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The giant-impact hypothesis, sometimes called the Big Splash, or the Theia Impact, suggests that the Moon was formed from the ejecta of a collision between the early Earth and a Mars-sized planet, approximately 4.5 billion years ago in the Hadean eon (about 20 to 100 million years after the Solar System coalesced). The colliding body is sometimes called Theia, named after the mythical Greek Titan who was the mother of Selene, the goddess of the Moon.  Analysis of lunar rocks published in a 2016 report suggests that the impact might have been a direct hit, causing a fragmentation and thorough mixing of both parent bodies.

The giant-impact hypothesis is currently the favored scientific hypothesis for the formation of the Moon. Supporting evidence includes:

 Earth's spin and the Moon's orbit have similar orientations.
 The Earth–Moon system contains an anomalously high angular momentum, meaning the momentum contained in Earth's rotation, the Moon's rotation and the Moon revolving around Earth is significantly higher than the other terrestrial planets. A giant impact might have supplied this excess momentum.
 Moon samples indicate that the Moon was once molten down to a substantial, but unknown, depth. This might have required more energy than predicted to be available from the accretion of a body of the Moon's size. An extremely energetic process, such as a giant impact, could provide this energy.
 The Moon has a relatively small iron core, which gives the Moon a lower density than Earth. Computer models of a giant impact of a Mars-sized body with Earth indicate the impactor's core would likely penetrate Earth and fuse with its own core. This would leave the Moon, which was formed from the ejectae that were not fused with proto-Earth, with less remaining metallic iron than other planetary bodies.
 The Moon is depleted in volatile elements compared to Earth. Vaporizing at comparably lower temperatures, they could be lost in a high-energy event, with the Moon's smaller gravity unable to recapture them while Earth did.
 There is evidence in other star systems of similar collisions, resulting in debris discs.
 Giant collisions are consistent with the leading theory of the formation of the Solar System.
 The stable isotope ratios of lunar and terrestrial rock are identical, implying a common origin.
However, there remain several questions concerning the best current models of the giant-impact hypothesis. The energy of such a giant impact is predicted to have heated Earth to produce a global magma ocean, and evidence of the resultant planetary differentiation of the heavier material sinking into Earth's mantle has been documented. However, there is no self-consistent model that starts with the giant-impact event and follows the evolution of the debris into a single moon. Other remaining questions include when the Moon lost its share of volatile elements and why Venuswhich experienced giant impacts during its formationdoes not host a similar moon.

History
In 1898, George Darwin made the suggestion that Earth and the Moon were once a single body. Darwin's hypothesis was that a molten Moon had been spun from Earth because of centrifugal forces, and this became the dominant academic explanation. Using Newtonian mechanics, he calculated that the Moon had orbited much more closely in the past and was drifting away from Earth. This drifting was later confirmed by American and Soviet experiments, using laser ranging targets placed on the Moon.

Nonetheless, Darwin's calculations could not resolve the mechanics required to trace the Moon back to the surface of Earth. In 1946, Reginald Aldworth Daly of Harvard University challenged Darwin's explanation, adjusting it to postulate that the creation of the Moon was caused by an impact rather than centrifugal forces. Little attention was paid to Professor Daly's challenge until a conference on satellites in 1974, during which the idea was reintroduced and later published and discussed in Icarus in 1969 by Drs. William K. Hartmann and Donald R. Davis. Their models suggested that, at the end of the planet formation period, several satellite-sized bodies had formed that could collide with the planets or be captured. They proposed that one of these objects might have collided with Earth, ejecting refractory, volatile-poor dust that could coalesce to form the Moon. This collision could potentially explain the unique geological and geochemical properties of the Moon.

A similar approach was taken by Canadian astronomer Alastair G. W. Cameron and American astronomer William R. Ward, who suggested that the Moon was formed by the tangential impact upon Earth of a body the size of Mars. It is hypothesized that most of the outer silicates of the colliding body would be vaporized, whereas a metallic core would not. Hence, most of the collisional material sent into orbit would consist of silicates, leaving the coalescing Moon deficient in iron. The more volatile materials that were emitted during the collision probably would escape the Solar System, whereas silicates would tend to coalesce.

Eighteen months prior to an October 1969 conference on lunar origins, Bill Hartmann, Roger Phillips, and Jeff Taylor challenged fellow lunar scientists: "You have eighteen months. Go back to your Apollo data, go back to your computer, and do whatever you have to, but make up your mind. Don't come to our conference unless you have something to say about the Moon's birth." At the 1969 conference at Kona, Hawaii, the giant-impact hypothesis emerged as the most favored hypothesis.

