text:
has a T-rich PAM sequence located at the 5 end of the protospacer, is capable to mature its own ... cently renamed Cas12a and tentatively classified as Type V-.
Room 116, Bethesda, Maryland 20205; tDepartment of Biochemistry, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York 10461; and tChaire de GCnetique.
the CGG repeats having a higher melting temperature (Tm) than. CCG repeats .... shown. The arrow (right) indicates the expected size of the starting tract length.
of Health to John R. Pringle. 1. Oliver, S. G., Van der Aart,Q. J., Agostini-Carbone, M. L.,. Aigle, M., Alberghina, L., et al (1992) Nature (London) 357,. 38-46. 2.
detected by Western blotting with an anti-myc antibody (c-myc A- ..... KHSS. 432. 432. KISV. 457. 457. -. RPTK. 460. 460. 460. -. KASI. 489f. KLSP. 509. 509.
MONITORING SACCHAROMYCES CEREVISIAE
... Microbiologia, ICB, C. P. 486, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, .... UFMG-A2249 did not share any similarity with the other isolates,.
Saccharomyces cerevisiae - PNAS
Saccharomyces cerevisiae Genes - PLOS
Saccharomyces cerevisiae - BioMedSearch
Saccharomyces cerevisiae - CiteSeerX
part because they activate gene expression through a common site, the stress ..... over replicate runs of a given clustering approach were placed into a separate group and ...... a limited view of the dynamical changes in these gene networks here, we
Strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae
Feb 3, 2011 - Elements That Characterize the Genome of Industrial ... natural isolates as well as domesticated strains that are used in specific industrial applications. ...... Found at: doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1001287.s014 (3.51 MB PDF).
Saccharomyces cerevisiae - ScienceOpen
Nov 14, 2012 - Editor: Wanjin Hong, Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, Singapore ... NJB is a Prize Fellow of the Lister Institute of. Preventive Medicine.
Saccharomyces cerevisiae - Plos
in Saccharomyces cerevisiae - NCBI
Saccharomyces cerevisiae[i] - PeerJ
(Saccharomyces cerevisiae) Single-Gene
Nov 6, 2012 - Citation: Graham JH, Robb DT, Poe AR (2012) Random Phenotypic Variation of Yeast ..... But a metabolic pathway's fragility lies in the.
The Saccharomyces cerevisiae
chemiluminescence with CDP-Star substrate (Tropix, Bedford, Mass.). For the ... microscopic analysis was performed with a Leica TCS 4d confocal microscope.
Saccharomyces cerevisiae Ub-Conjugating
here that multiubiquitinated proteins, and the ubiquitin-conjugating (E2) enzyme Ubc4, are rapidly de- ... A yeast strain lacking both Rad23 and Rpn10 (rad23D.
the Yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae
J. RICHARD DICKINSON*t, IAN W. DAWES*, ALAN S. F. BOYDt, AND ROBERT L. BAXTERt. *Department of ... S. cerevisiae strain S41,which has the genotype.
Proc. Nati. Acad. Sci. USA Vol. 80, pp. 5847-5851, October 1983
13C NMR studies of acetate metabolism during sporulation of Saccharomyces cerevisiae (tricarboxylic acid cycle/glyoxylate cycle/glutamate/gluconeogenesis/fatty acid synthesis)
J. RICHARD DICKINSON*t, IAN W. DAWES*, ALAN S. F. BOYDt, AND ROBERT L. BAXTERt *Department of Microbiology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3JG, United Kingdom; and tDepartment of Chemistry, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh EH9 3JJ, United Kingdom
Communicated by C. Auerbach, June 6, 1983
ABSTRACT The sporulation of Saccharomyces cerevisiae in the presence of [2-13C]acetate was studied by 13C NMR spectroscopy. The fate of 13C label was analyzed in vivo and in cell extracts. During the first 4 hr of sporulation the major metabolite produced from [2-'3C]acetate utilization was glutamate. From the labeling pattern observed it is concluded that both the tricarboxylic acid cycle and the glyoxylate cycle are operating. After about 4 hr trehalose is made. Comparison of the doublet/singlet ratios for C-1, 1' and C-6, 6' of trehalose shows a steady drop in the ratio of C-1, C-2-coupled species over trehalose labeled only at C-1 in the C-1, 2 segment of the molecule. The negative correlation of this ratio with that for the C-5, 6 segment indicates a cycling of glucose through the hexose monophosphate shunt. Subsequently fatty acid biosynthesis commences. Large amounts of saturated fatty acid were made. There were conspicuous differences observed in the metabolism of [2-'3C]acetate between sporulating and vegetatively growing cells.
Diploid strains of Saccharomyces cerevisiae can undergo a developmental switch from vegetative growth to the alternative processes of meiosis and ascospore formation. This switch is dependent on the presence of two alleles of the mating-type locus MAT a and MAT a, it can only occur during a particular phase of the cell division cycle, and it is subject to regulation by the nutritional conditions operating (1). The molecular mechanisms responsible for this developmental switch are not known, and the basic changes in metabolism causing or accompanying sporulation are poorly understood and the subject of conflicting reports. The present study was done to determine more precisely the metabolic changes that accompany sporulation. For this NMR spectroscopy is ideal because it enables an extensive and detailed analysis of the basic metabolic processes that occur. Moreover, yeast sporulation is very well suited to NMR analysis: 3Clabeled acetate compounds are readily available, and sporulation occurs solely in acetate (2). From NMR studies it is possible to identify labeled intermediates, to quantitate some individual enzyme transformations, and to gain a broad insight into those pathways that are operating. EXPERIMENTAL S. cerevisiae strain S41, which has the genotype MATa HO arg 4-1 cyh 1 MATa HO arg 4-1 cyh 1 was grown at 30°C with shaking in a complex medium containing per liter: 10 g of yeast extract, 20 g of peptone, 10 g of
potassium acetate (or [2-'3C]sodium acetate), 1 g of glucose, 0.2 g of adenine, and 0.2 g of uracil. Sporulation medium contained per liter: 10 g of sodium acetate, 0.2 g of adenine, 0.2 g of uracil in 100 mM potassium chloride, and 0.15 g of benzylpenicillin. Sporulation was induced by the method of Fast
At intervals during sporulation, 1-1. 25 X 109 cells were harvested by filtration and fixed in ice-cold 5% (wt/vol) perchloric acid. After 1 hr at 0°C the material was centrifuged for 5 min at 5,000 x g. Perchloric acid-soluble material was adjusted to pH 7.0 by adding ice-cold 5 M KOH. Potassium perchlorate was removed by centrifugation and the supernatant was freezedried. Perchloric acid-insoluble material was extracted twice with ethanol/diethyl ether, 3:1 (vol/vol), at 600C (3) to isolate lipids. The lipid fraction was freeze-dried. Sporulation medium was retained when cells were harvested, freeze-dried, and used to estimate [2-'3C]acetate remaining in the medium. 13C NMR spectra were obtained by using a Bruker WM 300 WB spectrometer (Bruker Spectrospin, Coventry, U.K.) operating at 75 MHz. For in vivo studies freshly harvested cells were resuspended in sporulation medium lacking acetate but containing 10% 2H20 and transferred to a 20-mm NMR tube (15 ml, 8.04 x 108 cells per ml). Immediately prior to the experiment 200 Al of 5 M [2-13C]sodium acetate (90 atom %; Prochem, London) was added and the cell suspension was aerated at about 20 ml/min throughout accumulation (16 K time domain data points; acquisition time, 0.27 s; flip angle, 300). Highpower broad band decoupling was used during acquisition and low power decoupling during delays. Temperature was maintained at 28°C ± 20C throughout. Spectra of aqueous extracts were recorded in 2% 2H20 solutions at pH 7.0 containing 2% dioxane as internal standard (16 K time domain data points; acquisition time, 0.54 s; flip angle, 360; delay time, 2.5 s). Spectra of lipid extracts were run in C2HC13 solution. Peak intensities were calibrated by comparison with those determined for known concentrations of the bonafide compounds relative to dioxane as internal standard at 67.4 ppm. Amino acid pools were determined on perchloric acid extracts according to the method of Spackman (4). RESULTS In Vivo NMR Spectra. Time elapsed 13C NMR spectra of vegetatively grown cells resuspended in sporulation medium containing [2-'3C]acetate are shown in Fig. 1. Spectra taken over a period of 1 hr show the gradual diminution of the C-2 acetate resonance with the appearance of broad signals corresponding to the C-2, C-3, and C-4 of glutamate. Spectra of
The publication costs of this article were defrayed in part by page charge payment. This article must therefore be hereby marked "advertisement" in accordance with 18 U.S.C. §1734 solely to indicate this fact.
*Present address: Department of Microbiology, University College, Newport Road, Cardiff CF2 ITA, United Kingdom. 5847
Biochemistry: Dickinson et al.
Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 80 (1983)
C~~~~~~~~~~C D
/CitC2
cAn A~~~~~~C
cells resuspended in 20% 2H20 showed that the acetate signal derived from extracellular material; no glutamate was excreted into the medium. The appearance of 13C label in the C2, C-3, and C-4 of glutamate seen in Fig. 1 indicates that significant randomization of label occurs through tricarboxylic acid cycle intermediates. Signal broadness from enriched glutamate may be due to an increased rotational correlation time for the metabolite in the intracellular environment or to field inhomogeneity within the sample. Thus, it is not feasible to obtain quantitative data on the degree of randomization of label nor of the amount of metabolites produced from such spectra. However, quantification of the flux of 13C into metabolites can be obtained from 13C NMR spectra recorded in defined homogeneous solutions by calibrating the 13C resonances of a known
C6 Ci
D~ ~
Gin C
FIG. 1. Time course of [2-'3Clacetate metabolism by S. cerevisiae under aerobic conditions. Each spectrum is the result of 250 pulses. A, acetate C-2; C2, glutamate C-2; C3, glutamate C-3; C4, glutamate C-4.
Gin C4
FIG. 3. Resolution-enhanced 75-MHz '3C spectra of perchloric acid lysates; 16 K spectra were obtained as described in the legend to Fig. 2 and were subjected to Gaussian multiplication (GM = 0.5) with a line broadening factor of -2 Hz prior to zero filling to 32 K and Fourier transformation. Spectra A-D refer to lysates made after 1, 2, 4, and 8 hr ofsporulation. Spectrum E (Inset) shows the multiplet corresponding to citrate C-2 obtained for the 8-hr sample after addition of 1 mM EDTA. C2-C4 refer to glutamate C-2, C-3, and C-4; Gln C2-C4 refer to glutamine C-2, C-3, and C-4; Cit C2 refers to the C-2 of citrate.
metabolite by comparison with authentic compounds of known concentration under identical conditions. Acetate Consumption During Sporulation. Acetate was con-
tinually taken up from the medium throughout sporulation; after 24 hr 70% of the acetate had been utilized. There was a concomitant increase of the '3C-enriched bicarbonate signal at 167 ppm, paralleling acetate consumption and resulting in an increase
of the pH of the medium (5).
Intermediary Metabolite Formation. '3C NMR spectra of perchloric acid lysates from cells extracted after periods of 1, 2, 4, and 12 hr of sporulation are shown in Fig. 2. Significant is the appearance of multiplet signals corresponding to glutamate, glutamine, citrate, and trehalose. Concurrent with the changes in proportions of these metabolites are distinct changes in the 13C multiplet structures, reflecting changes in the proportions of 13C isotopomers with time. The changes in multiplicity of the glutamate C-2, C-3, and C4 resonances are more clearly visible in the resolution-enhanced spectra shown in Fig. 3.
Analysis of 13C multiplets for a multiply labeled metabolite C 60 2,3,4-
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~1,2,3,4-
FIG. 2. Seventy-five-megahertz 13C NMR spectra of cell-free perchloric acid lysates ofS. cerevisiae after incubation with [2-13C]acetate. Spectra A-D refer to lysates made after 1, 2, 4, and 12 hr of sporulation. Each spectrum is the result of 3,000 pulses. Spectrum A is shown with a 4x vertical scale and spectra B and C with a 2 x scale with reference to dioxane (peak D in spectrum D) as internal standard. Tre Cl-C0 refer to the carbon atoms of a, a1-trehalose; Glu C2-C4 refer to the carbons of glutamate; and Suc C2 and Cit C2 refer to the C-2 carbons of succinate and citrate, respectively.
I-~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~24
34~~~~4
Time, hr FIG. 4. Proportions of 13C-labeled glutamate species in cell lysates of time.
as a function
provides a means of quantifying the proportions of each labeled species in a complex mixture of isotopomers. Such information can in turn be used to estimate the relative contributions of the metabolic pathways involved in the formation of the compound (6-8). The correlation of '3C-13C multiplet/'3C-'2C center line intensity ratios with 13C isotopomer populations is independent of the differences in T1 and nuclear Overhauser effect for different carbons in a molecule. While a potential source of error arises from the fact that the T1 values and nuclear Overhauser effect for 13C adjacent to '2C (central line) and 13C adjacent to 13C (multiplet) for specific carbon atoms may be different (9), these effects are significant only for nonprotonated carbons and are minimized when spectra are acquired under gated decou-
