On May 20, the IOTA Foundation participated in the Fourth UN International Peace Conference on Science and Technology.
On the fourth day after Dominik Schiener's presentation, that is, on May 24, UNOPS announced a partnership with the IOTA Foundation. to increase the transparency and efficiency of the work being done by the United Nations. After experiencing a period of negative news, iota price has fallen by nearly 20% in the past few weeks. Fortunately, at this crucial moment, IOTA finally burst out with such a good news.
So, does the establishment of a cooperative relationship between IOTA and the UN mean that iota will counterattack? iota prices will rise? Is tsiota markets going to change? Why does the United Nations choose iota? Is it because iota has cooperation experience with the United Nations? How does the UN view IOTA's negative news?


Imagine if all those virtual gold bars and coins you accumulate while video gaming suddenly became real gold.
This fantasy is set to become reality. Australian fintech SendGold has signed a deal with Golden Matrix Group (GMG) – a US-based social gaming technology company – to embed real gold inside GMG's platform, with large international customers primarily across Asia-Pacific.
SendGold is the company behind Gold-as-a-Service (GaaS), which is used by investors around the world to deal in gold bullion. Their gold is stored in high-security vaults in Australia and insured by Lloyd's of London, yet using the SendGold mobile phone app they can buy or sell gold holdings, or use them to make peer-to-peer payments much as they might with digital currencies such as Bitcoin.
Unlike Bitcoin, however, SendGold does not provide holders with a cryptocurrency or a digital token, but legal title to a physical piece of assayed, audited gold that can be used as a liquid asset.
Now SendGold's digital gold technology will allow gamers to accumulate gold bullion while playing their favourite games and manage it digitally. They can retain their gold in the SendGold vaults as an investment, or cash it out into a bank account at any time using the SendGold app. SendGold can even be used by those without bank accounts, as it can be exchanged with other SendGold customers.
The global gaming industry is big business. It is three times bigger than the movie industry, and its revenues now exceed those of the entire global sports sector.
And in Asia Pacific, which makes up more than half of the entire gaming industry and where GMG's games are primarily distributed, gold has long been venerated as a traditional store of value, and a stable dependable hedge against currency fluctuations.
SendGold CEO Jodi Stanton said gaming is a large, untapped market that the company is actively pursuing through its Gold-as-a-Service gold transaction platform. "We are strategically targeting Gaming as a key adjacent market.'' says Stanton.
Asia's Gaming market is now 69% of the global gaming market.
Stanton said participating in the Gaming sector also builds awareness of our peer-to-peer gold payments platform with one of our key customer segments at an age where they are just beginning to think about investing.
SendGold is also tapping into the potential of the gaming industry with its own game, "Gold Rush by SendGold".
Gold Rush is an Augmented Reality (AR) location game like Pokémon Go and CodeRunner. Pokémon Go is one of the most successful mobile games with over 100 million downloads, generating over USD268 million. Instead of capturing game animals as in Pokemon Go, Gold Rush players can capture real gold that is automatically added to their SendGold account. The app combines augmented reality, geo-caching, gold tokenisation and map geo-fencing into what users have called a very simple, exciting, and fun app.
SendGold plans to publicise Gold Rush events around the world to build awareness and buzz around the SendGold app.
"At SendGold we are in Gold-as-a-Service discussions with partners with large, interactive audiences in sectors like social, messaging, communities, transactional marketplaces, and loyalty, and games certainly fits this mandate,'' says SendGold Head of Business Development Mark Pey.
"We've also added a specialist games industry executive, Jennifer Wilson, to our board. Jennifer brings internationally recognised and awarded deep specialisation in mobile, apps, web, games and social media, and brings valuable industry networks", states Pey. "Our customers have so much to look forward to!"
The other 'new game in town" is equity crowdfunding, which only started in Australia in January this year. SendGold has embraced this new capital raising channel to enable retail investors an opportunity to own part of their company.
Investors who bid before 31 August will receive an invite to SendGold's World First Gold Rush across Australia's top 25 towns/cities in 4Q.


There's little I love more than a good "I quit my job" story, and today's comes from my friend Chenell Tull. I met Chenell at FinCon a couple of years back, and excitedly watched from the sidelines as she turned her side hustle into a full-time income. Like me, it all started with a personal finance blog, but it wasn't the blog that took her full-time. Learn how she did it in this week's episode.
Chenell did not have a long-time goal of leaving her day job, prior to that she was happy working for a big organization with a steady paycheck. In her job, she worked with the web, but it wasn't until 2015 when she realized she may be able to quit her job and use her online marketing skills to build her own profitable business.
Her old day job lasted about seven years, and after discovering Pat Flynn's Smart Passive Income blog in 2014, decided to use her skills in online marketing ads and campaigns with paying clients. She built her personal finance blog, Bright Cents, and built up her digital marketing skills. She started taking clients on the side, and eventually saw her side hustle income grow to a point she could make a living without her day job salary. She went full-time in June, 2017!
She didn't start out online on a path to running her own online marketing company, she started with a personal finance blog aimed at helping people with the same financial struggles she faced on a daily basis. Getting out of debt and managing money were primary topics, and the blog kept her accountable along the way. She tried to make a few bucks with affiliate marketing, following Pat Flynn's model, but digital marketing landed in her lap with a family client.
She took over the online marketing for her step-Dad's business, and used the results as a portfolio to start charging outside clients. She worked for her family for free in the beginning, and still gives her step-Dad's business a family discount, but building his online presence from scratch led to great results. With a portfolio of real-world experience, she started finding real, paid clients. Many of those clients came through her LinkedIn profile.
After updating her LinkedIn profile, members of the FinCon community suggested working with Chenell in the community's Facebook group. That was the source of most of her early clients. Networking, improving her skills, and doing a great job for clients let her build her business.
Chenell charges clients a fixed monthly recurring rate to her clients rather than charging hourly. She focuses on the value she delivers to clients, not the number of hours she sits behind the keyboard on client projects. By showing clients the value she produces for them, it is easy to justify the costs of an online marketing pro.
This episode is brought to you by GoDaddy. I bought my first domain at GoDaddy, and have the same account there more than ten years later. With competitive prices, industry leading options, and recently updated management consoles, GoDaddy is a great value. Buy yourname.com, yourbusiness.com, or any other domain at GoDaddy.
Chenell Tull and recently quit her day job to try and make a living on my own. In the past, she'd written a lot about paying off student loans, but have since been saving money so she could quit her full-time job. She runs Conversion Owl Marketing.


text:
Cicurina gertschi is een spinnensoort in de taxonomische indeling van de kaardertjes (Dictynidae).

Het dier behoort tot het geslacht Cicurina. De wetenschappelijke naam van de soort werd voor het eerst geldig gepubliceerd in 1936 door H. Exline.

Kaardertjes

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


2nd Edition style BB helmet logo blanks to share..
I will have to use some of those well done!
OH wow they are awesome! Would you like to make one for my human team and actual HLP contenders? American Gladiators I promise to donate a 5$ to the fumbbl community for such job!
I'd choose the bottom left helmet (spiked mouth guard with rounded helmet spikes). I'd use my team logo on the flank of the helmet, font color a dirty (grey-ish) white. Mouth guard color red and the rounded spikes and helmet trim as blue!
This helmet style was traditionally used by ogres and orcs for the cover art of the 2nd edition BB game books however I noticed you have an ogre in your squad - so I say go for it.
Strong roster BTW - good luck in the HLP.
@harvestmouse thanks in advance for doing the upload.
And to everyone else thanks for all the positive feedback.
Finally, I'm going to try and come up with something for Skaven coaches that marries up with the existing original 2nd ed BB helm styles over the Xmas break.
These are great Definitely will use some for bios and stuffs!
@ArrestedDevelopment top job! Would have taken me much longer - faffing about image googling for textures. How did you create the grime and blood spatters?
@latulike I'm Pleased you're pleased.
Meanwhile here are two more outlines - I used older versions for my own team logos a while back - however I've tweaked the wings on these to bring up the line weights, positioning etc.
Originally intended this to be an alternative chaos style, but reckon it fits with Wights and Vamps just as well.
Hopefully there will be Goblin/Underworld and Skaven designs ready by the new year.
Brush set to 2000px and 75% opacity.
You tried making custom brushes?
A couple of things. Have either of you got an outline of the helmet. So helmets where the metal bar work is done, but the centre is transparent?
Also for chaos, this is my favourite chaos helmet design.
@harvestmouse I can make a set of transparent PNGs over the weekend - all outlines, no white fills if you'd like..
Meanwhile had a look at Bone Idol's designs over at the image library - great stuff, but can imagine tricky to mod given they're mostly full colour, shaded and three quarter profile, not side on.
Yeah, I have found the angles aren't uniform. So if you take part from one and add it to another it often looks out of line, a lot were WIP though.
What I would like (and no hurry on this as I'm working hard for the next couple of weeks) is the main body of the helmet transparent. Using the bar colours you have used for your helemts (if you get my meaning). I'd like to make some set helmet logos to use with the pitches. So they look part of the pitch, not just an overlay.
@harvestmouse can do, should be complete and ready for use by, latest, this time next week.
I know this is a very old thread, but would anyone know how Thom_Darkness added the textures to the helmets? I've downloaded some templates I like, but my knowledge of image editing is limited.


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text:
1Characteristics
2Names
3.1Origins
3.2First Czechoslovak Republic
3.2.1Formation
3.2.2Ethnicity
3.3Interwar period
3.4Munich Agreement, and Two-Step German Occupation
3.5Communist Czechoslovakia
3.6After 1989
4Government and politics
4.1Constitutional development
4.2Heads of state and government
4.3Foreign policy
4.3.1International agreements and membership
4.4Administrative divisions
5Population and ethnic groups
7Resource base
8Transport and communications
9Society
10Education
11Religion
12Health, social welfare and housing
13Mass media
14Sports
15Culture
16Postage stamps
21Further reading
Former Central European country (1918–92)
"RČS" redirects here. For other topics, see RCS (disambiguation).
Československo[a]
1939–1945: Government-in-exile
Middle coat of arms
(1918–1938 and 1945–1961)
Motto: 'Pravda vítězí / Pravda víťazí'
(Czech / Slovak, 1918–1990)
'Veritas vincit' (Latin, 1990–1992)
'Truth prevails'
Anthems: 'Kde domov můj' (Czech)
'Where my home is'
'Nad Tatrou sa blýska' (Slovak)
'Lightning Over the Tatras'
Czechoslovakia during the interwar period and the Cold War
and largest city
50°05′N 14°25′E / 50.083°N 14.417°E / 50.083; 14.417Coordinates: 50°05′N 14°25′E / 50.083°N 14.417°E / 50.083; 14.417
Czechoslovak, after 1948 Czech · Slovak
Recognised languages
Czechoslovak
First Republic
Second Republic
Third Republic
Socialist Republic
Federative Republic
Unitary parliamentary republic
(1918–1938, 1945–1948)
Federal authoritarian parliamentary republic (rump state)
Government-in-exile
Unitary Marxist-Leninist single-party socialist republic
Federal Marxist-Leninist single-party socialist republic
Federal parliamentary republic
Tomáš G. Masaryk
• 1935–1938 · 1945–1948
Edvard Beneš
Emil Hácha
Klement Gottwald
Antonín Zápotocký
Antonín Novotný
Ludvík Svoboda
Gustáv Husák
KSČ General Secretary / First Secretary
• 1918–1919 (first)
Karel Kramář
• 1992 (last)
Jan Stráský
National Assembly (1948–1969)
Federal Assembly (1969–1992)
• Proclamation
• Munich Agreement
• Dissolution
• Re-establishment
• Coup d'état
• Soviet occupation
• Velvet Revolution
HDI (1992)
Czechoslovak koruna
Driving side
.cs
Preceded by Succeeded by
Austria-Hungary
Today part of
Ukraine (Zakarpattia Oblast)
Calling code +42 was withdrawn in the winter of 1997. The number range was divided between the Czech Republic (+420) and Slovak Republic (+421).