Theia

The name of the hypothesised protoplanet is derived from the mythical Greek titan Theia , who gave birth to the Moon goddess Selene. This designation was proposed initially by the English geochemist Alex N. Halliday in 2000 and has become accepted in the scientific community. According to modern theories of planet formation, Theia was part of a population of Mars-sized bodies that existed in the Solar System 4.5 billion years ago. One of the attractive features of the giant-impact hypothesis is that the formation of the Moon and Earth align; during the course of its formation, Earth is thought to have experienced dozens of collisions with planet-sized bodies. The Moon-forming collision would have been only one such "giant impact" but certainly the last significant impactor event. The Late Heavy Bombardment by much smaller asteroids occurred laterapproximately 3.9 billion years ago.

Basic model

Astronomers think the collision between Earth and Theia happened at about 4.4 to 4.45 bya; about 0.1 billion years after the Solar System began to form. In astronomical terms, the impact would have been of moderate velocity. Theia is thought to have struck Earth at an oblique angle when Earth was nearly fully formed. Computer simulations of this "late-impact" scenario suggest an initial impactor velocity at "infinity" (far enough that gravitational attraction is not a factor) below , increasing as it approached to over  at impact, and an impact angle of about 45°. However, oxygen isotope abundance in lunar rock suggests "vigorous mixing" of Theia and Earth, indicating a steep impact angle. Theia's iron core would have sunk into the young Earth's core, and most of Theia's mantle accreted onto Earth's mantle. However, a significant portion of the mantle material from both Theia and Earth would have been ejected into orbit around Earth (if ejected with velocities between orbital velocity and escape velocity) or into individual orbits around the Sun (if ejected at higher velocities).

Modelling has hypothesised that material in orbit around Earth may have accreted to form the Moon in three consecutive phases; accreting first from the bodies initially present outside Earth's Roche limit, which acted to confine the inner disk material within the Roche limit. The inner disk slowly and viscously spread back out to Earth's Roche limit, pushing along outer bodies via resonant interactions. After several tens of years, the disk spread beyond the Roche limit, and started producing new objects that continued the growth of the Moon, until the inner disk was depleted in mass after several hundreds of years. Material in stable Kepler orbits was thus likely to hit the Earth–Moon system sometime later (because the Earth–Moon system's Kepler orbit around the Sun also remains stable). Estimates based on computer simulations of such an event suggest that some twenty percent of the original mass of Theia would have ended up as an orbiting ring of debris around Earth, and about half of this matter coalesced into the Moon. Earth would have gained significant amounts of angular momentum and mass from such a collision. Regardless of the speed and tilt of Earth's rotation before the impact, it would have experienced a day some five hours long after the impact, and Earth's equator and the Moon's orbit would have become coplanar.

Not all of the ring material need have been swept up right away: the thickened crust of the Moon's far side suggests the possibility that a second moon about  in diameter formed in a Lagrange point of the Moon. The smaller moon may have remained in orbit for tens of millions of years.  As the two moons migrated outward from Earth, solar tidal effects would have made the Lagrange orbit unstable, resulting in a slow-velocity collision that "pancaked" the smaller moon onto what is now the far side of the Moon, adding material to its crust.
Lunar magma cannot pierce through the thick crust of the far side, causing fewer lunar maria, while the near side has a thin crust displaying the large maria visible from Earth.

Above a high resolution threshold for simulations, a study published in 2022 finds that giant impacts can immediately place a satellite with similar mass and iron content to the Moon into orbit far outside Earth's Roche limit. Even satellites that initially pass within the Roche limit can reliably and predictably survive, by being partially stripped and then torqued onto wider, stable orbits. Furthermore, the outer layers of these directly formed satellites are molten over cooler interiors and are composed of around 60% proto-Earth material. This could alleviate the tension between the Moon's Earth-like isotopic composition and the different signature expected for the impactor. Immediate formation opens up new options for the Moon's early orbit and evolution, including the possibility of a highly tilted orbit to explain the lunar inclination, and offers a simpler, single-stage scenario for the origin of the Moon.

Composition
In 2001, a team at the Carnegie Institution of Washington reported that the rocks from the Apollo program carried an isotopic signature that was identical with rocks from Earth, and were different from almost all other bodies in the Solar System.

In 2014, a team in Germany reported that the Apollo samples had a slightly different isotopic signature from Earth rocks. The difference was slight, but statistically significant. One possible explanation is that Theia formed near Earth.

