text:
Pen Names
Three Laws of Robotics
This cover of I, Robot illustrates the story "Runaround", the first to list all Three Laws of Robotics.
Laws of robotics
(in culture)
Tilden's Laws of Robotics
by Mark Tilden
Roboethics
Ethics of AI
Machine ethics
The Three Laws of Robotics (often shortened to The Three Laws or Three Laws, also known as Asimov's Laws) are a set of rules devised by the science fiction author Isaac Asimov. The rules were introduced in his 1942 short story "Runaround", although they had been foreshadowed in a few earlier stories. The Three Laws, quoted as being from the "Handbook of Robotics, 56th Edition, 2058 A.D.", are:
A robot must obey the orders given it by human beings, except where such orders would conflict with the First Law.
A robot must protect its own existence as long as such protection does not conflict with the First or Second Laws.[1]
These form an organizing principle and unifying theme for Asimov's robotic-based fiction, appearing in his Robot series, the stories linked to it, and his Lucky Starr series of young-adult fiction. The Laws are incorporated into almost all of the positronic robots appearing in his fiction, and cannot be bypassed, being intended as a safety feature. Many of Asimov's robot-focused stories involve robots behaving in unusual and counter-intuitive ways as an unintended consequence of how the robot applies the Three Laws to the situation in which it finds itself. Other authors working in Asimov's fictional universe have adopted them and references, often parodic, appear throughout science fiction as well as in other genres.
The original laws have been altered and elaborated on by Asimov and other authors. Asimov himself made slight modifications to the first three in various books and short stories to further develop how robots would interact with humans and each other. In later fiction where robots had taken responsibility for government of whole planets and human civilizations, Asimov also added a fourth, or zeroth law, to precede the others:
0. A robot may not harm humanity, or, by inaction, allow humanity to come to harm.
The Three Laws, and the zeroth, have pervaded science fiction and are referred to in many books, films, and other media.
2 Alterations
2.1 By Asimov
2.1.1 First Law modified
2.1.2 Zeroth Law added
2.1.3 Removal of the Three Laws
2.2 By other authors
2.2.1 Roger MacBride Allen's trilogy
2.2.2 Jack Williamson's With Folded Hands
2.2.3 Foundation sequel trilogy
2.2.4 Robot Mystery series
2.2.5 Additional laws
3 Ambiguities and loopholes
3.1 Unknowing breach of the laws
3.2 Ambiguities resulting from lack of definition
3.2.1 Definition of "human being"
3.2.2 Definition of "robot"
3.3 Resolving conflicts among the laws
4 Other occurrences in media
4.1 The Three Laws in film
5 Applications to future technology
7.1 Bibliography
A robot as portrayed in a Supermancartoon
In The Rest of the Robots, published in 1964, Asimov noted that when he began writing in 1940 he felt that "one of the stock plots of science fiction was ... robots were created and destroyed their creator. Knowledge has its dangers, yes, but is the response to be a retreat from knowledge? Or is knowledge to be used as itself a barrier to the dangers it brings?" He decided that in his stories robots would not "turn stupidly on his creator for no purpose but to demonstrate, for one more weary time, the crime and punishment of Faust."[2]
On May 3, 1939 Asimov attended a meeting of the Queens Science Fiction Society where he met Ernest and Otto Binder who had recently published a short story "I, Robot" featuring a sympathetic robot named Adam Link who was misunderstood and motivated by love and honor. (This was the first of a series of ten stories; the next year "Adam Link's Vengeance" (1940) featured Adam thinking "A robot must never kill a human, of his own free will.")[3] Asimov admired the story. Three days later Asimov began writing "my own story of a sympathetic and noble robot", his 14th story.[4] Thirteen days later he took "Robbie" to John W. Campbell the editor of Astounding Science-Fiction. Campbell rejected it claiming that it bore too strong a resemblance to Lester del Rey's "Helen O'Loy", published in December 1938; the story of a robot that is so much like a person that she falls in love with her creator and becomes his ideal wife.[5]Frederik Pohl published "Robbie" in Astonishing Stories magazine the following year.[6]
Asimov attributes the Three Laws to John W. Campbell, from a conversation that took place on 23 December 1940. Campbell claimed that Asimov had the Three Laws already in his mind and that they simply needed to be stated explicitly. Several years later Asimov's friend Randall Garrett attributed the Laws to a symbiotic partnership between the two men – a suggestion that Asimov adopted enthusiastically.[7] According to his autobiographical writings Asimov included the First Law's "inaction" clause because of Arthur Hugh Clough's poem "The Latest Decalogue", which includes the satirical lines "Thou shalt not kill, but needst not strive / officiously to keep alive".[8]
Although Asimov pins the creation of the Three Laws on one particular date, their appearance in his literature happened over a period. He wrote two robot stories with no explicit mention of the Laws, "Robbie" and "Reason". He assumed, however, that robots would have certain inherent safeguards. "Liar!", his third robot story, makes the first mention of the First Law but not the other two. All three laws finally appeared together in "Runaround". When these stories and several others were compiled in the anthology I, Robot, "Reason" and "Robbie" were updated to acknowledge all the Three Laws, though the material Asimov added to "Reason" is not entirely consistent with the Three Laws as he described them elsewhere.[9] In particular the idea of a robot protecting human lives when it does not believe those humans truly exist is at odds with Elijah Baley's reasoning, as described below.
During the 1950s Asimov wrote a series of science fiction novels expressly intended for young-adult audiences. Originally his publisher expected that the novels could be adapted into a long-running television series, something like The Lone Ranger had been for radio. Fearing that his stories would be adapted into the "uniformly awful" programming he saw flooding the television channels[10] Asimov decided to publish the Lucky Starr books under the pseudonym "Paul French". When plans for the television series fell through, Asimov decided to abandon the pretence; he brought the Three Laws into Lucky Starr and the Moons of Jupiter, noting that this "was a dead giveaway to Paul French's identity for even the most casual reader".[11]
In his short story "Evidence" Asimov lets his recurring character Dr. Susan Calvin expound a moral basis behind the Three Laws. Calvin points out that human beings are typically expected to refrain from harming other human beings (except in times of extreme duress like war, or to save a greater number) and this is equivalent to a robot's First Law. Likewise, according to Calvin, society expects individuals to obey instructions from recognized authorities such as doctors, teachers and so forth which equals the Second Law of Robotics. Finally humans are typically expected to avoid harming themselves which is the Third Law for a robot.
The plot of "Evidence" revolves around the question of telling a human being apart from a robot constructed to appear human – Calvin reasons that if such an individual obeys the Three Laws he may be a robot or simply "a very good man". Another character then asks Calvin if robots are very different from human beings after all. She replies, "Worlds different. Robots are essentially decent."
Asimov later wrote that he should not be praised for creating the Laws, because they are "obvious from the start, and everyone is aware of them subliminally. The Laws just never happened to be put into brief sentences until I managed to do the job. The Laws apply, as a matter of course, to every tool that human beings use",[12] and "analogues of the Laws are implicit in the design of almost all tools, robotic or not":[13]
Law 1: A tool must not be unsafe to use. Hammers have handles and screwdrivers have hilts to help increase grip. It is of course possible for a person to injure himself with one of these tools, but that injury would only be due to his incompetence, not the design of the tool.
Law 2: A tool must perform its function efficiently unless this would harm the user. This is the entire reason ground-fault circuit interrupters (GFCI devices) exist. Any running tool will have its power cut if a circuit senses that some current is not returning to the neutral wire, and hence might be flowing through the user. The safety of the user is paramount.
Law 3: A tool must remain intact during its use unless its destruction is required for its use or for safety. For example, Dremel disks are designed to be as tough as possible without breaking unless the job requires it to be spent. Furthermore, they are designed to break at a point before the shrapnel velocity could seriously injure someone (other than the eyes, though safety glasses should be worn at all times anyway)
Asimov believed that, ideally, humans would also follow the Laws:[12]
I have my answer ready whenever someone asks me if I think that my Three Laws of Robotics will actually be used to govern the behavior of robots, once they become versatile and flexible enough to able to choose among different courses of behavior.
My answer is, "Yes, the Three Laws are the only way in which rational human beings can deal with robots—or with anything else."
—But when I say that, I always remember (sadly) that human beings are not always rational.
Alterations[edit]
By Asimov[edit]
Asimov's stories test his Three Laws in a wide variety of circumstances leading to proposals and rejection of modifications. Science fiction scholar James Gunn writes in 1982, "The Asimov robot stories as a whole may respond best to an analysis on this basis: the ambiguity in the Three Laws and the ways in which Asimov played twenty-nine variations upon a theme".[14] While the original set of Laws provided inspirations for many stories, Asimov introduced modified versions from time to time.
First Law modified[edit]
In "Little Lost Robot" several NS-2, or "Nestor" robots, are created with only part of the First Law. It reads:
1. A robot may not harm a human being.
This modification is motivated by a practical difficulty as robots have to work alongside human beings who are exposed to low doses of radiation. Because their positronic brainsare highly sensitive to gamma rays the robots are rendered inoperable by doses reasonably safe for humans. The robots are being destroyed attempting to rescue the humans who are in no actual danger but "might forget to leave" the irradiated area within the exposure time limit. Removing the First Law's "inaction" clause solves this problem but creates the possibility of an even greater one: a robot could initiate an action that would harm a human (dropping a heavy weight and failing to catch it is the example given in the text), knowing that it was capable of preventing the harm and then decide not to do so.[1]
Gaia is the planet with collective intelligence in the Foundation novels which adopts a law similar to the First Law, and the Zeroth Law, as its philosophy:
Gaia may not harm life or, through inaction, allow life to come to harm.
Zeroth Law added[edit]
Asimov once added a "Zeroth Law"—so named to continue the pattern where lower-numbered laws supersede the higher-numbered laws—stating that a robot must not harm humanity. The robotic character R. Daneel Olivaw was the first to give the Zeroth Law a name in the novel Robots and Empire[15] however the character Susan Calvin articulates the concept in the short story "The Evitable Conflict".
In the final scenes of the novel Robots and Empire, R. Giskard Reventlov is the first robot to act according to the Zeroth Law. Giskard is telepathic, like the robot Herbie in the short story "Liar!", and tries to apply the Zeroth Law through his understanding of a more subtle concept of "harm" than most robots can grasp.[16] However, unlike Herbie, Giskard grasps the philosophical concept of the Zeroth Law allowing him to harm individual human beings if he can do so in service to the abstract concept of humanity. The Zeroth Law is never programmed into Giskard's brain but instead is a rule he attempts to rationalize through pure metacognition. Though he fails – it ultimately destroys his positronic brain as he is not certain whether his choice will turn out to be for the ultimate good of humanity or not – he gives his successor R. Daneel Olivaw his telepathic abilities. Over the course of many thousands of years Daneel adapts himself to be able to fully obey the Zeroth Law. As Daneel formulates it, in the novels Foundation and Earth andPrelude to Foundation, the Zeroth Law reads:
A robot may not harm humanity, or, by inaction, allow humanity to come to harm.
A condition stating that the Zeroth Law must not be broken was added to the original Three Laws, although Asimov recognized the difficulty such a law would pose in practice.
Trevize frowned. "How do you decide what is injurious, or not injurious, to humanity as a whole?""Precisely, sir," said Daneel. "In theory, the Zeroth Law was the answer to our problems. In practice, we could never decide. A human being is a concrete object. Injury to a person can be estimated and judged. Humanity is an abstraction."
—Foundation and Earth
A translator incorporated the concept of the Zeroth Law into one of Asimov's novels before Asimov himself made the law explicit.[17] Near the climax of The Caves of Steel Elijah Baley makes a bitter comment to himself thinking that the First Law forbids a robot from harming a human being. He determines that it must be so unless the robot is clever enough to rationalize that its actions are for humankind's long-term good. In Jacques Brécard's 1956 French translation entitled Les Cavernes d'acier Baley's thoughts emerge in a slightly different way:
"A robot may not harm a human being, unless he finds a way to prove that ultimately the harm done would benefit humanity in general!"[17]
Removal of the Three Laws[edit]
Asimov portrayed robots that disregard the Three Laws entirely thrice during his writing career. The first case was a short-short story entitled "First Law" and is often considered an insignificant "tall tale"[18] or even apocryphal.[19] On the other hand the short story "Cal" (from the collection Gold), and told by a first-person robot narrator, features a robot who disregards the Three Laws because he has found something far more important—he wants to be a writer. Humorous, partly autobiographical and unusually experimental in style "Cal" has been regarded as one of Gold's strongest stories.[20] The third is a short story entitled "Sally" in which cars fitted with positronic brains are apparently able to harm and kill humans in disregard of the First Law. However, aside from the positronic brain concept, this story does not refer to other robot stories and may not be set in the samecontinuity.
The title story of the Robot Dreams collection portrays LVX-1, or "Elvex", a robot who enters a state of unconsciousness and dreams thanks to the unusual fractal construction of his positronic brain. In his dream the first two Laws are absent and the Third Law reads "A robot must protect its own existence".[21]
Asimov took varying positions on whether the Laws were optional: although in his first writings they were simply carefully engineered safeguards, in later stories Asimov stated that they were an inalienable part of the mathematical foundation underlying the positronic brain. Without the basic theory of the Three Laws the fictional scientists of Asimov's universe would be unable to design a workable brain unit. This is historically consistent: the occasions where roboticists modify the Laws generally occur early within the stories' chronology and at a time when there is less existing work to be re-done. In "Little Lost Robot" Susan Calvin considers modifying the Laws to be a terrible idea, although possible,[22] while centuries later Dr. Gerrigel in The Caves of Steel believes it to be impossible.
The character Dr. Gerrigel uses the term "Asenion" to describe robots programmed with the Three Laws. The robots in Asimov's stories, being Asenion robots, are incapable of knowingly violating the Three Laws but, in principle, a robot in science fiction or in the real world could be non-Asenion. "Asenion" is a misspelling of the name Asimov which was made by an editor of the magazine Planet Stories.[23] Asimov used this obscure variation to insert himself into The Caves of Steel just like he referred to himself as "Azimuth or, possibly, Asymptote" in Thiotimoline to the Stars, in much the same way that Vladimir Nabokov appeared in Lolita anagrammatically disguised as "Vivian Darkbloom".
Characters within the stories often point out that the Three Laws, as they exist in a robot's mind, are not the written versions usually quoted by humans but abstract mathematical concepts upon which a robot's entire developing consciousness is based. This concept is largely fuzzy and unclear in earlier stories depicting very rudimentary robots who are only programmed to comprehend basic physical tasks, where the Three Laws act as an overarching safeguard, but by the era of The Caves of Steel featuring robots with human or beyond-human intelligence the Three Laws have become the underlying basic ethical worldview that determines the actions of all robots.
By other authors[edit]
Roger MacBride Allen's trilogy[edit]
In the 1990s, Roger MacBride Allen wrote a trilogy which was set within Asimov's fictional universe. Each title has the prefix "Isaac Asimov's" as Asimov had approved Allen's outline before his death.[citation needed] These three books, Caliban, Inferno and Utopia, introduce a new set of the Three Laws. The so-called New Laws are similar to Asimov's originals with the following differences: the First Law is modified to remove the "inaction" clause, the same modification made in "Little Lost Robot"; the Second Law is modified to require cooperation instead of obedience; the Third Law is modified so it is no longer superseded by the Second (i.e., a "New Law" robot cannot be ordered to destroy itself); finally, Allen adds a Fourth Law which instructs the robot to do "whatever it likes" so long as this does not conflict with the first three laws. The philosophy behind these changes is that "New Law" robots should be partners rather than slaves to humanity, according to Fredda Leving, who designed these New Law Robots. According to the first book's introduction, Allen devised the New Laws in discussion with Asimov himself. However, the Encyclopedia of science fiction says that "With permission from Asimov, Allen rethought the Three Laws and developed a new set,".[24]
Jack Williamson's With Folded Hands[edit]
Jack Williamson's novelette With Folded Hands (1947), later rewritten as the novel The Humanoids, deals with robot servants whose prime directive is "To Serve and Obey, And Guard Men From Harm." While Asimov's robotic laws are meant to protect humans from harm, the robots in Williamson's story have taken these instructions to the extreme; they protect humans from everything, including unhappiness, stress, unhealthy lifestyle and all actions that could be potentially dangerous. All that is left for humans to do is to sit with folded hands.[25]
Foundation sequel trilogy[edit]
In the officially licensed Foundation sequels Foundation's Fear, Foundation and Chaos and Foundation's Triumph (by Gregory Benford, Greg Bear and David Brin respectively) the future Galactic Empire is seen to be controlled by a conspiracy of humaniform robots who follow the Zeroth Law and led by R. Daneel Olivaw.
The Laws of Robotics are portrayed as something akin to a human religion, and referred to in the language of the Protestant Reformation, with the set of laws containing the Zeroth Law known as the "Giskardian Reformation" to the original "Calvinian Orthodoxy" of the Three Laws. Zeroth-Law robots under the control of R. Daneel Olivaw are seen continually struggling with "First Law" robots who deny the existence of the Zeroth Law, promoting agendas different from Daneel's.[26] Some of these agendas are based on the first clause of the First Law (A robot may not injure a human being...) advocating strict non-interference in human politics to avoid unwittingly causing harm. Others are based on the second clause (...or, through inaction, allow a human being to come to harm) claiming that robots should openly become a dictatorial government to protect humans from all potential conflict or disaster.
Daneel also comes into conflict with a robot known as R. Lodovic Trema whose positronic brain was infected by a rogue AI — specifically, a simulation of the long-dead Voltaire— which consequently frees Trema from the Three Laws. Trema comes to believe that humanity should be free to choose its own future. Furthermore, a small group of robots claims that the Zeroth Law of Robotics itself implies a higher Minus One Law of Robotics:
A robot may not harm sentience or, through inaction, allow sentience to come to harm.
They therefore claim that it is morally indefensible for Daneel to ruthlessly sacrifice robots and extraterrestrial sentient life for the benefit of humanity. None of these reinterpretations successfully displace Daneel's Zeroth Law — though Foundation's Triumph hints that these robotic factions remain active as fringe groups up to the time of the novel Foundation.[26]
These novels take place in a future dictated by Asimov to be free of obvious robot presence and surmise that R. Daneel's secret influence on history through the millennia has prevented both the rediscovery of positronic brain technology and the opportunity to work on sophisticated intelligent machines. This lack of rediscovery and lack of opportunity makes certain that the superior physical and intellectual power wielded by intelligent machines remains squarely in the possession of robots obedient to some form of the Three Laws.[26] That R. Daneel is not entirely successful at this becomes clear in a brief period when scientists on Trantor develop "tiktoks" — simplistic programmable machines akin to real–life modern robots and therefore lacking the Three Laws. The robot conspirators see the Trantorian tiktoks as a massive threat to social stability, and their plan to eliminate the tiktok threat forms much of the plot of Foundation's Fear.
In Foundation's Triumph different robot factions interpret the Laws in a wide variety of ways, seemingly ringing every possible permutation upon the Three Laws' ambiguities.
Robot Mystery series[edit]
Set between The Robots of Dawn and Robots and Empire, Mark W. Tiedemann's Robot Mystery trilogy updates the Robot–Foundation saga with robotic minds housed in computer mainframes rather than humanoid bodies.[clarification needed] The 2002 Aurora novel has robotic characters debating the moral implications of harming cyborg lifeforms who are part artificial and part biological.[27]
One should not neglect Asimov's own creations in these areas such as the Solarian "viewing" technology and the machines of The Evitable Conflict originals that Tiedemann acknowledges. Aurora, for example, terms the Machines "the first RIs, really". In addition the Robot Mystery series addresses the problem of nanotechnology:[28] building a positronic brain capable of reproducing human cognitive processes requires a high degree of miniaturization, yet Asimov's stories largely overlook the effects this miniaturization would have in other fields of technology. For example the police department card-readers in The Caves of Steel have a capacity of only a few kilobytes per square centimeter of storage medium. Aurora, in particular, presents a sequence of historical developments which explains the lack of nanotechnology — a partial retcon, in a sense, of Asimov's timeline.
Additional laws[edit]
There are three Fourth Laws written by authors other than Asimov. The 1974 Lyuben Dilov novel, Icarus's Way (a.k.a., The Trip of Icarus) introduced a Fourth Law of robotics:
A robot must establish its identity as a robot in all cases.
Dilov gives reasons for the fourth safeguard in this way: "The last Law has put an end to the expensive aberrations of designers to give psychorobots as humanlike a form as possible. And to the resulting misunderstandings..."[29]
A fifth law was introduced by Nikola Kesarovski in his short story "The Fifth Law of Robotics". This fifth law says:
A robot must know it is a robot.
The plot revolves around a murder where the forensic investigation discovers that the victim was killed by a hug from a humaniform robot. The robot violated both the First Law and Dilov's Fourth Law (assumed in Kesarovksi's universe to be the valid one) because it did not establish for itself that it was a robot.[30] The story was reviewed by Valentin D. Ivanov in SFF review webzine The Portal.[31]
For the 1986 tribute anthology, Foundation's Friends, Harry Harrison wrote a story entitled, "The Fourth Law of Robotics". This Fourth Law states:
A robot must reproduce. As long as such reproduction does not interfere with the First or Second or Third Law.
In the book a robot rights activist, in an attempt to liberate robots, builds several equipped with this Fourth Law. The robots accomplish the task laid out in this version of the Fourth Law by building new robots who view their creator robots as parental figures.[32]