Current ISO 3166-3 code is "CSHH".
Czechoslovakia[2] (/ˌtʃɛkoʊsloʊˈvækiə, -kə-, -slə-, -ˈvɑː-/;[3][4] Czech and Slovak: Československo, Česko-Slovensko)[5][6] was a landlocked country in Central Europe,[7] created in 1918, when it declared its independence from Austria-Hungary. In 1938, after the Munich Agreement, the Sudetenland became part of Germany, while the country lost further territories to Hungary and Poland. Between 1939 and 1945 the state ceased to exist, as Slovakia proclaimed its independence and the remaining territories in the east became part of Hungary, while in the remainder of the Czech Lands the German Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia was proclaimed. In 1939, after the outbreak of World War II, former Czechoslovak President Edvard Beneš formed a government-in-exile and sought recognition from the Allies.
After World War II, the pre-1938 Czechoslovakia was reestablished, with the exception of Carpathian Ruthenia, which became part of the Ukrainian SSR (a republic of the Soviet Union). From 1948 to 1989, Czechoslovakia was part of the Eastern Bloc with a command economy. Its economic status was formalized in membership of Comecon from 1949 and its defense status in the Warsaw Pact of 1955. A period of political liberalization in 1968, the Prague Spring, ended violently when the Soviet Union, assisted by other Warsaw Pact countries, invaded Czechoslovakia. In 1989, as Marxist–Leninist governments and communism were ending all over Central and Eastern Europe, Czechoslovaks peacefully deposed their communist government on 17 November 1989 in the Velvet Revolution. On 1 January 1993, Czechoslovakia peacefully split into the two sovereign states of the Czech Republic and Slovakia as the result of national tensions of the Slovaks.[8][9]
Form of state
1918–1938: A democratic republic championed by Tomáš Masaryk.[10]
1938–1939: After the acquisition of Sudetenland by Nazi Germany in 1938, the region gradually turned into a state with loosened connections among the Czech, Slovak, and Ruthenian parts. A strip of southern Slovakia and Carpathian Ruthenia was redeemed by Hungary, and the Zaolzie region was annexed by Poland.
1939–1945: The remainder of the state was dismembered and became split into the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia and the Slovak Republic, while the rest of Carpathian Ruthenia was occupied and annexed by Hungary. A government-in-exile continued to exist in London, supported by the United Kingdom, United States and their Allies; after the German invasion of Soviet Union, it was also recognized by the Soviet Union. Czechoslovakia adhered to the Declaration by United Nations and was a founding member of the United Nations.
1946–1948: The country was governed by a coalition government with communist ministers, including the prime minister and the minister of interior. Carpathian Ruthenia was ceded to the Soviet Union.
1948–1989: The country became a Marxist-Leninist state under Soviet domination with a command economy. In 1960, the country officially became a socialist republic, the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic. It was a satellite state of the Soviet Union.
1989–1990: Czechoslovakia formally became a federal republic comprising the Czech Socialist Republic and the Slovak Socialist Republic. In late 1989, the communist rule came to an end during the Velvet Revolution followed by the re-establishment of a democratic parliamentary republic.[11]
1990–1992: Shortly after the Velvet Revolution, the state was renamed the Czech and Slovak Federative Republic, consisting of the Czech Republic and the Slovak Republic (Slovakia) until the peaceful dissolution on 31 December 1992.[11]
Neighbors[12]
Austria 1918–1938, 1945–1992
Germany (both predecessors, West Germany and East Germany, were neighbors between 1949 and 1990)
Romania 1918–1938
Soviet Union 1945–1991
Ukraine 1991–1992 (Soviet Union member until 1991)
The country was of generally irregular terrain. The western area was part of the north-central European uplands. The eastern region was composed of the northern reaches of the Carpathian Mountains and lands of the Danube River basin.
The weather is mild winters and mild summers. Influenced by the Atlantic Ocean from the west, the Baltic Sea from the north, and Mediterranean Sea from the south. There is no continental weather.
See also: Hyphen War and Name of the Czech Republic
1918–1938: Czechoslovak Republic (abbreviated ČSR), or Czechoslovakia, before the formalization of the name in 1920, also known as Czecho-Slovakia or the Czecho-Slovak state[13]
1938–1939: Czecho-Slovak Republic, or Czecho-Slovakia
1945–1960: Czechoslovak Republic (ČSR), or Czechoslovakia
1960–1989: Czechoslovak Socialist Republic (ČSSR), or Czechoslovakia
1990–1992: Czech and Slovak Federative Republic (ČSFR), or Czechoslovakia
Main articles: History of Czechoslovakia, History of the Czech lands, and History of Slovakia
Main article: Origins of Czechoslovakia
Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk, founder and first president
Czechoslovak troops in Vladivostok (1918)
Czechoslovak declaration of independence rally in Prague on Wenceslas Square, 28 October 1918
The area was part of the Austro-Hungarian Empire until it collapsed at the end of World War I. The new state was founded by Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk,[14] who served as its first president from 14 November 1918 to 14 December 1935. He was succeeded by his close ally Edvard Beneš (1884–1948).
The roots of Czech nationalism go back to the 19th century, when philologists and educators, influenced by Romanticism, promoted the Czech language and pride in the Czech people. Nationalism became a mass movement in the second half of the 19th century. Taking advantage of the limited opportunities for participation in political life under Austrian rule, Czech leaders such as historian František Palacký (1798–1876) founded various patriotic, self-help organizations which provided a chance for many of their compatriots to participate in communal life before independence. Palacký supported Austro-Slavism and worked for a reorganized federal Austrian Empire, which would protect the Slavic speaking peoples of Central Europe against Russian and German threats.
An advocate of democratic reform and Czech autonomy within Austria-Hungary, Masaryk was elected twice to the Reichsrat (Austrian Parliament), from 1891 to 1893 for the Young Czech Party, and from 1907 to 1914 for the Czech Realist Party, which he had founded in 1889 with Karel Kramář and Josef Kaizl.
During World War I a number of Czechs and Slovaks, the Czechoslovak Legions, fought with the Allies in France and Italy, while large numbers deserted to Russia in exchange for its support for the independence of Czechoslovakia from the Austrian Empire.[15] With the outbreak of World War I, Masaryk began working for Czech independence in a union with Slovakia. With Edvard Beneš and Milan Rastislav Štefánik, Masaryk visited several Western countries and won support from influential publicists.[16] The Czechoslovak National Council was the main organization that advanced the claims for a Czechoslovak state.[17]
First Czechoslovak Republic
Main article: First Czechoslovak Republic
A monument to Tomáš Garrigue Masaryk and Milan Štefánik—both key figures in early Czechoslovakia
Czechoslovakia in 1928
The Bohemian Kingdom ceased to exist in 1918 when it was incorporated into Czechoslovakia. Czechoslovakia was founded in October 1918, as one of the successor states of the Austro-Hungarian Empire at the end of World War I and as part of the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye. It consisted of the present day territories of Bohemia, Moravia, Slovakia and Carpathian Ruthenia. Its territory included some of the most industrialized regions of the former Austria-Hungary. "The land consisted of modern day Czechia, Slovakia, and a region of Ukraine called Carpathian Ruthnia[18]
See also: Ethnic minorities in Czechoslovakia
Linguistic map of Czechoslovakia in 1930
The new country was a multi-ethnic state, with Czechs and Slovaks as constituent peoples. The population consisted of Czechs (51%), Slovaks (16%), Germans (22%), Hungarians (5%) and Rusyns (4%).[19] Many of the Germans, Hungarians, Ruthenians and Poles[20] and some Slovaks, felt oppressed because the political elite did not generally allow political autonomy for minority ethnic groups.[citation needed] This policy led to unrest among the non-Czech population, particularly in German-speaking Sudetenland, which initially had proclaimed itself part of the Republic of German-Austria in accordance with the self-determination principle.
The state proclaimed the official ideology that there were no separate Czech and Slovak nations, but only one nation of Czechoslovaks (see Czechoslovakism), to the disagreement of Slovaks and other ethnic groups. Once a unified Czechoslovakia was restored after World War II (after the country had been divided during the war), the conflict between the Czechs and the Slovaks surfaced again. The governments of Czechoslovakia and other Central European nations deported ethnic Germans, reducing the presence of minorities in the nation. Most of the Jews had been killed during the war by the Nazis.
Ethnicities of Czechoslovakia in 1921[21]
Czecho slovaks 8,759,701 64.37%
Germans 3,123,305 22.95%
Hungarians 744,621 5.47%
Ruthenians 461,449 3.39%
Jews 180,534 1.33%
Poles 75,852 0.56%
Others 23,139 0.17%
Foreigners 238,784 1.75%
Czecho slovaks 10,066,000 68.35%
Romanians 14,000 0.10%
*Jews identified themselves as Germans or Hungarians (and Jews only by religion not ethnicity), the sum is, therefore, more than 100%.
Interwar period
During the period between the two world wars Czechoslovakia was a democratic state. The population was generally literate, and contained fewer alienated groups. The influence of these conditions was augmented by the political values of Czechoslovakia's leaders and the policies they adopted. Under Tomas Masaryk, Czech and Slovak politicians promoted progressive social and economic conditions that served to defuse discontent.
Foreign minister Beneš became the prime architect of the Czechoslovak-Romanian-Yugoslav alliance (the "Little Entente", 1921–38) directed against Hungarian attempts to reclaim lost areas. Beneš worked closely with France. Far more dangerous was the German element, which after 1933 became allied with the Nazis in Germany.
Czech-Slovak relations came to be a central issue in Czechoslovak politics during the 1930s.[23] The increasing feeling of inferiority among the Slovaks,[24][failed verification] who were hostile to the more numerous Czechs, weakened the country in the late 1930s. Slovakia became autonomous in the fall of 1938, and by mid-1939, Slovakia had become independent, with the First Slovak Republic set up as a satellite state of Nazi Germany and the far-right Slovak People's Party in power .[25]
After 1933, Czechoslovakia remained the only democracy in central and eastern Europe.[26]
Munich Agreement, and Two-Step German Occupation
Main article: German occupation of Czechoslovakia
The partition of Czechoslovakia after Munich Agreement
The car in which Reinhard Heydrich was killed in 1942
Territory of the Second Czechoslovak Republic (1938–1939)
In September 1938, Adolf Hitler demanded control of the Sudetenland. On 29 September 1938, Britain and France ceded control in the Appeasement at the Munich Conference; France ignored the military alliance it had with Czechoslovakia. During October 1938, Nazi Germany occupied the Sudetenland border region, effectively crippling Czechoslovak defences.
The First Vienna Award assigned a strip of southern Slovakia and Carpathian Ruthenia to Hungary. Poland occupied Zaolzie, an area whose population was majority Polish, in October 1938.
On 14 March 1939, the remainder ("rump") of Czechoslovakia was dismembered by the proclamation of the Slovak State, the next day the rest of Carpathian Ruthenia was occupied and annexed by Hungary, while the following day the German Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia was proclaimed.
