Assessing the distance, size, or shape of an object is of great practical importance in everyday life. Stereoscopic vision is the main mechanism for humans and other organisms to nearly instantaneously obtain this information, whose accuracy depends on many variables. A few among them are the distance to the target; the target's intrinsic size, shape, or color; and the functionality of the light detectors — eyes. The eyes receive light from the surroundings, producing retinal images that the brain processes. This is a passive method. An example of an active method, though not optical, is echolocation by bats. A bat emits a short burst of sound; the sound reflects from a target (echo) and is later detected by the bat's ears. The time interval between the emission and reception gives clues about the distance. There are no examples of an active method using light echo in nature because the speed of light is close to one million times larger than the speed of sound, which means that for a given distance, the time of flight for a light pulse is about one millionth of that for sound. Nature has not developed clocks capable of measuring time intervals this short, but humans have.
An accurate and quantitative determination of distance using light has many practical applications in modern life. Point-by-point measurements give 3D imagery important in, for example, map making (distances on the order of kilometers), assembly line quality control (distances on the order of meters), or microscopy (distances on the order of micrometers). Numerous active and passive techniques have been developed to obtain 3D imagery, but a given method will belong to one of three main techniques: geometrical, time of flight (TOF), or interferometry. A geometrical technique such as triangulation relies on the spatial geometry between the source of light, target, and detector. The TOF method depends on the finiteness of the speed of light and our ability to measure the TOF either directly with clocks (direct TOF) or indirectly (indirect TOF) by, for example, comparing the phase of the intensity-modulated emitted and reflected light. Interferometry relies on the wave nature of light and the ability of waves to interfere. Critical to the last two techniques is an accurate value for the speed of light c and validation of the wave nature of light. Neither was obvious nor easy to determine experimentally. Centuries of theoretical and experimental effort have led us to understand that the speed of light is a fundamental constant of nature with its value fixed at c = 299,792,458 m/s and that light has a dual nature: it exhibits properties of a particle (photon), as in Compton scattering, and of a wave (electromagnetic wave), as in Young's double slit interference.
Figure 1 is a flowchart of the methods of measuring distance. All of the methods can be divided into those that involve light (optical) and those that do not (non-optical, such us sonar). The optical methods divide into two categories: passive and active. In a passive technique, the measuring system does not illuminate the target; instead, the light from the target is either reflected ambient light or the light produced by the target itself. In an active technique, the measuring system does illuminate the target. Depending on the technique, the illumination may be some combination of monochromatic, polychromatic, continuous, pulsed, modulated, structured, polarized, coherent, or partly coherent light.
Figure 1. Flow chart of the techniques of measuring distance.
All of the methods — passive and active — can be divided into three broad categories: geometrical, TOF, and interferometry. In the first, the methods exploit a geometrical relationship between the target and the detection system. Examples of such techniques are passive and active triangulation, structured light, and depth from defocus. These techniques can be employed to measure distances on the scale from about a millimeter to many kilometers. An astronomical technique known as "stellar parallax" is a variant of passive triangulation, and is used by astronomers to measure distances to nearby stars, which are no closer than 1016 km away.
In TOF methods, the distance comes from measuring the time it takes the light signal to travel the distance between the target and the light detector. In a typical direct TOF setup, a clock measures this time, while in an indirect TOF setup, the time is inferred from, for example, the phase relationship between intensity-modulated emitted and detected light. This technique is akin to interferometry, though the range is not constrained by the wavelength of light but by the wavelength of modulation, which can be adjusted to specific needs. Another version of indirect TOF uses short (tens of ns) pulses of light; the distance again comes from phase comparison between the emitted and received pulses. Light Detection And Ranging (LIDAR) is a classic TOF system (both direct and indirect versions exist) for remote depth sensing. In direct TOF the time jitter of the clock and of the photodetectors used to control it limit the smallest measurable distance, whereas the strength of the returned light limits the largest. In indirect TOF using pulsed illumination, other factors, such as duration of the illumination pulse, limit the minimum and maximum ranges.
A technique based on interferometry exploits the wave nature of light and, thus, the ability of light to interfere. Because the wavelength of visible light is in the 400 — 700 nm range, devices based on this principle and using visible light can probe depth on a comparable scale. Optical coherence tomography (OCT) is a microscopy technique that exploits light interference to obtain images of "thick" biological samples. The central component of an OCT setup is a Michelson-Morley interferometer and a source generating light whose coherence length is smaller than the spatial structure under investigation.
Figure 2. The basic setup for passive triangulation.
Equation 2 shows that for a given distance, the uncertainty δd is smallest if α = 45°; thus, the optimal length of the baseline is x = 2d.
Computer stereovision is one notable application of passive triangulation. The system employs two CCD cameras positioned in the same plane and with the same orientation, and separated by a known baseline. Each camera obtains simultaneously an image of the target scene. Thus, the data consist of two images of the same scene taken from two vantage points. After correcting the images for known geometrical distortions inherent to the CCD cameras themselves, a mathematical algorithm transforms the images to a common coordinate system — a process known as image rectification. Once in the same coordinate system, a feature (target point) that is common to both images will have different coordinates in the two images depending on the angles α and β. A mathematical algorithm calculates these angles, which, when used in Equation 1, yield a distance to the target point. Repeating this procedure for more target points produces a 3D map of the target. Stereovision works well for flat scenes with high contrast, albeit at the cost of a great deal of computational power. A more complex, rugged, uneven scene can create shadowing and occultation effects (discussed below), which diminish the effectiveness of stereovision.