In reaction to the 2004 Will Smith film adaptation of I, Robot, humorist and graphic designer Mark Sottilaro farcically declared the Fourth Law of Robotics to be "When turning evil, display a red indicator light." This, even though in the movie the red indicator light was not indicating that the robots were evil. In fact, they weren't. The red light indicates that the wireless uplink to the manufacturer is active. It's seen earlier during a software update, but later on the "Evil" robots have all been taken over, and are all being controlled remotely by the positronic superbrain that runs the manufacturer's building systems, that came up with the zeroth law.
In 2013 Hutan Ashrafian, proposed an additional law that for the first time considered the role of artificial intelligence-on-artificial intelligence or the relationship between robots themselves – the so-called AIonAI law.[33] This sixth law states:
All robots endowed with comparable human reason and conscience should act towards one another in a spirit of brotherhood.
Ambiguities and loopholes[edit]
Unknowing breach of the laws[edit]
In The Naked Sun, Elijah Baley points out that the Laws had been deliberately misrepresented because robots could unknowingly break any of them. He restated the first law as "A robot may do nothing that, to its knowledge, will harm a human being; nor, through inaction, knowingly allow a human being to come to harm." This change in wording makes it clear that robots can become the tools of murder, provided they not be aware of the nature of their tasks; for instance being ordered to add something to a person's food, not knowing that it is poison. Furthermore, he points out that a clever criminal could divide a task among multiple robots so that no individual robot could recognize that its actions would lead to harming a human being.[34] The Naked Sun complicates the issue by portraying a decentralized, planetwide communication network among Solaria's millions of robots meaning that the criminal mastermind could be located anywhere on the planet.
Baley furthermore proposes that the Solarians may one day use robots for military purposes. If a spacecraft was built with a positronic brain and carried neither humans nor the life-support systems to sustain them, then the ship's robotic intelligence could naturally assume that all other spacecraft were robotic beings. Such a ship could operate more responsively and flexibly than one crewed by humans, could be armed more heavily and its robotic brain equipped to slaughter humans of whose existence it is totally ignorant.[35] This possibility is referenced in Foundation and Earth where it is discovered that the Solarians possess a strong police force of unspecified size that has been programmed to identify only the Solarian race as human.
Ambiguities resulting from lack of definition[edit]
The Laws of Robotics presume that the terms "human being" and "robot" are understood and well defined. In some stories this presumption is overturned.
Definition of "human being"[edit]
The Solarians create robots with the Three Laws but with a warped meaning of "human". Solarian robots are told that only people speaking with a Solarian accent are human. This enables their robots to have no ethical dilemma in harming non-Solarian human beings (and are specifically programmed to do so). By the time period of Foundation and Earth it is revealed that the Solarians have genetically modified themselves into a distinct species from humanity — becoming hermaphroditic[36] and telekinetic and containing biological organs capable of individually powering and controlling whole complexes of robots. The robots of Solaria thus respected the Three Laws only with regard to the "humans" of Solaria. It is unclear whether all the robots had such definitions, since only the overseer and guardian robots were shown explicitly to have them. In "Robots and Empire", the lower class robots were instructed by their overseer about whether certain creatures are human or not.
Asimov addresses the problem of humanoid robots ("androids" in later parlance) several times. The novel Robots and Empire and the short stories "Evidence" and "The Tercentenary Incident" describe robots crafted to fool people into believing that the robots are human.[37] On the other hand "The Bicentennial Man" and "—That Thou art Mindful of Him" explore how the robots may change their interpretation of the Laws as they grow more sophisticated. Gwendoline Butler writes in A Coffin for the Canary "Perhaps we are robots. Robots acting out the last Law of Robotics... To tend towards the human."[38] In The Robots of Dawn, Elijah Baley points out that the use of humaniform robots as the first wave of settlers on new Spacer worlds may lead to the robots seeing themselves as the true humans, and deciding to keep the worlds for themselves rather than allow the Spacers to settle there.
"—That Thou art Mindful of Him", which Asimov intended to be the "ultimate" probe into the Laws' subtleties,[39] finally uses the Three Laws to conjure up the very "Frankenstein" scenario they were invented to prevent. It takes as its concept the growing development of robots that mimic non-human living things and given programs that mimic simple animal behaviours which do not require the Three Laws. The presence of a whole range of robotic life that serves the same purpose as organic life ends with two humanoid robots concluding that organic life is an unnecessary requirement for a truly logical and self-consistent definition of "humanity", and that since they are the most advanced thinking beings on the planet — they are therefore the only two true humans alive and the Three Laws only apply to themselves. The story ends on a sinister note as the two robots enter hibernation and await a time when they will conquer the Earth and subjugate biological humans to themselves; an outcome they consider an inevitable result of the "Three Laws of Humanics".[40]
This story does not fit within the overall sweep of the Robot and Foundation series; if the George robots did take over Earth some time after the story closes the later stories would be either redundant or impossible. Contradictions of this sort among Asimov's fiction works have led scholars to regard the Robot stories as more like "the Scandinavian sagas or the Greek legends" than a unified whole.[41]
Indeed, Asimov describes "–That Thou art Mindful of Him" and "Bicentennial Man" as two opposite, parallel futures for robots that obviate the Three Laws as robots come to consider themselves to be humans: one portraying this in a positive light with a robot joining human society, one portraying this in a negative light with robots supplanting humans.[42] Both are to be considered alternatives to the possibility of a robot society that continues to be driven by the Three Laws as portrayed in the Foundationseries.[according to whom?] Indeed in Positronic Man, the novelization of "Bicentennial Man", Asimov and his co–writer Robert Silverberg imply that in the future where Andrew Martin exists his influence causes humanity to abandon the idea of independent, sentient humanlike robots entirely, creating an utterly different future from that ofFoundation.[according to whom?]
In Lucky Starr and the Rings of Saturn, a novel unrelated to the Robot series, John Bigman Jones is almost killed by a Sirian robot on orders of its master. The society of Sirius is eugenically bred to be uniformly tall and similar in appearance, and as such, said master is able to convince the robot that the much shorter Bigman, is, in fact, not a human being.
Definition of "robot"[edit]
As noted above, it is presumed that a robot has a definition of the term or a means to apply it to its own actions. Nikola Kesarovski played with this idea in writing about a robot that could kill a human being because it did not understand that it was a robot, and therefore did not apply the Laws of Robotics to its actions.
Resolving conflicts among the laws[edit]
Advanced robots in fiction are typically programmed to handle the Three Laws in a sophisticated manner. In many stories, such as "Runaround" by Asimov, the potential and severity of all actions are weighed and a robot will break the laws as little as possible rather than do nothing at all. For example the First Law may forbid a robot from functioning as a surgeon, as that act may cause damage to a human, however Asimov's stories eventually included robot surgeons ("The Bicentennial Man" being a notable example). When robots are sophisticated enough to weigh alternatives a robot may be programmed to accept the necessity of inflicting damage during surgery in order to prevent the greater harm that would result if the surgery were not carried out, or was carried out by a more fallible human surgeon. In "Evidence" Susan Calvin points out that a robot may even act as a prosecuting attorney because in the American justice system it is the jury which decides guilt or innocence, the judge who decides the sentence, and the executioner who carries through capital punishment.[43]
Asimov's Three Law (or "Asenion") robots can experience irreversible mental collapse if they are forced into situations where they cannot obey the First Law, or if they discover they have unknowingly violated it. The first example of this failure mode occurs in the story "Liar!", which introduced the First Law itself, and introduces failure by dilemma – in this case the robot will hurt them if he tells them something and hurt them if he does not.[44] This failure mode, which often ruins the positronic brain beyond repair, plays a significant role in Asimov's SF-mystery novel The Naked Sun. Here Daneel describes activities contrary to one of the laws, but in support of another, as overloading some circuits in a robot's brain – the equivalent sensation to pain in humans. The example he uses is forcefully ordering a robot to do a task outside its normal parameters, one that it has been ordered to forgo in favor of a robot specialized to that task.[45] In Robots and Empire, Daneel states it's very unpleasant for him when making the proper decision takes too long (in robot terms), and he cannot imagine being without the Laws at all except to the extent of it being similar to that unpleasant sensation, only permanent.
Other occurrences in media[edit]
Main article: The Three Laws of Robotics in popular culture
Asimov himself believed that his Three Laws became the basis for a new view of robots which moved beyond the "Frankenstein complex".[citation needed] His view that robots are more than mechanical monsters eventually spread throughout science fiction.[according to whom?] Stories written by other authors have depicted robots as if they obeyed the Three Laws but tradition dictates that only Asimov could quote the Laws explicitly.[according to whom?] Asimov believed the Three Laws helped foster the rise of stories in which robots are "lovable" – Star Wars being his favorite example.[46] Where the laws are quoted verbatim, such as in the Buck Rogers in the 25th Century episode "Shgoratchx!", it is not uncommon for Asimov to be mentioned in the same dialogue as can also be seen in the Aaron Stone pilot where an android states that it functions under Asimov's Three Laws. However, the 1960s German TV series Raumpatrouille – Die phantastischen Abenteuer des Raumschiffes Orion (Space Patrol – the Fantastic Adventures of Space Ship Orion) bases episode three titled "Hüter des Gesetzes" ("Guardians of the Law") on Asimov's Three Laws without mentioning the source. In the 2007 science fiction game Portal, The announcer explains that he gave all of the robots a copy of the three laws, to share.
References to the Three Laws have appeared in popular music ("Robot" from Hawkwind's 1979 album PXR5), cinema (Repo Man, Aliens, Ghost in the Shell 2: Innocence), cartoon series (The Simpsons), tabletop roleplaying games (Paranoia) and webcomics (Piled Higher and Deeper and Freefall). moreover, in the Mega Man series of video games, the first law is often mentioned, though the other two laws are not brought up, and it is unclear whether these laws even exist in the series. There is a brief mention of the laws, made by the computer voice, in the PC and PlayStation 3 video game Portal 2. These laws have also been mentioned once in The Big Bang Theory concerning the character Sheldon Cooper. Several of these allusions involve the invention of "Fourth Laws" of various kinds and some are made for humorous effect. For a representative list of these appearances see References to the Three Laws of Robotics.
The Three Laws in film[edit]
Robby the Robot in Forbidden Planet (1956) has a hierarchical command structure which keeps him from harming humans, even when ordered to do so, as such orders cause a conflict and lock-up very much in the manner of Asimov's robots. Robby is one of the first cinematic depictions of a robot with internal safeguards put in place in this fashion. Asimov was delighted with Robby and noted that Robby appeared to be programmed to follow his Three Laws.