The eventual goal of the German state under Nazi leadership was to eradicate Czech nationality through assimilation, deportation, and extermination of the Czech intelligentsia; the intellectual elites and middle class made up a considerable number of the 200,000 people who passed through concentration camps and the 250,000 who died during German occupation.[27] Under Generalplan Ost, it was assumed that around 50% of Czechs would be fit for Germanization. The Czech intellectual elites were to be removed not only from Czech territories but from Europe completely. The authors of Generalplan Ost believed it would be best if they emigrated overseas, as even in Siberia they were considered a threat to German rule. Just like Jews, Poles, Serbs, and several other nations, Czechs were considered to be untermenschen by the Nazi state.[28] In 1940, in a secret Nazi plan for the Germanization of the Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia it was declared that those considered to be of racially Mongoloid origin and the Czech intelligentsia were not to be Germanized.[29]
The deportation of Jews to concentration camps was organized under the direction of Reinhard Heydrich, and the fortress town of Terezín was made into a ghetto way station for Jewish families. On 4 June 1942 Heydrich died after being wounded by an assassin in Operation Anthropoid. Heydrich's successor, Colonel General Kurt Daluege, ordered mass arrests and executions and the destruction of the villages of Lidice and Ležáky. In 1943 the German war effort was accelerated. Under the authority of Karl Hermann Frank, German minister of state for Bohemia and Moravia, some 350,000 Czech laborers were dispatched to the Reich. Within the protectorate, all non-war-related industry was prohibited. Most of the Czech population obeyed quiescently up until the final months preceding the end of the war, while thousands were involved in the resistance movement.
For the Czechs of the Protectorate Bohemia and Moravia, German occupation was a period of brutal oppression. Czech losses resulting from political persecution and deaths in concentration camps totaled between 36,000 and 55,000. The Jewish populations of Bohemia and Moravia (118,000 according to the 1930 census) were virtually annihilated. Many Jews emigrated after 1939; more than 70,000 were killed; 8,000 survived at Terezín. Several thousand Jews managed to live in freedom or in hiding throughout the occupation.
Despite the estimated 136,000 deaths at the hands of the Nazi regime, the population in the Reichsprotektorate saw a net increase during the war years of approximately 250,000 in line with an increased birth rate.[30]
On 6 May 1945, the third US Army of General Patton entered Pilsen from the south west. On 9 May 1945, Soviet Red Army troops entered Prague.
Communist Czechoslovakia
Main articles: History of Czechoslovakia (1948–1989) and Czechoslovak Socialist Republic
Socialist coat of arms in 1960–1989
After World War II, pre-war Czechoslovakia was re-established, with the exception of Subcarpathian Ruthenia, which was annexed by the Soviet Union and incorporated into the Ukrainian Soviet Socialist Republic. The Beneš decrees were promulgated concerning ethnic Germans (see Potsdam Agreement) and ethnic Hungarians. Under the decrees, citizenship was abrogated for people of German and Hungarian ethnic origin who had accepted German or Hungarian citizenship during the occupations. In 1948, this provision was cancelled for the Hungarians, but only partially for the Germans. The government then confiscated the property of the Germans and expelled about 90% of the ethnic German population, over 2 million people. Those who remained were collectively accused of supporting the Nazis after the Munich Agreement, as 97.32% of Sudeten Germans had voted for the NSDAP in the December 1938 elections. Almost every decree explicitly stated that the sanctions did not apply to antifascists. Some 250,000 Germans, many married to Czechs, some antifascists, and also those required for the post-war reconstruction of the country, remained in Czechoslovakia. The Beneš Decrees still cause controversy among nationalist groups in the Czech Republic, Germany, Austria and Hungary.[31]
Following the expulsion of the ethnic German population from Czechoslovakia, parts of the former Sudetenland, especially around Krnov and the surrounding villages of the Jesenik mountain region in northeastern Czechoslovakia, were settled in 1949 by Communist refugees from Northern Greece who had left their homeland as a result of the Greek Civil War. These Greeks made up a large proportion of the town and region's population until the late 1980s/early 1990s. Although defined as "Greeks", the Greek Communist community of Krnov and the Jeseniky region actually consisted of an ethnically diverse population, including Greek Macedonians, Macedonians, Vlachs, Pontic Greeks and Turkish speaking Urums or Caucasus Greeks.[32]
Spartakiad in 1960
Carpathian Ruthenia (Podkarpatská Rus) was occupied by (and in June 1945 formally ceded to) the Soviet Union. In the 1946 parliamentary election, the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia was the winner in the Czech lands, and the Democratic Party won in Slovakia. In February 1948 the Communists seized power. Although they would maintain the fiction of political pluralism through the existence of the National Front, except for a short period in the late 1960s (the Prague Spring) the country had no liberal democracy. Since citizens lacked significant electoral methods of registering protest against government policies, periodically there were street protests that became violent. For example, there were riots in the town of Plzeň in 1953, reflecting economic discontent. Police and army units put down the rebellion, and hundreds were injured but no one was killed. While its economy remained more advanced than those of its neighbors in Eastern Europe, Czechoslovakia grew increasingly economically weak relative to Western Europe.[33]
The currency reform of 1953 caused dissatisfaction among Czechoslovak laborers. To equalize the wage rate, Czechoslovaks had to turn in their old money for new at a decreased value. The banks also confiscated savings and bank deposits to control the amount of money in circulation.[33] In the 1950s, Czechoslovakia experienced high economic growth (averaging 7% per year), which allowed for a substantial increase in wages and living standards, thus promoting the stability of the regime.[34]
Czechoslovakia after 1969
In 1968, when the reformer Alexander Dubček was appointed to the key post of First Secretary of the Czechoslovak Communist Party, there was a brief period of liberalization known as the Prague Spring. In response, after failing to persuade the Czechoslovak leaders to change course, five other members of the Warsaw Pact invaded. Soviet tanks rolled into Czechoslovakia on the night of 20–21 August 1968.[35] Soviet Communist Party General Secretary Leonid Brezhnev viewed this intervention as vital for the preservation of the Soviet, socialist system and vowed to intervene in any state that sought to replace Marxism-Leninism with capitalism.[36]
In the week after the invasion there was a spontaneous campaign of civil resistance against the occupation. This resistance involved a wide range of acts of non-cooperation and defiance: this was followed by a period in which the Czechoslovak Communist Party leadership, having been forced in Moscow to make concessions to the Soviet Union, gradually put the brakes on their earlier liberal policies.[37]
Meanwhile, one plank of the reform program had been carried out: in 1968–69, Czechoslovakia was turned into a federation of the Czech Socialist Republic and Slovak Socialist Republic. The theory was that under the federation, social and economic inequities between the Czech and Slovak halves of the state would be largely eliminated. A number of ministries, such as education, now became two formally equal bodies in the two formally equal republics. However, the centralized political control by the Czechoslovak Communist Party severely limited the effects of federalization.
The 1970s saw the rise of the dissident movement in Czechoslovakia, represented among others by Václav Havel. The movement sought greater political participation and expression in the face of official disapproval, manifested in limitations on work activities, which went as far as a ban on professional employment, the refusal of higher education for the dissidents' children, police harassment and prison.
During the 1980s, Czechoslovakia became one of the most tightly controlled Communist regimes in the Warsaw Pact in resistance to the mitigation of controls notified by Soviet president Mikhail Gorbachev.
Main article: History of Czechoslovakia (1989–1992)
The Visegrád Group signing ceremony in February 1991
In 1989, the Velvet Revolution restored democracy.[11] This occurred at around the same time as the fall of communism in Romania, Bulgaria, Hungary, East Germany and Poland.
The word "socialist" was removed from the country's full name on 29 March 1990 and replaced by "federal".
Pope John Paul II made a papal visit to Czechoslovakia on 21 April 1990, hailing it as a symbolic step of reviving Christianity in the newly-formed post-communist state.
Czechoslovakia participated in the Gulf War with a small force of 200 troops under the command of the U.S.-led coalition.
In 1992, because of growing nationalist tensions in the government, Czechoslovakia was peacefully dissolved by parliament. On 31 December 1992 it formally separated into two independent countries, the Czech Republic and the Slovak Republic.[11]
Timeline of Czechoslovak statehood
Pre-1918 1918–1938 1938–1945 1945–1948 1948–1989 1989–1992 1993–
Silesia Austrian Empire First Republica Sudetenlandb Third Republic Czechoslovak Republice
1948–1960 Czechoslovak Socialist Republicf
1960–1990 Czech and Slovak Federative Republic
1990–1992 Czech Republic
Republicc
1938–1939 Protectorate of Bohemia and Moravia
Slovakia Kingdom of Hungary Slovak Republic
1939–1945 Slovakia
Southern Slovakia and Carpathian Ukrained
Subcarpathian Ruthenia Zakarpattia Oblastg
1944 / 1946 – 1991 Zakarpattia Oblasth
Austria-Hungary Czechoslovak government-in-exile
a ČSR; boundaries and government established by the 1920 constitution.
b Annexed by Nazi Germany.
c ČSR; included the autonomous regions of Slovakia and Subcarpathian Ruthenia.
d Annexed by Hungary (1939–1945).
e ČSR; declared a "people's democracy" (without a formal name change) under the Ninth-of-May Constitution following the 1948 coup.
f ČSSR; from 1969, after the Prague Spring, consisted of the Czech Socialist Republic (ČSR) and Slovak Socialist Republic (SSR).
g Oblast of the Ukrainian SSR.
h Oblast of Ukraine.
Main articles: History of Czechoslovakia (1918–1938) and Politics of Communist Czechoslovakia
After World War II, a political monopoly was held by the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia (KSČ). The leader of the KSČ was de facto the most powerful person in the country during this period. Gustáv Husák was elected first secretary of the KSČ in 1969 (changed to general secretary in 1971) and president of Czechoslovakia in 1975. Other parties and organizations existed but functioned in subordinate roles to the KSČ. All political parties, as well as numerous mass organizations, were grouped under umbrella of the National Front. Human rights activists and religious activists were severely repressed.
Federal Assembly in Prague
Constitutional development
Main article: Constitutional Court of Czechoslovakia
Federative coat of arms in 1990–1992
Czechoslovakia had the following constitutions during its history (1918–1992):
Temporary constitution of 14 November 1918 (democratic): see History of Czechoslovakia (1918–1938)
The 1920 constitution (The Constitutional Document of the Czechoslovak Republic), democratic, in force until 1948, several amendments
The Communist 1948 Ninth-of-May Constitution
The Communist 1960 Constitution of the Czechoslovak Socialist Republic with major amendments in 1968 (Constitutional Law of Federation), 1971, 1975, 1978, and 1989 (at which point the leading role of the Communist Party was abolished). It was amended several more times during 1990–1992 (for example, 1990, name change to Czecho-Slovakia, 1991 incorporation of the human rights charter)
Heads of state and government
See also: Leaders of the Communist Party of Czechoslovakia
List of presidents of Czechoslovakia
List of prime ministers of Czechoslovakia
International agreements and membership
In the 1930s, the nation formed a military alliance with France, which collapsed in the Munich Agreement of 1938. After World War II, an active participant in Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (Comecon), Warsaw Pact, United Nations and its specialized agencies; signatory of conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe.[38]
Administrative divisions
Main article: Administrative divisions of Czechoslovakia
1918–1923: Different systems in former Austrian territory (Bohemia, Moravia, a small part of Silesia) compared to former Hungarian territory (Slovakia and Ruthenia): three lands (země) (also called district units (kraje)): Bohemia, Moravia, Silesia, plus 21 counties (župy) in today's Slovakia and three counties in today's Ruthenia; both lands and counties were divided into districts (okresy).
1923–1927: As above, except that the Slovak and Ruthenian counties were replaced by six (grand) counties ((veľ)župy) in Slovakia and one (grand) county in Ruthenia, and the numbers and boundaries of the okresy were changed in those two territories.
1928–1938: Four lands (Czech: země, Slovak: krajiny): Bohemia, Moravia-Silesia, Slovakia and Sub-Carpathian Ruthenia, divided into districts (okresy).
Late 1938 – March 1939: As above, but Slovakia and Ruthenia gained the status of "autonomous lands". Slovakia was called Slovenský štát, with its own currency and government.
1945–1948: As in 1928–1938, except that Ruthenia became part of the Soviet Union.
1949–1960: 19 regions (kraje) divided into 270 okresy.
