              ++==================> | Repository | <=============================++
                                    +------------+
                                          /\
                                          ||
                                          ||
                                          \/
                                 +------------------+
                                 | Your Application |
                                 +------------------+

Your entity classes should have absolutely no knowledge about persistence. It's the Repository/DAL that coordinates between multiple layers underneath - including your query builder.
Nothing outside the Repository/DAL should have anything to do with the query builder. This is a utility for making the construction of SQL queries easier. Instead, you can provide a Data Transfer Object (DTO) that will contain all the possible criteria values if you need to perform a search. The Repository/DAL should have a method that accepts this criteria DTO as an argument, and then uses the DTO to build a query using the Query Builder.
From that, something else has to translate the query builder object into a request to the database. You can create another class called a Query Executor which translates the Query Builder and creates a DB request, or just pass the query builder directly to the DB request object. Yeah you "break the separation of layers" but how much coupling have you really introduced? It's up to you.
Once your application reaches the complexity where you have a question like this, you need to invest your time in learning and configuring a good Object Relational Mapper (ORM).

So I Inject those repository classes to my Application classes?

Yes, but generally only your controllers and service classes will need access to repository objects.

Are those repository classes manually created in the controller (or the DI-Container respectively)?

A little be "Yes" and a little bit "No".
If you use Dependency Injection then the DI container or a factory object that churns out controllers will instantiate the repository.
If you introduce interfaces for your repository, you can have both:
interface IFooRepository
{
    public function find($id);
}

class FooRepository implements IFooRepository
{

}

class FoosController
{
    public function __construct(IFooRepository $repository = null) {
        if (!isset($repository)) {
            $repository = new FooRepository();
        }

        $this->repository = $repository;
    }
}

The constructor for the controller accepts an IFooRepository as an argument. If null it defaults to the FooRepository concrete implementation. Now, you can actually unit test your controllers by providing a mock or stub of the IFooRepository interface.

A: If the query builder is in L3 and accessed from L5, you could add a thin wrapper for the query builder in L4 so that you access the L4 wrapper from L5, and the L4 wrapper accesses L3. Except, L4 is for classes that represent a single table, so a wrapper for a query builder doens't quite seem to fit here...
So, maybe not everything fits neatly in these layers, but maybe that's OK some of the time. Maybe it's also a problem of having layers arranged in a strict hierarchy, when the relationship between them is a bit more complex.
Maybe you're being too restrictive in how you think about the structure of your code?

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


King George III, accompanied by Queen Charlotte, smiles broadly as money pours from his breeches. He is heralded by musicians who are likewise festooned with gold guineas, and a gentleman who offers a fat sack of cash. This is juxtaposed against a quadriplegic sailor who sits with his empty round hat between wooden legs.
Unlike virtually every other sailor featured on this blog, this poor tarpaulin wears a beard. Beards were generally frowned upon in the eighteenth century, with the English in particular being opposed to any facial hair. The fact that this destitute man sports a full white beard is a testament to his helplessness.
The sailors wears a yellow and red plaid neckcloth over his double breasted blue jacket, which ends at his waist and sits over the plain pair of slops/petticoat trousers that cover his thighs. Blue breeches run down to his wooden legs.