pling conditions allowing an adequate delay between pulses. The kinetics of appearance of the various '3C-labeled glutamate species is shown in Fig. 4. Analysis of the glutamate '3C isotopomers is facilitated by consideration of the pathways in-
volved. Condensation of [2-'3C]acetyl-CoA with oxaloacetate would give rise via the first turn of the tricarboxylic acid cycle to 2-oxoglutarate and hence glutamate labeled solely at C-4. Cycling of 2-oxo['4-C]glutarate through the tricarboxylic acid cycle would give rise to [2,4-'3C]- and [3,4-'3C]glutamate and further cycling of the doubly enriched species would give rise progressively to 2,4-, 1,3-, and 2,3,4- and hence to 2,4-, 1,3,4-, 2,3,4-, and 1,2,3,4-'3C-labeled glutamate (Fig. 5). No C5-labeled glutamate species were observed, which precludes
20 CO HOO+ co COi _ o H CICj CO
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C02j
C02 s
cco2 C HO
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CO2 yO. c HOi 4 HCO2
C02-
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tCO2-
(9)+.0)[0.25]
(;) + (S) [0.25] (4)
(0) [0-75]
glutamate pool FIG. 5. 13C isotopomer distribution for incorporation of [2-'3C]acetate on sequential turns of the tricarboxylic acid cycle. For clarity, no dilution via anaplerotic mechanisms is assumed. Similarly independent operation of the glyoxylate cycle sequentially gives rise to [2-13C]citrate, [2,4-13C2]and [2,3-13C2]citrate, and [2,3,4-13C3]citrate (8) exclusively.
"scrambling" of label from the C-2 to the C-1 of acetate, which could occur via the tricarboxylic acid cycle, pyruvate carboxylase, and pyruvate dehydrogenase (10). Net synthesis of glutamate solely from the tricarboxylic acid cycle would quickly deplete 2-oxoglutarate and other tricarboxylic acid cycle intermediates and generation of 2-oxoglutarate anaplerotically via the glyoxylate cycle alone would give rise to label located at the 4,3,4, and 2,3,4 positions on successive turns of the cycle. The accumulation of significant amounts of [1,2,3,4-'3C]glutamate indicates the synchronous operation of both cycles during the glutamate biosynthesis phase. Amino acid pools were also determined during sporulation by direct analysis of perchloric acid-soluble material. For most of the amino acids the concentration fell or remained low up to 12 hr, with small increases from 12 to 24 hr. However, glutamate was present in far greater amounts and increased 3-fold in the first hr, reaching a maximum by 8 hr, and then declined. Incorporation of '3C label from acetate into glutamate continues after net synthesis of glutamate has ceased, demonstrating a continuing equilibrium between intermediates. It would appear that a major function of the tricarboxylic acid and glyoxylate cycle enzymes during early sporulation is to provide glutamate. An increase of glutamate during sporulation has been reported (11), but this was believed to be derived from proteolysis (12). Trehalose Synthesis. Trehalose production began by 4 hr but the major increase occurred between 4 and 8 hr, an approximately 5-fold increase occurring over this period. The labeling pattern of the trehalose produced reveals significant equilibration between the dicarboxylic acid pools of the tricarboxylic acid and glyoxylate cycles. Phosphoenolpyruvate derived solely from the glyoxylate cycle without tricarboxylic acid intervention should be labeled exclusively at C-3 and C-2 on the first turn of the cycle and after successive cycles will be labeled at C-3 and C-2 (10). Phosphoenol[2,3-13C2]pyruvate would in turn give rise via gluconeogenesis to [1,2,5,6-'3C4]glucose monophosphate together with [5,6-'3C2]glucose monophosphate derived from condensation of [2,3-'C2]glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate with endogenous dihydroxy['2C]acetone phosphate and [1,2-13C2]glucose monophosphate from dihydroxy[1,2-'3C2]acetone phosphate and unenriched glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate. On the other hand, phosphoenolpyruvate derived from an oxaloacetate pool fully randomized by tricarboxylic acid cycling would contain a mixture of 1,2,3- and 2,3-'3C-labeled species. Examination of the C-5 multiplet of trehalose (Fig. 2) shows a steady increase of both quartet and doublet intensities with time, reflecting a significant degree of equilibration of the C4 dicarboxylic acid pools. The proportional increase of both 5,6and 4,5,6-'3C-labeled glucose moieties in trehalose contrasts with a relatively small proportion of C-6-labeled species produced from phosphoenol[3-13C]pyruvate at the start of gluconeogenesis (Fig. 6). Comparison of the doublet/singlet ratios for C-1, 1' and C6, 6' of trehalose (Fig. 7) shows a steady drop in the ratio of C-1, C-2-coupled species over trehalose labeled only at C-1 in the C-1,2 segment of the molecule. The negative correlation of this ratio with that for the C-5,6 segment is indicative of a constant cycling of synthesized glucose through the hexose monophosphate shunt. It is interesting to note that net glutamate production ceases when trehalose begins to be labeled and therefore there is a switch in the fate of acetate from glutamate production to gluconeogenesis. This identifies an important metabolic "landmark" in sporulation. It is noteworthy that a considerable proportion (up to 30%) of the labeled trehalose is generated via the operation of the pentose phosphate pathway. This will give rise to the generation of NADPH, which can be
c, 0
b) U
Time, hr FIG. 6. Proportions of '3C-labeled glucose 4,5,6-13C isotopomers in trehalose produced as a function of time. Relative proportions are based on analysis of trehalose C-6, C 5, and C-4 multiplets as described in the text. m, 5,6-13C; o, 4,5,6-13C; and o, 6-13C.
used in the reductive biosynthesis of fatty acids. Lipid Synthesis. Commencing at about 4 hr saturated fatty acids labeled in the expected even positions began to appear, as indicated by the presence of equal enrichment at the C-16 and C-18 positions; no label was detected in odd-numbered C atoms. Very little unsaturated fatty acid synthesis was detected during sporulation. Because most of the fatty acids of vegetative cells are unsaturated (13) it is clear that there are differences in the regulation of fatty acid synthesis between sporulating and vegetative cells. A previous report (13) had suggested that the proportion of unsaturated fatty acids increases during
sporulation.
The Metabolic Fate of Acetate in Vegetatively Growing Cells. sporulation and vegetative cell metabolism, the pattern of [2-'3C]acetate labeling of cellular constituents was determined in cells grown in presporulation medium containing [2-'3C]acetate as the major energy source. Only 1.1% of cellular glutamate was 13C-labeled; the remainder (observed due to natural abundance) derives from the growth medium. Vegetative cells also contained slightly less than half the amount of citrate compared with sporulating cells. The trehalose con-
To compare
Time, hr FIG. 7.
Doublet/singlet (M2/Ml) ratios for C-6, 61 (o) and C-1, 11
(e) resonances of a, a'-trehalose during the course of sporulation.
Biochemistry: Dickinson et al. tent of vegetative cells was only 15% of that found in the latter stages of sporulation, and virtually no label from [2-'3C]acetate was incorporated into trehalose under vegetative conditions. This is another major difference between cells growing vegetatively on acetate media and sporulating cells: there is no significant gluconeogenesis from acetate in vegetative cells to make the storage carbohydrate trehalose. The levels of '3C incorporation into fatty acids by vegetative cells were also extremely low. It appears that vegetative cells growing on acetate in a rich medium use acetate mainly for respiration, whereas sporulating cells use acetate for production of intermediates for biosynthesis. DISCUSSION This work has provided a comprehensive insight into several aspects of the metabolism of sporulating cells. Several shifts in metabolism occur: the first is a very rapid change in the operation of the tricarboxylic acid and glyoxylate cycles, such that the intracellular glutamate concentration increases. Subsequently, beginning just before 4 hr into sporulation, when premeiotic DNA synthesis occurs (14), acetate begins to be converted to trehalose via gluconeogenesis. At about 4 hr saturated fatty acid synthesis begins and continues throughout sporulation, without any significant formation of unsaturated fatty acids from acetate. These results confirm previous studies on the level of glutamate (11) and the synthesis of trehalose and fatty acids (1) and extend them to show the contribution of acetate to their formation and their timing relative to each other. They also highlight the role of the glyoxylate cycle in cells sporulating on acetate, as indicated by the studies of Miyake et al. (15) and the demonstration that a mutation affecting isocitrate lyase in S. cerevisiae leads to asporogeny (16). The contribution of the hexose monophosphate pathway to trehalose biosynthesis was unex-
pected. A major discovery has been that the tricarboxylic acid cycle early in sporulation furnishes a high intracellular pool of glutamate, and it appears that apart from trehalose synthesis one of the main uses of acetate is the production of glutamate. Acetate is not used for this in vegetative cells. From the pattern of labeling of glutamate it is clear that a high proportion of the 2oxoglutarate produced in the first part of the tricarboxylic acid cycle is converted directly to glutamate. With the anaplerotic role of the glyoxylate cycle indicated it is apparent that the 2oxoglutarate dehydrogenase and succinyl thiokinase activities of the tricarboxylic acid cycle may be reduced during sporulation. Either or both of these activities may be regulated during sporulation to effect the metabolic fluxes observed. The importance of high intracellular glutamate levels to the sporulating yeast cell is not clear. After transfer of cells to sporulation medium the concentration of all amino acids decreases,
except for proline and glutamate (11, 17). Because glutamate can act as a nitrogen source for S. cerevisiae and is the first intermediate in the assimilation of NH4+, it is clear that the switching of cells from vegetative growth to sporulation is not a direct consequence of the lack of available nitrogen. These 13C NMR studies can now be extended to investigate
other aspects of sporulation control-for example, glucose repression. Metabolism in a variety of mutants that are affected in sporulation, including those altered in the initiation (18, 19), or the later stages, of sporulation (1), can now be studied. Moreover, other cellular processes such as nutritional control over cell proliferation are amenable to this type of analysis. We are grateful to Dr. R. Ambler for access to the amino acid analyzer and to Margaret Daniel for technical assistance. This research was supported by grants from the Science and Engineering Research Council. 1. Esposito, R. 'E. & Klapholz, S. (1981) in The Molecular Biology of the Yeast Saccharomyces. Life Cycle and Inheritance, eds. Strathern, J. N., Jones, E. W. & Broach, J. R. (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring'Harbor, NY), pp. 211-287. 2. Fast, D. (1973) J. Bacteriol. 116, 925-930. 3. Esposito, M. S., Esposito, R. E., Arnaud, M. & Halvorson, H. 0. (1969)J. Bacteriol. 100, 180-186. 4. Spackman, D. G. (1963) Fed. Proc. Fed. Am. Soc. Exp. Biol. 22, 244 (abstr.). 5. Fowell, R. R. (1969) in The Yeasts, eds. Rose, A. H. & Harrison, J. S. (Academic, London), Vol. 1, pp. 303-383. 6. MacKenzie, N. E., Baxter, R. L., Scott, I. A. & Fagerness, P. E. (1982) J. Chem. Soc. Chem. Commun., 145-147. 7. London, R. E., Kollman, V. H. & Matwiyoff, N. A. (1975)J. Am. Chem. Soc. 97, 3565-3573. 8. Walker, T. E., Han, C. H., Kollman, V. H., London, R. E. & Matwiyoff, N. A. (1982)J. Biol. Chem. 257, 1189-1195. 9. London, R. E., Matwiyoff, N. A., Kollman, V. H. & Mueller, D. D. (1975)J. Magn. Reson. 18, 555-557. 10. den Hollander, J. A., Behar, K. L. & Shulman, R. G. (1981) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 78, 2693-2697. 11. Rousseau, P. (1972) Dissertation (Univ. of Wisconsin, Madison). 12. Tingle, M., Singh Klar, A. J., Henry, S. A. & Halvorson, H. 0. (1973) in Microbial Differentiation, 23rd Symposium of the Society for General Microbiology, eds. Ashworth, J. M. & Smith, J. E. (Cambridge Univ. Press, Cambridge, England), pp. 209-243. 13. Illingworth, R. F., Rose, A. H. & Beckett, A. (1973)J. Bacteriol. 113, 373-386. 14. Wright, J. F., Ajam, N. & Dawes, I. W. (1981) Mol. Cell. Biol. 1, 910-918. 15. Miyake, S., Sando, N. & Sato, S. (1971) Dev. Growth Differ. 12, 285-296. 16. Miclo, A. & Guedson, X. (1980) Bull. Ec. Natl. Super. Agron. Ind. Aliment. 22, 23-27. 17. Ramirez, C. & Miller, J. J: (1964) Can. J. Microbiol. 10, 623-631. 18. Dawes, I. W. (1975) Nature (London) 255, 707-708. 19. Dickinson, J. R. & Dawes, I. W. (1983) J. Gen. Microbiol. 129, 18831888.
Report "Saccharomyces cerevisiae"