1960–1992: 10 kraje, Prague, and (from 1970) Bratislava (capital of Slovakia); these were divided into 109–114 okresy; the kraje were abolished temporarily in Slovakia in 1969–1970 and for many purposes from 1991 in Czechoslovakia; in addition, the Czech Socialist Republic and the Slovak Socialist Republic were established in 1969 (without the word Socialist from 1990).
Population and ethnic groups
Main article: Demographics of Czechoslovakia
Main article: Economy of Czechoslovakia
Before World War II, the economy was about the fourth in all industrial countries in Europe.[citation needed][clarification needed] The state was based on strong economy, manufacturing cars (Škoda, Tatra), trams, aircraft (Aero, Avia), ships, ship engines (Škoda), cannons, shoes (Baťa), turbines, guns (Zbrojovka Brno). It was the industrial workshop for the Austro-Hungarian empire. The Slovak lands relied more heavily on agriculture than the Czech lands.
After World War II, the economy was centrally planned, with command links controlled by the communist party, similarly to the Soviet Union. The large metallurgical industry was dependent on imports of iron and non-ferrous ores.
Industry: Extractive industry and manufacturing dominated the sector, including machinery, chemicals, food processing, metallurgy, and textiles. The sector was wasteful in its use of energy, materials, and labor and was slow to upgrade technology, but the country was a major supplier of high-quality machinery, instruments, electronics, aircraft, airplane engines and arms to other socialist countries.
Agriculture: Agriculture was a minor sector, but collectivized farms of large acreage and relatively efficient mode of production enabled the country to be relatively self-sufficient in the food supply. The country depended on imports of grains (mainly for livestock feed) in years of adverse weather. Meat production was constrained by a shortage of feed, but the country still recorded high per capita consumption of meat.
Foreign Trade: Exports were estimated at US$17.8 billion in 1985. Exports were machinery (55%), fuel and materials (14%), and manufactured consumer goods (16%). Imports stood at an estimated US$17.9 billion in 1985, including fuel and materials (41%), machinery (33%), and agricultural and forestry products (12%). In 1986, about 80% of foreign trade was with other socialist countries.
Exchange rate: Official, or commercial, the rate was crowns (Kčs) 5.4 per US$1 in 1987. Tourist, or non-commercial, the rate was Kčs 10.5 per US$1. Neither rate reflected purchasing power. The exchange rate on the black market was around Kčs 30 per US$1, which became the official rate once the currency became convertible in the early 1990s.
Fiscal year: Calendar year.
Fiscal policy: The state was the exclusive owner of means of production in most cases. Revenue from state enterprises was the primary source of revenues followed by turnover tax. The government spent heavily on social programs, subsidies, and investment. The budget was usually balanced or left a small surplus.
Main article: Resource base of Communist Czechoslovakia
After World War II, the country was short of energy, relying on imported crude oil and natural gas from the Soviet Union, domestic brown coal, and nuclear and hydroelectric energy. Energy constraints were a major factor in the 1980s.
Main article: Transport in Czechoslovakia
Slightly after the foundation of Czechoslovakia in 1918, there was a lack of essential infrastructure in many areas – paved roads, railways, bridges, etc. Massive improvement in the following years enabled Czechoslovakia to develop its industry. Prague's civil airport in Ruzyně became one of the most modern terminals in the world when it was finished in 1937. Tomáš Baťa, a Czech entrepreneur and visionary, outlined his ideas in the publication "Budujme stát pro 40 milionů lidí", where he described the future motorway system. Construction of the first motorways in Czechoslovakia begun in 1939, nevertheless, they were stopped after German occupation during World War II.
Main article: Society of Communist Czechoslovakia
Main article: Education in Czechoslovakia
Education was free at all levels and compulsory from ages 6 to 15. The vast majority of the population was literate. There was a highly developed system of apprenticeship training and vocational schools supplemented general secondary schools and institutions of higher education.
Main article: Religion in Czechoslovakia
In 1991, 46% of the population were Roman Catholics, 5.3% were Evangelical Lutheran, 30% were Atheist, and other religions made up 17% of the country, but there were huge differences in religious practices between the two constituent republics; see Czech Republic and Slovakia.
Health, social welfare and housing
Main article: Health and social welfare in Communist Czechoslovakia
After World War II, free health care was available to all citizens. National health planning emphasized preventive medicine; factory and local health care centres supplemented hospitals and other inpatient institutions. There was a substantial improvement in rural health care during the 1960s and 1970s.
Main article: Mass media in Communist Czechoslovakia
During the era between the World Wars, Czechoslovak democracy and liberalism facilitated conditions for free publication. The most significant daily newspapers in these times were Lidové noviny, Národní listy, Český deník and Československá Republika.
During Communist rule, the mass media in Czechoslovakia were controlled by the Communist Party. Private ownership of any publication or agency of the mass media was generally forbidden, although churches and other organizations published small periodicals and newspapers. Even with this information monopoly in the hands of organizations under KSČ control, all publications were reviewed by the government's Office for Press and Information.
See also: Czechoslovakia at the Olympics
The Czechoslovakia national football team was a consistent performer on the international scene, with eight appearances in the FIFA World Cup Finals, finishing in second place in 1934 and 1962. The team also won the European Football Championship in 1976, came in third in 1980 and won the Olympic gold in 1980.
Well-known football players such as Pavel Nedvěd, Antonín Panenka, Milan Baroš, Tomáš Rosický, Vladimír Šmicer or Petr Čech were all born in Czechoslovakia.
The International Olympic Committee code for Czechoslovakia is TCH, which is still used in historical listings of results.
The Czechoslovak national ice hockey team won many medals from the world championships and Olympic Games. Peter Šťastný, Jaromír Jágr, Dominik Hašek, Peter Bondra, Petr Klíma, Marián Gáborík, Marián Hossa, Miroslav Šatan and Pavol Demitra all come from Czechoslovakia.
Emil Zátopek, winner of four Olympic gold medals in athletics, is considered one of the top athletes in Czechoslovak history.
Věra Čáslavská was an Olympic gold medallist in gymnastics, winning seven gold medals and four silver medals. She represented Czechoslovakia in three consecutive Olympics.
Several accomplished professional tennis players including Jaroslav Drobný, Ivan Lendl, Jan Kodeš, Miloslav Mečíř, Hana Mandlíková, Martina Hingis, Martina Navratilova, Jana Novotna, Petra Kvitová and Daniela Hantuchová were born in Czechoslovakia.
List of Czechs / List of Slovaks
MDŽ (International Women's Day)
Jazz in dissident Czechoslovakia
Postage stamps and postal history of Czechoslovakia
Czechoslovakia stamp reused by Slovak Republic after 18 January 1939 by overprinting country and value
Effects on the environment in Czechoslovakia from Soviet influence during the Cold War
Former countries in Europe after 1815
List of former sovereign states
^ In other recognized languages of Czechoslovakia:
German: Tschechoslowakei
Hungarian: Csehszlovákia
Polish: Czechosłowacja
Rusyn: Чеськословеньско, Cheskoslovensko
Yiddish: טשעכאסלאוואקיי, Tshekhaslavakey
^ "Human Development Report 1992" (PDF). hdr.undp.org. Archived (PDF) from the original on 9 October 2022.
^ "THE COVENANT OF THE LEAGUE OF NATIONS". Archived from the original on 20 May 2011. Retrieved 12 April 2011.
^ Wells, John C. (2008), Longman Pronunciation Dictionary (3rd ed.), Longman, ISBN 978-1-4058-8118-0
^ Roach, Peter (2011), Cambridge English Pronouncing Dictionary (18th ed.), Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-15253-2
^ "Ján Kačala: Máme nový názov federatívnej republiky (The New Name of the Federal Republic), In: Kultúra Slova (official publication of the Slovak Academy of Sciences Ľudovít Štúr Institute of Linguistics) 6/1990 pp. 192–197" (PDF). Archived (PDF) from the original on 19 August 2011. Retrieved 5 April 2010.
^ Czech pronunciation: [ˈtʃɛskoslovɛnsko], Slovak pronunciation: [ˈtʂeskɔslɔʋenskɔ].
^ "Milestones: 1961–1968 – Office of the Historian". history.state.gov. Retrieved 27 January 2021.
^ office, Kafkadesk Prague (30 October 2018). "Why did Czechoslovakia break up? - Kafkadesk". kafkadesk.org. Retrieved 28 September 2021.
^ Engelberg, Stephen (1 January 1993). "Czechoslovakia Breaks in Two, To Wide Regret". The New York Times. ISSN 0362-4331. Retrieved 28 September 2021.
^ "16. Czechoslovakia (1918–1992)". uca.edu. Retrieved 27 January 2021.
^ a b c d "A Brief History of the Czech Republic – Live & Study – Czech Universities". www.czechuniversities.com. Retrieved 27 January 2021.
^ "Czechoslovakia". www.jewishvirtuallibrary.org. Retrieved 27 January 2021.
^ Votruba, Martin. "Czecho-Slovakia or Czechoslovakia". Slovak Studies Program. University of Pittsburgh. Archived from the original on 15 October 2013. Retrieved 29 March 2009.
^ Czechs Celebrate Republic's Birth, 1933/11/06 (1933). Universal Newsreel. 1933. Archived from the original on 7 April 2014. Retrieved 22 February 2012.
^ PRECLÍK, Vratislav. Masaryk a legie (Masaryk and legions), váz. kniha, 219 str., vydalo nakladatelství Paris Karviná, Žižkova 2379 (734 01 Karviná) ve spolupráci s Masarykovým demokratickým hnutím (Masaryk Democratic Movement, Prague), 2019, ISBN 978-80-87173-47-3, pp. 8 – 52, 57 – 120, 124 – 128, 140 – 148, 184 – 190
^ Z. A. B. Zeman, The Masaryks: The Making of Czechoslovakia (1976)
^ Fenwick, Charles G. (1918). "Recognition of the Czechoslovak Nation". The American Political Science Review. 12 (4): 715–718. doi:10.2307/1945847. ISSN 0003-0554. JSTOR 1945847. S2CID 146969818.
^ Google, retrieved 15 December 2022
^ "The War of the World", Niall Ferguson Allen Lane 2006.
^ "Playing the blame game". Archived from the original on 30 June 2008. Retrieved 30 June 2008. {{cite web}}: CS1 maint: bot: original URL status unknown (link), Prague Post, 6 July 2005
^ Škorpila F. B.; Zeměpisný atlas pro měšťanské školy; Státní Nakladatelství; second edition; 1930; Czechoslovakia
^ "Československo 1930 (Sčítání)(2)". 2011. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016. Retrieved 2 December 2014.
^ Teich, Mikuláš; Kováč, Dušan; Brown, Martin (2011). Slovakia in History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 159. ISBN 978-0-521-80253-6.
^ "Nazis take Czechoslovakia". HISTORY. Retrieved 12 February 2020.
^ Teich, Mikuláš; Kováč, Dušan; Brown, Martin (2011). Slovakia in History. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. pp. 175–177. ISBN 978-0-521-80253-6.
^ Gorazd Mesko; Charles B. Fields; Branko Lobnikar; Andrej Sotlar (eds.). Handbook on Policing in Central and Eastern Europe.
^ Universities in the Nineteenth and Early Twentieth Centuries (1800–1945), Walter Rüegg Cambridge University Press (28 October 2004), page 353
^ "HITLER'S PLANS FOR EASTERN EUROPE Selections from Janusz Gumkowski and Kazimierz Leszczynski POLAND UNDER NAZI OCCUPATION". Archived from the original on 17 July 2012. Retrieved 13 February 2014.
^ "Nazi Conspiracy & Aggression Volume I Chapter XIII Germanization & Spoliation Czechoslovakia". Archived from the original on 28 September 2015. Retrieved 27 September 2015.
^ "Vaclav Havel – A Political Tragedy in 6 Acts" by John Keane, published 2000, page 54
^ "East European Constitutional Review". Archived from the original on 15 May 2013. Retrieved 8 April 2020.