Figure 3. A possible setup for active triangulation.
Equation 4 shows that for a given distance d, the uncertainty is minimized by having a long baseline, long focal length, and high-resolution detector. All else being equal, δd increases as the square of d.
If the target moves horizontally in a controlled way with respect to the laser beam (or, alternatively, the laser spot moves on a stationary object), measurements of distance to multiple points on the target can be made, which together provide a three-dimensional picture of the target. This is known as laser scanning. Figure 4 illustrates the method and some of its limitations.
Figure 4. (left panel) Laser scanning to obtain 3D information about the target object; (middle panel) occultation occurs when there is no direct line of sight between the illuminated point and the camera; (right panel) shadowing occurs when there is no direct line of sight between the laser and the point intended for illumination.
The scanned object in Figure 4 moves to the left with respect to the stationary laser and CCD camera. The laser beam is perpendicular to the baseline x. The left panel shows a situation where the laser-camera system can make a successful distance measurement, whereas the middle and right panels show cases where they cannot. Occultation, depicted in the middle panel, occurs when the light from the reflection point cannot reach the camera because parts of the object block the way. Shadowing, depicted in the right panel, occurs when light from the laser cannot reach the point to be scanned. A remedy to reduce occultation is a decrease of x with the penalty of increased δd. To reduce or eliminate shadowing, the orthogonality of the beam and the baseline may have to be relaxed. This would involve moveable parts in the illumination/detection system — a major disadvantage.
Another disadvantage of point-by-point scanning is a slow rate of image acquisition, and a tradeoff between this rate and the density of points. The latter affects the spatial resolution of the scanned scene. The next section discusses a faster approach.
Figure 5. The concept of structured light approach of obtaining 3D information.
Point-by-point scanning is time consuming. A faster approach, albeit involving more complex data analysis and computing, is to illuminate the target object with structured light — a single line or a pattern of lines (e.g., parallel lines or a grid) — and use a 2D image sensor to detect the reflected pattern. Figure 5 illustrates the concept. In the left panel, the light projector casts a straight luminous line on the flat target. Here, the CCD image of the projection is also a straight line. In the right panel, the projected luminous line is comparable in size to the structural features of the target object (a cube, in this example). The image of the projection will not be a straight line (for most of the projector/camera configurations); for the fixed projector/camera locations, the shape of the image depends on the shape of the object. A mathematical algorithm can be developed to deduce the shape of the target given the geometry of the input and imaged structured light.
In practical applications of structured light, there are two approaches of generating structured light. The first uses two wide-beam lasers whose light generates an interference pattern, free of geometrical distortions, on the target. By changing the angle between the two beams, a wide range of patterns with large optical depth can be generated. The implementation of this approach is difficult because the geometry of the interference pattern is very sensitive to the relative orientation of the two beams. Another disadvantage is high cost. The second arrangement of illumination, less expensive than the first, uses a video projector, which projects a luminous pattern from, for example, a liquid crystal display, onto the target using lenses and mirrors. The tradeoff for the lower cost is a greater degree of geometrical distortions in the projected structured light and pixelated edges of the pattern if the image comes from a pixelated device such as a liquid crystal display. When analyzing the data, the geometrical distortions introduced by the projector and the detection system must be corrected for, which makes the mathematical algorithm more complex. Practical applications of structured light are diverse, ranging from video gaming (Microsoft Kinect), through fashion industry (made-to-measure apparel production), to forensics (fingerprint acquisition).
Figure 6. Concept of depth from defocus. Adapted from Nayar et al. (1995).
Figure 6 illustrates the concept. Consider point P on the target (tip of the arrow), which is an unknown perpendicular distance so from the lens. The lens creates a real image of the point at P′, which a CCD camera located in the plane If would record as being in focus. Measuring the distance between If and the lens, si, and substituting the value into Equation 5 yields the unknown distance so. An extended object can be thought of as a superposition of an infinite number of points; therefore, repeating the above procedure to enough target points produces a depth map of the target. The points can be selected from the target itself or be projected onto the target (structured light) as described in a previous section.
Although conceptually correct, the method described in the previous paragraph (which is equivalent to point-by-point scanning) is impractical when applied to a target with a rugged and complex surface because the camera (or the lens) must be moved to bring a sampled point into focus. This is time consuming. In addition, the system has moveable parts and, thus, an elevated probability of mechanical failure.
An alternative approach uses two CCD cameras placed in planes I1 and I2 to obtain two images of the target. The appearance of point P is out of focus in both CCD images, and the degree of defocus depends on the values of α and β. An aperture stop placed in the focal plane on the side of the object ensures that the location of P′ (center of the blur disk) has the same coordinate in both CCD images regardless of the values of α and β. A mathematical algorithm determines so from the two images for point P and, using the same CCD images, for any number of preselected points on the target. A 3D map of the target results from two defocused CCD images without involving moveable parts. For further details, an interested reader is referred to Nayar et al. (1995) who give an in-depth discussion of the method, describe the key elements of the mathematical analysis required to extract depth information from two out-of-focus images, and present a functioning system capable of producing depth maps at the video rate of 30 Hz.
In the direct TOF techniques, the time of flight is measured directly with a clock. Figure 7 depicts a possible setup.
Figure 7. Possible setup for time-of-flight distance measurement using a pulsed laser. This setup is suitable for distances on the order of kilometers. Adapted from Petrie & Toth (2009).
There are several sources of δt. Figure 8 shows the relationship between the start and stop pulses that trigger the timer.