This empirical data showing close similarity of composition can be explained only by the standard giant-impact hypothesis, as it is extremely unlikely that two bodies prior to collision had such similar composition.

Equilibration hypothesis
In 2007, researchers from the California Institute of Technology showed that the likelihood of Theia having an identical isotopic signature as Earth was very small (less than 1 percent). They proposed that in the aftermath of the giant impact, while Earth and the proto-lunar disc were molten and vaporised, the two reservoirs were connected by a common silicate vapor atmosphere and that the Earth–Moon system became homogenised by convective stirring while the system existed in the form of a continuous fluid. Such an "equilibration" between the post-impact Earth and the proto-lunar disc is the only proposed scenario that explains the isotopic similarities of the Apollo rocks with rocks from Earth's interior. For this scenario to be viable, however, the proto-lunar disc would have to endure for about 100 years. Work is ongoing to determine whether or not this is possible.

Direct collision hypothesis
According to research (2012) to explain similar compositions of Earth and the Moon based on simulations at the University of Bern by physicist Andreas Reufer and his colleagues, Theia collided directly with Earth instead of barely swiping it. The collision speed may have been higher than originally assumed, and this higher velocity may have totally destroyed Theia. According to this modification, the composition of Theia is not so restricted, making a composition of up to 50% water ice possible.

Synestia hypothesis
One effort, in 2018, to homogenise the products of the collision was to energise the primary body by way of a greater pre-collision rotational speed.  This way, more material from the primary body would be spun off to form the Moon.  Further computer modelling determined that the observed result could be obtained by having the pre-Earth body spinning very rapidly, so much so that it formed a new celestial object which was given the name 'synestia'.  This is an unstable state that could have been generated by yet another collision to get the rotation spinning fast enough.  Further modelling of this transient structure has shown that the primary body spinning as a doughnut-shaped object (the synestia) existed for about a century (a very short time) before it cooled down and gave birth to Earth and the Moon.

Terrestrial magma ocean hypothesis

Another model, in 2019, to explain the similarity of Earth and the Moon's compositions posits that shortly after Earth formed, it was covered by a sea of hot magma, while the impacting object was likely made of solid material. Modelling suggests that this would lead to the impact heating the magma much more than solids from the impacting object, leading to more material being ejected from the proto-Earth, so that about 80% of the Moon-forming debris originated from the proto-Earth. Many prior models had suggested 80% of the Moon coming from the impactor.

Evidence
Indirect evidence for the giant impact scenario comes from rocks collected during the Apollo Moon landings, which show oxygen isotope ratios nearly identical to those of Earth. The highly anorthositic composition of the lunar crust, as well as the existence of KREEP-rich samples, suggest that a large portion of the Moon once was molten; and a giant impact scenario could easily have supplied the energy needed to form such a magma ocean. Several lines of evidence show that if the Moon has an iron-rich core, it must be a small one. In particular, the mean density, moment of inertia, rotational signature, and magnetic induction response of the Moon all suggest that the radius of its core is less than about 25% the radius of the Moon, in contrast to about 50% for most of the other terrestrial bodies. Appropriate impact conditions satisfying the angular momentum constraints of the Earth–Moon system yield a Moon formed mostly from the mantles of Earth and the impactor, while the core of the impactor accretes to Earth. Earth has the highest density of all the planets in the Solar System; the absorption of the core of the impactor body explains this observation, given the proposed properties of the early Earth and Theia.

Comparison of the zinc isotopic composition of lunar samples with that of Earth and Mars rocks provides further evidence for the impact hypothesis. Zinc is strongly fractionated when volatilised in planetary rocks, but not during normal igneous processes, so zinc abundance and isotopic composition can distinguish the two geological processes. Moon rocks contain more heavy isotopes of zinc, and overall less zinc, than corresponding igneous Earth or Mars rocks, which is consistent with zinc being depleted from the Moon through evaporation, as expected for the giant impact origin.

Collisions between ejecta escaping Earth's gravity and asteroids would have left impact heating signatures in stony meteorites; analysis based on assuming the existence of this effect has been used to date the impact event to 4.47 billion years ago, in agreement with the date obtained by other means.

Warm silica-rich dust and abundant SiO gas, products of high velocity impactsover between rocky bodies, have been detected by the Spitzer Space Telescope around the nearby (29 pc distant) young (~12 My old) star HD 172555 in the Beta Pictoris moving group. A belt of warm dust in a zone between 0.25AU and 2AU from the young star HD 23514 in the Pleiades cluster appears similar to the predicted results of Theia's collision with the embryonic Earth, and has been interpreted as the result of planet-sized objects colliding with each other. A similar belt of warm dust was detected around the star BD+20°307 (HIP 8920, SAO 75016).