^ "The Story of Greeks in Czechia". Radio Prague International. 17 December 2020. Retrieved 24 October 2022.
^ a b Mares, Vaclav (June 1954). "Czechoslovakia under Communism". Current History. 26 (154): 347–354. doi:10.1525/curh.1954.26.154.347. S2CID 249083197.
^ Chris Harman, A People's History of the World, 1999, p 625
^ "N. Korea Seize U.S. Ship - 1968 Year in Review - Audio - UPI.com". UPI. Archived from the original on 31 August 2011. Retrieved 8 April 2020.
^ John Lewis Gaddis, The Cold War: A New History (New York: The Penguin Press), 150.
^ Philip Windsor and Adam Roberts, Czechoslovakia 1968: Reform, Repression and Resistance (London: Chatto & Windus, 1969), pp. 97–143.
^ Ladislav Cabada and Sarka Waisova, Czechoslovakia and the Czech Republic in World Politics (Lexington Books; 2012)
"The First Czechoslovak Republic". The official website of the Czech Republic. Archived from the original on 4 March 2007.
Heimann, Mary. Czechoslovakia: The State That Failed (2009).
Hermann, A. H. A History of the Czechs (1975).
Kalvoda, Josef. The Genesis of Czechoslovakia (1986).
Leff, Carol Skalnick. National Conflict in Czechoslovakia: The Making and Remaking of a State, 1918–87 (1988).
Mantey, Victor. A History of the Czechoslovak Republic (1973).
Myant, Martin. The Czechoslovak Economy, 1948–88 (1989).
Naimark, Norman, and Leonid Gibianskii, eds. The Establishment of Communist Regimes in Eastern Europe, 1944–1949 (1997) online edition
Orzoff, Andrea. Battle for the Castle: The Myth of Czechoslovakia in Europe 1914–1948 (Oxford University Press, 2009); online review doi:10.1093/acprof:oso/9780195367812.001.0001 online
Paul, David. Czechoslovakia: Profile of a Socialist Republic at the Crossroads of Europe (1990).
Renner, Hans. A History of Czechoslovakia since 1945 (1989).
Seton-Watson, R. W. A History of the Czechs and Slovaks (1943).
Stone, Norman, and E. Strouhal, eds.Czechoslovakia: Crossroads and Crises, 1918–88 (1989).
Wheaton, Bernard; Zdenek Kavav. "The Velvet Revolution: Czechoslovakia, 1988–1991" (1992).
Williams, Kieran, "Civil Resistance in Czechoslovakia: From Soviet Invasion to "Velvet Revolution", 1968–89",
in Adam Roberts and Timothy Garton Ash (eds.), Civil Resistance and Power Politics: The Experience of Non-violent Action from Gandhi to the Present (Oxford University Press, 2009).
Windsor, Philip, and Adam Roberts, Czechoslovakia 1968: Reform, Repression and Resistance (1969).
Wolchik, Sharon L. Czechoslovakia: Politics, Society, and Economics (1990).
Online books and articles
U.S. Library of Congress Country Studies, "Czechoslovakia"
English/Czech: Orders and Medals of Czechoslovakia including Order of the White Lion
Czechoslovakia by Encyclopædia Britannica
Katrin Boeckh: Crumbling of Empires and Emerging States: Czechoslovakia and Yugoslavia as (Multi)national Countries, in: 1914-1918-online. International Encyclopedia of the First World War.
Maps with Hungarian-language rubrics:
Border changes after the creation of Czechoslovakia
Interwar Czechoslovakia
Czechoslovakia after Munich Agreement
Czechoslovakia articles
Kingdom of Bohemia
Habsburg monarchy
Second Czechoslovak Republic
Occupation of Czechoslovakia (1938–1945)
Third Czechoslovak Republic
Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia
Czech and Slovak Federative Republic
People's Army
Cold War border fortifications
Germans in Czechoslovakia (1918–1938)
Dissolution of Austria-Hungary
Treaty of Versailles
Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (for Austria)
Treaty of Trianon (for Hungary)
Paris Peace Conference
1920 Carinthian plebiscite
1921 Sopron plebiscite
Demarcation lines
Armistice of Villa Giusti
Armistice of Belgrade
Hodža-Bartha demarcation line
Berthelot-Apáthy agreement
Vix Note
Clemenceau Note
Successor states
State of Slovenes, Croats and Serbs
Italian Regency of Carnaro
Republic of German-Austria
German Bohemia
Bohemian Forest Region
German South Moravia
First Austrian Republic
First Hungarian Republic
Hungarian Soviet Republic
Short-lived
Republic of Zakopane
Banat, Bačka and Baranja
Banat Republic
Serbian-Hungarian Baranya-Baja Republic
Komancza Republic
Republic of Tarnobrzeg
Lemko Republic
Republic of Heinzenland
Zipser Republic
Slovak People's Republic
Hutsul Republic
Republic of Prekmurje
Slovak Soviet Republic
Galician Soviet Socialist Republic (Russian Civil War spill over)
Galicia to Poland
Bukovina and Transylvania to Romania
South Tyrol and Austrian Littoral to Italy
Chinese possessions to China
Post World War I
Aster Revolution
Polish–Ukrainian War
Austro-Slovene conflict in Carinthia
Polish–Czechoslovak War
Hungarian–Romanian War
Hungarian–Czechoslovak War
Romanian occupation of Pokuttia
Silesian Uprisings
Uprising in West Hungary
Battle of Budaörs
Committee of Ministers
Court of Human Rights
Commissioner for Human Rights
Commission for the Efficiency of Justice
Commission against Racism and Intolerance
Venice Commission
Pompidou Group
EU relations
Czechoslovakia (1991–1992)
Russia (1996–2022)
Saar (assoc. 1950–1956)
Serbia and Montenegro (2003–2006)
Historical Dictionary of Switzerland
Internet Encyclopedia of Ukraine
source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Czechoslovakia

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


text:
For other uses, see Annie Oakley (disambiguation).
Oakley in the 1880s
Phoebe Ann Mosey
(1860-08-13)August 13, 1860
Darke County, Ohio, U.S.
November 3, 1926(1926-11-03) (aged 66)
Greenville, Ohio, U.S.
Ashes buried in Brock Cemetery
Frank E. Butler (m. 1876–1926)
Parent(s)
Susan Wise Mosey (1830–1908), Jacob Mosey (1799–1866)
Annie Oakley (born Phoebe Ann Mosey; August 13, 1860 – November 3, 1926) was an American sharpshooter and exhibition shooter. Her talent first came to light when at age 15 she won a shooting match against traveling-show marksman Frank E. Butler, whom she later married.[1] The couple joined Buffalo Bill's Wild West show a few years later. Oakley became a renowned international star, performing before royalty and heads of state.
Oakley also was variously known as "Miss Annie Oakley", "Little Sure Shot", "Little Miss Sure Shot", "Watanya Cicilla", "Phoebe Anne Oakley", "Mrs. Annie Oakley", "Mrs. Annie Butler", and "Mrs. Frank Butler". Her death certificate gives her name as "Annie Oakley Butler".[2]
2 Debut and marriage
3 Career and touring
4 The Little Sure Shot of the Wild West (Annie Oakley)
5 Shooting prowess
6 Libel cases
7 Later years and death
8 Surname
9 Eponym
10 Representations in arts, entertainment, and media
11 Influence
Early life[edit]
Annie Oakley was born Phoebe Ann (Annie) Mosey[3][4][5] on August 13, 1860, in a log cabin less than two miles (3.2 km) northwest of Woodland, now Willowdell, in Darke County, Ohio, a rural county along the state's border with Indiana.[6] Her birthplace is about five miles east of North Star. There is a stone-mounted plaque in the vicinity of the site, which was placed by the Annie Oakley Committee in 1981, 121 years after her birth.
Annie's parents were Quakers of English descent from Hollidaysburg, Blair County, Pennsylvania: Susan Wise, age 18,[7][8] and Jacob Mosey, born 1799, age 49, married in 1848. They moved to a rented farm (later purchased with a mortgage) in Patterson Township, Darke County, Ohio, sometime around 1855.
Born in 1860, Annie was the sixth of Jacob and Susan's nine children, and the fifth of the seven surviving.[9] Her siblings were Mary Jane (1851–1867), Lydia (1852–1882), Elizabeth (1855–1881), Sarah Ellen (1857–1939), Catherine (1859–1859), John (1861–1949), Hulda (1864–1934) and a stillborn infant brother in 1865. Annie's father, who had fought in the War of 1812, became an invalid from hypothermia during a blizzard in late 1865 and died of pneumonia in early 1866 at age 66.[10] Her mother later married Daniel Brumbaugh, had one more child, Emily (1868–1937), and was widowed for a second time.
Because of poverty following the death of her father, Annie did not regularly attend school as a child, although she did attend later in childhood and in adulthood.[11] On March 15, 1870, at age nine, she was admitted to the Darke County Infirmary along with her sister Sarah Ellen. According to her autobiography, she was put in the care of the infirmary's superintendent, Samuel Crawford Edington, and his wife Nancy, who taught her to sew and decorate. Beginning in the spring of 1870, she was "bound out" to a local family to help care for their infant son, on the false promise of fifty cents a week and an education. The couple had originally wanted someone who could pump water, cook, and who was bigger. She spent about two years in near slavery to them, enduring mental and physical abuse. One time, the wife put Annie out in the freezing cold without shoes, as a punishment because she had fallen asleep over some darning.[12] Annie referred to them as "the wolves". Even in her autobiography, she never revealed the couple's real names.[13]
According to biographer Glenda Riley, "the wolves" could have been the Studabaker family,[14] but the 1870 U.S. Census suggests they were the Abram Boose family of neighboring Preble County.[15][16] Around the spring of 1872, Annie ran away from "the wolves". According to biographer Shirl Kasper, it was only at this point that Annie met and lived with the Edingtons, returning to her mother's home around the age of 15.[17] Annie's mother married a third time, to Joseph Shaw, on October 25, 1874.[citation needed]
Annie began trapping before the age of seven, and shooting and hunting by age eight, to support her siblings and her widowed mother. She sold the hunted game to locals in Greenville, such as shopkeepers Charles and G. Anthony Katzenberger, who shipped it to hotels in Cincinnati and other cities.[18] She also sold the game to restaurants and hotels in northern Ohio. Her skill paid off the mortgage on her mother's farm when Annie was 15.[19]
Debut and marriage[edit]
The Amateur Circus at Nutley (1894) by American illustrator Peter Newell. The scene depicted in the center is of Annie Oakley, standing on horseback, demonstrating her shooting ability.