Figure 8. Relationship between the start and stop pulses. Adapted from Petrie & Toth (2009).
The amplitude AT of the start pulse — voltage or current produced by the photodetector — is controlled by the amount of light siphoned to the detector by the beam splitter. The amplitude AR of the stop pulse depends on the amount of reflected light collected by the telescope. For a given telescope aperture size, this quantity of light depends on the light power in the laser pulse, the distance to the target, and the characteristics of the reflection (i.e., the target's color, orientation, surface smoothness, etc.). Although AT can be adjusted by the beam splitter so that AT = AR, in most situations AT ≠ AR with the former being larger.
The timer starts and then stops if the leading edges of the start and stop pulses reach certain predetermined levels of voltage or current. In practice, these levels could be set to some fixed fraction of the peak values. Because of time jitter in the photodetectors, variations in rise times, and electrical noise in the pulses, the timer does not measure a constant TOF t — thus there is δt — even though the target is stationary. Although the laser also introduces time jitter into the repetition period, this jitter does not contribute to δt. Using 1 ns as a reasonable time jitter for each photodetector, δd ≈ 21 cm. For a target 1 m away, the jitter causes an almost 25% fractional error; reducing this error requires photodetectors with smaller jitter. All else being the same, the fractional error decreases with increasing distance to the target. In practice, however, all else is usually not the same. For a given telescope aperture size and laser light power, as the distance increases, the amount of reflected light illuminating the photodetector decreases, causing the stop pulse to be more noisy and thus contributing to δt.
As shown in Figure 8, the repetition period T of the laser pulses should not be smaller than Tmin = t + tp or the maximum repetition frequency not be greater than ƒmax = 1/Tmin. For a target 100 m away, t = 0.67 μs. If tp << t, ƒmax = 1.5 MHz. The repetition frequency decreases linearly with increasing d. This has no consequences if the target is stationary, but if it is not, the resolution of its position as a function of time decreases with d. The resolution is degraded even further if a setup uses a light chopper instead of a high-power pulsed laser; here, tp can be comparable to t.
Figure 9 illustrates the concept of measuring distance to a target using the phase shift φ between the intensity-modulated transmitted and received waves. The transmitter emits light whose intensity is modulated (sinusoidal modulation is common) by either the transmitter itself (if it is a laser or LED) or an optical system such as Kerr cell, Pockels cell, or a mechanical shutter. The light does not need to be monochromatic and polarized. The light reflects from the target and arrives at the receiver having a phase shift with respect to the transmitted wave of φ, which can have a value between 0 and 2π.
Figure 9. Phase comparison method of measuring distance. The emitted light is intensity-modulated (assumed sinusoidal) with the modulation wavelength λm. Adapted from Petrie & Toth (2009).
If the wavelength of the sinusoidal modulation is λm, Equation 8 gives the corresponding phase shift, while Equation 9 gives the distance to the target.
In the above equations, ƒm is the frequency of modulation and M is an integer that is equal to the number of full modulation wavelengths in the distance 2d as illustrated in Figure 10.
Figure 10. In this example, there are four full modulation wavelengths (M = 4) in the roundtrip distance from the transmitter to the target and back to the transmitter. Adapted from Petrie & Toth (2009).
where δΦ is the uncertainty in the measured phase difference between the emitted and received waves. For δΦ ≈ 1° and ƒm = 10 MHz, δd ≈ 4 cm, implying a fractional error of 0.3%.
A point-by-point scanning of a scene using either a direct or indirect TOF technique discussed above provides depth of the scene. Prior to the mid-1990s, a 3D camera employing either of these two techniques required a mechanical scanning system to sample an array of points on the target surface. One limitation of such an arrangement is a compromise between the frame rate and density of sampled points, where the former affects the temporal accuracy of depth measurement for a moving target, whereas the latter affects the spatial resolution of the features on the target. This compromise could have been lessened if it were possible to measure simultaneously all of the distances to an array of points on the target surface. This is now possible.
Figure 11. A simplified structure of a PMD (left panel) and its equivalent electrical circuit (right panel).
The breakthrough is the development of a CMOS-architecture imaging array where each pixel is a Photonic Mixer Device (PMD). The left panel in Figure 11 depicts a simplified structure of a PMD. An internal electric field directs the photogenerated charge carrier (electron) to one of the two charge storage locations. Two external signals Vtx1 and Vtx2 control the strength and direction of the electric field and, therefore, they also control how much charge each storage location receives in response to incident light. The output signals V1 and V2 are a measure of how much charge has been accumulated in locations 1 and 2, respectively. The right panel of Figure 11 shows a simplified electrical equivalent circuit of a PMD. The main components are a photodiode (generator of photo-charge), two capacitors (charge storage locations), and switches (responsible for directing the photo-charge to the appropriate capacitors).
In one common arrangement, a 3D camera system illuminates the scene with an intensity-modulated infrared light. The optics of the system creates an image of the scene on the array of PMD pixels. For each pixel, the system determines an autocorrelation function between the electrical signal that modulates the emitted light and the electrical signals coming from the two capacitors. Sampling the resulting function four times per period gives the phase shift, strength of the returned signal, and the background level using well-known mathematical relations. The distance is proportional to the phase shift.
where V1 and V2 are the voltages developed on the two capacitors, respectively, in response to accumulated charge. For a given pulse duration, the maximum distance that can be measured is dmax = 1/2cT0, corresponding to V1 = 0 (no charge collected on the first capacitor). The uncertainty δd in the measured distance by a pixel increases linearly with T0 and decreases as inverse square root with increasing signal-to-noise (S/N) ratio, δd∝12cT0SN. The noise N in the equation is a square root of the sum in quadrature of the signal (photon) shot noise, dark current shot noise, background shot noise, and read noise. The above equation assumes that the target is at 1/2 dmax so that the amount of charge accumulated by each capacitor is the same. If the photon shot noise is dominant, δd reduces to cT0/4√Ne, where Ne is the number of photoelectrons accumulated together by the two capacitors.