• Obviously, the weather is better. Albeit humid.
• He wouldn't have to recruit that far outside of Dade County.
• The fans there would appreciate his sideline behavior. The Miami chancellor wouldn't chide him for it.
• He wouldn't be the only game in town. They've got South Beach, the Dolphins, Lebron James and actual celebrities.
• The entire state's mood isn't dependent upon the success of his team.
• Sellout crowds. Mind-boggling popularity.
• Better facilities, and you don't have to drive in Miami traffic.
• Miami media won't be as kind as Nebraska media. The Miami Herald, Sun-Sentinel and Dan Lebitar won't hesitate to tell it like it is.
• He can use this as leverage to get more money here.
• It would mean more to win a championship here.
My husband was once a sports rube. He says the greatest moment in his life, until he met me, was when his Minnesota Twins won the World Series for the first time during his senior year of high school. Then, his first few years as a sportswriter, particularly his experiences covering big time football and basketball, beat any love of sports out of him. He says he could have covered hockey for a lifetime, as long as he didn't want to have a family. Hockey players had perspective. They enjoyed it. Never took it too seriously. Got beers with their rivals after games and told old time hockey stories that were funnier than anything in Slapshot, the Paul Newman cult hit my husband calls the best sports movie of all time. But football is different.
That's why he's been so interested in Huskermania since we moved to Lincoln six years ago. The pain. The anger. The rubes.
All he can listen to anymore, when it comes to sports radio, is a show on KFAN in Minneapolis hosted by Dan Kohl, who calls himself the Common Man. The show is a disorganized mess of a satire that takes shots at sports rubes, athletes and coaches in the fair-weather fan market of Minneapolis. Kohl says that every year all sports teams basically sell hope.
That's what Husker football does. It sells hope that every year the Huskers could win a title. This year they made it to No. 5 in the nation. Had a shot at a national title. Sold hope. But they lost three games, and now they're headed to San Diego for the Holiday Bowl, where they'll hammer Washington, which they already hammered in September at the height of the hope-selling.
In a pretty condescending fashion, my husband tells me that every time a team plays a game, another team is trying to win that game. One of those teams must lose. And the Huskers won 10 of the 13 games. And will probably win 11 of 14. That's pretty good, he says. But not good enough for rubes, who expect their teams to win them all. Only one team can do that, sometimes two, sometimes none. And that team is the national champion.
When I watch games with a Newsweek on my lap and a pile of pistachios, I'll sometimes look up to see a yellow flag or a fumble and say "What the $#*&(@$ are we doing?" And my husband will ask me who I mean by "we," because I don't play for the team. I didn't go through two-a-day practices. I didn't have to get poked in the chest, thank God, by Bo Pelini in the middle of the third quarter. I hate that when he says that.
On my husband's Common Man Show in Minneapolis, Dan Kohl likes to play a clip of former Minnesota Vikings coach Mike Tice, in a stunning moment of clarity, advising during a news conference that everybody "Enjoy the season." Then he got fired. His successor, Brad Childress, coached the Vikings within one idiotic Brett Favre pass from making the Super Bowl. Ten games later, he got fired.
This, according to my husband, is sports. Sell hope (national championship). And when hope is lost (Texas, Texas A&M, Oklahoma), sell blame (Shawn Watson, Big 12 officials, Big 12 conspiracy, 20-year-old redshirt freshman Taylor Martinez). Then we can sell new hope (national championship). Oops – I mean "they" can sell new hope.