text:
[Vol. I No. 16] 01 - 15 February 2007
ISLAM AND PLURALISM Professor A.R. Momin
The Islamic perspective on diversity
The universality of prophecy
Tolerance and peaceful coexistence
Islam's attitude towards other cultures
Legal pluralism in the Islamic tradition
Non-Muslims in the Islamic state
Ethnicity in Islamic perspective
The terms plural society and pluralism, which came into vogue in the 1960s, have been increasingly used in anthropology, sociology, political science and international relations. The term plural society has been used to describe societies that are characterised by substantial racial, ethnic and social diversities and cleavages. Anthropologists have described many such societies as composite, multiple and dual societies. In the social sciences the term pluralism has been used in two rather different senses. In one sense, pluralism is said to be a property or character of societies that are marked by the coexistence of several distinct groups and cultural communities within a single political and economic system. By virtue of the fact that these groups and communities are governed by the same economic and political processes, they tend to be inter-dependent. At the same time, however, they have a good measure of autonomy. In the second sense, pluralism has a distinct political connotation and is regarded as a necessary condition for the viability of democracy in complex societies. In democratic pluralism, the decision making processes devolve upon a wide variety of autonomous political institutions and social groups.
The first usage of the term pluralism has gained wider currency in the social sciences. Another term, which has more or less the same connotation and which has surpassed pluralism in usage, is multiculturalism. Most contemporary societies, whether in Asia and Africa or in Europe and North America, are now plural and multicultural in the sense that they are composed of many distinct, self-conscious ethnic groups and cultural communities. The great migrations of the post-War period have not only altered the demographic composition of many countries in Europe and North America but have also challenged the assumption of a homogeneous national culture as the edifice of the nation-state. The process of globalisation, which has brought about an enormous amount of economic, financial, political and cultural uniformity and homogenisation across large parts of the world, has also contributed to the revival or reinvention of ethnic identities, thanks to the unprecedented advances in information and communication technologies.
Pluralism is not only indicative of an important facet of the political and social reality of our times but it also entails a set of moral premises and value-orientations, including an open and ungrudging acknowledgement and acceptance of ethnic and cultural diversity, disavowal of forced assimilation, tolerance and peaceful coexistence in a humane and democratic framework, respect for human rights, including community and minority rights, and commitment to dialogue and other peaceful methods of conflict resolution.
This article seeks to demonstrate that the contemporary discourse of pluralism and multiculturalism can profitably draw upon some of the valuable insights and contributions of Islamic civilization.
The Islamic faith is founded on the edifice of two cardinal principles: the oneness and omnipotence of God, and the unity, equality and brotherhood of humankind. Islam takes cognisance of racial and ethnic diversities that characterises human societies across the world and holds that these diversities are divinely ordained. Thus the Qur'an says: "If thy Lord had so willed, He could have made humankind one people, but they will not cease to differ" (11:118). The Qur'an further says: "And among His signs is the creation of the heavens and the earth, and the variations in your languages and colours; verily in that are signs for those who know" (30:22). Lineages, tribes and ethnic groups, which characterise human societies everywhere, are said to have been created by God (Qur'an, 25:54). However, these divisions are meant to serve the purpose of ethnic or cultural identification; they are not indices of social ranking, hierarchy or prestige. The only worthwhile distinction or honour in the Islamic view is piety and virtue. Thus the Qur'an says: "O mankind! We created you from a single (pair) of a male and a female, and made you into nations and tribes, so that you may know each other. Verily the most honoured of you in the sight of God is one who is the most righteous of you" (49:13).
The varied manifestations of diversity include variations in livelihood, behaviour patterns, knowledge and skills and the distribution of resources, including power. Islam takes due cognisance of such variations in respect of livelihood (2:212; 13:26; 16:71), knowledge (2:247; 58:11), and the distribution of wealth and power. The Qur'an says: "Such days (of varying fortunes) We give to people by turns" (3:140).
In the Islamic view, God is not a parochial or racial deity like Jehovah, but the Lord of the universe and of all humankind. "All of mankind is God's family", says a tradition of the Prophet. The Qur'an says that prophets have been sent to all people in all parts of the world (35:24). Muslims are required to believe, not only in the prophecy of Muhammad, but in that of all other prophets (1,24,000, according to a tradition of the Prophet) who were sent to humankind at different points of time, as well as in all divine scriptures (2:4, 285; 3:84; 4:26, 162). Islam holds that all the prophets carried basically the same divine message. The Islamic view of prophecy, therefore, is inclusive rather than exclusive, universal rather than parochial.
According to the Islamic view, God's omnipotence and majesty transcend the diversity of modes and sites of worship. Thus the Qur'an says: "Had God not checked one set of people by means of another, there would surely have been pulled down monasteries, churches, synagogues and mosques in which the name of God is commemorated in abundant measure" (22:40).
The Qur'an explicitly maintains that there is no place in Islam for compulsion (2:256). It says: "If it had been thy Lord's wish, everyone in the world would have believed; will you then compel people, against their will, to believe" (10:99). The Prophet is told to say to the unbelievers: "For you, your religion, and for me, mine" (109:6).
The Prophet is advised to invite people to the path of righteousness and guidance, not through intimidation and coercion, but in a gentle and amiable manner. Thus the Qur'an says: "Invite (all) to the way of thy Lord with wisdom and beautiful preaching, and argue with them in the best of ways" (16:125). It is significant to note that when God asked Prophet Moses to go to the Pharaoh in order to invite him to the path of righteousness, he was told to "speak to him mildly, perchance he may heed the warning or fear God" (Qur'an 20:44). The Qur'an advises Muslims not to revile those who worship idols or images (6:108).
The people of Semitic religions, especially Jews and Christians, share some fundamental articles of faith with the Muslims. The Qur'an emphasises that these commonly shared tenets should provide the basis for dialogue and reconciliation between Muslims and the People of the Book. The Qur'an says: "O People of the Book! Come to common terms as between us and you: That we worship none but God, that we associate no partners with Him; that we appoint not, from among ourselves, lords and patrons other than God" (3:64). The special affinity between Islam and other Semitic religions is reflected in the permission accorded to inter-marriage between Muslim men and Jewish or Christian women and the permissibility of the flesh of animals slaughtered by Jews or Christians (Qur'an 5:5).
Following the conquest of Makka, the Prophet entered the city with his companions. The people of Makka were terrified and apprehensive about the likely prospect of their summary execution on the orders of the Prophet, for they had subjected him to the cruelest kind of humiliation and torture and had finally driven him out of the city. They stood before him in fear and trepidation. "What kind of treatment do you expect from me?", he asked. They said in a trembling voice "You are our kind and affectionate brother. We expect the sort of treatment that is expected from a kind brother". The Prophet smiled and said: "Today you will not be taken to task. Go, you are free!". They could scarcely believe their ears and fell at his feet, overwhelmed as they were by the Prophet's magnanimity and compassion.
Following the Prophet's migration to Madina, Makka was faced with a severe drought. Since Makka was a barren desert, food grains had to be brought from other areas. Najd was the only area which was unaffected by the drought and could send food grains to Makka. A group of Muslim soldiers happened to capture an influential person from Najd, named Thamama ibn Athal. He was brought to Madina and taken to the Prophet. The Prophet invited him to the Islamic faith, which he refused and retorted that he was ready to pay ransom for his release. The Prophet ordered that he be tied to a pillar in the mosque. On his instruction, Thamama was provided with food. After a while the Prophet invited him again to embrace Islam, but in vain. A few days passed. Finally the Prophet ordered his release. He was so touched by the Prophet's generosity and kindness that he fell at his feet and embraced Islam.
Thamama told the Prophet that food grains from his region of Najd were sent to Makka and if he permitted, he could block the supply. The Prophet agreed to the suggestion and Thamama blocked the supply of food grains to Makka, which caused a great deal of hardship to the people there. They sent an emissary to the Prophet, who told him on their behalf that he had always preached love, compassion and charity and that the people of Makka were on the verge of starvation. The Prophet immediately dispatched a letter to Thamama, asking him to lift the blockage and restore the supply of food grains. He then sent 500 gold coins for the poor and destitute people in Makka.
The attitude and behaviour of the Prophet towards Jews and Christians in Madina exhibited remarkable tolerance, broad-mindedness and compassion. Some Jewish families lived in his neighbourhood in Madina. If one of their children fell sick, the Prophet would make it a point to visit the distressed family as a gesture of good will. If the funeral of a Jew passed by and if he was around, he would stand up as a mark of respect for the deceased.
Islam does not allow aggression. Only a defensive war is permitted (Qur'an 2:190). When the Prophet passed away, the area under the control of the Islamic state exceeded three million square kilometres. The cost involved in the conquest of this vast area, in terms of war casualties, was less than 300.
Since Islam is a universal religion, it is characterised not only by a great deal of inner strength and resilience but also by a substantial measure of openness and flexibility. It eschews the narrow path of xenophobia, ethnocentrism and exclusion. The Islamic attitude towards other cultural traditions is reflected in its view of the pursuit of knowledge and the learning of foreign languages, in the legitimacy accorded to regional customs and usages, in the adoption of foreign technology, and in the acceptance of foreign medicines as well as cultural patterns.
The Prophet is reported to have said: "Wisdom is (like) the lost animal of a Muslim; he catches hold of it wherever he finds it". The Prophet regarded the acquisition of knowledge as an obligation on every Muslim and exhorted his followers to carry the torch of learning far and wide. He warned against concealing or withholding knowledge. Islam opened the portals of knowledge and learning to all and sundry, men and women, rich and poor, high and low.
In the Battle of Badr, Muslims scored victory over the unbelievers and more than seventy prisoners-of-war were captured by them. Umar, who became the second caliph after the demise of the Prophet, suggested that they should be executed. (Incidentally, the Bible says that if the enemy is defeated in war, their men, women, old persons and children should be executed). Abu Bakr, who succeeded the Prophet as the head of the Islamic state, disagreed with this opinion and suggested that they should be set free in lieu of some ransom. The Prophet agreed with this suggestion. A ransom of four thousand dirhams or a hundred camels was fixed as ransom for each of the captives. Those who paid the ransom were set free. In the case of those who could not afford the ransom money, their relatives and friend came to their rescue and arranged for the ransom amount. Some of the captives had neither the ransom money nor friends or relatives who could pay the ransom money on their behalf, but they knew reading and writing. The Prophet declared that a captive, who is unable to pay the ransom money but knows the art of writing, could secure his release by teaching ten Muslims children how to write. It was from one of these prisoners that Zayd ibn Thabit, who later served as the Prophet's secretary, learnt writing. Imam Bukhari has reported this incident under the caption: sanction accorded to the appointment of pagans as teachers of Muslims. Interestingly, a few of the prisoners had neither the capacity to pay the ransom money nor the ability to read and write. They were set free on their assurance that they would not wage a war against Muslims in the future.
The Prophet occasionally adorned Persian and Roman attire and advised the use of Indian medicines. Once, when one of his companions fell seriously ill, he advised him to consult a doctor in Madina who was a Christian. In the Battle of the Ditch, one of the companions, Salman the Persian, suggested the digging up of a wide ditch around the city of Madina as a defence strategy. The Prophet readily accepted the suggestion. In some of the battles fought during the time of the Prophet, foreign techniques of warfare were used without any reservations. The Prophet instructed his secretary Zayd ibn Thabit to learn Syriac, Hebrew and Persian languages so that he could carry on the Prophet's correspondence with foreign rulers. Islamic law recognises the validity of some of the local customs and usages, known as Urf and Aadah in legal parlance, in judicial pronouncements.
The Islamic attitude of openness towards other cultural traditions was evidence in later centuries as well. During the reign of the Abbasid caliph, al-Mansur (ruled 754-775 A.D.), a movement for the translation of the scientific, philosophical and literary works of ancient Greece, Egypt and India into Arabic was initiated. A number of Jewish, Christian, Hindu, Magian and Sabaean scholars and translators, such as Hunanyn ibn Ishaq or Johannitus (d. 877), Yuhanna ibn Masawayh (d. 873), Thabit ibn Qurra (d. 901), Abu Bishr Matta (d. 940) and Qusta ibn Luqa (d. 912), were associated with this movement. Hunanyn ibn Ishaq, a Christian translator, was appointed head of the Academy of Science (Dar al-Hikmah) in Baghdad, established by caliph al-Mamun (d. 833A.D.). He also served as physician to caliph al-Mutawakkil. Ibn Maymun or Maimonides, one of the distinguished philosophers and translators, was a Spanish rabbi. Jurji ibn Bakhtishu (d. 880), a Christian, was appointed as a court physician by caliph al-Mansur. The group of translators included Ali ibn Abbas al-Majusi (d. 994), a Magian, and Mankah and Ibn Dahan, who were Hindus. Caliph Harun al-Rashid set up a large hospital in Baghdad under the supervision of a Christian physician Jibril ibn Bakhtishu.
The twin sources of Islamic law, namely the Qur'an and the Prophet's Sunnah, provide the fundamental principles and precepts governing spiritual and temporal matters. These principles and precepts also provide sufficient scope for dealing with unforeseen situations and circumstances. Muslim jurists formulated two methodological principles for the interpretation and elucidation of Islamic law in the context of changing times and situations. These two principles are analogical deduction (Qiyas) and consensus among jurists and scholars (Ijma'). In addition, they enunciated a rational and creative methodology for legal innovations (Ijtiahad). All these methodological approaches were basically derived from the Qur'an and the Prophet's Sunnah.
During the early Islamic period, people directly turned to the Prophet for the clarification and elucidation of legal principles and rulings. After his demise, his companions migrated to different lands and set up study circles and schools there. With the passage of time, Muslims living in different cities and towns began to follow the legal opinions (fatawa) and judicial pronouncements of the companions who had settled there. Thus, the people of Madina generally followed the fatawa of Abdullah ibn Umar; the people of Kufa those of Abdullah ibn Masud; the people of Makka those of Abdullah ibn Abbas; the people of Egypt those of Abdullah ibn Amr ibn al-'As. During the first three centuries of the Islamic era, several distinctive schools of jurisprudence emerged. These schools of jurisprudence were named after eminent jurists, including Hasan of Basrah (d. 728), Sufyan al-Thawri (d. 777), Awzai (d. 773), al-Tabari (d. 922) and Abu Thawr (d. 860), among others. Most of these schools died out with the passing away of their founders or shortly thereafter. Four major schools of jurisprudence, which flourished and have survived to this day, include those of Abu Hanifa (d. 767), Malik (d. 795), Shafii (d. 795) and Ahmad ibn Hanbal (d. 855).
Legal pluralism in the Islamic tradition is reflected at three distinct levels: (i) the coexistence and accommodation, rather than suppression, of different interpretations of Islamic law (ii) the cognisance of regional, local practices and usages in judicial pronouncements and legal rulings (iii) the tolerance and accommodation of sectarian and denominational differences.
The Prophet's Companions (Sahabah) and the Followers (Tabiun) had certain differences in matters of jurisprudence, legal pronouncements and religious rituals. Some of them recited the Bismillah aloud in prayers while others preferred to recite it quietly. Some recited the Qunut in the pre-dawn prayers while others did not. In spite of such differences they never hesitated to follow one another in congregational prayers. Imam Shafii considered frogs, crabs and tortoises impermissible for eating while some other jurists did not prohibit their eating.
Islamic law (Shariah) follows the path of ease and convenience for people, and eschews the path of hardship and inconvenience. An eminent Muslim jurist Ibn al-Qayyim says: "The basis of the Islamic Shariah is wisdom and welfare of the people in this world and in the Hereafter. This welfare lies in complete justice, mercy, well-being and wisdom. Any thing that replaces justice with oppression, mercy with harshness, welfare with misery and wisdom with folly, has nothing to do with the Shariah". As we shall presently see, several eminent jurists, scholars and men of piety have viewed legal differences in terms of convenience and ease for the common people. One of the important methodological principles in the Hanafi school of jurisprudence is al-Masalih al-Mursalah, which emphasises the greater good and the convenience of people in legal rulings and pronouncements.
In spite of differences in legal pronouncements and rulings, the scholars and jurists of the early Islamic period had tremendous regard and respect for one another. They never doubted the honesty, integrity and sincerity of their contemporaries. They never allowed differences in legal matters to affect inter-personal relationships. Imam Abu Ishaq al-Shatibi (d. 730) has perceptively observed: "If a new issue leads to differences among people, without causing hostility, malice, ill will or division, we regard it as a part of Islam. But if a new issue results in creating animosity and incrimination among Muslims, if it causes the snapping of the bonds of brotherhood, it has nothing to do with Islam."
Sometimes, the scholars of yore abstained from performing some of the religious rituals which they considered obligatory, out of deference for their seniors. When Imam Shafii visited the tomb of Imam Abu Hanifa in Baghdad and it was time for the pre-dawn prayers, he did not recite the Qunut prayers which, in his opinion, were obligatory. When someone questioned him about this, he replied, pointing to the tomb of Imam Abu Hanifa: "How could I do so before this Imam, who did not think that the Qunut prayers are obligatory in the pre-dawn prayers."