The TOF techniques discussed above work well for distant targets (meters away or more) but become progressively less accurate as the distance becomes smaller (meter and less). They eventually become inapplicable for distances on the order of mm or less, for example, comparable to the wavelength of light. In the case of a direct TOF technique, there is no clock capable of measuring roundtrip time of about 7 fs for 1 μm distance. To measure this distance with a phase-comparison, indirect TOF technique using intensity-modulated light, the required modulation frequency would have to be about 2×1014 Hz, while the duration of a pulse in the 3D PMD camera would have to be about 7 fs. None of the above technical requirements are easily attainable, but why not use the wavelength of light itself to probe distances on the micron scale? The Michelson-Morley interferometer allows just that.
Figure 12 depicts the basic design of the Michelson-Morley interferometer. The beam splitter divides the incoming continuous-wave light from a laser (coherent and polarized light) so that one portion travels to the stationary mirror — serving as the reference — and the other portion travels to the target.
Here, I1 is the intensity of, for example, the reference beam (from the stationary mirror), and I2 is the intensity of the beam from the target. Equation 12 assumes that the light is spatially and temporally coherent and that the interfering beams have not acquired a net phase shift due to reflections. Assuming for the sake of simplicity that I1 = I2, Equation 12 shows that the combined intensity I varies from 0 to 4I1 depending on the value of d-x. If d-x=nλ2n=0,1,2..., a constructive interference occurs and the combined intensity is 4I1. For d-x=nλ2+λ4, a destructive interference occurs and I = 0. Suppose that the location x of the reference mirror is such that the photodetector registers a maximum when the target is at location d. If the target now moves either away or towards the beam splitter, the photodetector will register a minimum and a maximum each time the target moves through a point that is nλ2+nλ4 and nλ2, respectively, away from the starting point, where n increases by 1, starting from 0, at each crossing. Counting the crossings makes it possible to determine the distance the target has moved to an accuracy of about λ/4.
For a perfect temporal coherence, ν = 1 and for a perfect incoherence, ν = 0.
Optical coherence tomography (OCT) is a technique to generate "slice" images in lateral and longitudinal directions of a three-dimensional target using light with a finite temporal coherence, such as from a superluminous light emitting diode (SLED). Figure 13 shows the basic setup for this technique. OCT is widely used in life sciences because it is capable of a noninvasive, in vivo, and in situ microimaging of biological tissue.
Figure 13. The basic setup for time-domain optical coherence tomography.
The basic setup for time-domain OCT resembles the Michelson-Morley interferometer. The light from a limited-coherence source divides into two paths or arms. The first arm leads to a moveable mirror and the second to a target sample. After reflecting from the mirror and structural features in the sample, the returning light combines and interferes on the surface of a photodetector. To perform a longitudinal scan of the sample, the output of the photodetector is recorded while the mirror smoothly moves at a known and controlled rate in one direction. Therefore, the instantaneous value of the photodetector output correlates with the instantaneous position of the mirror and may look like the left panel of Figure 14.
Figure 14. (left panel) A possible photodetector output as a function of the moveable mirror position for three reflection sites, as depicted in Figure 13. (right panel) The signal in the left panel after demodulation.
Here, the photodetector signal shows three distinct interference patterns that would result if there were three distinct reflection sites, as shown in Figure 13 (three strands in the sample). The coherence length of the light source determines the spatial width of a single interference pattern. The right panel shows the signal after demodulation. The relative locations of the three strands correspond to the locations of the peaks of the three distinct peaks. The width of a given strand (reflection site) affects the width of its corresponding demodulated signal.
The longitudinal (or axial) resolution of OCT is δr=0.44λ02△λ, whereas the lateral (or transverse) resolution is δz=4λ0fπD. In the equations, λ0 is the central wavelength, Δλ is the bandwidth of the light source, ƒ is the focal length of lens L2 (see Figure 13), and D is the diameter of the beam of light at lens L2. Most OCT systems use a light source with λ0 = 1300 nm and Δλ = 100 nm which imply δr ≈ 7μm. A typical transverse resolution is in the 10 — 25 μm range.
The time-domain OCT setup has some drawbacks: it contains moveable parts, which make the system slow and, thus, poorly performing in in vivo scans. Frequency- or Fourier-domain OCT is an alternative approach whose setup does not use moving parts, is faster, and yields a higher signal-to-noise ratio. There are two practical realizations of frequency-domain OCT. The first uses a wide-band illumination (similar to the one in time-domain OCT), fixed diffraction grating, and a CCD camera. The back-reflected light is the input to the grating, whereas the CCD camera records the resulting interference pattern, which is a function of the target's structure. The second possible setup uses a narrow-band, frequency-swept, and continuous-wave light source (e.g., tunable laser) and a single-element photodetector for detecting time-dependent interference signals. Although more costly to implement, frequency-domain OCT outperforms its time-domain counterpart; for a side-by-side comparison, refer to Leitgeb, Hitzenberger, and Fercher (2003).
R. Leitgeb, C. K. Hitzenberger, and A. F. Fercher, "Performance of Fourier-domain vs. time domain optical coherence tomography," Opt. Express 11, 889 (2003).