text:
FLOODTIDE
Dunbartonshire
Ships and shipping
VISIT TO A SHIPBUILDING YARD
FLYING ABOVE THE CLOUDS
REPORT ON INDUSTRIAL SCOTLAND
OUR ART GALLERIES AND MUSEUMS
OUR CITY - TODAY AND TOMORROW
Title: FLOODTIDE
Director: d. Frederick Wilson
Fiction: fiction
Running time: 90 mins
Description: Set in Clydeside, the film tells the story of a farmer's son who loved ships, came to the Clyde and worked his way up in the shipyard from apprentice to chief designer.
See additional information file for anecdotal recollections of shooting sailing sequence.
See also articles in:
Today's Cinema 11 March 1949, Vol. 72 (5776), p. 9.
Monthly Film Bulletin 30 April 1949 Vol. 17 (184), p. 60
This film can be viewed online for a fee on BFI Player at: https://player.bfi.org.uk/rentals/film/watch-floodtide-1949-online last accessed 04/10/2021]
Credits: cast Gordon Jackson, Rona Anderson, Jimmy Logan, Elizabeth Sellars, John Laurie, Jack Lambert, Janet Brown, Gordon McLeod, Ian MacLean, Archie Duncan, James Woodburn, Molly Weir, Ian Wallace, Alexander Archdale, Grace Garvin, Alistair Hunter, Kitty Kirwan, Peter Illing, Norah Gordon, Molly Urquhart, Sam Kydd, Richard Nairne, Robin Russell, Harold Lang, Alistair Urquhart, Ian Scott, James Fraser, Arthur Law, Hugh Munro
p. Donald B. Wilson
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text:
The Black Moods Interview with Josh Kennedy By Nina McCarthy
The Black Moods
Interview with Josh Kennedy
By Nina McCarthy
Born in the Arizona desert and reared on stages across North America, the band delivers a modern update of a timeless sound, breathing fresh life into a familiar mix of electric guitars, anthemic hooks, and percussive stomp. The Black Moods' three members, frontman/guitarist Josh Kennedy, drummer Daniel "Chico" Diaz, and bassist Jordan Hoffman, are busy with new management, touring, and providing us with some great new rock n roll. Thank you to frontman, Josh Kennedy for answering some questions for Boston Rock Radio.
With a name like The Black Moods, you would think your music would be depressing, but in reality it's very lively ageless rock n roll, which is exactly what I love. Give me 5 adjectives that you think describe your music.
Powerful, Emotional, Sexual, Dynamic, Broad.
You guys have been building your audience the old school way, by touring. What would you say are the pros and cons of this method?
The pros and cons kind of even each other out. The pros are reaching a new audience and getting your name out there. Getting to travel and play your songs for new faces and friends that we've made. Getting to see crazy things and having your best friends there to hit on the shoulder and say "Did you see that?!?"
The cons are the lack of sleep, endless nights and being away from the people you love. Since we've graduated to the bus the overnight drives and days off (if we have them) have become a lot easier. Honestly though, for us the only con is missing your family and missing the studio. All the other stuff we all kind of like.
The song "Bella Donna" (Summer 2018) was the one that put you on the Top 40 Billboard Mainstream Rock chart. What do you think it was about that song that resonated with the audience?
It's a rock song. No gimmicks or crazy overdubs. It's 3 guys recording in a garage.... it's honest. No crazy overdone production..... Not much of that these days, ya know?
Exactly! Tell me all about the Bella Donna wine and why did you choose this name for it?
The Bella Donna wine came from a friend of ours bringing it to our attention as something we could do. There are lots of bands lending their name to a variety of whiskeys and wines and all that. We didn't want it to be that. We got involved in every aspect and are very proud of it. It's a red blend with a company called SuVino out of Scottsdale AZ. The name seemed appropriate since it was our first top 40 hit..... and the logo looks sexy on the bottle.
In January of this year, the band signed with FM Music Management. How has it been working with them?
Everyone at the company has been great. It's been nice having them answer the phone (or email us back) when we call...... that's new to us.
That's definitely a great start! Besides "Bella Donna" you have released 2 more singles off your upcoming album. Do you have a targeted release date for the album?
We are hoping to release it by April 2020, but I feel like I jinx it when I say a specific date....so let's say "Spring". 😊
Can you tell me a little about these singles and the inspiration behind them (whether it be the music or the lyrics)?
"Bad News" - came quick. Our producer Johnny K- came into town and we played through some of the songs we wanted to make the record. He immediately, in true producer form, started ripping into them.... so, we sent him back to his hotel to get some rest and said we will have something when he comes in tomorrow when we are all rested up. He left, we looked at each other and said, "Oh shit, what are we gonna do?" We just started jamming and here came this song in about an hour or 2. Johnny came in the next day and we finished the lyrics. It was inspiring.
"Whatcha Got" - We were wanting to write something with "4 on the floor", ya know,- a dance beat. Something to get asses shaking. We were on tour and driving through Chicago so we stopped by Johnnys studio. He had the riff and the idea of the song. The story behind it was hilarious, which is pretty much an ex GF of his showed up in the middle of the night looking for a fight amongst other things...We took the story and wrote the lyrics. It's pretty "tongue in cheek". Just a fun song.
I was watching a reality show last night and one of the cast members said "You only go to Arizona to cook meth or die in the desert." I don't know about you, but I've heard some damn good rock n roll out of Arizona. How do you feel about this statement?
I don't even know where to begin with that statement. We've been to almost every state in the U.S. and everyone has their issues with that terrible drug, or something else. I've seen a lot worse than Arizona. I'm originally from the Ozarks and I've seen it ruin a lot of lives there too. That kind of thing is everywhere. The state of Arizona is beautiful and our home. We always look forward to being there whenever tour is over. I would suggest to whomever said that to quit cooking meth in Arizona.
The Black Moods have come a long way since the 2012 self-titled album. Do you have any advice for up and coming artists to share from your experiences over the last several years?
My advice is to never stop. You can't win if you quit. You also need to surround yourself with people that have the same vision and believe in you and what you are doing. We have seen both sides and it can be stifling and discouraging if you are working with people out to make a quick buck.
Besides the upcoming album, what can we look forward to in the future?
More touring and more albums. Creation and growth is where it's at.
Thank you for taking the time to answer my questions on behalf of Boston Rock Radio. I hope to catch you next time you tour through New England!
Thank you so much for taking the time to talk. Hope to see you soon!
FM Music Management