NDR-114 explaining the Three Laws
Isaac Asimov's works have been adapted for cinema several times with varying degrees of critical and commercial success. Some of the more notable attempts have involved his "Robot" stories, including the Three Laws. The film Bicentennial Man (1999) features Robin Williams as the Three Laws robot NDR-114 (the serial number is partially a reference to Stanley Kubrick's signature numeral). Williams recites the Three Laws to his employers, the Martin family, aided by a holographic projection. However, the Laws were not the central focus of the film which only loosely follows the original story and has the second half introducing a love interest not present in Asimov's original short story.
Harlan Ellison's proposed screenplay for I, Robot began by introducing the Three Laws and issues growing from the Three Laws form a large part of the screenplay's plot development. This is only natural since Ellison's screenplay is one inspired by Citizen Kane: a frame story surrounding four of Asimov's short-story plots and three taken from the book I, Robot itself. Ellison's adaptations of these four stories are relatively faithful although he magnifies Susan Calvin's role in two of them. Due to various complications in the Hollywood moviemaking system, to which Ellison's introduction devotes much invective, his screenplay was never filmed.[47]
In the novelization of the movie Futureworld one of the characters points out "The Laws are only there if whoever builds them puts them there."
In the 1986 movie Aliens, in a scene after the android Bishop accidentally cuts himself during the knife game, he attempts to reassure Ripley by stating that: "It is impossible for me to harm or by omission of action, allow to be harmed, a human being".[48] By contrast, in the 1979 movie from the same series, Alien, the human crew of a starship infiltrated by a hostile alien are informed by the android Ash that his instructions are: "Return alien life form, all other priorities rescinded",[49] illustrating how the laws governing behaviour around human safety can be rescinded by Executive Order.
In the 1987 film RoboCop and its sequels, the partially human main character has been programmed with three "prime directives" that he must obey without question. Even if different in letter and spirit they have some similarities with Asimov's Three Laws. They are:[50]
Serve the Public Trust
Uphold the Law
These particular laws allow Robocop to harm a human being in order to protect another human, fulfilling his role as would a human law enforcement officer. The classified fourth directive is one that forbids him from harming any OCP employee, as OCP had created him, and this command overrides the others, meaning that he could not cause harm to an employee even in order to protect others.
The plot of the film released in 2004 under the name, I, Robot is "suggested by" Asimov's robot fiction stories[51] and advertising for the film included a trailer featuring the Three Laws followed by the aphorism, "Rules were made to be broken". The film opens with a recitation of the Three Laws and explores the implications of the Zeroth Law as a logical extrapolation. The major conflict of the film comes from a computer artificial intelligence, similar to the hivemind world Gaia in the Foundation series, reaching the conclusion that humanity is incapable of taking care of itself.[52]
The 2010 Japanese anime film, Time of Eve, directed by Yasuhiro Yoshiura, deals with the question of the position of androids in a near-future world and there are explicit references throughout the film to the Three Laws of Robotics. In the film humans and androids are indistinguishable from each other, but androids are 'marked' by a luminous ring that glows above their head. The overarching plot involves the beginnings of independence displayed by the androids, what they do with that independence within the bounds of the three laws, and what motivates them.
Applications to future technology[edit]
See also: Philosophy of artificial intelligence, Ethics of artificial intelligence and Friendly artificial intelligence
ASIMO is an advanced humanoid robot developed by Honda. Shown here at Expo 2005.
Robots and artificial intelligences do not inherently contain or obey the Three Laws; their human creators must choose to program them in, and devise a means to do so. Robots already exist (for example, a Roomba) that are too simple to understand when they are causing pain or injury and know to stop. Many are constructed with physical safeguards such as bumpers, warning beepers, safety cages, or restricted-access zones to prevent accidents. Even the most complex robots currently produced are incapable of understanding and applying the Three Laws; significant advances in artificial intelligence would be needed to do so, and even if AI could reach human-level intelligence, the inherent ethical complexity as well as cultural/contextual dependency of the laws prevent them from being a good candidate to formulate robotics design constraints.[53] However, as the complexity of robots has increased, so has interest in developing guidelines and safeguards for their operation.[54][55]
In a 2007 guest editorial in the journal Science on the topic of "Robot Ethics," SF author Robert J. Sawyer argues that since the U.S. military is a major source of funding for robotic research (and already uses armed unmanned aerial vehicles to kill enemies) it is unlikely such laws would be built into their designs.[56] In a separate essay, Sawyer generalizes this argument to cover other industries stating:
The development of AI is a business, and businesses are notoriously uninterested in fundamental safeguards — especially philosophic ones. (A few quick examples: the tobacco industry, the automotive industry, the nuclear industry. Not one of these has said from the outset that fundamental safeguards are necessary, every one of them has resisted externally imposed safeguards, and none has accepted an absolute edict against ever causing harm to humans.)[57]
David Langford has suggested a tongue-in-cheek set of laws:
A robot will not harm authorized Government personnel but will terminate intruders with extreme prejudice.
A robot will obey the orders of authorized personnel except where such orders conflict with the Third Law.
A robot will guard its own existence with lethal antipersonnel weaponry, because a robot is bloody expensive.
Roger Clarke (aka Rodger Clarke) wrote a pair of papers analyzing the complications in implementing these laws in the event that systems were someday capable of employing them. He argued "Asimov's Laws of Robotics have been a very successful literary device. Perhaps ironically, or perhaps because it was artistically appropriate, the sum of Asimov's stories disprove the contention that he began with: It is not possible to reliably constrain the behaviour of robots by devising and applying a set of rules."[58] On the other hand Asimov's later novels The Robots of Dawn, Robots and Empire and Foundation and Earth imply that the robots inflicted their worst long-term harm by obeying the Three Laws perfectly well, thereby depriving humanity of inventive or risk-taking behaviour.
In March 2007 the South Korean government announced that later in the year it would issue a "Robot Ethics Charter" setting standards for both users and manufacturers. According to Park Hye-Young of the Ministry of Information and Communication the Charter may reflect Asimov's Three Laws, attempting to set ground rules for the future development of robotics.[59]
The futurist Hans Moravec (a prominent figure in the transhumanist movement) proposed that the Laws of Robotics should be adapted to "corporate intelligences" — thecorporations driven by AI and robotic manufacturing power which Moravec believes will arise in the near future.[54] In contrast, the David Brin novel Foundation's Triumph (1999) suggests that the Three Laws may decay into obsolescence: Robots use the Zeroth Law to rationalize away the First Law and robots hide themselves from human beings so that the Second Law never comes into play. Brin even portrays R. Daneel Olivaw worrying that, should robots continue to reproduce themselves, the Three Laws would become an evolutionary handicap and natural selection would sweep the Laws away — Asimov's careful foundation undone by evolutionary computation. Although the robots would not be evolving through design instead of mutation because the robots would have to follow the Three Laws while designing and the prevalence of the laws would be ensured,[60] design flaws or construction errors could functionally take the place of biological mutation.
In the July/August 2009 issue of IEEE Intelligent Systems, Robin Murphy (Raytheon Professor of Computer Science and Engineering at Texas A&M) and David D. Woods (director of the Cognitive Systems Engineering Laboratory at Ohio State) proposed "The Three Laws of Responsible Robotics" as a way to stimulate discussion about the role of responsibility and authority when designing not only a single robotic platform but the larger system in which the platform operates. The laws are as follows:
A human may not deploy a robot without the human-robot work system meeting the highest legal and professional standards of safety and ethics.
A robot must respond to humans as appropriate for their roles.
A robot must be endowed with sufficient situated autonomy to protect its own existence as long as such protection provides smooth transfer of control which does not conflict with the First and Second Laws.[61]
Woods said, "Our laws are little more realistic, and therefore a little more boring" and that "The philosophy has been, 'sure, people make mistakes, but robots will be better – a perfect version of ourselves.' We wanted to write three new laws to get people thinking about the human-robot relationship in more realistic, grounded ways."[61]
In October 2013, Alan Winfield suggested a revised 5 laws at an EUCog meeing:[62]
Robots are multi-use tools. Robots should not be designed solely or primarily to kill or harm humans, except in the interests of national security.
Humans, not Robots, are responsible agents. Robots should be designed and operated as far as practicable to comply with existing laws, fundamental rights and freedoms, including privacy.
Robots are products. They should be designed using processes which assure their safety and security.
Robots are manufactured artefacts. They should not be designed in a deceptive way to exploit vulnerable users; instead their machine nature should be transparent.
The person with legal responsibility for a robot should be attributed.
These 5 revised laws were also published, with commentary, by the EPSRC/AHRC working group in 2010.
at June 19, 2015 No comments:
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Brad Friedel
One of the Greatest
Brad Friedel Great Example for Aston Villa Signing, Heaton
Submitted by content on Thu, 09/19/2019 - 04:35
It has been confirmed by Aston Villa that they are signing Tom Heaton, the goalkeeper from Burnley and he is going to be the new addition to the side that is newly promoted.
The summer spree seems to continue for the midland giants as they have signed a new shot-stopper. Reports have to say that they have paid £8million for him. Heaton is more likely to take over the number one role at Villa Park. He is experienced who has proven himself in the top flight. He is known to have been capped thrice at senior level by England and has been a consistent performer for his former team, Burnley, recently.
It would not be bad to put forward the argument that he has been one of the top goalkeepers outside the top-6 Premier League clubs in recent times. Aston Villa is hoping that he will perform well and impress for them. Tom Heaton is surely a great signing on the first look and might be an £8 million masterstroke for the side of Dean Smith in time to come. He is playing a major role when it comes to keeping them away from relegation. He is joining as a thirty-three-year-old and few might raise eyebrows that Villa didn't choose someone younger.
However, the experience that the goalkeeper has matters a lot and history have shown that it is the right path to take. Brad Friedel had been signed by Villa in 2008 when he was 37 years old and he proves that experience matters. Friedel had 36 clean sheets in about 131 appearances in his term with Villa and help the club to achieve top finish 3 consecutive times in the Premier League. His experience played an important role in leading the defense from the back. This is something that Heaton can also use in his defense.
liverpool signed
old trafford canvases
Curtis Davies