The early scholars, jurists and men of learning viewed the legal differences among their predecessors and contemporaries, not as a bane, but as a blessing in disguise. Sufyan al-Thawri, for example, used to say: "Do not say that the Ulama have differed in such and such matter; say, instead, that they have provided convenience and ease for the people (by their difference of opinion)." Abu Yusuf and Muhammad ibn Hasan al-Shaybani, the distinguished followers of Imam Abu Hanifa, had certain differences in matters of jurisprudence and legal pronouncements with their mentor. Yet, their opinions were incorporated in the corpus of Hanafi jurisprudence. Hanafi scholars and jurists have maintained that there is nothing objectionable if Hanafi scholars and jurists reach a consensus in respect of an extraordinary case in an extraordinary situation, whereby they give a legal opinion in accordance with the principles and tenets of the Maliki school of jurisprudence, rather than with those of their own Hnafi school. Thus, Hanafi scholars and jurists in the pre-Independence period gave a ruling, based on scholarly consensus, in regard to the dissolution of a Muslim woman's marriage whose husband has left her with no trace of his whereabouts.
In the early Islamic period, some rulers sought to bring about uniformity and homogenization in legal matters under the auspices of the state. However, they were dissuaded by eminent scholars and jurists from doing so. During the caliphate of Umar ibn Abd al Aziz, it was suggested that he should bring about uniformity and consensus in respect of legal rulings, to which he replied: "I would not have been very happy if Muslim scholars had not had any differences in legal matters. The companions of the Prophet had certain differences in legal matters. Therefore, any one who follows the precepts of any of the companions is on the right path". He then circulated an order through the Islamic territories to the effect that the people of every region should abide by the ruling over which the local scholars and jurists had reached a consensus.
Once the Abbasid caliph al-Mansur told Imam Malik that he proposed to circulate copies of the Imam's books in every city and town, with the instruction that people should follow only these books. Imam Malik dissuaded the caliph from doing any thing of the kind. He told him that people in different cities were following the rulings of local scholars and jurists and that it was advisable to allow this situation to continue. Likewise, caliph Harun al-Rashid told Imam Malik that he wished to have the latter's celebrated work Al-Muwatta to be hung in the Ka'bah, so that the Muslim masses could follow it in a uniform manner. Imam Malik advised him not to do so.
More than one-third of Muslims across the world are living as minorities in non-Muslim countries. These Muslim minorities are faced with a number of problems and challenges. This situation has led some contemporary Muslim scholars and jurists to re-examine some of the principles enunciated in the classical works of Islamic jurisprudence. They argue that there is a need to rethink some of the important issues in Islamic jurisprudence, including the traditional dichotomy between the Abode of Islam (Dar al-Islam) and the Abode of War (Dar al-Harb), the relations between Muslims and non-Muslims in plural and multicultural societies, the participation of Muslims in secular politics, coping with the pressures and challenges of secularization, and the constraints on Islamic family laws and on the maintenance of Islamic identity. In 1994, the North American Fiqh Council announced a project to develop a distinctive body of jurisprudence for Muslims living in non-Muslim countries. Dr. Taha Jabir al-Alwani, chairman of the Council, has used the term Jurisprudence of the Minorities (Fiqh al-Aqalliyyah) and has argued that this constitutes an autonomous body of jurisprudence based on the principle of the relevance of Islamic laws to the conditions and circumstances peculiar to a particular community. He also argues that the traditional categories of Dar al-Islam and Dar al-Harb are no longer relevant in the contemporary context. The eminent Egyptian scholar Dr. Yusuf al-Qaradawi has carried the argument further in his books Fiqh al Aqalliyyah al-Muslimin (in Arabic) and Fiqh of Muslim Minorities (in English).
The attitude and behaviour of Prophet Muhammad towards the beliefs and traditions of the followers of other religions exhibited exemplary tolerance, understanding and magnanimity. He allowed a delegation of polytheists and idolators from Taif to stay in his mosque at Madina. Some Christians from Najran, who visited the Prophet, sought his permission to say their prayers in the mosque, which was granted. When he set up a city-state at Madina, he drew up its constitution, which was committed to writing at his instance. This constitution included two significant passages: first, Muslims and Jews will be entitled to the preservation and protection of their respective religious traditions; secondly, Muslims and Jews will together constitute a (political) community. This covenant was extended, at a later date, to the Christians of Najran and the pagan Arabs. Thus the Pax Islamica included not only Muslims but also Jews, Christians and the pagan Arabs, and guaranteed to them religious, cultural, and judicial autonomy. In fact, the Islamic state assumed responsibility for the maintenance and even defence of Jewish, Christian and pagan identities. Thus the city-state of Madina provided the first model of democratic pluralism. The charter of rights and assurances issued to the Christian population of Najran by the Prophet included the following passage:
An assurance is hereby extended, on behalf of God and the Prophet, to the people of Najran, that their lives, religion, lands and wealth will be protected. No change in their existing conditions will be effected. Their rights will not be violated. Their commercial caravans and delegations will be protected. No cardinal will be dismissed from his position, nor will an ascetic be denied the right to his way of life. The custodians of churches will face no interference in respect of their functions.
The protection of minority rights under the Islamic dispensation has no parallel in the annals of history. The Prophet exhorted his followers to scrupulously protect the legitimate rights and privileges of the Dhimmis (non-Muslim subjects of the Islamic state). He is reported to have said: "Whosoever oppresses any Dhimmi, I shall be his prosecutor on the Day of Judgement". He issued strict instructions to the effect that, in the event of a war, women, children and religious functionaries belonging to other religions should not be harmed.
This attitude of tolerance and sympathy was continued by the four caliphs and the companions. It is remarkable that the occupation of Syria by the Muslim army during the caliphate of Abu Bakr met with no resistance from the local Christian population who welcomed the Muslim soldiers who, in their eyes, liberated them from the oppression of their own coreligionists. When Khalid ibn Walid made a treaty with the Christian population after the conquest of Hira during the caliphate of Abu Bakr, he gave a written assurance to them that their churches would not be destroyed or desecrated by Muslims and that they would not be prevented from ringing their bells or from carrying crosses in their religious processions. During the caliphate of Umar, some Muslims usurped a piece of land belonging to a Jew and constructed a mosque on the site. When the Caliph got to know about it he ordered the demolition of the mosque and the restoration of the land to the Jew. Caliph Umar used to consult non-Muslims in military and administrative matters. During the caliphate of Ali, the Muslim-occupied territories of the Byzantine Empire faced internal strife. Emperor Constantine II sent a secret message to the Christian population in the Islamic state, urging them to rise in revolt against Islamic rule and assuring them of his military support. The Christians, however, spurned the offer, saying: 'These enemies of our religion are preferable to you".
Islam does not favour the forced assimilation or conversion of non-Muslims (Qur'an 2:256; 109:6). The Islamic state guaranteed not only the protection of the lives and honour of the Dhimmis but also of their religious beliefs and rituals, personal laws and endowments. When Amr ibn al-A's, a distinguished companion of the Prophet, conquered Egypt in 640 AD, he left the Christian population in undisturbed possession of their churches and guaranteed to them independence and autonomy in all ecclesiastical matters. He allowed the properties and endowments attached to Christian churches to remain with their traditional custodians. In Egypt, a Muslim soldier damaged the eye of an idol. The idol-worshipper complained to the governor Amir ibn al A's, who decreed that the idol-worshipper had a right to damage the soldier's eye. Astounded by this judgement, he forgave the soldier in lieu of monetary compensation.
Some Christians from Najran in Yaman declined to accept Islam but agreed to live under Islamic rule on condition that they would have the freedom to retain and manage their churches and to appoint their own priests. They requested the Prophet to appoint a Muslim judge to arbitrate in their disputes. He deputed Abu Ubaydah ibn al-Jarrah. He carried out the administration of justice in such an efficient and impartial manner that many Christians embraced Islam.
Once Caliph Ali lost his armour. A few days later he saw a Jew selling the same armour in the local bazaar. He accosted the Jew and told him that the armour belonged to him. The Jew refused to accept his claim and insisted that he was the rightful owner of the armour. Ali took up the matter with the local magistrate Qadi Shurayh. The Qadi asked for witnesses in support of his claim. Ali produced two witnesses, his son Hasan and his freed slave Qanbar. Qadi Shurayh told Caliph Ali that a son's testimony in support of his father's claim was not admissible in law and decreed that the Jew be allowed to retain the armour. Amazed and deeply touched by this exceptional display of justice, the Jew admitted that the armour indeed belonged to Caliph Ali and embraced Islam.
After the conquest of Jerusalem, Caliph Umar gave the following assurance, in writing, to the Christian population of the town: "This is the assurance which Umar, the servant of God, the commander of the faithful, grants to the people of Aelia. He grants to all security for their lives, their possessions, their churches and their crosses, and for all that concerns their religion. Their churches shall not be converted into dwelling places, nor destroyed, nor shall any constraint be put upon them in the mater of their faith."
Under the Islamic dispensation, non-Muslims were entitled to preserve and maintain their places of worship and to construct new ones. In some cases, the expenses for the maintenance and repair of their places of worship were met from the state treasury. Similarly, the salaries of Jewish rabbis and Christian priests were often paid from the state treasury. Non-Muslims who had no source of income received stipends from the state treasury. During the caliphate of Uthman, Jeserjah, the bishop of Merv, wrote a letter to the Patriarch of Persia, saying that the Arabs, whom God has given dominion over the world, do not attack Christianity. On the contrary, they help our religion, respect our priests and shrines, and offer donations to our churches and monasteries.
Non-Muslims living in the Islamic state are entitled to certain rights and privileges which are not available to Muslims. For example, they are allowed to take and give interest, which is forbidden to Muslims. All Muslims are obliged to take part in a war in the event of an external aggression, which is not binding on non-Muslims. In lieu of this exemption, they are required to pay the Jizya. The Jizya levy is not an invention of Muslims. It existed in Iran and in the Byzantine Empire where people who were exempted from military service were required to pay a certain tax in lieu of the exemption. In the battle of Yarmuk, when Muslims were unable to defend the non-Muslim subjects of the Islamic state, they returned to them the whole amount of Jizya. During the time of the Prophet, the quantum of Jizya was about ten Dirham in a year, which amounted to the expenses of an average family for ten days. The amount of Jizya differed according to the economic status of a person. Women, old and destitute persons, slaves, physically disabled people and children were exempted from the payment of Jizya.
Following the Islamic conquest, the system of administration remained unchanged and the non-Muslim personnel associated with matters of administration were retained. By and large, the Islamic state did not discriminate between Muslims and non-Muslims in respect of employment or appointment to high positions. Caliph Muawiyah's finance minister Surjun ibn Mansur as well as his personal physician were Christian. A number of Dhimmis were appointed to high positions during Umawid and Abbasid periods.
In some cases, when the religious rights of non-Muslims were violated by a ruler, the Ulama and the Qadis took the initiative in rectifying the situation. During the caliphate of al-Hadi in the second century AH, Ali ibn Sulayman was the governor of Egypt. For unknown reasons, he ordered the demolition of some Christian churches. When Musa ibn Isa succeeded him, he approached the Ulama in this matter. Layth ibn Sa'ad, who was the doyen of the Ulama of his time, decreed that all the demolished churches should be reconstructed at state expense. The governor readily complied with this decree. The grand mosque of Damascus had a church in its vicinity. The caliph Muawiyah requested the Christian community to forego their right over the church in lieu of some compensation so that the church premises could be included in the mosque. The Christians refused. However, the caliph did not press the matter.
Islamic law guarantees religious and cultural protection not only to Jews and Christians but also to Zoroastrians, Sabaeans and worshippers of idols. After the conquest of Persia, the fire temples of Zoroastrians were left untouched by Muslims. In the tenth century, three centuries after the Islamic conquest of Persia, fire temples were to be found in every province of Persia. Following the conquest of Sind, Muhamamd ibn Qasim gave a written assurance to the local Hindu population to the effect that their temples would not be harmed or destroyed. Daibul had a majestic Buddhist temple perched on a hillock. Multan had a magnificent Hindu temple. All such places of worship were left untouched by Muhammad ibn Qasim.
Following the end of the period of the four caliphs, Muslim rulers occasionally deviated from the principles of governance as laid down in the Islamic Shariah. Nevertheless, the state and society set up by the Prophet and consolidated by the caliphs and the Companions continued to serve as a beacon of inspiration and guidance for successive generations of Muslims. By and large, Muslim rulers and governments exhibited remarkable tolerance and magnanimity towards non-Muslims living in the Islamic state. Since the Roman destruction of Jerusalem in 70 AD, Christians had prohibited Jews from entering or living in the city. It was only after the Muslim occupation of Jerusalem that Jews came to live in the city.
When Muslims conquered Spain, they left Christians in the exercise of their religion. They allowed them to be tried by their own judges in accordance with their own religious laws. The ritual of the mass was observed with all solemnity, the psalms were chanted in the choir, and the church festivals were celebrated with customary enthusiasm. When the Ottomans captured Constantinople in 1453, they proclaimed themselves the protectors of the Greek Church. The control of spiritual and ecclesiastical matters was left entirely to the Christian clergy, with no interference from the state. When Jews were evicted from Spain 1492, they took shelter in Muslim lands. In Turkey, they were welcomed by the Muslim mayor of Istanbul. It is significant to note that Jewish communities who speak Ladino (a Judaeo-Spanish dialect) survived only in the eastern Mediterranean lands which were part of the Ottoman empire. Under Ottoman rule, the cherished principle of tolerance was institutionalised through the Millet system where administrative control was exercised through legally constituted religious communities, notably the Greek Orthodox and Armenian Christians and the Rabbanite Jews. The state did not demand conversion or cultural conformity from the ethnic and religious minorities.
There were instances when some places of worship belonging to non-Muslims were desecrated or destroyed by over-zealous Muslim soldiers or some members of the public. However, they were restrained and chastised by the Ulama and Muslim rulers because such acts were considered contrary to Islamic teachings. During the reign of al-Mutasim (833-842AD), a Muslim general ordered the Imam of a mosque to be flogged because he was responsible for the destruction of a fire temple and the construction of a mosque in its place. Caliph al-Muqtadir (908-932AD) gave orders for the reconstruction of some churches at Ramallah in Palestine, which had been destroyed by Muslims during a riot.
Ethnicity, which is an important aspect of the contemporary discourse of pluralism, refers to the positive consciousness of belonging to a group. Factors such as religion, culture, language and a sense of shared identity constitute the key components and markers of ethnicity. Undoubtedly, ethnicity plays an important role in fostering social solidarity and cohesiveness and in providing a sense of belonging and rootedness to the individual. In actual fact, ethnicity is a Janus-faced phenomenon in the sense that it has both benign as well as negative implications and consequences. In the Hadith literature, the negative and socially disruptive implications and consequences of ethnicity are described as Asabiyyah or ethnocentrism. The Prophet defined Asabiyyah as helping one's own people in a manner that is morally wrong. He said: "He who invites people to Asabiyyah is not one of us; he who fights for it is not one of us; he who dies for the sake of it is not one of us." One day a scuffle took place between a Migrant (Muhajir) and a Helper (Ansari). Both called out to their respective groups for help. When the Prophet heard about this incident, he expressed displeasure over it and remarked: "Why do you raise slogans like those of the age of ignorance (Jahiliyyah)? Give them up; they stink." A companion asked the Prophet whether loving one's own people was also a part of Asabiyyah, to which he replied in the negative and added: "Asabiyyah is helping one's community in matters of injustice and oppression."
The renowned philosopher and sociologist Ibn Khaldun (d.1406), in his celebrated work Muqaddimah, has dwelt at considerable length on the social significance and functions of Asabiyyah and on its bearing on political processes, especially on the establishment of political power. However, while he takes a largely instrumentalist view of ethnicity, he fails to take cognisance of the negative and dysfunctional implications and consequences of Asabiyyah.
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Horsham made an encouraging dress rehearsal for the start of their league campaign when they eased to a 123-run victory against St James's.
Their opponents may have been from a division below them but that did not detract from what proved to be a fruitful and enjoyable display.
Sussex's Will Beer fired 67 from 36 balls after the hosts won the toss and elected to bat.
Tom Johnson also made 55 from 18 balls with three fours and six sixes as they posted 209-7.
St James's were then bowled out with the fourth ball of the final over for 86.
Nathan Roberts and Ben Shoare both took 3-9 with the ball.
Captain Sam Attfield was delighted with the high quality display.
He said: "We played very well - it was a really decent wicket and we had a strong side out.
"Will Beer, Ben Shoare and Tom Johnson batted very well, in fact Tom hit the fastest 50 ever seen (in 10 minutes).
"This set up the platform for the rest of the team. It gave us the confidence to strike the ball from the first delivery. We just needed to bowl in the right areas.
"Our new opening bowler Nathan Roberts certainly bowled in the right area and took three wickets and looked like he would take four or five wickets. Our spinners bowled well and we fielded and took a lot of catches - Nathan taking three.
Horsham expect to have a similar side available for their opening Sussex League Premier Division game this Saturday which is away to Eastbourne.
Their only absentees are likely to be George Garton and Tom Haynes who are away at boarding school.