Difficulties
This lunar origin hypothesis has some difficulties that have yet to be resolved. For example, the giant-impact hypothesis implies that a surface magma ocean would have formed following the impact. Yet there is no evidence that Earth ever had such a magma ocean and it is likely there exists material that has never been processed in a magma ocean.

Composition
A number of compositional inconsistencies need to be addressed.

 The ratios of the Moon's volatile elements are not explained by the giant-impact hypothesis. If the giant-impact hypothesis is correct, these ratios must be due to some other cause.
 The presence of volatiles such as water trapped in lunar basalts and carbon emissions from the lunar surface is more difficult to explain if the Moon was caused by a high-temperature impact.
 The iron oxide (FeO) content (13%) of the Moon, intermediate between that of Mars (18%) and the terrestrial mantle (8%), rules out most of the source of the proto-lunar material from Earth's mantle.
 If the bulk of the proto-lunar material had come from an impactor, the Moon should be enriched in siderophilic elements, when, in fact, it is deficient in them.
 The Moon's oxygen isotopic ratios are essentially identical to those of Earth. Oxygen isotopic ratios, which may be measured very precisely, yield a unique and distinct signature for each Solar System body. If a separate proto-planet Theia had existed, it probably would have had a different oxygen isotopic signature than Earth, as would the ejected mixed material.
 The Moon's titanium isotope ratio (50Ti/47Ti) appears so close to Earth's (within 4 ppm), that little if any of the colliding body's mass could likely have been part of the Moon.

Lack of a Venusian moon
If the Moon was formed by such an impact, it is possible that other inner planets also may have been subjected to comparable impacts. A moon that formed around Venus by this process would have been unlikely to escape. If such a moon-forming event had occurred there, a possible explanation of why the planet does not have such a moon might be that a second collision occurred that countered the angular momentum from the first impact. Another possibility is that the strong tidal forces from the Sun would tend to destabilise the orbits of moons around close-in planets. For this reason, if Venus's slow rotation rate began early in its history, any satellites larger than a few kilometers in diameter would likely have spiraled inwards and collided with Venus.

Simulations of the chaotic period of terrestrial planet formation suggest that impacts like those hypothesised to have formed the Moon were common. For typical terrestrial planets with a mass of 0.5 to 1 Earth masses, such an impact typically results in a single moon containing 4% of the host planet's mass. The inclination of the resulting moon's orbit is random, but this tilt affects the subsequent dynamic evolution of the system. For example, some orbits may cause the moon to spiral back into the planet. Likewise, the proximity of the planet to the star will also affect the orbital evolution. The net effect is that it is more likely for impact-generated moons to survive when they orbit more distant terrestrial planets and are aligned with the planetary orbit.

Possible origin of Theia

In 2004, Princeton University mathematician Edward Belbruno and astrophysicist J. Richard Gott III proposed that Theia coalesced at the  or  Lagrangian point relative to Earth (in about the same orbit and about 60° ahead or behind), similar to a trojan asteroid. Two-dimensional computer models suggest that the stability of Theia's proposed trojan orbit would have been affected when its growing mass exceeded a threshold of approximately 10% of Earth's mass (the mass of Mars). In this scenario, gravitational perturbations by planetesimals caused Theia to depart from its stable Lagrangian location, and subsequent interactions with proto-Earth led to a collision between the two bodies.

In 2008, evidence was presented that suggests that the collision might have occurred later than the accepted value of 4.53 Gya, at approximately 4.48 Gya. A 2014 comparison of computer simulations with elemental abundance measurements in Earth's mantle indicated that the collision occurred approximately 95 My after the formation of the Solar System.

It has been suggested that other significant objects might have been created by the impact, which could have remained in orbit between Earth and the Moon, stuck in Lagrangian points. Such objects might have stayed within the Earth–Moon system for as long as 100 million years, until the gravitational tugs of other planets destabilised the system enough to free the objects. A study published in 2011 suggested that a subsequent collision between the Moon and one of these smaller bodies caused the notable differences in physical characteristics between the two hemispheres of the Moon. This collision, simulations have supported, would have been at a low enough velocity so as not to form a crater; instead, the material from the smaller body would have spread out across the Moon (in what would become its far side), adding a thick layer of highlands crust. The resulting mass irregularities would subsequently produce a gravity gradient that resulted in tidal locking of the Moon so that today, only the near side remains visible from Earth. However, mapping by the GRAIL mission has ruled out this scenario.