Annie soon became well known throughout the region. On Thanksgiving Day 1875,[20] the Baughman & Butler shooting act was being performed in Cincinnati. Traveling show marksman and former dog trainer Frank E. Butler (1847–1926), an Irish immigrant, placed a $100 bet per side (equivalent to $2,282 in 2018) with Cincinnati hotel owner Jack Frost that Butler could beat any local fancy shooter.[21] The hotelier arranged a shooting match between Butler and the 15-year-old Annie, saying, "The last opponent Butler expected was a five-foot-tall 15-year-old girl named Annie."[20] After missing on his 25th shot, Butler lost the match and the bet. Another account says that Butler hit on his last shot, but the bird fell dead about two feet beyond the boundary line.[22] He soon began courting Annie and they married. They did not have children.[20]
According to a modern-day account in The Cincinnati Enquirer, it is possible that the shooting match may have taken place in 1881 and not 1875.[22] It appears the time of the event was never recorded. Biographer Shirl Kasper states the shooting match took place in the spring of 1881 near Greenville, possibly in North Star as mentioned by Butler during interviews in 1903 and 1924. Other sources seem to coincide with the North Fairmount location near Cincinnati if the event occurred in 1881.[22] The Annie Oakley Center Foundation mentions Oakley visiting her married sister Lydia Stein at her home near Cincinnati in 1875.[23] That information is incorrect as Lydia didn't marry Joseph C. Stein until March 19, 1877.[24] Although speculation, it is most likely that Oakley and her mother visited Lydia in 1881 as she was seriously ill from tuberculosis.[25] The Bevis House hotel was still being operated by Martin Bevis and W. H. Ridenour in 1875. It opened around 1860 after the building was previously used as a pork packaging facility. Jack Frost didn't obtain management of the hotel until 1879.[22][26] The Baughman & Butler shooting act first appeared on the pages of The Cincinnati Enquirer in 1880. They signed with Sells Brothers Circus in 1881 and made an appearance at the Coliseum Opera House later that year.[22]
Regardless of the actual date of the shooting match, Oakley and Butler were married a year afterward. A certificate on file with the Archives of Ontario, Registration Number 49594, reports that Butler and Oakley were wed on June 20, 1882, in Windsor, Ontario.[27] Many sources say the marriage took place on August 23, 1876, in Cincinnati,[23] but no recorded certificate validates that date. A possible reason for the contradictory dates is that Butler's divorce from his first wife, Henrietta Saunders, was not yet final in 1876. An 1880 U.S. Federal Census record shows Saunders as married.[28] Sources mentioning Butler's first wife as Elizabeth are inaccurate; Elizabeth was his granddaughter, her father being Edward F. Butler.[29] Throughout Oakley's show-business career, the public was often led to believe that she was five to six years younger than she was. The later marriage date would have better supported her fictional age.[23]
Career and touring[edit]
"Aim at the high mark and you will hit it. No, not the first time, not the second time and maybe not the third. But keep on aiming and keep on shooting for only practice will make you perfect. Finally you'll hit the bull's-eye of success."
Annie Oakley exhibit at the National Cowgirl Museum and Hall of Fame in Fort Worth, Texas
Annie and Frank Butler lived in Cincinnati for a time. Oakley, the stage name she adopted when she and Frank began performing together,[5][30][31] is believed to have been taken from the city's neighborhood of Oakley, where they resided. Some people believe she took on the name because that was the name of the man who had paid her train fare when she was a child.[23]
Oakley c. 1899
They joined Buffalo Bill's Wild West in 1885. At five feet tall, Oakley was given the nickname of "Watanya Cicilla" by fellow performer Sitting Bull, rendered "Little Sure Shot" in the public advertisements.
During her first engagement with the Buffalo Bill show, Oakley experienced a tense professional rivalry with rifle sharpshooter Lillian Smith. Smith was eleven years younger than Oakley, age 15 at the time she joined the show in 1886, which may have been a primary reason for Oakley to alter her actual age in later years due to Smith's press coverage becoming as favorable as hers.[32] Oakley temporarily left the Buffalo Bill show but returned two years later, after Smith departed, in time for the Paris Exposition of 1889.[33] This three-year tour only cemented Oakley as America's first female star. She earned more than any other performer in the show, except for "Buffalo Bill" Cody himself. She also performed in many shows on the side for extra income.[33]
In Europe, she performed for Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom, King Umberto I of Italy, President Marie François Sadi Carnot of France and other crowned heads of state. Oakley supposedly shot the ashes off a cigarette held by the newly crowned German Kaiser Wilhelm II at his request.[34]
Buffalo Bill's Wild West poster
From 1892 to 1904, Oakley and Butler made their home in Nutley, New Jersey.[35]
Oakley promoted the service of women in combat operations for the United States armed forces. She wrote a letter to President William McKinley on April 5, 1898, "offering the government the services of a company of 50 'lady sharpshooters' who would provide their own arms and ammunition should the U.S. go to war with Spain."[36]
The Spanish–American War did occur, but Oakley's offer was not accepted. Theodore Roosevelt, did, however, name his volunteer cavalry the "Rough Riders" after the "Buffalo Bill's Wild West and Congress of Rough Riders of the World" where Oakley was a major star.
The same year that McKinley was fatally shot by an assassin, 1901, Oakley was also badly injured in a train accident, but recovered after temporary paralysis and five spinal operations. She left the Buffalo Bill show and in 1902 began a less taxing acting career in a stage play written especially for her, The Western Girl. Oakley played the role of Nancy Berry who used a pistol, a rifle and rope to outsmart a group of outlaws.[7]
Throughout her career, it is believed that Oakley taught more than 15,000 women how to use a gun. Oakley believed strongly that it was crucial for women to learn how to use a gun, as not only a form of physical and mental exercise, but also to defend themselves.[8] She said: "I would like to see every woman know how to handle guns as naturally as they know how to handle babies."
The Little Sure Shot of the Wild West (Annie Oakley)[edit]
Annie Oakley, 1894, an "exhibition of rifle shooting at glass balls, etc.", in an Edison Kinetoscope movie
Buffalo Bill was friends with Thomas Edison, and Edison built the world's largest electrical power plant at the time for the Wild West Show.[37] Buffalo Bill and 15 of his show Indians appeared in two Kinetoscopes filmed September 24, 1894.[38]
In 1894, Oakley and Butler performed in Edison's Kinetoscope film The "Little Sure Shot of the Wild West," an exhibition of rifle shooting at glass balls, etc.[39] which was filmed November 1, 1894 in Edison's Black Maria studio by William Heise.[40][41] It was the eleventh film made after commercial showings began on April 14, 1894.[42]
Shooting prowess[edit]
Annie Oakley shooting over her shoulder using a hand mirror.
Biographers, such as Shirl Kasper, repeat Oakley's own story about her very first shot at the age of eight. "I saw a squirrel run down over the grass in front of the house, through the orchard and stop on a fence to get a hickory nut." Taking a rifle from the house, she fired at the squirrel, writing later that, "It was a wonderful shot, going right through the head from side to side".[43]
The Encyclopædia Britannica notes that:
Oakley never failed to delight her audiences, and her feats of marksmanship were truly incredible. At 30 paces she could split a playing card held edge-on, she hit dimes tossed into the air, she shot cigarettes from her husband's lips, and, a playing card being thrown into the air, she riddled it before it touched the ground.[44]
R. A. Koestler-Grack reports that, on March 19, 1884, she was being watched by Chief Sitting Bull when:
Oakley playfully skipped on stage, lifted her rifle, and aimed the barrel at a burning candle. In one shot, she snuffed out the flame with a whizzing bullet. Sitting Bull watched her knock corks off of bottles and slice through a cigar Butler held in his teeth.[45]
Libel cases[edit]
In 1904, sensational cocaine prohibition stories were selling well. Newspaper magnate William Randolph Hearst published a false story that Oakley had been arrested for stealing to support a cocaine habit. The woman actually arrested was a burlesque performer who told Chicago police that her name was Annie Oakley.
Most of the newspapers that printed the story had relied on the Hearst article, and they immediately retracted it with apologies upon learning of the libelous error. Hearst, however, tried to avoid paying the anticipated court judgments of $20,000 (equivalent to $557,704 in 2017) by sending an investigator to Darke County, Ohio with the intent of collecting reputation-smearing gossip from Oakley's past. The investigator found nothing.[46]
Oakley spent much of the next six years winning all but one of her 55 libel lawsuits against newspapers. She collected less in judgments than the total of her legal expenses.[46]
Later years and death[edit]
Oakley in 1922
In 1912, the Butlers built a brick ranch-style house in Cambridge, Maryland. It is known as the Annie Oakley House and was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1996. In 1917, they moved to North Carolina and returned to public life.
She continued to set records into her sixties, and also engaged in extensive philanthropy for women's rights and other causes, including the support of young women she knew. She embarked on a comeback and intended to star in a feature-length silent movie. She hit 100 clay targets in a row from 16 yards (15 m) at age 62 in a 1922 shooting contest in Pinehurst, North Carolina.[47]
In late 1922, the couple were in a car accident that forced her to wear a steel brace on her right leg. She eventually performed again after more than a year of recovery, and she set records in 1924.[37]
Her health declined in 1925 and she died of pernicious anemia in Greenville, Ohio at the age of 66 on November 3, 1926.[48][49] Her body was cremated in Cincinnati two days later and the ashes buried at Brock Cemetery, near Greenville.[22][50][33]
Butler was so grieved by her death, according to B. Haugen, that he stopped eating and died 18 days later in Michigan, and his body was buried next to Oakley's ashes.[51][52] Kasper reports that the death certificate said that Butler died of "senility". One rumor claims that Oakley's ashes were placed in one of her prized trophies and laid next to Butler's body in his coffin prior to burial.[53] Both body and ashes were interred in the cemetery on Thanksgiving Day, November 25, 1926.[54]
After her death, her incomplete autobiography was given to stage comedian Fred Stone,[55] and it was discovered that her entire fortune had been spent on her family and her charities.[56]
A vast collection of Oakley's personal possessions, performance memorabilia, and firearms are on permanent exhibit in the Garst Museum and the National Annie Oakley Center in Greenville, Ohio.[57] She has been inducted into the Trapshooting Hall of Fame, the National Cowgirl Museum and Hall of Fame in Fort Worth, Texas, the National Women's Hall of Fame, the Ohio Women's Hall of Fame, and the New Jersey Hall of Fame.
Surname[edit]
There are a number of variations given for Oakley's family name, Mosey. Many biographers and other references give the name as "Moses".[58] Although the 1860 U.S. Census shows the family name as "Mauzy", this is considered an error introduced by the census taker.[59][60] Oakley's name appears as "Ann Mosey" in the 1870 U.S. Census[15][16] and "Mosey" is engraved on her father's headstone and appears in his military record; "Mosey" is the official spelling by the Annie Oakley Foundation, maintained by her living relatives.[3][5][61] The spelling "Mosie" has also appeared.
According to Kasper, Oakley insisted that her family name be spelled "Mozee", leading to arguments with her brother John. Kasper speculates that Oakley may have considered "Mozee" to be a more phonetic spelling. There is also popular speculation that young Oakley had been teased about her name by other children.[60]
Prior to their double wedding in March 1884, both Oakley's brother John and one of her sisters, Hulda, changed their surnames to "Moses".[3][61]
Eponym[edit]
During her lifetime, the theatre business began referring to complimentary tickets as "Annie Oakleys". Such tickets traditionally have holes punched into them (to prevent them from being resold), reminiscent of the playing cards Oakley shot through during her sharpshooting act.[citation needed]
Representations in arts, entertainment, and media[edit]
This article appears to contain trivial, minor, or unrelated references to popular culture. Please reorganize this content to explain the subject's impact on popular culture, using references to reliable sources, rather than simply listing appearances. Unsourced material may be challenged and removed. (October 2018)
Barbara Stanwyck played Oakley in a fictionalized film called Annie Oakley (1935).[62]
The Irving Berlin Broadway musical Annie Get Your Gun (1946) is loosely based on her life.[63] The original stage production starred Ethel Merman, who also starred in the 1966 revival.
A 1950 film version of the musical starred Betty Hutton and Howard Keel.[64]
Several years after headlining the 1948 national tour, Broadway legend Mary Martin returned to the role for a 1957 NBC television special that also featured John Raitt as Frank Butler.[65]
Gail Davis played Oakley in the television series Annie Oakley (1954 to 1956).[66]
Geraldine Chaplin portrayed Oakley in Buffalo Bill and the Indians, or Sitting Bull's History Lesson (1976).