text:
It's coming back! – Training at Wilberforce Road from 3rd August
I know I've missed it. Training on grass is all very well but you can't beat the track for certain types of training.
I hope, by now, you will have seen the club email giving the good news that the University is opening up the Wilberforce Road site from Monday 3rd August. Of course, this comes with a number of restrictions still but it's very good news.
It's been a long journey. The University Sports team have had to double somersault through hoops to get the site signed off as Covid-safe by the Estates department. We have to thank Lee De Grammont, the Head Groundsman, and his team for a lot of that work.
Various members of the C&C team have been working closely with them to explain our position and our desire to get back on track at the earliest possible time too.
Part of the work we had to do was create a club plan for the return which will be adjusted as needed through the coming weeks and months. We have created a club risk assessment that has driven our plan, a set of club rules, and are asking all athletes to sign a declaration to show they've read and understood the rules for a safe return.
As we are restricted to 6 per training group at the moment and the need to maintain safe distances between groups we will be limited on how many can attend each session. So we have agreed to put on 2 consecutive sessions on each of Tuesday and Thursday evenings (similar to how we have run the junior academy on Mondays for some time). We have extended our times: 6pm to 9pm allowing the two sessions.
Separately, we will issue details of which coaches are available at which sessions and how to request a place at the track for a particular session. It is vital that we only turn up to the track for a session when a confirmation email is received. Your discipline on this will be appreciated.
There'll be further communication about this system soon this week.
Thank you for bearing with us and your membership has now been extended by 4 months to accommodate the time we haven't been able to train together. Although there are some challenges with the membership system which means you may receive a request to renew earlier than needed.
All the best, and hope to see some of you at Wilberforce Road soon.
Keith Clarke
Chair, C&C AC