In 2019, a team at the University of Münster reported that the molybdenum isotopic composition in Earth's primitive mantle originates from the outer Solar System, hinting at the source of water on Earth. One possible explanation is that Theia originated in the outer Solar System.

Alternative hypotheses

Other mechanisms that have been suggested at various times for the Moon's origin are that the Moon was spun off from Earth's molten surface by centrifugal force; that it was formed elsewhere and was subsequently captured by Earth's gravitational field; or that Earth and the Moon formed at the same time and place from the same accretion disk. None of these hypotheses can account for the high angular momentum of the Earth–Moon system.

Another hypothesis attributes the formation of the Moon to the impact of a large asteroid with Earth much later than previously thought, creating the satellite primarily from debris from Earth. In this hypothesis, the formation of the Moon occurs 60–140 million years after the formation of the Solar System. Previously, the age of the Moon had been thought to be 4.527 ± 0.010 billion years. The impact in this scenario would have created a magma ocean on Earth and the proto-Moon with both bodies sharing a common plasma metal vapor atmosphere. The shared metal vapor bridge would have allowed material from Earth and the proto-Moon to exchange and equilibrate into a more common composition.

Yet another hypothesis proposes that the Moon and Earth formed together instead of separately like the giant-impact hypothesis suggests. This model, published in 2012 by Robin M. Canup, suggests that the Moon and Earth formed from a massive collision of two planetary bodies, each larger than Mars, which then re-collided to form what is now called Earth. After the re-collision, Earth was surrounded by a disk of material, which accreted to form the Moon. This hypothesis could explain evidence that others do not.

See also

References

Notes

Further reading
Academic articles

 William K. Hartmann and Donald R. Davis, Satellite-sized planetesimals and lunar origin, (International Astronomical Union, Colloquium on Planetary Satellites, Cornell University, Ithaca, NY, Aug. 18–21, 1974) Icarus, vol. 24, April 1975, pp. 504–515
 Alastair G. W. Cameron and William R. Ward, The Origin of the Moon, Abstracts of the Lunar and Planetary Science Conference, volume 7, p. 120, 1976

  Berlin 2012, .

Non-academic books

 Dana Mackenzie, The Big Splat, or How Our Moon Came to Be, 2003, John Wiley & Sons, .

External links
 Planetary Science Institute: Giant Impact Hypothesis
 Origin of the Moon by Prof. AGW Cameron
 Klemperer rosette and Lagrangian point simulations using JavaScript
 SwRI giant impact hypothesis simulation (.wmv and .mov)
 Origin of the Moon – computer model of accretion
 Moon Archive – Including articles about the giant impact hypothesis
 Planet Smash-Up Sends Vaporized Rock, Hot Lava Flying  (2009-08-10 JPL News)
 How common are Earth–Moon planetary systems? : 23 May 2011
 The Surprising State of the Earth after the Moon-Forming Giant Impact – Sarah Stewart (SETI Talks), Jan 28, 2015

Lunar science
Hypothetical impact events
Earth sciences
Solar System dynamic theories