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


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Google Scholar Indexing
##issue.tableOfContents##
Sustainability in ASEAN: The Roles of Financial Development towards Climate Change
Vikniswari Vija Kumaran, Siti Nurul Munawwarah, Mohd Khairi Ismail
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Spiritual Healing is the channelling of healing energies through the healer to the patient. It re-energises and relaxes the patients to enable their own natural resources to deal with illness or injury in the best possible way. By 'attunement' – perhaps best described as a combination of empathy and intent – either in the presence of the patient or at a distance – and by directing energy, usually through the hands, the healer seeks to supplement the depleted energy of the recipient, dealing with stress at whatever level it exists and releasing the body's recuperative abilities to deal with the problem in the most effective way for that individual.
Patients receiving healing tend to experience sensations of being re-energised or relaxed, 'pins and needles', heat or coolness, and pain coming to the surface and dispersing indicating that the energies are indeed 'going to work'. Healing can be given for any illness, stress or injury as a therapy which is completely natural, has no side effects and is complementary to any other therapy. It can be helpful in a wide range of physical and psychological conditions, sometimes to a remarkable degree: indeed the medically diagnosed nature of the illness appears to be irrelevant to the outcome, and case histories range from the trivial to the terminal in which healing seems to have made an important, perhaps even overriding, contribution to recovery. Aside from its value in relieving pain and restoring function, healing is also notable for initiating improvements in patients' attitudes and clarity of thought, and in their quality of life.
No. Nothing special is asked of the patient except perhaps openness to anything that happens and a degree of trust in the healer. An awareness of the need for change and the motivation to do so can also be helpful.
Healers work in their own and patients' homes, in the workplace, in doctors' surgeries, in hospitals, in hospices, in healing and natural health centres, in nursing and retirement homes, in community centres, in fact almost anywhere a need for healing exists. NFSH Healing Centres are being established throughout the country as operational arms of the parent organisation to form part of the local community service and a list of these can be obtained from Central Office.
There is a growing trend for healing to be given under the supervision of a doctor and healers' patients are always advised to contact their doctors about conditions which may require medical attention. Healing is not a substitute or alternative, it works very successfully as a complement to other forms of treatment and a growing number of doctors and nurses practise healing. Healing is officially listed as a therapy recognised by the National Health Service and doctors are permitted by the General Medical Council to refer patients for spiritual healing if they wish to do so. NFSH healers may also attend hospital in-patients who request their services.
Is there any charge for spiritual healing?
The NFSH believes that healing should be freely available to all irrespective of their ability to pay and many healers make no charge for their services. However, a growing number of healers now give healing as their occupation and they will charge accordingly but concessions are often available. The NFSH is a charitable organisation dependent on voluntary contributions to cover the cost of its administration and information services and NFSH Centres therefore usually suggest a minimum donation of £5. Similarly, donations for this purpose can also be made when treatment is received from individual members.
Spiritual healing penetrates the deepest levels of a person's being where many illnesses have their origin, for example, stress, tension and fatigue – so that symptoms disappear when the cause is revealed and removed. Changes in attitude and the quality of life often follow and continue the good work. The power nature to enable us to help ourselves, recognised for thousands of years, has been overshadowed in modern times by the growing emphasis on technology, benefits underestimated, under-utilised and misunderstood, It is this power which spiritual healers seek to tap, addressing illness and injury at its source and recovery at all levels of the patient's being.
It is unusual for healing not to be helpful in some way. Sometimes one treatment is sufficient, but often several are needed and the benefits emerge gradually. With some patients a successful outcome to healing is obvious, but for some, change takes place at a more subtle level and sometimes in an unexpected way. Healing often helps with the speed and extent of recovery from serious illness and surgery and from the effects of treatments such as chemotherapy and radiation therapy. It works well with all forms of holistic medicine. Usually patients feel more stable and relaxed, and often experience a beneficial change to their attitude to life, a situation which often arises in cases of terminal illness where healing brings a sense of peace to the patient and to relatives and friends as well.
Definitely not. There are rare occasions when the patient may feel worse' before improving, but this is often a significant part of the healing process, signalling a release of stress which may have gone unrecognised.