S. K. Nayar, M. Noguchi, M. Watanabe and Y. Nakagawa, "Focus Range Sensors" in Robotics Research, the Seventh International Symposium, edited by Georges Giralt and Gerhard Hirzinger, p. 378-390. Springer 978-1-4471-1254-9.
G. Petrie and C. K. Toth 2009, Topographic Laser Ranging and Scanning, edited by Jie Shan and Charles K. Toth, CRC Press, p. 1-27.


The Fish Commission Steamer FISH-HAWK. In: "The United States Bureau of Fisheries", by Hugh M. Smith, 1908. Bulletin of the Bureau of Fisheries, Vol. XXVIII, 1908, part 2. Plate CLV, p. 1408. Library Call Number SH11 A25 v. 28 pt. 2.


Amy bought several of my flower-pattern eggs. With an eye to theoretical marketing, I needed to replace them. The slightly less enlightened self-interest answer is: this is one of three eggs I did at an egg workshop we had at her house, I figured she'd be most interested in seeing how eggs like hers were made.
This shell was weak enough that the earlier green dye colors sweated through into the egg. One of the big aggravations of this art is not ever knowing if your shell is as good as it looks, or which dye it will really like best.
When I removed the little wax plugs from the holes in the egg, a sickly purple color bled out, marking up the egg design, but, for all I know, you wouldn't see it if I hadn't pointed it out. And maybe it only looked bad because it wasn't part of my plan.
A way to avoid this doing too much damage is to leave the wax on, except to remove the plug over the biggest hole, and position the eggs so that this is the lowest point and then leave the egg alone until it is dry. If the final color is still too discolored for your liking, you can replug the hole and dip the egg again.


Delhi University will send a direction telling colleges how to fill the remaining seats in the general category.
The problem is that colleges can't reduce the cut-off as such a move can lead to over-admission in a particular course. According to DU rules, there is no first come, first served policy and colleges have to admit all students who make the cut-off.
The colleges are likely to receive the direction on Saturday, the officer on special duty (OSD) of admissions, Ashutosh Bharadwaj, said.
A professor from a sought-after North Campus college said that they have a few seats vacant in the general and reserved categories.
However, the professor added,if the cut-off is reduced by even 0.25%, several students will be eligible for admission whom the college won't be able to accommodate.
After the seventh cutoff list, no consolidated list for the general category was released. However, several individual colleges had put up their vacancies on their websites.
when is the vacant seats or any other cut off will come for general category and if vacant seat than we have to check and apply for these seats.


The 2.4 One Design Class Association was formed on February 22, 2011 to build a worldwide class of one-design 2.4 meter boats using the well known Norlin Mk III design.
The purpose of this new class is twofold; 1) to broaden the appeal of the 2.4 meter boat to sailors who have a preference for sailing under a closed (one-design) rule, and 2) to provide IFDS with a true one-design as the best international boat for single-person Paralympic sailing.
The 2.4 One Design Class is separate and distinct from the International 2.4mR Class, and it is governed by a different class rule, a separate constitution, and a (builder) construction manual. However, its membership will be comprised of a subset of 2.4mR Class members who currently own and sail either the 2.4 One Design boat or the Norlin Mk III boat which has been certified as a 2.4 One Design boat under the 2.4 One Design class rule. Further, some of the 2.4 One Design Class Association officers and directors are also current officers and directors of the International 2.4mR Class Association, because there is a united interest in capitalizing on the 2.4 OD boat to expand 2.4 meter sailing worldwide. The one-design boat must be a 2.4 meter under the meter boat measurement formula and accordingly will be able to race in 2.4mR events as well as OD and Paralympic events.
The 2.4 One Design Class Association will have exclusive rights to the Norlin Mk III 2.4 design, and will qualify and license builders to build and sell the Norlin Mk III only as a one-design 2.4 meter worldwide. A license agreement between the new ICA and Peter Norlin will be signed shortly, and Charger Composites is being qualified as the first licensed 2.4OD builder. The intention of the class is to use In-House-Certification where possible for builders of hulls, spars, and sails, and where this is not possible, use official measurers for certification.
There will be more information available soon on the 2.4mR international website with a link to the new OD class association website.


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text:
Q: Refining search results of Google Custom Search Engine We are using Custom Search Engine(CSE) of Google for getting search results in our website forum. It is working fine and we are able to get the results properly. For making the search easier, we have planned to provide advanced search options like sorting and filtering options in forum which is using Custom Search Engine to get the search result.
We would like to provide the below options for filtering.

*

*Filtering by category - Each forum comes under some category, need to filter the search result based on the category.

*Filtering by tags - Each forum has some tags, need to filter the search result based on the tags.
How can we achieve the above requirement using CSE of Google? If it's not possible using CSE, is there any other different searching option to achieve this scenario?

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text:
East AfricaFeaturedNews
Kenya's Chief Justice ready to pay 'ultimate price'
Chief Justice of Kenya, David Maraga. PHOTO | EVANS HABIL | NATION MEDIA GROUP
Kenya's Chief Justice David Maraga on Tuesday said he was 'prepared to pay the ultimate price' to protect the country's constitution following demonstrations over recent Supreme Court ruling on the Kenya's presidential election results.
David Maraga issued a statement on behalf of his fellow judges in which he stated that there are attempts to intimidate judges and prevent them from working according to their conscience.