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Lawmakers ran out of time to vote on a car tab fee bill. (Herald file)
Car tab relief effort crashes
There was too little time and Republicans had amendments they seemed intended to filibuster on.
by Jerry Cornfield
Saturday, March 10, 2018 3:28pm
Local NewsNorthwest
OLYMPIA — Sound Transit car tabs won't be getting cheaper any time soon.
Lawmakers adjourned Thursday without acting on a bill to trim them a little and protect Sound Transit from the resulting loss of revenue.
A fragile agreement reached among Democrats late Thursday never received a vote, a victim of too little time and partisan wrangling.
Republicans in the House had several amendments. When it seemed they intended to filibuster on them, Democratic leaders decided they could not get the bill acted on before the session ended.
"We ran out of time," said Rep. Judy Clibborn, D-Mercer Island, the chairwoman of the House Transportation Committee who had been negotiating the agreement for several days. "This is the most difficult bill I've ever worked on."
She thought Republicans would be amenable to standing down to get the bill through and give vehicle owners a small break. They didn't and the retiring Clibborn held them partly responsible.
"This policy that would have helped working families throughout the region fell victim to partisan politics," she said in a prepared statement. "We hope Republicans will show commitment in the future to car tab relief."
Sen. Steve Hobbs, D-Lake Stevens, who leads the Senate Transportation Committee, said he was disappointed, not at Republicans but at the protracted process. He had been trying to get agreement with House Democrats for days.
"We thought maybe, perhaps we had an agreement," he said. "This is a democracy. I would like to take another stab at it next year."
Republicans perceived things differently. After fighting for two sessions to repeal most of the voter-approved increase in the motor vehicle excise tax, they didn't intend to surrender an opportunity to make the case on the final day.
"We've always been in favor of real reform, not something tiny and symbolic," said newly chosen House Minority Leader J.T. Wilcox, R-Yelm.
Rep. Mark Harmsworth, R-Mill Creek, had authored one of the amendments.
"They wouldn't let us run them," he said. "We wanted that debate."
Democrats only have themselves to blame for the outcome, he said.
"We could have run this bill out the first week of session," Harmsworth said. "It should have been a no-brainer. But it turned into a hot potato. I'll try again next year."
The conflict is rooted in the financing package for Sound Transit 3, the $54 billion expansion that passed in November 2016 on the strength of support in Snohomish and King counties. It was rejected by voters in Pierce County.
It adds 62 miles of new Link light-rail line, including an extension to Everett Station by 2036, via the Paine Field industrial area.
To pay for the upgrades, the sales tax went up half a percent within the district. There's also a new property tax assessment of 25 cents for each $1,000 of assessed valuation. And the tax rate for figuring car tab fees went from 0.3 percent to 1.1 percent, resulting in a near trebling of costs for some vehicle owners.
This year, the House and Senate each passed bills requiring the regional transit authority stop using a 1996 depreciation schedule in calculating its motor vehicle excise tax and switch to a schedule adopted by lawmakers in 2006. The newer grid better reflects a car's actual value and will result in a little savings.
Sound Transit estimated it would collect $780 million less in car tab receipts as a result, money counted on as part of the expansion plan.
Hobbs pushed to keep Sound Transit financially whole to ensure projects in the plan stayed on track.
He proposed, and the Senate passed, a bill letting Sound Transit access funds of an account established to support educational services for young people who are low-income, homeless or in foster care in King, Pierce and Snohomish counties.
The account is empty now. But over the next quarter century, it is expected to fill with $518 million in future sales tax payments by Sound Transit. Under the bill, Sound Transit could decide to use that money for projects, or not.
But on March 3, the House Transportation Committee stripped out that provision making the bill pretty much identical to one passed by the House in January.
What Democrats cobbled together Thursday had several components to help Sound Transit without touching the education account.
First, any changes in the vehicle valuation schedule would not be applied retroactively to March 2017 when collections using the higher motor vehicle excise tax rate began. So Sound Transit got to keep what it received.
Second, starting in 2021, the state Department of Revenue was to defer collection of a fee it charges for administering Sound Transit's portion of the local sales tax. The state would defer $225 million in charges though the money would eventually be repaid.
A third element is the state Department of Transportation would not charge Sound Transit for leasing right-of-way for construction of projects. In the past, Sound Transit has estimated this could save it up to $424 million in expenses.
If the bill had passed, it would have meant only moderate savings on many of the roughly 2.5 million registered vehicles subject to the tax.
Projected credits range from $13 on a 2009 Volkswagen Jetta to $53 for a 2016 Toyota Prius to $83 on a 2018 Tesla Model S, according to an analysis provided to the House Transportation Committee.
It also showed the owner of an "average" vehicle in terms of age and price in the taxing district would not have wound up with any savings.
On Friday, Sound Transit Chief Executive Officer Peter Rogoff pledged to keep talking with lawmakers. He iterated any decline in car tab revenues must be offset "with new revenues or cost reduction measures so we can complete voter-approved projects on schedule."
That's the position of Everett Mayor Cassie Franklin as well.
Otherwise, she told several Snohomish County lawmakers in an email March 5, the city would be better off with no bill.
"The voters were promised light rail to Everett by 2036 and it's important to stay on that schedule," said Bob Bolerjack, the city's executive director for governmental affairs, on Friday. "The city of Everett is not opposed to moving to the new (depreciation) schedule but we will remain adamant that nothing draws out the schedule of projects being delivered to the city."
Jerry Cornfield: 360-352-8623; jcornfield@herald net.com. Twitter: @dospueblos.
Bringing the world together
Investigators unable to determine cause of apartment fire

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


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text:
Inom logik och matematik är konjunktion ett konnektiv, som betecknas med symbolen   eller symbolen , och utläses som "och". En sats, vars delar är förbundna med detta konnektiv kallas, även denna, för en konjunktion. En sådan sats är sann, om och endast om alla dess operander är sanna.