The Secret Annie Oakley (1983), by Marcy Heidish, established that Oakley's husband Frank Butler was not an envious competitor, as portrayed in the Broadway musical, but was her greatest support from the day they met.[67]
Jamie Lee Curtis portrayed Oakley in Tall Tales & Legends (1985).[68]
Reba McEntire portrayed Oakley in Buffalo Girls (1996), alongside Anjelica Huston, Melanie Griffith, and Tom Wopat.[69]
Elizabeth Berridge played Oakley in the Touchstone Pictures film Hidalgo (2004).[70]
Sarah Strange played Oakley in the episode "Mild Mild West" (2009) of the Canadian crime drama television show, Murdoch Mysteries.[71]
One of the main characters of the videogame Wild Guns (2010) is based on Oakley, including costume and attire.[72]
Alyssa Edwards portrayed Oakley during the "HERstory of the World" (2016) episode of RuPaul's Drag Race All Stars.[73]
Influence[edit]
Oakley's worldwide stardom as a sharpshooter enabled her to earn more money than most of the other performers in the Buffalo Bill show.[33] She did not forget her roots after gaining financial and economic power. She and Butler together often donated to charitable organizations for orphans.[33] Beyond her monetary influence, she proved to be a great influence on women.
Oakley urged that women serve in war, though President McKinley rejected her offer of woman sharpshooters for service in the Spanish–American War.[36] Beyond this offer to the president, Oakley believed that women should learn to use a gun for the empowering image that it gave.[74] Laura Browder discusses how Oakley's stardom gave hope to women and youth in Her Best Shot: Women and Guns In America. Oakley pressed for women to be independent and educated.[74] She was a key influence in the creation of the image of the American cowgirl. Through this image, she provided substantial evidence that women are as capable as men when offered the opportunity to prove themselves.[75]
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Annie Oakley.
Belle Starr
Lillian Smith
Women in the military
^ Krohn, Katherine E. (2005). Wild West Women (book). Lerner Publications. p. 55. ISBN 9780822526469. "Sitting Bull was deeply moved by Annie's talent. He thought her ability with a gun was amazing." Wills, Charles M. (2007). Annie Oakley: A Photographic Story of a Life (book). DK Children. p. 71. ISBN 9780756629861.
^ "Person Details for Annie Oakley Butler". FamilySearch.org.
^ a b c "We Hope "Mosey" Ends the Debate" (PDF). Taking Aim Newsletter. annieoakleyfoundation.org. Summer 2003. Archived from the original (PDF) on August 12, 2014. Retrieved August 9, 2014.
^ Edwards, Bess. "Annie Oakley's Life and Career". annieoakleyfoundation.org. Archived from the original on March 14, 2008.
^ a b c "Archived copy". Archived from the original on October 15, 2002. Retrieved January 11, 2008. CS1 maint: Archived copy as title (link)
^ "Tall Tales and the Truth". Annie Oakley Foundation. Archived from the original on October 15, 2002.
^ a b Wukovits, John (May 1997). Annie Oakley. Legends of the West. Chelsea House. ISBN 978-0791039069.
^ a b Wills, Chuck (2007). Annie Oakley. London: Dorling Kindersley. ISBN 978-0-7566-2997-7.
^ "Timeline: The Life of Annie Oakley". American Experience. Public Broadcasting Service. Archived from the original on May 2, 2015. Retrieved June 15, 2015. August 13, 1860: Annie Oakley is born Phoebe Ann Moses, on the family farm in Darke County, Ohio, fifth ...
^ Riley, Glenda (1994). The Life and Legacy of Annie Oakley. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 5. ISBN 9780806126562.
^ Kasper, Shirl (1992). Annie Oakley. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 6, 20. ISBN 978-0-8061-2418-6.
^ Freifeld, Riva (director and producer) (2006). The American Experience: Annie Oakley. Boston, MA: WGBH.
^ Whiting, Jim. What's so great about Annie Oakley. Mitchell Lane Publishers. Delaware, 2007.
^ Riley, Glenda (1994). The Life and Legacy of Annie Oakley. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 7.
^ a b Billene Statler Nicol, ed. (2010). "AnnieMoseyCensus1870Enlarged". Archived from the original (JPG) on August 11, 2014. Retrieved August 9, 2014.
^ a b "TH-266-11929-69872-17". U.S. Census, Harrison Township, Preble County, Ohio. FamilySearch. 1870. p. 54.
^ Kasper, Shirl (1992). Annie Oakley. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 6, 7. ISBN 0-8061-2418-0.
^ Riley, Glenda (1994). The Life and Legacy of Annie Oakley. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 11.
^ "Annie Oakley". Dorchester County Public Library, Cambridge, MD.
^ a b c "Biography: Frank Butler". pbs.org. Retrieved April 24, 2018.
^ Longford Genealogy, Retrieved October 8, 2014.
^ a b c d e f Suess, Jeff (July 20, 2014). "Did Annie Oakley shooting contest happen in Cincinnati?". The Cincinnati Enquirer. Retrieved April 24, 2018.
^ a b c d Annie Oakley Center Foundation, Retrieved October 2, 2014.
^ FamilySearch, Retrieved October 2, 2014. Archived March 7, 2016, at the Wayback Machine
^ Geni, Retrieved April 24, 2018.
^ Cincinnati: A Guide to the Queen City and its Neighbors. State of Ohio Works Progress Administration. May 1943. p. 209.
^ Archives of Ontario via Ancestry.com (Ontario, Canada, Marriages 1801-1928), Retrieved on October 1, 2014.
^ Ancestry.com, 1880 U.S. Federal Census, Retrieved October 7, 2014.
^ "Annie Oakley". American Experience. Archived from the original on April 6, 2009. Retrieved April 7, 2009. Narrator: Butler was Annie's ticket out of Greenville. They soon married. For the next six years, while Butler and his new shooting partner John Graham performed on the variety circuit, Annie stayed in the background. That was about to change [when] Butler and Graham were playing a theater in Springfield, Ohio, when John Graham suddenly fell ill. Annie filled in, holding the targets. That night Frank kept missing – until a jeering spectator shouted, "Let the girl shoot!" Frank obliged. Annie hit the targets every time – much to the delight of the raucous crowd. Mrs. Butler took a stage name, borrowed from her paternal grandmother – Annie Oakley.
^ "Tall Tales and the Truth: Born Phoebe Anne Oakley Mozee?". web.archive.org. Archived from the original on October 15, 2002. (the answer is no: "Her mother, Susan, named her Phoebe Ann…"; her father Jacob is surnamed "Mosey" in the National Archives War of 1812 military records; "In the 1870 Census, Annie is listed as Ann Mosey" – but, several other surname spellings appeared later. "The professional name Oakley was assumed in 1882, when Annie began to perform with Frank Butler; …")
^ Bricklin, Julia (November 25, 2014). "Lillian Smith: The On-Target 'California Girl'". Wild West. Retrieved April 24, 2018.
^ a b c d e "WGBH American Experience . Annie Oakley - PBS".
^ "Tall Tales and the Truth: Did she shoot the Kaiser's cigarette?". Annie Oakley Foundation at web.archive.org. Archived from the original on October 15, 2002.
^ Beglin, Julie (February 23, 1997). "In Nutley, Mementos of a Very Straight Shooter". The New York Times. Retrieved April 24, 2018.
^ a b The National Archives and Records Administration (NARA). Letter to President William McKinley from Annie Oakley. Retrieved January 24, 2008.
^ a b "Annie Oakley". dorchesterlibrary.org Dorchester County Public Library.
^ "Buffalo dance / Thomas A. Edison, Inc. ; producer, W.K.L. Dickson". Library of Congress Motion Picture, Broadcasting and Recorded Sound Division. May 13, 1994. Retrieved October 15, 2009.
^ As titled and described by Raff & Gammon, Price list of films, ca. June 1895, p. 1 [MI].
^ It lasted 21 seconds at 30 frames and 39 feet.
^ DIGITAL ID edmp 4030 http://hdl.loc.gov/loc.mbrsmi/edmp.4030 Library of Congress Motion Picture, Broadcasting and Recorded Sound Division Washington, D. C. 20540 USA.
^ Chronological Title List of Edison Motion Pictures - Library of Congress Motion Picture, Broadcasting and Recorded Sound Division Washington, D. C. 20540 USA
^ Kasper, Shirl (1992). Annie Oakley. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 4. ISBN 0-8061-2418-0.
^ Encyclopædia Britannica, article on Annie Oakley.
^ Koestler-Grack, RA., Annie Oakley, Facts On File, Incorporated, Infobase Publishing, 2010, pp. 28–29.
^ a b "Annie Oakley (1860-1926)". pbs.org. February 14, 2006.
^ "Annie Oakley". lkwdpl.org Women in History. Archived from the original on July 13, 2012.
^ "Champion Rifle Shot. Chipped Ash From Wilhelm's Cigarette. Bullets Lifted Home Mortgage". The New York Times. November 14, 1926. Retrieved April 8, 2009.
^ "Little Sureshot". Time magazine. November 15, 1966. Retrieved April 8, 2009. As it must to all men, Death came to Mrs. Annie Oakley. Butler, 66, most marked markswoman in history, at Greenville, Ohio, after long illness.
^ "Famous Ohio Gravesites". ohiotraveler.com. Retrieved May 22, 2013.
^ Kasper, Shirl (1992). Annie Oakley. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 243–244. ISBN 0-8061-2418-0.
^ Haugen, B., Annie Oakley: American Sharpshooter, Capstone, 2006, p. 88.
^ Roadside America.com, Retrieved October 1, 2014.
^ Brenda Haugen, Annie Oakley: American Sharpshooter, page 89, Retrieved October 1, 2014.
^ "United States". Time magazine. December 6, 1926. Retrieved April 8, 2009. From Greenville, Ohio, I received a heavy brown pasteboard box, which I carried to the stage of the Globe Theatre, Manhattan, and opened in the presence of a notary public. It contained several scrapbooks, with clippings, photographs, letters and a typed autobiography up to 1890 of my late friend, Annie Oakley Butler, ablest markswoman in history, who died last month. There was no letter of explanation but it seemed apparent that Annie Oakley, with whom I played in a circus some 20 years ago, wished me to be her Boswell.
^ Glenda Riley, The Life and Legacy of Annie Oakley, page 196, Retrieved October 2, 2014.
^ "Garst Museum - Home of the Annie Oakley Center".
^ "Frequently Asked Questions about Annie Oakley". Annie Oakley Center Foundation. Retrieved August 9, 2014.
^ Billene Statler Nicol, ed. (2010). "Mosey1860Census". Archived from the original (JPG) on July 31, 2014. Retrieved July 31, 2014.
^ a b Kasper, Shirl (1992). Annie Oakley. University of Oklahoma Press. p. 23. ISBN 0-8061-2418-0.
^ a b "Tall Tales and the Truth: Born Phoebe Anne Oakley Mozee?". web.archive.org. Archived from the original on October 15, 2002. (the answer is "no": "Her mother, Susan, named her Phoebe Ann…"; her father Jacob is surnamed "Mosey" in the National Archives War of 1812 military records; "In the 1870 Census, Annie is listed as Ann Mosey" – but, several other surname spellings appeared later. "The professional name Oakley was assumed in 1882, when Annie began to perform with Frank Butler; it was not a family name.")
^ Annie Oakley. IMDb. 1935.
^ Bloom, Ken and Vlastnik, Frank (2004). Broadway Musicals: The 101 Greatest Shows of all Time. New York: Black Dog & Leventhal Publishers, p. 13. ISBN 1-57912-390-2
^ Annie Get Your Gun. IMDb. 1950.
^ Annie Oakley (TV Series 1954–1957). IMDb.
^ Dillin, Gay Andrews (August 3, 1983). "Annie Oakley tale outshines other new novels; The Secret Annie Oakley, by Marcy Heidish". Christian Science Monitor. New York: New American Library. 233 pp. $14.95.
^ ""Tall Tales & Legends" Annie Oakley (TV Episode 1985)". IMDb.
^ "Buffalo Girls (TV Mini-Series)". IMDb.
^ "Hidalgo (2004)". IMDb.
^ ""Murdoch Mysteries" Mild Mild West (TV Episode 2009)". IMDb.