Maraga made reference to a judge who was "blocked by demonstrators from accessing the Kerugoya Law Courts for the hearing of her own petition" on Monday.
"Demonstrations have bordered on violence and are clearly intended to intimidate the judiciary and individual judges," Maraga said.
He further noted that "These attacks are denigrating, demeaning and degrading and are meant to intimidate, threaten and cow the institution and individual judges. Such acts are not only unlawful but also savage in nature."
Some pro-Kenyatta demonstrators protesting outside the Supreme Court in Nairobi. Photo: BBC
On Tuesday, Supporters of the ruling party in Kenya, the Jubilee party staged a demonstration accusing the country's Supreme Court of "stealing their victory" following the court's ruling weeks ago nullifying the August 8 presidential election results.
The demonstrators gathered outside the Supreme Court building in Nairobi. Photo: BBC
That presidential election was won by incumbent president, Uhuru Kenyatta but the courts ruled that the poll was not conducted in accordance with the constitution and was characterized by irregularities.
The Jubilee supporters staged their protest outside the Supreme Court building in Nairobi holding placards with inscriptions that accuse the judges of giving a bad judgment.
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NEW PALTZ, NY – March 6, 2014 – The agricultural nonprofit Glynwood, in collaboration with the Open Space Institute, has announced the launch of the Hudson Valley Farm Business Incubator. The Incubator will provide the tools and resources beginning farmers need to develop and manage viable farm enterprises in the Hudson Valley and will help to lay the foundation for up to 15 new sustainable food and farming businesses over the next five years.
"Glynwood and OSI are committed to realizing a thriving regional food system in the Hudson Valley," said Glynwood's President, Kathleen Frith. "The creation of new agricultural enterprises is critical to our success in achieving this goal."
The Incubator, which will be operated by Glynwood, is located on one of New York's most iconic landscapes, an 856-acre parcel protected by OSI in 2011 on the eastern escarpment of the Shawangunk Ridge outside of New Paltz. The property includes 534 acres currently managed and being purchased by Mohonk Preserve, alongside two historic farms located on approximately 330 acres of the historic and scenic tract, which will be used as the site of the Incubator. The Incubator will continue the nearly 200-year long history of agriculture on the land and, along with Mohonk Preserve, will protect the scenic views from New Paltz of the Shawangunk Ridge and its forests, fields and cliffs.
"We are delighted to partner with Glynwood on this exciting project," said Kim Elliman, OSI's president and CEO. "We are not only incubating the farmers of the future, but honoring the long agricultural history and the legacy of landscape protection of these magnificent lands acquired by OSI."
The collaboration between Glynwood and OSI emerged in response to structural challenges facing both land trusts and burgeoning farmers. Land trusts have conserved thousands of acres of farmland in the region that could be brought back into production. At the same time, many new farmers struggle to access affordable land, working capital and business training—issues that are particularly acute for livestock farmers.
"I have visited agricultural communities across New York and listened to our farmers' concerns. Efforts like Glynwood's Farm Business Incubator are exactly what we need to directly address many of the challenges our farmers are facing today," said U.S. Senator Kirsten Gillibrand (D-NY), a member of the Senate Agriculture Committee. "By supporting new sustainable food and farming businesses, Glynwood's Incubator will be instrumental in strengthening New York's agricultural economy."
The Incubator will reduce the barriers to success for new farm businesses by providing access to land, housing, shared equipment, infrastructure, low-interest capital, business mentoring and training in sustainable farming practices. It is designed to provide comprehensive support tailored to the specific needs of farmers operating in the unique agricultural setting and market conditions of the Hudson Valley.
The Incubator will work collaboratively with other organizations, farmers and initiatives that hold a common vision for the region, including the neighboring Mohonk Preserve and the Local Economies Project's Hudson Valley Farm Hub, which is set to launch in Ulster County next year.
"The establishment of Glynwood's Incubator project in the Mohonk Preserve Foothills creates an opportunity for our organizations to collaborate at the critical nexus of agriculture, education, conservation and recreation," said Glenn Hoagland, Executive Director of Mohonk Preserve. "We look forward to working closely with Glynwood and Incubator participants as neighbors and joint stewards of the land."
Glynwood will be accepting applications through June 30th, 2014 from entrepreneurs with a minimum of two years farming experience and a detailed business proposal, with priority given to livestock-focused enterprises. Three applicants will be selected in the fall to develop their businesses at the Incubator. After successfully completing the program, Incubator graduates will be transitioned onto other land in the region (in some cases, land also protected by OSI in the Wallkill and Rondout valleys), ensuring they will have a place to build their businesses independently while also bringing more land into production. More information for potential applicants can be found at www.glynwood.org/incubator.
"By fostering new agricultural entrepreneurs and helping them find their own land in the region, Glynwood's Incubator will be a catalyst for attracting new sustainable agricultural businesses," said Ulster County Executive Mike Hein. "As a result, New Paltz and Ulster County will increasingly be known as a hub for supporting the future of farming in the Hudson Valley."
The Incubator draws upon Glynwood's two decades of collaborative work to advance farming in the region, as well as the organization's significant expertise in sustainable farming practices, particularly in pastured livestock, crop production and soil improvement. Glynwood plans to implement an extensive soil restoration program on the land to revitalize portions of the farmland that have been depleted, in addition to restoring the farmhouses and agricultural infrastructure on the property.


This Fortnox app for Shopify is a user friendly app for the most common flow when you use Fortnox as your billing and accounting system. The level of automatization this app can provide is limited, hence recommended only for small companies or medium sized companies with limited amount of products/orders. Final version is to be released end of 2019.