Med A och B symboliserande påståenden, utläses satsen A  B som: A och B. Den skall således tolkas som sann, om och endast om båda satserna är sanna. Konnektivet  ,  kan tillsammans med exempelvis konnektivet för negation uttrycka varje annat konnektiv inom satslogiken.

Inom boolesk algebra skrivs konjunktion med multiplikationstecknet "·".

Sanningsvärdetabell
F = Falsk och S = Sann.

| p || q || p ∧ q
|-
| F || F || F
|-
| F|| S || F
|-
| S || F || F
|-
| S|| S|| S
|}

Med beteckningar enligt boolesk algebra.
Siffrorna 0 och 1 motsvarar sanningsvärdena Falsk respektive Sann.

| p || q || p · q
|-
| 0|| 0|| 0
|-
| 0 || 1|| 0
|-
| 1 || 0 || 0
|-
| 1 || 1 || 1
|}

Tekniska lösningar
I elektriska kretsar, pneumatik, hydraulik, mekanik etcetera kan funktioner som motsvarar konjunktioner realiseras, som i kombination med andra logiska funktioner kan byggas ihop till komplex funktionalitet. Några exempel:

Seriekoppling
Om till exempel två brytare kopplas i serie med en lampa måste båda brytarna vara till för att lampan ska lysa. Om en eller båda brytarna är från lyser den ej.

AND-grind
I digitaltekniken realiseras samma funktion som ett logiskt byggblock, en AND-grind. "Värdena" är här signalerna "hög" och "låg" som motsvarar bestämda spänningsintervall. Dessa betecknas vanligen med H för hög och L för låg.

|}

Ett integrerat kretsblock som tillhandahåller AND-grindar är till exempel 7408 som innehåller fyra separata grindar.

Källor
 Göran Hermerén, Logik, Studentlitteratur, Lund 1967.
 Konrad Marc-Wogau, Modern Logik, Bonniers 1950.
 Geoffrey Hunter, Metalogic. An Introduction to the Metatheory of Standard First-Order Logic, MacMillan, London 1971.
 Elliott Mendelson, Elementary Logic, Oxford University Press, London 1965.
 Georg Henrik von Wright, Logik, Filosofi och Språk, Aldus, 1957.