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text:
Will New Smokeless Tobacco Products Cut or Boost the Smoking Rate?
Michigan prepares to go smokeless
Presidential smoking = public health opportunity
Obama signs bill restricting mail-order cigarette sales
Smoking is a matter of choice
Fire Safe Cigarette Laws: More Harm than Good
Tax eyed after teen tobacco report
Tobacco Companies Defend Use of Menthol in Cigarettes
Future of anti-smoking program unclear
E-cigarettes: A true remedy to quit or teen marketing tool?
Commonwealth Brands Shocked by FDA Rules
The FDA gets into the business of regulating tobacco today
Cannabis breaks the age barrier
Smokeless tobacco more popular among young people than cigarettes
F.D.A. to Examine Menthol Cigarettes
Native American Tobaccoo flower, leaves, and buds
Tobacco-Facts ads
« Fire Safe Cigarette Laws: More Harm than Good
Tobacco Companies Defend Use of Menthol in Cigarettes »
Massachusetts high school nurses say they have noticed fewer students smoking cigarettes. But, they can't be sure if more are switching to smokeless tobacco as a substitute.
"(There is) definitely less smoking that we can detect on their clothes," said Marlborough High's Virginia Gadbois, a school nurse since 1986, following the release earlier this month of survey that indicates teens have switched from cigarettes to other tobacco products.
The report, conducted by the state health and education departments and funded by the U.S. Centers for Disease Control, surveyed middle and high school students about their tobacco habits. It concluded that for the first time, high school students are using more smokeless tobacco and cigars than regular cigarettes.
The study says 16 percent of high school students said they had used cigarettes in the past 30 days, whereas 17.6 percent said they had used other kinds of tobacco products.
High school nurses say they haven't noticed any increase in such products, but don't deny students are using them.
"I'm not saying it's not here, I'm sure it is. I'm saying I'm not seeing it," Gadbois said.
She said she no longer smells smoke wafting from the girl's bathroom.
Nicole Marcinkiewicz, a nurse at Natick High School, said she hasn't dealt with any complications due to smokeless tobacco, such as oral cancer.
Still, organizations like Tobacco Free Mass, a policy organization based in Framingham, say youth are drawn to products like flavored tobacco lozenges, small flavored cigars and dissolvable bags of flavored tobacco.
"It's not surprising given the fact that the tobacco industry markets their products to young people," Executive Director Russet Morrow Breslau said.
These products cost between $1 and $7 she said, whereas a pack of cigarettes costs around $9.
"That points to the fact that youth are price-sensitive. They are turning to these less expensive products that are marketed to them," Morrow Breslau said.
The education department's study follows a proposal in Gov. Deval Patrick's fiscal 2011 budget to increase the sales tax on smokeless tobacco and cigars to the same level as regular cigarettes.
While these products are already taxed at rates varying from 30 to 90 percent, the governor's budget would raise the taxes to equal about 110 or 120 percent of their cost - the same increase imposed on cigarettes in 2008.
"These things weren't increased back then, and the idea is to sort of catch up," said Robert Bliss, a spokesman for the Department of Revenue.
Some Massachusetts legislators say raising the tax is a good way to discourage young people from buying tobacco.
"This is a product that's causing a lot of damage to people, hurting a lot of people, killing a lot of people. It makes no sense to me that a product like that wouldn't be taxed," said Sen. Jamie Eldridge, D-Acton, the Senate sponsor of a bill mirroring Patrick's budget proposal. The bill was recently sent to a study committee.
Rep. Peter Koutoujian, D-Waltham, who led the 2008 effort to increase cigarette tax by $1-a-pack, spoke Wednesday at an anti-smoking rally.
"I'm not interested in taxes for raising money. However, if you can reduce consumption of a product that's going to be addictive, that'd be a tax I'd consider," Koutoujian said yesterday.
Other legislators, including Rep. Danielle Gregoire, D-Marlborough, and Rep. Alice Peisch, D-Wellesley, are wary of any new taxes.
Peisch said she likes the idea of an increased tax to dissuade young people from using tobacco, but she is hesitant to support any new taxes this year.
Peisch said her stance "is less connected to the merits of the particular tax on smokeless tobacco and more connected to the lack of support for taxes at this point in general."
Speaker Robert DeLeo has said the House budget will not include new taxes.
By Laura Krantz
Smokeless tobacco more popular among young people than cigarettes BOSTON — Some high school nurses say they have noticed...
Teen use of beer and cigarettes down, but marijuana use is up For the first time in more than a decade, marijuana...
Teen Tobacco Use Becomes A Daily Habit Researchers have found new evidence showing that parents play a...
Global tobacco report outlines 21 challenges for 21st century ATLANTA –A new American Cancer Society report outlines 21 challenges...
Prevention program reduces teen tobacco use Small and midsize communities that are part of the Communities...
Report on US tobacco control policies The United States is becoming a nation of haves and...
FDA bans flavored tobacco, aims to reduce teen smoking A federal ban on the sale of most flavored cigarettes,...
Tobacco Free Campus finishes its final report The Tobacco Free Campus Committee — an effort to ban...
Smart tactic: Tax tobacco Discussions regarding revenue in the state of Louisiana are met...
April 1st, 2010 | Tags: Smoking Report | Category: cigarettes taxes on tobacco | Leave a comment
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text:
NFL does the right thing, a lot later than it should have
Posted by Mike Florio on November 14, 2018, 12:31 PM EDT
As the saying goes (I think), wisdom often never arrives at all, it's better that it show up late.
For the NFL, it wasn't wisdom so much as it was desperation that forced the league to pull the plug on Monday night's Chiefs-Rams game Mexico City. The field had disintegrated to somewhere between prison yard and post-apocalyptic, and there was no amount of emergency sodding that was going to make it suitable for NFL football by Monday night.
So here's the question that may never be answered: Why did it come so close to happening? The concert that tore up the turf occurred on October 11, more than a month before the plug was pulled. What did the league think would occur between then and now to allow the field to meet the NFL's standards?
Although the NFL avoided the ultimate embarrassment of insisting on playing the game and having players refuse to play at all, the fact that the league had to throw in the towel on the Mexico City game only six days before playing it is embarrassing enough.
Whatever the explanation, it's hard to understand why efforts weren't immediately undertaken to assess the situation and to remedy it. It's impossible to understand why the rip cord wasn't pulled until six days before the game.
The explanation could be simple. Whoever was in charge of the game (Mark Waller oversees the league's international operation) possibly knew what was coming and opted to delay the inevitable awkward meeting with Commissioner Roger Goodell, who undoubtedly blew his stack when he'd found out that the league had blown its now-annual Mexican excursion.
Then again, there's a chance the NFL had an inkling that things could go sideways this year. Why else would the Rams and Chiefs have a bye over Thanksgiving, a weekend during which the playing of three games on Thursday will leave only 10 in the early- and late-afternoon broadcast windows? Maybe the league gave the Rams and Chiefs a post-Mexico bye to account for the possibility that the decision to not play in Mexico would come at a time when it was too late to reschedule it in L.A. for the same day, forcing the game to be played in L.A. the following Sunday or Monday.
22 responses to "NFL does the right thing, a lot later than it should have"
Liberalsruineverything says:
I don't see the big deal. They are still playing the game in Mexico. They just moved it a little further North…..
akira1971 says:
"Maybe the league gave the Rams and Chiefs a post-Mexico bye to account for the possibility that the decision to not play in Mexico would come at a time when it was too late to reschedule it in L.A. for the same day, forcing the game to be played in L.A. the following Sunday or Monday."
Said someone that has never done emergency planning exercises. Obviously NFL has fixed time schedules for every possibility – that's why home teams are forced to keep the home stadium available even while playing in Mexico or London.
Even snowed out NFL games have a whole book on contingency planning.
whodatalien says:
dawg i do not believe they actually pulled it for field conditions. there is still a lot of inconsistency on playing surfaces in the nfl. the NFC East does not have a single good field between the 4 teams. They pulled it because this is a marquis matchup and will be the biggest game the LA Rams have ever hosted.
Wait, why is the game being moved? According to everyone here, the league only cares about the money and not player safety…
Please try and explain that.
"Why did it come so close to happening? The concert that tore up the turf occurred on October 11, more than a month before the plug was pulled."
They've had multiple soccer games and a tournament on it since the concert. It's not like the stadium wasn't being used and they just left it like that…
therealjr says:
Teams should never have a bye as late as Thanksgiving week, but now that explains it.
melikefootball says:
How much money was spent on this fiasco as well as the cover up in London on the four jag players
"the fact that the league had to throw in the towel on the Mexico City game only six days before playing it is embarrassing enough."
Why is this an embarrassment to the NFL? The stadium wasn't up to standards and they exercised their contractual right to move the game. The contingency plans kicked in very effectively. The game is ready to go in LA and millions will watch on tv won't even notice the difference.
In fact, I'm very impressed with their planning abilities to move so quickly and efficiently. The logistics would've crippled most organizations – apparently not the NFL and it's partners.
"It's impossible to understand why the rip cord wasn't pulled until six days before the game."
This logic makes no sense. If the Rams fell behind by a touchdown in the first quarter, are they supposed to just give up and "pull the rip cord" too?? Or be smart and give them time to remedy the situation before bailing out?
There are reasons why specific deadlines are set. It appears six days for a NFL game is more than enough time to finalize a go/no-go decision.
gtodriver says:
Just stop all international games.
melikefootball says: "How much money was spent on this fiasco"
Why, are you offering to help the billionaire owners pay for it?
DolFan says:
They did the right thing. It is not embarrassing.
Rdog says:
Why is 100% of the blame being pointed at the NFL? Some of the blame has to be on the field crew at that Mexican stadium. For all we know, the NFL may have been relying on that crew to get it together and fix it, but obviously they weren't able to do it. There may have been promises made which the NFL was relying on.
We don't know all the circumstances, but I'm guessing there are some circumstances the NFL can't totally control when dealing with soccer stadiums in a different country. They moved the game. Problem solved.
Edward Halverson says:
The media always has to put their spin on things. Whether it's right or wrong.
The NFL made the right decision, and they did it with plenty of time to spare.
hagemeisterpark920 says:
Everyone is upset that the NFL wants to play games in foreign countries. If you look at it from a business stand point, if the NFL does not try to grab those foreign markets, somebody else will. Much like Major League Soccer has gained traction here in America. A good business would not allow that opprotunity to pass.
Guess it just shows that good ole Roger never lets any grass grow under his feet.
keoniweb says:
The right thing would be suspending Aaron Donald for one game for his intentionally targeting the other team and looking to start a fight on the field after a game. It's one thing to get heated during play and get flagged. It's completely different to do it with intent after.
gtodriver
Nov 14, 2018, 12:14 PM CST
The nfl is a $9 billon a year enterprise. Every single one of the owners is a billionaire. What are your credentials?
Will the NFL help all of those fans who paid for tickets to the Mexico game? Lodging that can't be refunded? Air travel that can't be refunded? The number of affected individuals is probably small in comparison, but still, that sucks for them!
jimcross1957 says:
So, who wants these games played in Mexico? It seems like if it was really a big deal to Mexico, they would have shut down events leading up to the game date to insure a good playing field. Like golf courses do prior to a PGA event.
kenfromcalifornia says:
A game between the two best teams in the League was NEVER going to be played in Mexico, yes?
Mr. Kroenke has way too much influence to get what he wants…that game was headed back to LA weeks ago.
If Tyreek had to play in the snow & ice in Buffalo come December, such a game certainly wouldn't get cancelled because of dangerous field conditions. This was just an excuse to bring this marquee game stateside, where the dazzle and star power of LA/Hollywood can make it a true showcase for the League.
If it were the lowly 49ers vs the lowly Raiders scheduled to play in Mexico this week, that game would still be played.
peoplesfrontofjudea says:
I wonder to what extent potential contractual liabilities played a role in the timing. Waiting until there was not reasonable argument that the field would be ready insulates the league from claims better than an early pull, when one could argue there was still time to get the field ready.


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Q: Does a linear map change the basis of the target vector-space? If no: Is a linear map clearly defined just by how it transforms the basis vectors? I am learning linear algebra on my own (I only have high school experience). I am not able to find an answer to this seemingly easy question - perhaps because I lack the mathematical lingo to correctly express myself.
If a linear map is defined as V -> W between two vector spaces, are the transformed basis vectors of V also basis vectors of W?
If the answer is yes: could we uniquely define a specific linear map V -> W just by how it transforms the basis vectors of V to the basis vectors of W? Because any vector in the W vector-space would just be a linear combination of these (transformed) basis vectors?

A: Let $V$ and $W$ be vector spaces, let $B$ be a subset of $V$, and let $f\colon B \to W$ be a function (of sets, ignoring any vector space structure). Then:

*

*If $B$ spans $V$, then there is at most one linear map $T\colon V \to W$ such that $T(b) = f(b)$ for all $b \in B$. (However, if $B$ isn't linearly independent, there might be no such linear map, because the elements of $B$ might satisfy a linear relation that the elements $f(b) \in W$ don't satisfy.)

*If $B$ is linearly independent, then there is at least one linear map $T\colon V \to W$ such that $T(b) = f(b)$ for all $b \in B$. (However, if $B$ doesn't span $V$, there is more than one such linear map, because you can extend $B$ to a basis and make many choices for where to send the other basis vectors.)

*Putting the above two facts together: If $B$ is a basis, then there is a unique linear map $T\colon V \to W$ such that $T(b) = f(b)$ for all $b \in B$.