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★ CPI Inflation Calculator
£100 in 1765 → £10,496.87 in 2000
UK Inflation Calculator
£100 in 1770 → 2000
GBP inflation rate in 2020
UK future inflation calculator
U.K. Inflation Rate, £100 in 1765 to 2000
According to the Office for National Statistics composite price index, prices in 2000 are 10,396.87% higher than average prices since 1765. The British pound experienced an average inflation rate of 2.00% per year during this period, meaning the real value of a pound decreased.
In other words, £100 in 1765 is equivalent in purchasing power to about £10,496.87 in 2000, a difference of £10,396.87 over 235 years.
The 1765 inflation rate was 3.23%. The inflation rate in 2000 was 2.96%. The 2000 inflation rate is higher compared to the average inflation rate of 2.67% per year between 2000 and 2020.
Buying Power of £100
Formulas & How to Calculate
Inflation from 1765 to 2000
Cumulative price change 10,396.87%
Average inflation rate 2.00%
Converted amount (£100 base) £10,496.87
Price difference (£100 base) £10,396.87
CPI in 1765 6.400
CPI in 2000 671.800
Inflation in 1765 3.23%
GBP Inflation since 1750
Annual Rate, the Office for National Statistics CPI
Buying power of £100 in 1765
This chart shows a calculation of buying power equivalence for £100 in 1765 (price index tracking began in 1750).
For example, if you started with £100, you would need to end with £10,496.87 in order to "adjust" for inflation (sometimes refered to as "beating inflation").
When £100 is equivalent to £10,496.87 over time, that means that the "real value" of a single U.K. pound decreases over time. In other words, a pound will pay for fewer items at the store.
This effect explains how inflation erodes the value of a pound over time. By calculating the value in 1765 dollars, the chart below shows how £100 buys less over the past 235 years.
According to the Office for National Statistics, each of these GBP amounts below is equal in terms of what it could buy at the time:
Pound Value
1765 £100.00 3.23%
1768 £104.69 -1.47%
1769 £96.88 -7.46%
1770 £96.88 0.00%
1772 £115.63 10.45%
1797 £140.63 -10.00%
1968 £1,018.75 4.65%
1974 £1,695.31 16.04%
1998 £10,040.63 3.43%
2009 £13,171.88 -0.53%
2020 £17,785.05 1.50%*
* Compared to previous annual rate. Not final. See inflation summary for latest 12-month trailing value.
Click to show 229 more rows
Download as CSV/Excel
How to Calculate Inflation Rate for £100, 1765 to 2000
This inflation calculator uses the following inflation rate formula:
CPI in 2000CPI in 1765
1765 GBP value
Then plug in historical CPI values. The U.K. CPI was 6.4 in the year 1765 and 671.8 in 2000:
£100 in 1765 has the same "purchasing power" or "buying power" as £10,496.87 in 2000.
To get the total inflation rate for the 235 years between 1765 and 2000, we use the following formula:
CPI in 2000 - CPI in 1765CPI in 1765
Cumulative inflation rate (235 years)
Plugging in the values to this equation, we get:
671.8 - 6.46.4
Data Source & Citation
Raw data for these calculations comes from the composite price index published by the UK Office for National Statistics (ONS). A composite index is created by combining price data from several different published sources, both official and unofficial. The Consumer Price Index, normally used to compute inflation, has only been tracked since 1988. All inflation calculations after 1988 use the Office for National Statistics' Consumer Price Index, except for 2017, which is based on The Bank of England's forecast.
You may use the following MLA citation for this page: "1765 pounds in 2000 | UK Inflation Calculator." Official Inflation Data, Alioth Finance, 21 Jan. 2020, https://www.officialdata.org/1765-GBP-in-2000.
Special thanks to QuickChart for providing downloadable chart images.
in2013dollars.com is a reference website maintained by the Official Data Foundation.
Ian Webster is an engineer and data expert based in San Mateo, California. He has worked for Google, NASA, and consulted for governments around the world on data pipelines and data analysis. Disappointed by the lack of clear resources on the impacts of inflation on economic indicators, Ian believes this website serves as a valuable public tool. Ian earned his degree in Computer Science from Dartmouth College.
Email · LinkedIn · Twitter
U.S. Inflation
Download CSV/Excel