This Shopify-Fortnox Integration will sync CUSTOMERs, PRODUCTs, ORDERs/INVOICEs from Shopify to Fortnox. It is a one way sync from Shopify to Fortnox, except STOCK sync where Fortnox is base, so Shopify is updated from Fortnox.
When a customer place and order in Shopify, this order is synced to Fortnox as an ORDER. You will be able to find this order in Fortnox Admin->Orders. This sync will happen if you tick the box for "Enable Order Sync" in the app, and you will need the Fortnox Order Addon.
If tick on "Create Invoice for each order" option, then the synced order will be converted into an INVOICE in Fortnox. You will need the Fortnox Invoice addon for this feature.
If you tick on "Enable Invoice Posting" then the converted invoice will automatically be posted/booked into the default accounts. This feature will simple trigger the "Post" button on the invoice.
Configuration: Login to your Fortnox account and go to Manage Users->Add Integration and then type "Uniwin". When you type Uniwin then the Shopify Fortnox Integration will show up. Just select it, then a API-key will be shown. Copy this API-key and paste it into the app's "Fortnox API Code" field and save the setting. The app only needs this API-key to link your Shopify shop with your Fortnox account. Now you can enable the sync independently for CUSTOMERS, PRODUCTS or ORDERS.
3. Create API key and connect your store, check the HOW-TO videos.
4. As minimum tick the boxes for Enable Article Sync, Enable Customer Sync, Enable Order Sync.
5. Now place and order in your store and the order should be visible in Fortnox Admin->Orders. Good Luck.
Customers are synced from Shopify to Fortnox. When a new customer signup or create an order, he will be created in Fortnox. When an existing Shopify user makes a new order, the same customer will be used again without creating a new customer.
When an order is placed in Shopify, it will be synced into Fortnox as an order. You can also automatically create an invoice for each order. You must enable the ORDER & QUOTE module in Fortnox for syncing orders and for creating invoice.
When a new product is created in Shopify, it will automatically be created in Fortnox also. When you change the name or other attributes of a product, it will be synced into Fortnox also. By DEFAULT the app will do the mapping between a Shopify product and Fortnox article using the Shopify_SKU and Fortnox_Item_Id.
When an order is placed in Shopify, it will be synced into Fortnox as an order. App will automatically create an invoice for each order.
You can automatically post all invoices in Fortnox.
Compatible with Shopify's own discount features. The final discounted price will be synced to your Fortnox account.
The app has settings so you can deside how the tax should be synced. App is compatible for your sales outside Sweden also.
Unlimited customized features are possible, additional fees will apply.
Additional monthly fee will apply if you want unlimited sync quote.
By defaut sync is disabled. Just check on the checkboxes to enable sync. You can enable/disable independently, but we recommend that you enable all of them: product, customer, order. You must enable ORDER & QUOTE module in your Fortnox account for syncing orders.
You can enable this option if you want to create invoice automatically.
When this feature is enabled then invoice will also be posted automatically using the predefined account settings in Fortnox->Settings->Invoice->Predefined Accounts.
This video shows you how to configure the Fortnox app for Shopify.
This video shows you how to sync your products from Shopify to Fortnox.
To use the latest version of Fortnox app, Please select the latest version from the Version dropdown and click save.
Handled tax issue on syncing discount.
If you have ticked the Article Sync, when a new product is created in Shopify, it will automatically be created in Fortnox also. When you change the name or other attributes of a product, it will be synced into Fortnox also. By DEFAULT the app will do the mapping between a Shopify product and Fortnox article using the Shopify_SKU and Fortnox_Item_Id.
If you already have articles inside your Fortnox account, then you have to manually create similar product in Shopify and connect it to the existing Fortnox article by copying the fortnox article id and save it as the SKU on the specific product variant in Shopify. This way the product in Shopify is linked to the article in Fortnox. This mapping is necessary for correct invoicing amount and stock sync. Beta notice: When article sync is enabled, any unlinked Shopify product might create duplicate in Fortnox when and order is synced or refunded. If this happens you have to verify the mapping values.
The screenshot "inclusive of tax – calculate at shopify.png" and "exclusive of tax – calculate at shopify.png" shows how the tax is calculated at Shopify end.
The screenshot "inclusive of tax – calculate at fortnox.png" and "exclusive of tax – calculate at fortnox.png" shows how the tax is calculated at Fortnox end.
Stock is synced from Fortnox to Shopify. You can select whether you want to sync the amount from "In Stock" or "Available" attribute of the article. You update the stock value by clicking on the "sync" button. As this is a basic manual feature in current version of the app, you have to trigger this one or more times a day manually. The update happens in the background and it might take several minutes depending on how many products you have, if you have for instance 100 products, it will take few minutes. So if you click on the sync button be patience and do not exit the app as this will terminate the sync process. Once stock is completed, you will get report on screen with the result.
The "Note" attribute of the article in fortnox must be filled with correct value for proper operation of this stock sync feature. If this was not filled automatically, please contact us.
You can sync your orders again through a new sync option.
This will help you to sync your updated order information into Fortnox.
If the invoice is created for the respective order then the update sync option is not available because it is not allowed to update your order which is already converted as Invoice.
Error Message: Det finns ingen aktiv licens för önskat scope.
You get this error message if you are missing an addon service needed for the feature you are using.
2) or if it is entirely missing in your Account Plan (Kontoplan).
When you do the above checking inside Fortnox, it will show you an error message "Kunde inte hitta konto" with more details about which account number it is related to.