In other words, given a basis of a vector space, there's a one-to-one correspondence between maps from the basis to another vector space and linear maps to another vector space; to define a linear map, it suffices to define it on a basis. (This is essentially what the matrix representation of a linear map is: you're just taking the image of each vector in a chosen basis of the domain, representing it as a list of numbers via a chosen basis of the codomain, and assembling these lists of numbers into a rectangular array.)
However, given a basis $B$ of $V$ and a linear map $T\colon V \to W$, the image $T(B) = \{T(b) : b \in B\}$ does not have to be linearly independent, nor does it have to span $W$. For example, if you take the map $(x, y, z) \mapsto (x + y, x + y) : \mathbb{R}^3 \to \mathbb{R}^2$, the image of the standard basis $\{(1, 0, 0), (0, 1, 0), (0,0,1)\}$ under this map is $\{(2, 2), (2, 2), (0, 0)\}$, which is neither linearly independent nor spans $\mathbb{R}^2$.
The key here is that these are related to the notions of surjective (onto), injective (one-to-one), and bijective (one-to-one and onto) functions:

*

*A linear map $T\colon V \to W$ is surjective if and only if, for some basis $B$ of $V$, the image set $T(B)$ spans $W$.

*$T$ is injective if and only if, for some basis $B$ of $V$, the image set $T(B)$ is linearly independent.

*Putting the above two together: $T$ is bijective if and only if, for some basis $B$ of $V$, the image set $T(B)$ is a basis of $W$.

Also, you can replace "for some basis" with "for every basis" and the above will still be true (the choice of basis doesn't matter here).
I recommend working out examples of all of these (and drawing pictures, say in 2 or 3 dimensions, if possible), this will help a lot with the intuition.

A: I'm not sure exactly what you are asking in the first part of your question, so I'll address the second part first.
It is true that that a linear transformation is completely determined by its action on a basis.  If the transformation is non-singular, then the images of the basis vectors will be linearly independent.  They may or may not form a basis for $W$.  If the dimension of $W$ is equal to the dimension of $V$ they will, but if it is greater, they will not.  (It's not possible to have a non-singular transformation to a space of smaller dimension.)
If the transformation isn't non-singular, then the images of the basis vectors won't be linearly independent, so they certainly won't form a basis.  If this is what you are asking in the first part, then the answer is "No".  In particular, the $0$ transformation maps everything to the $0$ vector, which isn't an element of any basis.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


text:
Dazed and confused: Are you administering the contract... or the construction?
By Al Rabasca, Director of Industry Relations, Design Professional
Design professionals use various terms in contracts, websites and correspondence to describe their services during the construction phase of a project.
For decades, many A/Es have used the term "construction administration" (instead of "contract administration") to refer to services they provide during the construction phase of a project. Some lawyers, echoing their clients' jargon, have also used "construction administration" in their writings and pleadings. The term has found its way into books, magazine articles, and even earlier editions of AXA XL's Contract eGuide for Design Professionals. But is that the term you should be using?
You won't find "construction administration" anywhere in the American Institute of Architects (AIA) B101™-2017 Owner-Architect Agreement, the Engineers Joint Contract Documents Committee (EJCDC®) E-500 2014 Standard Form Agreement Between Owner & Engineer for Professional Services or the Royal Architectural Institute of Canada (RAIC) Canadian Standard Form of Contract for Architectural Services – Document Six, 2018 Edition.
Instead, the AIA documents use the term "administration of the contract." Under "Construction Phase Services," the B101 states the "Architect shall provide administration of the Contract between the Owner and the Contractor." (Ditto AIA A201-2017 General Conditions of the Contract for Construction.) The EJCDC documents also use the term "construction contract administration" as well as "general administration of construction contract." RAIC's documents call it "administration of the construction contract."
The glossary in AIA's The Architect's Handbook of Professional Practice, Fifteenth Edition, defines "construction contract administration services" as:
Services for the architect's general administration of the construction contract(s). This includes reviewing and certifying amounts due the contractor, reviewing the contractor's submittals, preparing change orders, making site visits to observe progress of the work, and conducting site inspections to determine dates of substantial completion and final completion.
The term "construction administration" does not appear in the handbook's glossary.1
Some industry professionals prefer to omit the word "construction" entirely, feeling that "contract administration" more appropriately describes an A/E's services. According to Al Rabasca, AXA XL's Director of Industry Relations, "A/Es are, after all, administering the contract, not the construction."
In any case, many design professionals are moving away from using the term "construction administration." "The term can be confusing," Rabasca says. He points out that to a layperson, "administer" isn't a far cry from "supervise" or "manage" and some—including clients—could mistakenly believe that "construction administration" means "construction supervision" or "construction management."
"You can't assume everyone, including jurors, understands what we intend when we use industry shorthand," Rabasca says. "You just know that some lawyer somewhere would be able to persuade a jury that construction administration means managing the construction."
What about "construction observation"?
Rabasca says many clients and even some emerging professionals also confuse "construction observation" with "construction contract administration." The latter often includes the former, but the former definitely does not describe the latter (are you still with us?).
The Architect's Handbook of Professional Practice defines "observation of the work" in this way:
That part of the architect's contract administration services in which the architect visits the site to become generally familiar with the progress and quality of the work completed to determine, in general, if the work observed is being performed in a manner indicating it will be in accordance with the contract documents when fully completed.
So, what term should you use? Rabasca says you're better off using terms used by the AIA, EJCDC or RAIC. "Administration of the contract," "construction contract administration" and "contract administration" more accurately describe a design professional's role during construction phase services. "Being precise in our terminology is important," Rabasca says. "It can help shape expectations, give clients and their lawyers one less toehold to try to distort what an A/E is responsible for, and ultimately reduce the risk of misunderstandings and disputes."
1 AIA's The Architect's Handbook of Professional Practice, Fifteenth Edition.
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Great location near to graduation ceremony event.
Dated room, nice hotel, Great staff.
Paint flaking off ceiling in bathroom. Room had strong(stale) smoke Oder. Trash seen under bed. No bathroom exhaust fan. Staff was awesome and breakfast was great. With exception to room hotel was really nice.
Nice clean rooms with comfortable beds. Front desk staff very helpful. Great breakfast too!
Great stay in the hotel during Ranger graduation.


Looking for something cool to do tonight? Look no further than The Pour House, they'll be hosting the folk rock/Celtic/jam band Enter The Haggis.
The band hails from Toronto, Canada and is making The Pour House their one night stop in South Carolina. The upbeat, sometimes heavy, and bagpipe tinged sound is great fun. Everyone is a sucker for Irish music, so just go for it.
The show starts at 9:30 p.m. and from the looks of it, is free. The Pour House is located at 1977 Maybank Highway.


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MPD Personnel Files For Officers Involved In Dolal Idd's Shooting Reveal History Of Complaints And Commendations
By Jennifer Mayerle January 8, 2021 at 6:19 pm
Filed Under:Dolal Idd, Jennifer Mayerle, Local TV, Minneapolis Police
MINNEAPOLIS (WCCO) – At the end of December, Dolal Idd died in an apparent shoot-out with police after they say they tried to stop him as part of a weapons investigation.
Now, WCCO is digging deeper into the personnel files of the Minneapolis Police officers involved in his shooting death.
The files of MPD officers Paul Huynh, Jason Schmitt, and Sgt. Darcy Klund lay out their time with the department. Klund had been there the longest, on the force since 1987. His file shows four complaints reviewed by Internal Affairs, another three by a Civilian Review Authority, or CRA.
Early on in his career, in 1994, a letter of reprimand was added to his file for berating officers with another department while off duty. He was promoted to sergeant roughly five months later. In 1996, Klund was demoted to officer and was later reinstated after arbitration.
The rest of Klund's file is filled with numerous department commendations for quick response and excellence.
The mother of a murder victim once wrote, "He treated us with a tremendous amount of respect, always being mindful of the loss that we were suffering."
Officer Jason Schmitt has been with MPD for 23 years. His file shows 23 complaints, either reviewed by IA or CRA, all ending without discipline. There are also numerous department awards for things like merit, valor, and saving a life. He received the Medal of Honor as one of the first responders to the 35W bridge collapse.
While Associate Professor at St. Thomas School of Law Rachel Moran admits, he's been involved in dangerous situations, the 23 complaints stand out to her.
"I'm reluctant to judge, I can't do that, but I'm concerned that there's that many complaints and a lack of information about what the basis of those complaints were," she said.
Officer Paul Hunyh is newest to the department, hired in 2014. Eight internal affairs investigations resulted in no discipline. In that time, he received a handful of awards, the latest in November for his role in investigating a rash of robberies with the Community Response Team.
Overall, Moran calls the files standard, insufficient, saying the bigger issue is public access.
"It's even more frustrating when you're trying to figure out if that was an appropriate use of force by the police or not to know, well, a bunch of complaints filed against these officers. But we don't know what they were about," she said.
The three officers are on standard administrative leave while the BCA investigates. The Dakota County Attorney's Office is reviewing the case.
The files released associated with the Idd case are available here.
Jennifer Mayerle
Jennifer Mayerle happily returned to Minnesota and WCCO, where she began her career as an intern. The Emmy and Edward R. Murrow award-winning...More from Jennifer Mayerle