Be dazzled by the views of the City of Light outside—and the luxury accommodations inside—at Josephine. From its setting in a classic Parisian apartment building in the 7th arrondissement, this stately villa has views of the green expanse of the Champ de Mars during the day and the sparkling rise of the Eiffel Tower at night.
Beautifully appointed interiors and three suite-style bedrooms can accommodate groups of up to six family members and friends on a stylish city getaway or a truly indulgent Parisian honeymoon.
Let the elevator—an unusual feature for Paris—whisk you up to the third floor, where the villa opens to a private balcony overlooking one of the city's chicest neighborhoods and, of course, the Eiffel Tower. Tune into local favorites on the cable TV, or share photos of your holiday with friends at home via Wi-Fi.
Traditional French architecture and decor create an elegant setting for your stay. The formal living and dining rooms are studies in Parisian splendor, with beautiful brocade chairs, hardwood floors, custom silk drapes, original artwork and decorative fireplaces, all topped by a stunning chandelier. For more relaxed evenings in, step into the mahogany-paneled library and choose a book from the shelves to peruse on the leather sofa. Where the rest of the apartment is classic, the fully equipped kitchen is sleek and modern, with state-of-the-art appliances and even a breakfast bar.
All three bedrooms at Josephine have king beds and en-suite bathrooms, and are about the same size, making it ideal for couples looking to share a vacation rental. Like the main living rooms, the bedrooms are impeccably furnished, and there's ample closet space to fill with finds from the city's boutiques.
Josephine's Left Bank setting is close to the most iconic sights of Paris. The villa is about a half-mile from the Eiffel Tower—close enough for a romantic stroll or picnic—and a short taxi ride or longer walk from the bustling Champs-Élysées, the wonders of the Louvre and the awe-inspiring Notre-Dame Cathedral.