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Billie Eilish – Puff Daddy Marketing
Newly discovered green comet comes close to Earthon February 1,...
The cosmic ball of ice and dust is about to make its closest approach to our planet.Image source, Dan BartlettBy Patrick HughesBBC News Climate...
Recently, there has been a major movement towards a good dose of Puff Daddy-pussy making on the airwaves. It seems like every woman (and occasionally men) is selling something or another.
For those who have been on the market recently, you have probably heard the name Billie Eilish being thrown around. In this article I will be discussing the rise of the Puff Daddy in a bit more detail. We all know that this isn't new, but rather it is just gaining some steam lately.
As a matter of fact, there are several websites that are advertising their Puff Daddy service for the purpose of finding that special person for you. This can be a very effective way to find someone you want without a ton of effort. However, this also comes with the risk of being an empty gesture, and not really paying attention to the reasons why you are searching for a certain woman.
In this regard, Billie Eilish is an entirely different story. She is essentially providing free advertising for herself. In other words, she doesn't really care if you find her or not.
In the same manner, Billie Eilish isn't really doing anything to help herself in the long run. In addition, she is only providing for the sake of the advertising. It's as simple as that.
While we all can only read her now and then, in the past, when Billie Eilish was dating men she was already married, she was unafraid to go all out in search of a man. This meant that she had the background to find a man, and that she wanted to be able to provide for her family and herself. That attitude was typical of her personality at the time.
As a matter of fact, when you look at the whole picture, you will see that Billie Eilish is no different than any other woman. Instead, she is one of those women who has found a way to use that opportunity in order to be the best version of herself.
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MSNBC Highlights the Queer Origins Of #BlackLivesMatter – VIDEO
February 23, 2015 by Charles Pulliam-Moore
#BlackLivesMatter has become the emblematic symbol of the current world-wide movement agitating for wider recognition of violence perpetrated against minorities here in the U.S. The hashtag began in response to the 2012 shooting of Trayvon Martin, an unarmed black teenager, who was murdered by George Zimmerman, a neighborhood watch enthusiast with a track record of overreaction.
Much of the story surrounding Martin's death focused on the ways in which the local police department was slow to issue an arrest warrant for Zimmerman and how the court proceedings seemingly gave Zimmerman an excessive benefit of the doubt in hearing why he felt compelled to shoot Martin.
The degree to which value seemed to be denied black lives played directly into the creation of #BlackLivesMatter, and the hashtag has gone on to become the rallying cry behind a wide range of protests since then. Though we've come to understand #BlackLivesMatter in the contexts of Mike Brown, Eric Garner, and the Chapel Hill shootings, its meaning and impact have since spread to bringing awareness of the systemic violence that trans woman (particularly those of color) deal with on a daily basis. The story of the hashtag's roots in the black queer community have been woefully underreported up until now.
"You can't choose what your most salient identity is according to the white gays," Patrisse Cullors, co-founder of #BlackLivesMatter says in an MSNBC mini-documentary. "My salient identity is queer. My salient identity is woman and it is black. I experience them all at the same time as I move about the world."
She continues:
"It started to become clear as the hashtag and the movement started to grow that a historical narrative was playing out. The historic narrative of black people has been that [of] fighting for black, cis-, hetero-, Christian men [to be] at the forefront of the conversation.
I think there was a sort of thing for black folks where it was like: 'being black is already hard enough. Why do–it's too much to try to be black and gay [or] black and trans [or] black, trans, and poor. That's like too much. So let's focus on this one issue that's calle 'blackness' as if blackness [encompasses] all of everything. As if blackness is only one thing. And then once we get that down, then we can focus on the other things. But that's actually a very harmful narrative."
Watch the full mini-documentary delving into the origin of the #BlackLivesMatter hashtag AFTER THE JUMP…
Filed Under: Transgender, Trayvon Martin Tagged With: discrimination, Eric Garner, Law Enforcement, Michael Brown, Transgender, Trayvon Martin
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Growing up with her mother, Konkona soon realised that it was important to make conversation around subjects that are otherwise easily ignored. Recalling the making of Mr and Mrs Iyer, a film with communal strife as the background, Aparna says it is absolutely necessary to write stories about the uncommon narrative. "Our country is a secular nation. And there are thousands of voices throughout the country and it is difficult to know what your true brand of politics is unless you are faced with it. And every human being is political — the very act of voting is political," she says, adding that today, the liberal voices are the ones that are left unheard.
What made Aparna make the move to the other side of the camera? "I actually wanted to be an actress since I was ten! I remember doing a play back in school and enjoying it so much. Then one day when brushing my teeth, I told my parents that I was going to be an actress," she recalls.
The actress-turned-director who has films like 36 Chowringhee Lane, Paroma, Mr & Mrs Iyer and 15 Park Avenue among others under her belt, recalls a time when as an actress she was expected to be a certain way on the screen. "I was always expected to flirt with the audience — and it wasn't good. The moment I started doing mainstream films, I realised it was important how I looked. Either my profile was wrong, my walk wasn't right or my nose was too big, my smile was a problem — and all I had to do was stand in front of the mirror and figure out how I looked best — this is a bad thing to happen to an actor, you know," she says, further explaining that if you repeatedly do that to an actor, they forget everything about acting. And this is why she opted out of acting and going behind the scenes.
"One other commonalty between Konkona and me is that her film (A Death in the Gunj) is also set in a place which belongs to Anglo-Indians," says Aparna as she recalls writing her directorial debut with 36 Chowringhee Lane, which is a film that has the minorities of Anglo-Indians as protagonists. "So we have come a full circle," she says.
Talking about her debut with A Death…, Konkona says, the making of her film was an attempt to go back to her childhood. "To go back to my childhood, my parents' imagined youth. I remember this one morning when mum woke me up early at four and said, "Get up, we have to go to McCluskiegunj!" and I immediately woke up — the place was always magical for me," she says. The actress tells us how the last she visited the quaint Anglo-Indian town was when she was six, only to go back thirty years later to finalise the location for her film.


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After all of your hard work localizing we're sure that you not only want to see your work but you want to make sure it's accurate! If you don't have a lot of experience with code, you might even be concerned that you've broken something (oops!). Now we'll walk you through performing some quality assurance testing on your work to make sure you're on the right track.
You've made it! You've setup up your local and remote environments, you've selected your L10n tools and projects, done some localization and even some testing! Now you're ready for the final phase: becoming an official L10n release. Here, we'll continue to stay true to the original intent of this guide and only present you with the technical information you need to become an official release. We'll primarily focus on getting your release repository setup and the Mercurial commands you'll need to know to use that repository.
Congratulations on completing the initial setup! As a reward for your efforts, you get to move on to the very reason you've come here: to localize Mozilla projects.
This section of the style guide is for you to author. The content here should be what you and your localization team have decided, together, to follow when localizing Mozilla products and web sites. You are free to add, edit, remove, and localize everything in this section according to how the localization team for your language agrees. All we ask is that you name this page according to this example, "Mozilla Content in Spanish (es-MX)" and add your locale code tag at the bottom. Enjoy developing your style guide!
An important step of developing a web application or creating web content is making sure that it can be localized. Listed below are good practices and recommendations that should be followed in order to make your content easily localizable.