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Copyrightability of Application Programming Interfaces and a Fair Use Defense: Oracle America, Inc. v. Google Inc.
Michael R. Mazzella III and R. Harrison Dilday
Cite as: 1 GEO. L. TECH. REV. 62 (2016)
In May of 2014, the United States Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit incorrectly reversed the United States District Court for the Northern District of California's decision in Oracle v. Google. By broadly extending copyright protection to Java Application Programming Interfaces (APIs), the Federal Circuit drastically shifted the landscape of coding and app development. On remand over copyright fair use questions, the district court creates a kind of shield against the consequences of a Federal Circuit reversal, but on very timid—and very expensive—grounds. When the smoke clears, this decision may result in hindered innovation and stalled technological advances that tend to harm consumers, a flood of intellectual property infringement litigation that will overburden courts, and a new standing precedent that deviates from legislative intent. 1Corynne McSherry, Dangerous Decision in Oracle v. Google: Federal Circuit Reverses Sensible Lower Court Ruling on APIs, Elec. Frontier Found. (May 9, 2014), https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2014/05/dangerous-ruling-oracle-v-google-federal-circuit-reverses-sensible-lower-court.
This comment seeks to address the decision made by the Federal Circuit's reversal and provide an alternative approach that is in better keeping with the spirit of the Copyright Act. The comment analyzes the future of computer software copyright cases by exploring the decision on remand over Google's fair use defense, and the likelihood of that defense succeeding in subsequent appeals via an explanation of the history of that defense.
APIs and Why Conformity Matters
Essentially, an API dictates what programming language developers must use in order for their applications to interact with preexisting programs. The role that APIs play in software development has been expressed through a variety of metaphors—ranging from books in a library2Oracle Am., Inc. v. Google Inc., 872 F. Supp. 2d 974, 977 (N.D. Cal. 2012), rev'd, 750 F.3d 1339 (Fed. Cir. 2014), cert. denied, 135 S. Ct. 2887 (2015). to files in a filing cabinet.3Bryan Bishop, Inside the Oracle v. Google Courtroom: Questions, Code, and a File Cabinet, Verge (Apr. 23, 2012, 8:28 AM EDT), http://www.theverge.com/2012/4/23/2961991/inside-oracle-vs-google-courtroom-questions-code-a-file-cabinet. However, an API can perhaps be best thought of as the design of an electrical outlet.4Dennis Crouch, Are APIs Patent or Copyright Subject Matter?, PatentlyO (May 12, 2014), http://patentlyo.com/patent/2014/05/copyright-subject-matter.html. The plug on an appliance must fit the design of the outlet in order for the appliance to work. Similarly, an API functions as a standardized "plug" for software programs and applications.5Id. ("[A] computer program designed to be compatible with another program must conform precisely to the API of the first program, which establishes rules about how other programs must send and receive information so that the two programs can work together to execute specific tasks."). Oracle is effectively seeking to enforce a copyright on its outlets so that Google cannot create new software with the requisite corresponding plugs.
Allowing Oracle to copyright their APIs necessarily excludes other companies, like Google, from developing compatible applications without having to pay Oracle a licensing fee or face copyright infringement liability. Every time a technology company attempts to build a program with the capability of collaborating with an existing product made with another company's API, they will be opening themselves up to liability. Ultimately, the licensing fees and possible litigation costs will likely deter technology companies to cease production of complementary programs all together.
In an indication of industry consensus regarding the importance of API design to technological innovation, a startup that "enables developers to find, test, and manage many of the APIs they want to integrate into their apps" recently attracted $3.5 million in venture capital.6Connie Loizos, This 18-Year-Old Just Raised $3.5 Million to Help Developers Easily Add Capabilities to Their Apps, TechCrunch (Nov. 21, 2016), https://techcrunch.com/2016/11/21/this-18-year-old-just-raised-3-5-million-to-help-developers-easily-add-capabilities-to-their-apps. Clearly, there is a strong desire within the technology sector to be able to build off the ideas and inventions of their colleagues and improve one another's products along the way.7Brief Amicus Curiae Of The Computer & Communications Industry Association In Support Of Cross-Appellant Google Urging Affirmance at 34, Oracle Am., Inc. v. Google Inc., 872 F. Supp. 2d 974, 977 (N.D. Cal. 2013) (No. 10-cv-3561), http://cdn.ccianet.org/wp-content/uploads/library/CCIA%20Amicus-%20Oracle-v-Google.pdf ("The United States and over 40 other countries have recognized that permitting copyright law to impede interoperability would harm legitimate competition in the computer industry and impair the growth of the Internet economy.")
A large part of the industry conformity towards certain APIs and its fears over the results in this case is rooted in the basic purpose of APIs, the Electronic Freedom Foundation points out, "They're purely functional."8Julie Samuels, Oracle v. Google and the Dangerous Implications of Treating APIs as Copyrightable, Elec. Frontier Found. (May 7, 2012), https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2012/05/oracle-v-google-and-dangerous-implications-treating-apis-copyrightable. This means that the expressive nature of an API arguably does not rise to the level of copyright protection.9Id. In the past, this has left those in the industry comfortable using existing APIs instead of continually writing new source code.10Id. In fact, the law already holds that copyright does not extend to programming languages, but what may be created with such languages.11Id. Though APIs are not programming languages per se, their purpose and use is largely similar, and ought to be held to the same legal standard.
Applying copyright protection to APIs would limit such improvements in their tracks, and aspects of copyright law, such as merger doctrine, and a pragmatic understanding of fair use (and of good faith as a component of fair use), support limiting its protection for APIs.
The Merger Doctrine and APIs' Copyrightability
In other cases, where companies have attempted to copyright ubiquitous modes of expression, courts have applied the merger doctrine. The merger doctrine entails that "when there are limited ways to express an idea, using copyright to bar others from expressing that idea would be inappropriate."12John Villasenor, How Much Copyright Protection Should Source Code Get? A New Court Ruling Reshapes the Landscape, Forbes (May 19, 2014, 10:57 PM), http://www.forbes.com/sites/johnvillasenor/2014/05/19/how-much-copyright-protection-should-source-code-get-a-new-court-ruling-reshapes-the-landscape/. For example, if a publishing company were to assert a copyright on its latest best-selling novel, it would protect itself against other publishing companies copying the work of its author and subsequently stealing its profits. This result seems wholly fair and optimal from a competition standpoint. However, if the same publishing company took its actions one step further, and were allowed to assert a copyright on the language the best-selling novel is written in, it certainly would prevent other publishers from stealing its best-seller, but it would also exclude its competitors from publishing unique works of literature in that language and would cut them off from the entire market of readers who only read that language. This result is untenable as it would stymie competition and limit free expression.
Director of the Patent Reform Project at Public Knowledge, Charles Duan, worries about the future of court-imposed restrictions on technology innovations post-Oracle v. Google opining, "[t]hat the standardization of languages and protocols that are the foundation of the Internet could become balkanized by claims of ownership and intellectual property. That the mere speaking of a language, be it Klingon or code, could subject one to violation of federal law."13Charles Duan, Can Copyright Protect a Language?, Slate (June 3, 2015), http://www.slate.com/articles/technology/future_tense/2015/06/oracle_v_google_klingon_and_copyrighting_language.html. In light of the large potential for halting otherwise beneficial strides forward in programming, the merger doctrine should apply to Oracle's APIs, because Oracle is not claiming infringement of their programs, only the language through which those programs are expressed. Google's applications do not infringe upon Oracle's applications: they merely use the same medium of expression in order for the products of the former to interact seamlessly with those of the latter.
However, the Federal Circuit opted instead to extend copyright protection to APIs. This will only serve to hinder the development of applications that could otherwise benefit the public. Since this decision was handed down, technology companies been treading lightly to avoid inviting infringement suits.14Klint Finley, The Oracle-Google Case Will Decide the Future of Software, Wired (May 23, 2016, 7:00 AM), https://www.wired.com/2016/05/oracle-google-case-will-decide-future-software/. Whether the claims of infringement will be merited or not, the heightened risk of liability in light of this decision is enough of a deterrent in and of itself to convince technology companies like Google that it would be wiser to abandon projects that require a competitor's API rather than risk an arduous and expensive litigation.15Id. Given that allowing different programs to work together requires use of the same APIs, and that this compatibility is an attractive—and sometimes crucial—component of any new application, coders will likely take a step back from creating their best possible work.
Copyrightability in Precedential Cases
In addition to its technical and practical issues, the Ninth Circuit, in Oracle v. Google, also deviates from its own software intellectual property precedents. In Sega v. Accolade, the Ninth Circuit held that Accolade was allowed to reverse engineer Sega's code to create their own games. A copyright is not enough to protect the type of rights that Sega sought to retain, otherwise Sega would have a "de facto monopoly" on the functionality of their products, which the legislature has specifically rejected. "In order to enjoy a lawful monopoly over the idea or functional principle underlying a work, the creator of the work must satisfy the more stringent standards imposed by the patent laws.16Sega Enters. Ltd. v. Accolade, Inc., 977 F.2d 1510, 1526, (9th Cir. 1992). "
Now, Oracle is seeking the similar de facto monopoly power over its APIs. Oracle is to Sega, as APIs are to videogames; the company is allowed copyright protection over its finished product, but is not afforded to same copyright protection over the type of code used to create that finished product. Just like Sega, Oracle should have to meet the stricter requirements of obtaining a patent from the USPTO. However, the Federal Circuit has moved away from the Sega precedent, and in so doing, sparked a surge of technology infringement suits. Their decision is likely to not only clutter the courts, but also burden the technology sector, and ultimately cost consumers.
Oracle III and the Good Faith Defense in Fair Use
Though many open internet and digital rights organizations lambasted the 2014 Federal Circuit decision in Oracle II17Parker Higgins, Stakes Are High in Oracle v. Google, But the Public Has Already Lost Big, Elec. Frontier Found. (May 11, 2016), https://www.eff.org/deeplinks/2016/05/stakes-are-high-oracle-v-google-public-has-already-lost-big. for overturning the district court's finding that APIs are not eligible for copyright protection,18Id. the court recognized that the jury was hung on the fair use defense, and remanded the issue to the trial court resulting in Oracle III.19Oracle Am., Inc. v. Google Inc., 750 F.3d 1339, 1348 (Fed. Cir. 2014), cert. denied, 135 S. Ct. 2887, (2015). If Oracle II opens the floodgates on infringement litigation, Oracle III's holding on a fair-use defense may provide a backstop.
Oracle II's Fair Use Analysis
In Oracle II, Judge O'Malley notes that the trial jury had hung on the fair use question, and Oracle's point that to remand on the fair use question is "pointless"20Oracle, 750 F.3d at 1352. because "[the federal appellate] court should find, as a matter of law, that 'Google's commercial use of Oracle's work in a market where Oracle already competed was not fair use.'"21Opening Brief and Addendum of Plaintiff-Appellant at 67, Oracle Am., Inc. v. Google Inc., 750 F.3d 1339 (Fed. Cir. 2014), cert. denied, 135 S. Ct. 2887 (2015) (Nos. 2013-1021, 2013-1022), 2013 WL 518611. Google countered that the issue was one still subject to questions of material fact in dispute, evidenced in part by the hung jury.22Oracle, 750 F.3d at 1373–74.
Fair use hinges, in part, on "whether and to what extent the new work is transformative," meaning the new work must either furthers the purpose of or adds a distinct characterization to the original work as opposed to simply supplanting the original creation.23Id. at 1374. Consistent with prior federal decisions, the Court determined that a product is not considered transformative if the user "makes no alteration to the expressive content or message of the original work."24Id. (quoting Seltzer v. Green Day, Inc., 725 F.3d 1170, 1177 (9th Cir. 2013)); see also Wall Data, Inc. v. L.A. Sheriff's Dept., 447 F.3d 769, 778 (2006) (copying software then using copies as intended was not transformative); Monge v. Maya Magazines, Inc., 688 F.3d 1164, 1176 (2012) (adding commentary to photographs of a secret celebrity wedding was "at best minimally transformative" where the magazine "did not transform the photos into a new work."); Elvis Presley Enters. v. Passport Video, 349 F.3d 622, 629 (2003) (use of copyrighted clips of Elvis's television appearances was not transformative where "some of the clips . . . serve the same intrinsic entertainment value that is protected by Plaintiffs' copyrights."). But the Court also recognized that analyzing the degree of transformation requires an analysis of the commercial nature of the use, meaning that the more transformative a new product is, the less factors like commercialization "weigh against a finding of fair use."25Oracle, 750 F.3d at 1375 (quoting Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music, Inc., 510 U.S. 569, 579 (1994)).
Oracle argued that the facts do not support a fair use defense as Google knowingly and illicitly copied verbatim Oracle's expressive work for a commercial interest.26Oracle, 750 F.3d at 1376. Google admitted that it did copy portions of the API packages and that this was done for "purely commercial purposes," but that its use of the API packages was sufficiently transformative to meet the first sub-factor of a fair use assessment.27Id. Ultimately, the Court decided that resolving the fair use issue is beyond "the limit of [this court's] appellate function"28Id. relying mostly on material questions regarding whether Google's use of the API packages is transformative in a sense required under the first factor from Section 107(1): "the purpose and character of the use."29Id. at 1374.
Jury Instructions in Oracle III and the Parties' Arguments
On May 26, 2016, the jury in the District Court for the Northern District of California answered in a special verdict that Google had proven fair use.30Special Verdict Form, Oracle Am., Inc. v. Google Inc., 750 F.3d 1339 (Fed. Cir. 2014), cert. denied, 135 S. Ct. 2887, (2015) (No. C 10-03561). The jury instructions included four factors from 17 U.S.C. Section 107.31Charles R. Macedo & Trevor M. O'Neill, Jury returns verdict for Google in question of fair use of Oracle's code, 11 J. Intell. Prop. L. & Practice 1, 2 (2016), http://jiplp.oxfordjournals.org/content/early/2016/09/21/jiplp.jpw112.full.pdf+html (listing factors on jury instructions); see also 17 U.S.C. § 107 (2012) The judge also stressed that these factors are neither dispositive nor exclusive.32Id. at 2. On remand in Oracle III, the jury instructions closely followed those provided in Oracle II with some modifications requested by the parties.33Notice of Final Charge to the Jury (Phase One) and Special Verdict Form, Oracle Am., Inc. v. Google Inc., 2016 WL 3181206 (June 8, 2016) (No. C 10-03561 WHA). The court noted that Oracle's most "emphatic" argument was that Google acted knowingly with impropriety and in bad faith.34Oracle, 2016 WL 3181206 at *2. The Federal Circuit opinion did not consider whether Google had acted in good faith or bad faith in its review of the fair use factors, yet, on remand, this point received more attention than any other. Oracle pushed to prove bad faith from Google, which opened the door for Google to argue that it acted in good faith.35Id. at *2. Google took this good faith argument further, arguing that its use of the copyrighted APIs amounted to custom in the industry. The trial court found against Google on this argument, but found that good faith was sufficient. Id. at *2-*3.
Google's Good Faith Argument
Google conceded that its actions served a commercial purpose as characterized by the first factor of a fair use analysis; however, it maintained that its decision to use Oracle's APIs was also informed by a good faith, non-commercial purpose: to enable Android to operate as an open-source software consistent with the purposes of the Copyright Act.36Id. at *3. To illuminate this point, the court likened the structure, sequence, and organization (SSO) of the API to a traditional QWERTY keyboard and explained that, although Google could have escaped infringement charges had it scrambled the keys, to do so would have required users to become familiar with new keyboard layouts and "fomented confusion and error to the detriment of both Java-based systems and to the detriment of Java programmers at large."37Id. at *6.
The court ultimately found that Google copied only as much code as necessary to maintain intersystem continuity for the benefit of all Java users.38Id. Though commercialization weighs heavily against a finding of fair use,39Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music, Inc., 510 U.S. 585 (1994). the benefit that Google attempted to maintain here was considered enough to convince the jury that the non-commercial aspect was fair use.40Oracle Am., Inc. v. Google Inc., 2016 WL 3181206, 40-41 (June 8, 2016) (No. C 10-03561 WHA).
The History of Good Faith and Bad Faith in Infringement Cases
Although a critical point in Oracle III, the intentions of defendants is rarely determinative in copyright decisions, though it has been taken into consideration.41Howard B. Abrams, The Law of Copyright, Vol. 2 § 15:77 (2016). The strongest case in favor of such an analysis comes from Harper & Row, where the Supreme Court held that the defendant's conduct informed the Court's analysis of the character and purpose of fair use defense.42Harper & Row Publishers, Inc. v. Nation Enters., 471 U.S. 539, 562 (1985). Quoting a 1968 decision, the Court found that "fair use presupposes good faith and fair dealing,"43Id. at 562 (quoting John Schulman, Fair Use and the Revision of the Copyright Act, 53 Iowa L. Rev. 832 (1967-1968)). so that when the defendant could offer no justification for its infringement, the Court considered this against a fair use defense.44Id., 471 U.S. at 563; Wainwright Sec., Inc. v. Wall St. Transcript Corp., 558 F.2d 91, 94 (2d Cir. 1977). This presumption has been effectively subsumed into an analysis of fair use in copyright cases.45See Simon J. Frankel & Matt Kellogg, Bad Faith and Fair Use, 60 J. Copyright Soc'y U.S.A. 1 (2013). Ultimately, a separate analysis of good faith is superfluous, but proving bad faith can undermine a fair use defense.
Courts maintained this view until the Supreme Court muddied the waters in another infringement case, Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music, Inc. There, in a four-sentence footnote, the Court contrasted the Harpers & Row good-faith presumption with two sources that dismiss an analysis of a defendant's good-faith intentions in an infringement case:46Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music, Inc., 510 U.S. 585, 585 n. 18 (1994) (Comparing Harper & Row with Folsom v. Marsh, 9 F. Cas. 342 (C.C.D. Mass.1841), and finding that good faith is not central to fair use: if a use of copyrighted material is otherwise fair, no permission need be sought from or granted by the copyright holder.). an 1841 decision by then-Circuit Judge Joseph Story, which found defendants guilty of infringement regardless of their lack of "bad intentions;"47 "In the present case, I have no doubt whatever[] that there is an invasion of the plaintiffs' copyright; [however], I entertain no doubt[] that it was . . . a perfectly lawful and justifiable use of the plaintiffs' work." Folsom, 9 F. Cas. at 349. and a 1990 article by Judge Leval, which the Court read to argue that "good faith is irrelevant to a fair use analysis."48Campbell, 510 U.S. at 585 n.18 (interpreting Pierre N. Leval, Toward A Fair Use Standard, 103 Harv. L. Rev. 1105, 1126-1127 (1990)). While this may be read as the Court's endorsement of the latter position, the footnote begins "regardless of the weight one might place on an infringer's state of mind . . ." before rejecting the defendants' good-faith defense in Campbell as not meeting the standard necessary for analysis.49Campbell v. Acuff-Rose Music, Inc., 510 U.S. 569, 585 n.18 (1994). The precedential result of this paragraph is left somewhat open, meaning the use of good faith in an infringement defense is of questionable weight with the Court.
Google's victory at this level presents a mixed future to copyright litigation in software licensing. Given the shaky history of good and bad faith in fair use cases, whether the trials court's position will survive another round of appeals is uncertain at best. And even though the decision does give defendants a position from which to fight the Oracle II copyrightability decision, it is an expensive position. San Francisco-based copyright lawyer Cathy Gellis, in an opinion piece for Al Jazeera America, quoted copyright academic Lawrence Lessig: "Fair use is the right to hire a lawyer."50Cathy Gellis, Oracle v. Google Decision Threatens Innovation, Al Jazeera Am.: Opinion (May 19, 2014, 1:00 AM), http://america.aljazeera.com/opinions/2014/5/oracle-v-google-javaapicopyrightcreativitytechnology.html. Oracle has already appealed the decision on the good faith fair use argument, furthering the saga and the law firms' billable hours.51Higgins, Stakes Are High, supra note 17.
Inflated legal fees aside, this ongoing case will continue to impact software development as companies and individuals are forced to consider creating products that circumvent copyright issues at the cost of compatibility and ease of users' experience, or continuing industry practice of using existing code infrastructure and roll the dice on a shaky fair use defense. For now, this uncertainty is may have a chilling effect on innovation, and certainly all interested parties are anxious to see what happens next.
Michael R. Mazzella III is a GLTR Staff Member; Georgetown Law, J.D. expected 2018; University of Arizona, B.A. 2015. R. Harrison Dilday is a GLTR Staff Member; Georgetown Law, J.D. expected 2018; Georgetown University School of Continuing Studies, B.A. 2015.


There are several answers to this question. First, ensure that the teacher from whom you take lessons is certified by JEC. That information is easily available on our website, or by contacting JEC directly. Teachers certified by JEC will have completed all 10 Phases and be qualified to teach students.
Also, ensure that the curriculum you are following proceeds directly from JEC (see JEC design catalog for available phase designs). If the pieces you are stitching do not originate from JEC or Kurenai-Kai, you might not be learning the necessary techniques to advance to stitching the JEC curriculum. Bear in mind that JEC's "Phase system" for organizing curriculum is unique to us and may not correspond to the curriculum of other parties/organizations (even if the generic term "Phase" is used to order it). JEC's Phases I-IX review previous techniques and introduce new ones, so feeling confounded or "in over your head" is to be expected if you have been proceeding with techniques learned elsewhere.