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Lincoln: Kick-ass Epic Fantasy and Paranormal Romance
Feb 2019 · Angelbound Lincoln Book 2 · Monster House Books
"Angels, demons and romance… YES!" - C.S., Amazon
"So addicting! Highly recommend!" – Diary Of A Wannabe Writer
"I. LOVE. LINCOLN." – Antonella's Book World
When it comes to fighting, Prince Lincoln is the greatest demon killer in the history of his people, the thrax. Now Lincoln faces his hardest fight yet, and it's not on a traditional battlefield. It's all because something unexpected has come to pass…
The part-angel prince has fallen for a quasi-demon girl. Hard.
Trouble is, Lincoln's people see anyone demonic as an enemy be hunted. Sadly, the girl who's stolen Lincoln's heart, a quasi-demon named Myla Lewis, soon becomes the number one target of Lincoln's own fighting force. It's something the High Prince of the Thrax won't stand for. At all.
No matter what, Lincoln will protect his Myla.
Angelbound Lincoln Series
Stories from the perspective of Mister the Prince
1. Duty Bound, a novella that takes place before Lincoln meets Myla face-to-face
2. Lincoln, a novel that tells the story of Angelbound from Lincoln's POV
3. Trickster
4. Baculum
5. Angelfire
Friendly Neighborhood Inkslinger
Admittedly, I read the Angelbound Lincoln series out of order.. but I really enjoyed both the pre-quel and the third book. So, I expected to love one that centered on the Thrax prince himself.. even more. 'Lincoln,' book two in the series, somehow didn't read as smoothly to me as either of the others. The second installment follows Prince Lincoln, a part-angel demon killer, as he comes into his own. He has fallen for a quasi-demon girl named Myla.. but his people see anyone demonic as the enemy.. and the PITA neighboring kingdom of Acca is determined to win the right to hunt her. In an effort to protect her, he's been a first class jerk to keep her at a distance from him, but as time has passed.. he's only become more enamored and more aware that the precariousness of her situation continues to grow. As I've said before.. Bauer has done a wonderful job with the world building. The races she employs in her stories are a quirky, but fascinating combination of beings.. the magic bases are interesting, and the villains are nothing if not persistent. Still, this book felt off for me. Perhaps I've just grown tired of the first person storytelling style, but I think Prince Lincoln's voice just doesn't resonate well with me at times. I enjoy him when he's causing the villains problems, but when he's mooning about over his girl.. it's all rather dull. There's just not a lot of depth there with any of the characters. Furthermore, while he seems to be able to spend ample time describing the most minute detail about Myla, there's a lot of story developing throughout the book.. and those pieces feel very rushed. It's like a bare minimum of words were used to get the most information into the shortest span of time possible so that he could go back to talking about his feelings. There are a ton of interesting characters in the book.. and they really don't see a lot of page time either. They're tools of convenience to further plot or deliver information to the reader, but they aren't allowed to crystalize into anything solid. In fact, the story may be a bit dialogue heavy.. relying on that and inner monologues to explain what's happening, instead of really letting the reader experience it first hand. I do have a couple of favorites though, Walker.. his Ghoul friend and Night, his spell casting mare.. are both fascinating. Myla is fine, same with Queen Ophelia. The sense of humor is there.. even if it doesn't actually make me laugh. Most of them are pretty likeable. All in all, it was still a fun read. Very light and nothing wrong with the writing. It just felt weaker to me than the other two. (More reviews like this at Betwixt The Sheets.) (I received this title as an ARC. All opinions are mine and freely given.)
Cheryl Whitty
Well I don't know what to say , except Christina has done it again made fall in love with Lincoln again. It was great seeing Myla through Lincoln's point of view. It made you realise how he could not be completely dazzled by Myla, when you know what his days look like. So even though some the story was familiar from Angelbound, most of the time it felt like a completely different story. I think Christine redeemed Lincoln completely, and you couldn't help admire him. Myla as always is her usual snarky self and that's why we all are addicted to reading about her. Lincoln definitely has his adventures, most of I really felt for Lincoln when you read about his life without Myla. A Great addiction to the Angelbound family.
Nicola Gibbons
PROOF READING IS ABYSMAL! I enjoyed this book quite a bit. However I do wish that the proof reader would ensure that the book flows properly. There are several instances of misspelling as well as sentences that make no sense. I find it infuriating to read a book and have to keep stopping in order to rethink how the words are interpreted It is almost as if they have been translated from a different language. So because of this I can only give the book 2 stars.
Christina Bauer believes that fantasy books are like bacon: they just make life better. All of which is why she writes romance novels that feature demons, dragons, wizards, witches, elves, elementals, and a bunch of random stuff that she brainstorms while riding the Boston T. Oh, and she includes lots of humor and kick-ass chicks, too. Christina lives in Newton, MA with her husband, son, and semi-insane golden retriever, Ruby.
Angelbound Origins
In which Myla Lewis kicks ass and takes names. Nuff said.
1. Angelbound
2. Scala
3. Acca
4. Thrax
5. The Dark Lands
6. The Brutal Time (Fall 2019)
7. Armageddon (already here, long story!)
8. Quasi Redux (Fall 2020)
Angelbound Offspring
The next generation takes on Heaven, Hell, and everything in between
1. Maxon
2. Portia
3. Zinnia (Summer 2019)
4. Kaps (Summer 2020)
5. Huntress (Summer 2021)
Angelbound Lincoln
Angelbound Origins as told by Prince Lincoln
1. Duty Bound
3. Tricksters
Also From Christina Bauer
- Fairy Tales of the Magicorum, a series of modern fairy tales with sass, action, and romance
- Beholder, where a medieval farm girl discovers necromancy and true love
- Dimension Drift, a dystopian adventure with science, snark, and hot aliens
Get your FREE copy of Christina's novella, BEVERLY HILLS VAMPIRE, when you sign up for her personal newsletter: https://tinyurl.com/bauersbooks ***Not available in stores***
Continue the series
Trickster: Kick-ass Epic Fantasy and Paranormal Romance
Book 3•Science fiction & fantasy
Baculum: Kick-ass Epic Fantasy and Paranormal Romance
Angelfire: Kick-ass Epic Fantasy and Paranormal Romance
Duty Bound: Kick-ass Epic Fantasy and Paranormal Romance
More by Christina Bauer
Pixieland Diaries: A Fairy Tale Retelling with Pixies
Bandits and Ball Gowns: A Fairy Tale Retelling of Cinderella
Thrax: Action. Adventure. Fantasy. Badassdom.
Book 4•Fiction & literature
The Dark Lands: Action. Adventure. Fantasy. Badassdom.
Towers and Tithes: A Fairy Tale Retelling of Rapunzel
Snow Wicked White: A Glass Slipper Adventure Book 4
Allie Burton
Cursed: A Necromancer Romance