Externa länkar

Logiska operatorer

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


text:
John Force Net Worth 2019, Bio, Age, Height
For the present topic, we have prepared an interesting text that talks about an extreme sport, and this sport is not followed by many people. This sport was created during the 1960s and in the beginning many people were skeptical about this sport. It took a lot of courage to start dealing with this sport because in that period security was not at a great level.
This sport is called Drag Racing and there are certainly a lot of people who have not heard of this sport. This sport is very demanding and it takes a lot of skills and experience to start playing this sport.
During the 60's and 70's there were several drivers who gained glory in Drag Racing, and in today's text we will talk about one of them. His name is John Force and he has achieved a lot of success in this sport and is one of the most famous drivers.
John Force was active in Drag Racing until 2013 when he decided to dedicate himself to his life but he continued to train young people who wanted to make a career in this sport. He, as a 60-year-old, continued to deal with Drag Racing and many fans of this sport were fascinated by his abilities and capabilities.
John Force is one of the most challenging drivers in this sport and he has set many records that no one has managed to overcome. Because of this, fans of this sport believe that John Force is the best driver in the history of this sport and his name will remain forever recorded in Drag Racing.
During his career, he managed to make a big financial profit and managed to secure his family financially. His son inherited talent for this sport and began to train when he was 17 years old. John thinks that if his son is persistent, he can succeed in achieving success like him.
John Force scored over 20 titles and managed to win the races organized in different countries around the world.
He stated that he managed to realize his dreams and now wants to dedicate himself to his children and grandchildren and to enjoy life. If this sport is of interest to you and if you are interested in more details about this driver then stay with this text because we will reveal details of his life and childhood and career.
John Force was born on May 4, 1949 in Bell Gardens, California, USA.
His parents, Harold and Betty Ruth Force, moved to the United States a year before his birth, but at the beginning did not have good living conditions. They had to go through many difficult moments, and John spent some of his childhood in various migrant camps until his parents succeeded in gaining citizenship. After that, they managed to find jobs at Bell Gardens and their lives went for the better.
John Force is not their only child because he has six other brothers and sisters. His three brothers are older than him and two brothers and one sister is younger than him. His sister went to another city at a young age and they did not live together. He often said that he missed his sister in childhood, but that she had made the right decision, since in the later period she managed to make a great career.
In the later period when John began to build success and become a champion she came to watch his competitions and she wrote about him various articles in the magazine for which she worked for. She became a very successful journalist and she managed to build an excellent career in this field.
His two older brothers loved car races in high school and they often followed this sport on television. John also began to accompany this sport and he became interested in cars during the elementary school. John became obsessed with cars and he knew every type of car.
John was very impatient to become adult and start driving a car. His father often taught him to drive and in a short time he became very talented for driving.
During the elementary school, John was a solid and quiet student who was in excellent communication with other children and professors. He did not like all the subjects in school, but his favorite subjects were mathematics and physics. When he finished elementary school, John continued his education and enrolled at the Bell Gardens High School.
In this period, his love for cars began to grow, and his biggest wish was to deal with automotive in the future. He followed several types of this competition and wanted to participate in one of those tournaments in the future. In the later period his wishes came true, but he had to wait a few years to participate.
When he was 18 years old, John immediately began to take the driving test and he managed to pass all the tests in a very short time. When he got his driver's license, John often drove a car from his father, but he wanted to make money for his own car. He found a job at a local restaurant and spent a lot of time at work.
He was the fourth grade of a secondary school and during that period he often left school. His professors told him that he had to come to school more often, because otherwise he would be expelled from the school. John had to listen to these tips, but he was still working at the restaurant. He reduced his working hours but he did not want to quit buying a new car.
When he succeeded in earning a part of his money, his father helped him and gave him the rest of the money that he had missed. John was very happy and excited about his first car and after that he began building his career in Drag Racing.
John Force began his career in the 1970s when he was given the opportunity to take part in the first event. This competition was not at the highest professional level, but this was an opportunity for him to show his talent and abilities.
In this race he drove Mustang and he took part under the name Night Walker Mustang. He managed to win the second place in this competition and this was a huge success for him because he was the youngest participant in this race.
After this race, John decided to apply for the next competition in 1971 and he was not lucky at this competition because he ended up in position five. He was not disappointed by the failure and he wanted to continue to deal with this sport. His next race was at mid-1972 and this race was held in New York. This race was a big moment in his life because he managed to win the competition. After this race he began to get fans across the USA and had a great motivation to continue to deal with Drag Racing.
Until the end of 1970, John took part in smaller tournaments that made much less financial profit than the highest-level tournament. In the beginning of 1980, John began to participate in the biggest tournaments in the world and signed a contract with Chevrolet and he drove this car until 1994.
At the beginning of 1980, John took part in his first professionalTournament in Drag Racing and managed to achieve a successful performance in this race.
In 1981 and 1982 he managed to win several tournaments and he was ranked third in several tournaments. From 1983 to 1984, John had to take a break because he suffered injury during a Miami race. He spent at the hospital about a month, but his family considered that he must rest from this sport for one period of time.
In the second half of 1984, John signed up for the first tournament after a break and managed to win. In the upcoming tournaments John showed great talent and skills and was among the top 10 Drag Racing drivers.
He managed to gain a large number of fans around the USA and his career began to grow. In the period between 1986 and 1997, John achieved tremendous success and managed to win at 67 tournaments, including the World Championship.
He became No. 1 in Drag Racing and was the best driver in this sport. John managed to realize his childhood dreams and managed to become the best in the sport that he likes most.
John Force is one of the best drivers in the history of Drag Racing and he managed to make great success. He was active in this sport until 2013.
During his career, he managed to make a huge financial profit of about $ 30 million. John currently lives in Miami with his family. John is not active on social networks.
Full Name: John Harold Force
Birthplace: Bell Gardens, California, USA
Profession: Drag Race Driver
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I've been pulled in last minute to help facilitate a two-day offsite conference with senior leaders this week. While it's both a blessing and a curse that I've done this so many times that I'm not half bad at it, I do know that it is a major stress for other people. That's just the shiny side and the dull side of my coin I suppose. Today, though, I decided to write down some words of "inspiration" for my facilitator brethren which I plan to deliver to them tomorrow night before it all goes down in case it will calm their nerves.
Offered without comment, courtesy of American Express Tumblr. Enjoy!
How Projects Work: April Fool's!
On this cheeky occasion, I would like to offer a midly-amusing comic I saw on LinkedIn recently. Sometimes (read: most of the time) this is exactly what happens during any project lifecycle. It almost feels like April Fool's day every day, right??