^ Hernandez, Pedro (December 16, 2010). "A Cowboy Walks Into a Tent - Recommendations". Nintendo World Report. Retrieved April 22, 2018.
^ Sava, Oliver (September 8, 2016). "Drag Race All Stars reaches its full potential when the queens get personal". TV Club. Retrieved April 22, 2018.
^ a b Isenberg, Nancy (February 2008). "Review: Her Best Shot: Women and Guns in America by Laura Browder". The Journal of Southern History. Southern Historical Association. 74 (1): 175–176. JSTOR 27650088.
^ "Doctoral Dissertations in American Studies, 1996–1997". American Quarterly. Johns Hopkins University Press. 50 (2): 447–469. June 1998. doi:10.1353/aq.1998.0019. JSTOR 30041628.
Works by or about Annie Oakley at Internet Archive
Annie Oakley - Biography by Dorchester County Public Library, Cambridge, MD
Annie Oakley Center Foundation frequently asked questions about Annie Oakley
American Experience | Annie Oakley | People & Events | PBS
"Little Miss Sure Shot" – The Saga of Annie Oakley
Scanned 1898 letter from Anne Oakley to President McKinley advocating the use of women in military combat (from the National Archives and Records Administration)
"Animated GIF files of Annie Oakley performing". Archived from the original on October 15, 2002. Retrieved April 18, 2017.
Cansler, Sarah (June 2014). "Annie Oakley, Gender, and Guns: The "Champion Rifle Shot" and Gender Performance, 1860-1926". 5 (1). University of Tennessee.
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Battle of the Little Bighorn
Battle of San Jacinto
Battle of Washita River
Bear Flag Revolt
First Battle of Adobe Walls
Indian Wars
Mexican War
Sand Creek massacre
Wounded Knee Massacre
Range wars
and feuds
Earp-Clanton feud
Johnson County War
Lincoln County War
Mason County War
Pleasant Valley War
Sheep Wars
Sutton–Taylor feud
Arizona Rangers
Timeline of the American Old West
Western genre
Arizona Territory
Canyon Diablo
Fort Grant
Dakota Territory
Florida Territory
Negro Fort
Prospect Bluff
St. Marks
Idaho Territory
Fort Boise
Fort Dearborn
Montana Territory
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Fort Peck
Fort Robinson
Nebraska City
New Mexico Territory
Fort Sumner
Mesilla
Oklahoma Territory
and Indian Territory
Fort Sill
Oregon Territory
Utah Territory
Washington Territory
Wyoming Territory
Fort Bridger
Ohio Women's Hall of Fame
Florence Allen
Helen Chatfield Black
Frances Bolton
Elizabeth Boyer
Harriet Bracken
Martha Kinney Cooper
Gertrude Donahey
Jane Edna Hunter
Consolata Kline
Virginia Kunkle
Margaret Mahoney
Helen Grace McClelland
Agnes Merritt
Rose Papier
Lottie Randolph
Ella P. Stewart
Marigene Valiquette
Ann B. Walker
Stella Walsh
Marion Wells
Mary Jobe Akeley
Mary Ann Bickerdyke
Beatrice Cleveland
Charity Edna Earley
Eleanor Jammal
Bernice Kochan
Emily Leedy
Ruth Lyons
Emma Phaler
Rachel Redinger
Bobbie Sterne
Ethel Swanbeck
Clara Weisenborn
Marjorie Whiteman
Grace Berlin
Patricia M. Byrne
Ruth Crawford
Louisa Fast
Dorothy Fuldheim
Esther Greisheimer
Edith Keller
Tella Kitchen
Blanche Krupansky
Hattie Larlham
Mary Louise Nemeth
Doris Weber
Mildred Bayer
Tina Bischoff Lovin
Dorothy Cornelius
Eusebia Hunkins
Jean Starr Untermeyer
Harriet Taylor Upton
A. Margaret Boyd
Ann Eriksson
Bernice Foley
Zelma Watson George
Grace Goulder Izant
Phyllis Sewell
Jayne Spain
Helen Zelkowitz
Harriet J. Anderson
Ione Biggs
Eula Bingham
Mary O. Boyle
Mariwyn Heath
Josephine Irwin
Barbara Janis
Minnie Player
Freda Winning
Mary E. Miller Young
Sally Cooper
Sarah E. Harris
Cindy Noble Hauserman
Marcy Kaptur
Mary Rose Oakar
Catherine Pinkerton
Willa Player
Judith Resnik
Helen Hooven Santmyer
Marian Trimble
Joyce Wollenberg
Lois Anna Barr Cook
Mercedes Cotner
Zell Draz
Barbara Easterling
Nikki Giovanni
Aurora Gonzalez
Mary Lazarus
Barbara Mandel
Norma Marcere
Helen Mulholland
Lauretta Schimmoler
Marge Schott
Mary Jen Steinbrenner
Margaret Andrew
Kathleen Barber
Fay Biles
Marie Clarke
Eva Mae Crosby
Cynthia Drennan
Hooker Glendinning
Louise Herring
Katherine LeVeque
Ruth Ratner Miller
Amelia Nava
Arline Webb Pratt
Anastasia Ann Przelomski
Virginia Purdy
Selma Lois Walker
Julia Walsh
Mary Ellen Withrow
Anna Biggins
Patricia Clonch
Norma Craden
Jewel Freeman Graham
Cathy Guisewite
Rebecca D. Jackson
Carol Heiss Jenkins
Bea Larsen
Alice Raful Lev
Linda Rocker Sogg
Carolyn Utz
Anita Smith Ward
Jeanette Grasselli Brown
Maxine Carnahan
Betsy Mix Cowles
Ann Gazelle
Michelle Graves
Florence Harshman
June Hutt
Geraldine Jensen
Carolyn Mahoney
Linda Myers
Jennie Porter
Diane Poulton
Renee Powell
Charlene Spretnak
Charlene Ventura
Marilyn Gaston
Dorothy Jackson
Luella Talmadge Jackson
Janet Kalven
Rosabeth Kanter
Joan Lamson
Maya Lin
Anne Variano Macko
Alicia Mott
Ludel Sauvageot
Fanchon bat-Lillian Shur
Phebe Temperance Sutliff
Grayce Williams
Earladeen Badger
Hallie Brown
Raquel Diaz-Sprague
Mary Ignatia Gavin
Sara Harper
Donna Hawk
June Holley
Martha C. Moore
Darlene Owens
Helen H. Peterson
Martha Pituch
Yvonne Pointer
Virginia Ruehlmann
Josephine Schwarz
Suzanne Timken
Nancy Vertrone Bieniek
Stella Marie Zannoni
Mary of the Annunciation Beaumont
Antoinette Eaton
Rubie McCullough
Nancy Oakley
Harriet Parker
Susan Porter
Helen Steiner Rice
Alice Schille
Louella Thompson
Mildred Benson
Amelia Bingham
Virginia Coffey
Viola Famiano Colombi
Ivy Gunter
Virginia Hamilton
Lucy Webb Hayes
Joy Alice Hintz
Geraldine Macelwane
Anne O'Hare McCormick
Rena Olshansky
Edna Pincham
Maxine Plummer
Jean Reilly
Pauline Riel
Christine M. Cook
Claudia Coulton
Ellen Walker Craig-Jones
Nanette Ferrall
Jill Harms Griesse
Georgia Griffith
Florence Melton
Lucille Nussdorfer
Jane Reece
Emma Ann Reynolds
Carol Scott
Paula Spence
Deanna Tribe
Sandra Beckwith
Daeida Hartell Wilcox Beveridge
Patricia Ann Blackmon
Mary Bowermaster
Christine Brennan
Joy Garrison Cauffman
Bunny Clark
Grace Drake
Naomi Evans
Frances Dana Gage
Jane Kirkham
Sylvia Lewis
Tami Longaberger
Donna Moon
Gratia Murphy
Alice Robie Resnick
Elizabeth Evans
Rae Natalie Goodall
Elizabeth Hauser
Bernadine Healy
Carol Kelly
Fannie Lewis
Betty Montgomery
Hope Taft
Carol Ball
Marilyn Byers
Jean Murrell Capers
Martha Dorsey
Joan Heidelberg
Clarice Herbert
Beatrice Lampkin
Jacquelyn Mayer Townsend
Ann O'Rourke
Beryl Rothschild
Thekla Shackelford
Marianne Boggs Campbell
Carole Garrison
Nancy Hollister
Stephanie J. Jones
Bettye Ruth Kay
Barbara Ross-Lee
Audrey Mackiewicz
Kathy Palasics
Margaret Diane Quinn
Henrietta Seiberling
Mary Emily Taylor
Virginia Varga
Jacqueline Woods
Nancy Lusk Zimpher
MaryJo Behrensmeyer
Alvina Costilla
Sarah Deal
Electra Doren
Daisy Flowers
Annie Glenn
Ann Hamilton
Carole Hoover
Cheryl Han Horn
Carol Latham
Nancy Linenkugel
Marie Barrett Marsh
Marjorie Parham
Mary Regula
Lee Lenore Rubin
Jerry Sue Thornton
Janet Voinovich
Paige Ashbaugh
Maude Charles Collins
Faye Dambrot
Margarita de Leon
Patricia Louise Fletcher
Jean Patrice Harrington
Shirley Hoffman
Dorothy Kazel
Farah Majidzadeh
Ada Martin
Lorle Porter
Lanna Samaniego
Yvonne Taylor
Margaret Wong
Betty Zane
Rebecca Boreczky
Frances Jennings Casement
Ruth L. Davis
Lucille Ford
Susan F. Gray
Kathleen Harrison
Adella Prentiss Hughes
Janet E. Jackson
Dottie Kammie Kamenshek
Maxine Levin
Irene Long
Martha MacDonell
Mary Andrew Matesich
Elizabeth Powell
Deborah Pryce
Maria Sexton
Farah Walters
Georgeta Blebea Washington
Judy Barker
Frances Seiberling Buchholzer
Joan Brown Campbell
Nancy Frankenberg
Zell Hart-Deming
Elsie Helsel
Katie T. Horstman
Jennie Hwang
Cathy Monroe Lewis
Viola Startzman Robertson
Stefanie Spielman
Kathryn Sullivan
Sheila Bailey
Jeraldyne Kilborn Blunden
Shannon Carter
Luceille Fleming
Olga Gonzalez-Sanabria
Elsie Janis
Lois Lenski
Ellen Mosley-Thompson
Cathy Nelson
Evlyn Gray Scott
Yvonne Williams
Rogers Margaret Brugler
Julia Chatfield
Lucille Hastings
Lillie Howard
Mary Ann Jorgenson
Joyce Mahaney
Rozella Schlotfeldt
Katherine May Smith
Florence Wang
Dorothy Baunach
Carrie Black
Caro Bosca
Yvette McGee Brown
Loann Crane
Joan Durgin
Carol Gibbs
Billie Johnson
Jih Lei
Elizabeth Magee
Kasturi Rajadhyaksha
Julie Salamon
Michele Wheatly
Pamela B. Davis
Kim de Groh
Beverly J. Gray
Sharon Howard
Carol Kuhre
Virginia Manning
Helen Moss
Judith Rycus
Mary Adelaide Sandusky
Glenna Watson
Bernett Williams
Celia Williamson
Owens Alvarene
Tenenbaum Gayle Channing
Dorothy McAlpin Maguire Chapman
Barbara Fergus
Merle Grace Kearns
Rebecca J. Lee
Nina McClelland
Lana Moresky
Martha Potter Otto
Elizabeth Ruppert
Rita Singh
Cheryl A. Boyce
Elizabeth H. Flick
Frances Harper
Brenda J. Hollis
Mary C. Juhas
Kleia R. Luckner
Valerie J. Lyons
Linda S. Noelker
Carrie Vonderhaar
SNAC: w647490q
VIAF: 898169
WorldCat Identities (via VIAF): 898169