text:
Displaying Your Author Results For: evangeline lilly
ANT-MAN AND THE WASP [Blu-ray]
Director: Peyton Reed
Stars: Paul Rudd, Evangeline Lilly, Michael Peña, Walton Goggins, Bobby Cannavale
ANT-MAN [Blu-ray]
Stars: Paul Rudd, Michael Douglas, Evangeline Lilly, Corey Stoll, Bobby Cannavale
The Hobbit: The Battle of the Five Armies (Blu-ray + Downloadable Digital HD UltraViolet Code)
Rating: PG-13 (Parental Guidance Suggested)
Stars: Ian McKellen, Martin Freeman, Richard Armitage, Ken Stott, Graham McTavish
The Hobbit: The Battle of Five Armies Extended Edition (BD) [Blu-ray]
Hobbit, The: The Desolation of Smaug (Blu-Ray)
Stars: Ian McKellen, Martin Freeman, Richard Armitage, Benedict Cumberbatch, Orlando Bloom
Lost: The Complete Sixth and Final Season [Blu-ray]
Stars: Matthew Fox, Evangeline Lilly, Josh Holloway, Naveen Andrews, Terry O'Quinn
Publisher: ABC STUDIOS
Real Steel (Two-Disc Blu-ray/DVD Combo)
Director: Shawn Levy
Stars: Hugh Jackman, Evangeline Lilly, Dakota Goyo, Anthony Mackie, Kevin Durand
Hurt Locker [Blu-ray]
Director: Kathryn Bigelow
Stars: Jeremy Renner, Anthony Mackie, Brian Geraghty, Ralph Fiennes, Evangeline Lilly
Publisher: Summit Entertainment
Lost: Season 3 [Blu-ray]
Stars: Matthew Fox, Evangeline Lilly, Josh Holloway, Terry O'Quinn, Elizabeth Mitchell
Release Date: December 2007
Publisher: Buena Vista Home Entertainment
Real Steel [Blu-ray]
Stars: Hugh Jackman, Evangeline Lilly, Dakota Goyo, Kevin Durand
Publisher: Touchstone Home Entertainment