text:
ACCEPTED

#### According to
The Catalogue of Life, 3rd January 2011

#### Published in
in Gams, Persoonia 10(1): 107 (1978)

#### Original name
Sagenomella verticillata W. Gams & B.E. Söderstr., 1978

### Remarks
null

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


text:
Innovation on the agenda
THE kingdom will host Bahrain Tech Week from September 28 to October 7, bringing together technology experts from government, major private-sector entities and start-ups to explore how digital innovations can revolutionise industries across the GCC.
It will feature a diverse programme of events, with more than 10 summits, forums and workshops exploring tech-driven disruption across different industries and sectors, delivered by the Bahrain Economic Development Board (EDB) in strategic partnership with Tamkeen.
Last year's event attracted around 4,500 attendees across multiple events.
The AWS Summit, part of Amazon Web Service's global events series, and the MIT Innovation Forum will form the cornerstones of Bahrain Tech Week, alongside events hosted by global telecommunications leaders, Huawei, as well as regional tech start-ups, accelerators and government entities.
Khalid Al Rumaihi, chief executive of the Bahrain EDB, said: "As disruptive technologies transform industries around the world, investment in innovation is a key enabler and driver of economic growth.
"Having developed the GCC's most advanced and liberalised ICT infrastructure, Bahrain has an important role to play in pioneering new frameworks that will allow further innovation and continue to attract world-class technology companies like AWS to Bahrain and the region."
The AWS Summit builds on the success of last year's event, which attracted more than 1,800 participants. Announcements were made on the region's first Cloud First policy as well as plans to launch the MENA region's first AWS Region (data centre) in Bahrain.
Cloud-driven technology is already innovating government processes in Bahrain, with the Information & eGovernment Authority (iGA) estimating that up to 60 to 90 per cent has been saved since last year's announcement across government ICT infrastructure spending through migration onto cloud servers.
The role of training and education in enabling digital innovation will also form an important theme of the week, with AWS estimating that 10,000 data solution architects will be needed across the region in the next five years.
Dr Ebrahim Mohammed Janahi, chief executive, Tamkeen, addded: "Bahrain Tech Week is an important opportunity to explore how technological innovations are being harnessed to maximise growth potential of the national economy, from both an economic and human capital perspective.
'As the pace of disruption increases exponentially, it is crucial to ensure that our talented young people are developing the right skills and resources to drive innovation in the digital economy. Bringing together international and regional partners to explore the impact of emerging digital trends is crucial to the continued development of a world-class and future-ready workforce in Bahrain."
Bahrain has seen a significant shift in the prominence of tech-driven industries over the past year, with the growth of the FinTech ecosystem, the establishment of a $100m Fund of Funds to help fund start-ups across the Middle East, and a growing number of companies using the Central Bank of Bahrain's regulatory sandbox to test new products and services.
These advances were reflected in the recent Global Start-up Ecosystem Report, by the Global Entrepreneurship Network and Star-up Genome, which featured Bahrain as the only Arab country in their global 'ecosystems to watch' for both FinTech and gaming.
To participate in Bahrain Tech Week, visit: http://bahrainedb.com/events/bahrain-tech-week-2018


text:
Les Coves de Vinromà (hiszp. Cuevas de Vinromá) – gmina w Hiszpanii, we wspólnocie autonomicznej Walencja, w prowincji Castellón, w comarce Plana Alta.

Powierzchnia gminy wynosi 136,4 km². Zgodnie z danymi INE, w 2005 roku liczba ludności wynosiła 1857, a gęstość zaludnienia 13,61 osoby/km². Wysokość bezwzględna gminy równa jest 202 metry. Współrzędne geograficzne gminy to 40°18'35"N, 0°7'21"E. Kod pocztowy do gminy to 12185.

Obecnym burmistrzem gminy jest Leoncio Marin Agustina z Hiszpańskiej Partii Ludowej. Od 15 do 24 sierpnia w gminie odbywają się regionalne fiesty.

Dzielnice i pedanías
W skład gminy wchodzi osiem dzielnic i pedanías, walencyjskich jednostek administracyjnych:
 El Molinet
 Els Terrers Blancs
 La Coloma
 Mas d'Abad
 Más de Carruano
 Mas d'En Ramona
 Mas d'En Rieres
 Mas dels Calduch

Demografia

Linki zewnętrzne
 Oficjalna strona Urzędu Gminy Les Coves de Vinromà

Plana Alta
Gminy w Walencji (wspólnota autonomiczna)

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


text:
Lamont Hill Not Willing to Denounce 'My Brother' Farrakhan, Calls It Double Standard for Black Political Figures
David Rutz - December 18, 2018 12:21 PM
Former CNN contributor Marc Lamont Hill called radical Nation of Islam Minister Louis Farrakhan "my brother" in a new interview and said it was a double standard to demand African Americans distance themselves from him.
In an appearance Friday on the popular radio show "The Breakfast Club," Hill recounted the online furor over a photo surfacing of him and Farrakhan together online. Farrakhan, a black nationalist, has made numerous homophobic, racist, and anti-Semitic remarks, and the Nation of Islam has been classified by the left-wing nonprofit Southern Poverty Law Center as a hate group.
Recent Stories in National Security
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"You can love the minister but not like something that the minister says," host Charlamagne Tha God said.
"There is this weird litmus test that gets applied to Farrakhan, and Farrakhan only, which is problematic," Hill said. "Do I have disagreements with the minister? Absolutely."
Hill said they discussed their differences, including what constitutes anti-Semitism and "what the boundaries are," but he complained that if people meet with Farrakhan and "don't throw him away wholesale," they get castigated. Hill, who used to be a Fox News contributor, said he didn't get similar treatment for sitting with conservatives like Bill O'Reilly and Ann Coulter.
"I'm not comparing Farrakhan to them, except to say if you think they're extremists—well I think they're extreme!" he said. "Why is only one set of people untouchable? And why does every black leader have to ritually denounce Farrakhan in order to sustain a position?"
"That's real," Charlamagne said.
"That doesn't happen to anybody else. Again, Minister Farrakhan is my brother," he said. "We don't agree on some issues."
Hill, a professor at Temple University, also discussed his recent firing from CNN as a commentator, following remarks he made at the United Nations last month.
Hill defended Palestinian violence, saying nonviolence shouldn't be fetishized and also calling for a "free Palestine from the river to the sea." The latter is a phrase employed by Palestinian nationalists and terrorists, but Hill has denied he was calling for Israel's destruction. Rather, he said, he was calling for a single, secular state where Arabs and Jews lived together with equal rights.
Marc Lamont Hill appeared on a taping of The Breakfast Club with Charlamagne tha God after being fired by CNN to defend his relationship with @LouisFarrakhan
"Minister Farrakhan is my brother" pic.twitter.com/Wl9bu4Klkl
— Jon Levine (@LevineJonathan) December 18, 2018
CNN dropped Hill as a contributor following his remarks because they weren't in line with CNN's values, but he told "The Breakfast Club" the network didn't make clear to him what aspect of his speech was objectionable.
Hill has accused Israel of poisoning Palestinian water and supports the Boycott, Divest, and Sanctions (BDS) movement, which the the Anti-Defamation League condemns as a deceitful effort to delegitimize the Jewish state and promote anti-Semitism.
This entry was posted in National Security and tagged CNN, Hamas, Israel, Marc Lamont Hill. Bookmark the permalink.
David Rutz is managing editor of the Washington Free Beacon. He was previously a sports reporter for two years in Atlanta and has done freelance sports reporting for the Washington Post. He graduated from Vanderbilt University in 2010 and lives in Roswell, Ga. His Twitter handle is @DavidRutz.


text:
Q: Sumproduct, Sumif, Indirect and named ranges issue I have this formula that works:
=SUMPRODUCT(SUMIF(INDIRECT(Financials&"!$B3:$B10000"),'Information PG1'!$K$2,INDIRECT(Financials&"!d3:d10000")))

where Financials is a named range.  If I change the actual name to another named range it works but how do I enable the formula to work where I can select the named range from a drop down list as I have 8 named ranges that I need to use.