article he mentioned certainly doesn't prove it, nor does it attempt to.
them permanently larger by such a course, I am inclined to doubt."
using bees living in skeps, box hives, etc. which are still widespread.
compared side by side with bees managed the normal way.
that the varroa may be inbred which could significantly reduce their vigor.
keep bees in isolation, you are bound to pick up new strains of chem.
resistant mites, small hive beetles, etc.
quite comfortable on smaller cells; that is what is sold in Africa.
here. Personally, I have heard that the Arizona bees don't make much honey.
bees. But they might make good pets.
evidence is provided to support these theories, I would want to see it.


The CAKE VIDEO SCHOOL LLC company was registered on January 31, 2015, in WA. Current status of the organization Active and type Profit. The registering agent is EKATERINA FREIMAN located at the address 23817 216TH PL SE, MAPLE VALLEY, WA, 980385588. Get the credit report on the CAKE VIDEO SCHOOL LLC. Governing persons are: EKATERINA FREIMAN. Credt score.


text:
Julia Young Networth
Julia Young Net Worth
Julia Young is an American writer, comedian, and actress with a net worth of $4 million. Born on December 25, 1986, she is associated with the UPRIGHT CITIZENS BRIGADE COMEDY TROUPE and has also appeared on WILD 'N OUT 10. She is best known for her role in "Wild N Out", an MTV sitcom. She has also produced many other comedies. She posed with Kel Mitchell in 2014 for a picture. While attending the University of Michigan, she co-founded impro-professionals.
Julia Young was born under the zodiac sign Capricorn in 1986. Her net worth is estimated at $4 million. She is currently single and her age as of 2022 is 36 years old. Her estimated age at the time of her net worth is expected to be under review. This figure will increase as she continues to perform. For now, Julia Young is a popular and successful Comedian whose net worth is currently Under Review.
Julia Young's net wealth has remained stable over the past two years. Her net worth is expected increase over the next few years as she is a successful comedian. However, it is important to remember that her net worth will fluctuate, and it is not an accurate indicator of her income level or net worth. To estimate Julia Young's net worth, first determine the source of her income. For her personal life, Young is a Capricorn.
Julia was a performer in many plays during her early career. She was nominated for a Tony Award in 1975 for her performance in Where's Charley? She became involved in Werner Erhard's Erhard Seminars Training which focuses on self motivation. Julia was later seen in The Threepenny Opera, playing Mack the Knife. She interprets dialogue with a British accent. In 1980, she was again in the cinema as an Italian car racer in "Oh, Brother".
Julia Roberts is the star of several movies and has many real estate properties around the globe. She bought a Malibu property on the coast for $6.4 million in 2003. She also owns a $6.84 million estate and a Manhattan apartment worth $4 million. In addition to this, she owns a ranch in Taos, New Mexico and a Hollywood mansion worth $30 million.
Julia Rose was born in New Orleans and spent her childhood in Texas. Her parents are both entrepreneurs, with her mother working as a hair stylist and her father as a personal trainer. Julia Rose grew up in a family of entrepreneurs and was fascinated by the business aspects of their businesses. In addition to her own endeavors, she started a pet-sitting business when she was only 10 years old, and this eventually led to more than a hundred customers.
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