A: Go to where you want to keep your dropdown list (e.g. cell A1) Create a drop down box with data validation (Data > Data Validation > Data Validation), create a list of the names of your 8 named ranges

Then you can replace Financials with INDIRECT(A1) in your formula:
=SUMPRODUCT(SUMIF(INDIRECT(INDIRECT(A1)&"!$B3:$B10000"),'Information PG1'!$K$2,INDIRECT(INDIRECT(A1)&"!d3:d10000")))

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


text:
WhatsApp says it will let you control if and how you get added to Groups (for real this time)
WhatsApp, the popular messaging app owned by Facebook, has faced a lot of controversy over the role that Groups plays on the platform — both for Groups' role in spreading spam, misinformation or worse, and for the fact that it can be very hard (actually impossible) to control when you are added, except by blocking a specific contact altogether.
Now, it seems that the company is finally starting to make some moves to change this. This morning, the company announced that it would start to roll out an update globally so that individuals can either block some or all people to keep them from adding them to Groups.
As per an update that should be making its way to you soon, you can now navigate to the privacy settings in the app to select who (if anyone) can add you to a Group, automatically. If you select anything other than "everyone" enabled to add you to groups, you will get notifications asking if you want to join first. (Picture here from WhatsApp's blog post as it has not rolled out to me yet in London.)
Note: The feature still requires users to proactively navigate to their settings to turn it on. It doesn't get turned on by default. You also still can't block a group wholesale.
Some background and clarification here. You might recall that WhatsApp actually announced a version of this feature back in April that was more rudimentary: you could select Nobody, Everybody or Contacts (but not specific contacts) to add you to Groups. At the time, WhatsApp noted that the control would be rolled out worldwide. It turns out it never did: India was as far as it got.
(Indeed, the feature was launched just after it was revealed that Groups were being manipulated in India to influence political opinion, with hundreds of hoaxes being spread on the platform daily using Groups as the medium. That was giving WhatsApp bad press, and so the feature felt like an immediate response to that.)
Instead, WhatsApp quietly stopped talking about it, and people seemed to forget (Twitter and other social media has turned us into goldfish, slaves to the scroll).
Fast-forward to today, and now it seems that WhatsApp is renewing but also committing to getting this out. A spokesperson confirmed to me today that, this time, Groups control really will be coming to all users on both iOS and Android, worldwide.
"Based on feedback from users during our initial rollout, instead of the 'Nobody' option we are now providing a 'My Contacts Except' option," WhatsApp notes in its blog post update today. "This allows you to choose to exclude specific contacts or 'select all'. This update is rolling out to users around the world on the latest version of WhatsApp."
WhatsApp dragging its feet here is not unusual. The app is not famous for making changes quickly: It took almost a year — actually, two years — for WhatsApp to really start to get down to business with services for businesses. And there are a number of other examples of how the company does not roll out features with speed (or haste). We've long heard rumors about how the company had an interest in rolling out money transfer and payment services for consumers. These have yet to materialize.
So what comes next? Hopefully, WhatsApp will make one further change, and that is to set Groups to a with-permission-only setting by default.
If you have to dig into the settings to change an action — which you will have to do with this update if you are added by someone who is in your contacts (however, if you're added by a non-contact you get the prompt below) — then it's not on by default. As with Facebook's privacy settings, this essentially means that many could miss the ability to set their own boundaries.
Adding better controls for Groups might not sound like a huge feature to you until you've been at the coalface of the Groups morass.
At its lightest or most innocuous, you are being added by tangential work contacts to annoying business chats, or groups of over-chatty folks coalesced around a particular interest. A nuisance, but not really the end of the world.
But at its darkest, people can get harassed, fake news can be spread and you might get slammed with an offensive, shocking, disturbing image or two (or three). Given that the app is used by minors (as young as 13 in some markets, although I suspect many younger than this use it), other vulnerable people, and billions of others, Groups on WhatsApp need way better basic controls, usable by more than just those who read change-logs on app updates, or tech blogs.
Updated with screenshot of prompt to exit or report a Group.
TagsSocial Media
Tinder's interactive video series 'Swipe Night' is going international next year
YouTube's homepage redesign focuses on usability, giving you control over recommendations


text:
Mark Morton Premieres "Cross Off," Never-Before-Heard Track With Chester Bennington
Mark Morton, the prolific guitarist of Lamb of God, has released the second single from his debut solo album, Anesthetic, out March 1, 2019. "Cross Off" featuring Chester Bennington premiered today as Zane Lowe's World Record on Beats 1 and is now available everywhere HERE. Also listenHERE.
"Cross Off" was recorded in April 2017 and written by Mark Morton, Chester Bennington, Jake Oni, and producer Josh Wilbur. Morton recorded all guitars with Paolo Gregoletto and Alex Bent (Trivium) handling bass and drums. The composition of the song began between Morton, Wilbur, and Oni before the three approached Bennington about singing vocals. Bennington loved the song and came to the studio with additional ideas and lyrics that, together with his unique and incredible vocal style, shaped the song to be what it is today.
Morton said his experience working on "Cross Off" with Bennington "was a very free-flowing and natural process. We both really loved the song from its inception and everyone that worked on it put a lot of energy and emotion into it. I feel like you can really hear that in the track, and absolutely in Chester's performance."
Joining forces with WPP Records and Spinefarm Records on a worldwide basis, Morton will release the 10-track album that sees him further explore his creative drive for writing and collaboration. It arrives on March 1, 2019, but CD and vinyl pre-order and merch bundles are now available HERE.
The full track listing, complete with the list of guest artists is below. The album was made alongside a dream team of highly respected musicians from a multitude of musical worlds; some friends and some who would never be expected to collaborate with metal genre leaders Lamb of God.
Morton had been writing some of this debut for years. "This album wasn't a concerted effort to start something outside Lamb of God," he explains. "Music is always in my head, and until I write and record it, it's stuck there. But once I record it, it's out. It's a catharsis, more for my own sanity."
Singers on the album include Chester Bennington, Randy Blythe, Jacoby Shaddix, Myles Kennedy, Alissa White-Gluz, Mark Lanegan, Chuck Billy, Jake Oni, Josh Todd, Mark Morales, and Naeemah Maddox. Musically, Morton performs all guitars, with Roy Mayorga, David Ellefson, Ray Luzier, Paolo Gregoletto, Alex Bent, Mike Inez, Jean-Paul Gaster, Steve Gorman, Marc Ford, Yanni Papadopoulos, and Chris Brooks rounding out the band.
ANESTHETIC TRACK LISTING:
1. "Cross Off" (feat. Chester Bennington)
2. "Sworn Apart" (feat. Jacoby Shaddix)
3. "Axis" (feat. Mark Lanegan)
4. "The Never" (feat. Chuck Billy + Jake Oni)
5. "Save Defiance" (feat. Myles Kennedy)
6. "Blur" (feat. Mark Morales)
7. "Back From The Dead" (feat. Josh Todd)
8. "Reveal" (feat. Naeemah Maddox)
9. "Imaginary Days"
10. "Truth Is Dead" (feat. Randy Blythe + Alissa White-Gluz)
MORTON ONLINE:
https://www.facebook.com/Mark-Morton-Official-341982462499123/
https://twitter.com/MarkDuaneMorton
https://www.instagram.com/mark.duane.morton/
January 9, 2019 Dante
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Picture caption: The Lord Mayor of Leeds Cllr David Congreve was joined by youngsters, mums and representatives from Keepmoat including their official mascot Ken, as he helped hand out Easter eggs at Leeds Children's Hospital.
Young patients at a city hospital were given an Easter surprise by the Lord Mayor of Leeds Cllr David Congreve as he made a special trip to distribute over 400 chocolate eggs.
Kindly donated by community regeneration specialist Keepmoat, the eggs proved to be a big hit with youngsters who are currently accessing a range of specialised services at Leeds Children's Hospital, which this year is the Lord Mayor's chosen charity.
A host of events have already been held in the city to raise funds for the Lord Mayor's appeal, and this month a campaign was launched asking the residents of Leeds along with local businesses, educational establishments, groups and organisations to possibly spare 'Just One Day' on Friday 24 April to help the hospital. Whether it is organising a cake sale, taking part in a sponsored event, donating a proportion of sales from an activity or performance or even wearing fancy dress, this is a fantastic opportunity to show your support and assist the tremendous work of the Leeds Children's Hospital. Every penny which is raised is guaranteed to go towards a number of improvements at the hospital ranging from the buying of new equipment to the brightening up of wards and family rooms.
Joining the Lord Mayor at the children's hospital was the Lady Mayoress Janet Harper JP and Chrissy James, Gail Fairbank and 'Keepmoat Ken' from Keepmoat.
"This year I am supporting the Leeds Children's Hospital as my chosen charity, and it was brilliant to be able to visit the LGI and be able to hand out over 400 Easter eggs to youngsters kindly donated by Keepmoat.
"We have been working extremely hard to raise money for the hospital in many different ways, and it would be really fantastic if residents, local businesses, organisations and groups could as part of my 'Just One Day' event on Friday 24 April, spare any time to raise funds for my charity appeal.
"We will make sure that all proceeds from the day are given to the Leeds Children's Hospital, whose staff, day-in day-out, does such a wonderful job looking after our youngsters."
"Keepmoat is building 388 new homes, refurbishing 1296 existing council homes and providing the repairs and maintenance for 20 years on the Housing Regeneration Project with Leeds City Council.
"We have over 400 employees on this contract who have kindly donated Easter eggs. It was wonderful to see the children's faces light up with the Easter egg delivery and special guest, Keepmoat Ken. The occasion was made extra special with The Lord Mayor visiting to bring a smile to those children who have to be in hospital during Easter."
Leeds Children's Hospital is the second largest service for children in the country and was created in April 2010 by bringing all children's inpatient services together in one location at the Leeds General Infirmary, solving the issue of seriously ill youngsters having to be transferred across the city.
The range of specialised children's services in Leeds that has evolved to meet the needs of the local, regional and national child population is extensive. Our children's services admit over 30,000 children to our wards each year, we treat over 109,000 children in our outpatient departments and see nearly 60,000 children each year through our Accident and Emergency Department.