If the Predefined Accounts are missing in Fortnox, you have to go to Settings->Acconting->Predefined Accounts, and here you have to fill in your values. Most common values are 3011, 3018, 3016, 3015.
Make sure the values you provide are available in your Account Plan also. You check this in Register -> Account Plan.
Error message: Order som sparas får inte ha en faktura genererad från sig och innehålla ändringar på värden som är låsta.
This error occurs when trying to sync/re-sync/edit an order for which an invoice is already generated on Fortnox side. If an order is converted into invoice the order is locked at Fortnox side hence it is not possible to modify it again.


text:
by Guy de Maupassant
How is Madame Loisel responsible for her own suffering in "The Necklace"?
Mathilde Loisel is responsible for her own suffering in "The Necklace" because her superficial, materialistic desires influenced her to borrow the diamond necklace in the first place. Mathilde was then dishonest with Madame Forestier and went into debt to replace the necklace without her friend knowing. If Mathilde was honest with Madame Forestier from the beginning, she would have discovered that the necklace was a cheap imitation and not have purchased an expensive authentic replica.
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In Guy de Maupassant's celebrated short story "The Necklace ," Mathilde Loisel is portrayed as a superficial, materialistic woman, who resents marrying a lowly clerk and desires to enjoy a luxurious lifestyle. Mathilde is an ungrateful, entitled woman, who is not depicted in a sympathetic light. When her...
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In Guy de Maupassant's celebrated short story "The Necklace," Mathilde Loisel is portrayed as a superficial, materialistic woman, who resents marrying a lowly clerk and desires to enjoy a luxurious lifestyle. Mathilde is an ungrateful, entitled woman, who is not depicted in a sympathetic light. When her husband shows her the invitation to the exclusive ball, Mathilde simply dismisses the message and laments about not having a proper dress or striking jewelry to wear to such an extravagant event. Her reaction illustrates her selfish, materialistic personality and she refuses to attend unless she finds an expensive dress and jewelry to wear.
Mathilde Loisel borrows Madame Forestier's diamond necklace but loses it after the ball. Instead of admitting that she lost the necklace, Mathilde and her husband go into serious debt replacing the expensive piece of jewelry. For ten years, Mathilde and her husband sacrifice and labor to pay off their debts only to discover that Madame Forestier's necklace was a cheap imitation. Mathilde is primarily responsible for her misfortune because her greed and superficial desires influenced her to initially borrow the necklace. Mathilde's dishonesty with Madame Forestier also contributed to her suffering. If Mathilde was forthright with Madame Forestier from the beginning, she would have discovered that the necklace was an imitation and not have gone into debt.
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The famous short story "The Necklace" by Guy de Maupassant tells of a woman who borrows what she supposes is a diamond necklace to wear at a special government party and then loses it. Unable to tell the friend from whom it was borrowed of the loss, Madame Loisel and her husband buy a new necklace for an exorbitant price and labor for ten years to pay off the debt. Only in the end do they find out that the borrowed necklace was made of paste and worth very little.
Madame Loisel is responsible for her own misfortune and suffering for two reasons. First of all, she is discontent with her lot in life and consumed with envy of those more fortunate. Instead of being happy with the food and clothing that she has, she constantly longs for the extravagant trappings of the wealthy. For the party, she cannot bear to appear lesser in station than the other attendees, and for this reason she unnecessarily borrows the necklace.
Her other weakness that brings about the great hardship that she suffers is her dishonesty. She is unwilling to go right away to Madame Forestier, from whom she borrowed the necklace, and confess that she lost it. If she had, Madame Forestier would have told her then that the necklace was made of paste, and Madame Loisel and her husband could have easily replaced it without the ruination of their lives.
litteacher8
Madame Loisel is responsible for her own suffering because she wanted more than she had, and she wanted people to believe she had more. If she had not been putting on airs, she would not have gone into debt. If she had told the truth, she would not have gone into debt.
Madame Loisel's first problem was that she was not satisfied with her lot in life. Few people are, I guess, but she seemed to feel that she was born into the wrong social class. She deserved more than she got. Even when her husband tried to help her feel better by getting her invited to a party for the rich, she was upset because she didn't have the right dress or jewels. She wasted all of the money they had saved on a dress, and borrowed a jewel from a friend.
She had no clothes, no jewels, nothing. And these were the only things she loved; she felt that she was made for them. She had longed so eagerly to charm, to be desired, to be wildly attractive and sought after.
At the ball, people do pay attention to her. She loves it. Then I suppose you could say she gets an attack of irony, or karma. She loses the necklace. Instead of owning up to it, she pretends that nothing happened but a broken clasp. Then she replaces it with another necklace like nothing happened. The problem is that this was a diamond necklace, and the Loisels can't afford it, so they go into debt.
Years later, Madame Loisel runs into her friend and finds out the necklace she lost was fake.
"Oh, my poor Mathilde! But mine was imitation. It was worth at the very most five hundred francs! . . . "
By this time, Madame Loisel looks so old and haggard her friend barely recognizes her. She has had to fire all of her servants and work hard to pay off the debt. Whatever beauty and social standing she had is gone. It's sad, but it is all her own fault because if she had told the truth they would have just had a good laugh and gone on with their lives.
What is the theme of "The Necklace," and how does the author use symbolism and irony to explain this theme?
What is the moral to the story "The Necklace" by Guy de Maupassant? What sayings sum up the story?
What is the conflict of the short story "The Necklace"?
What is the plot of the story "The Necklace"?
What are some literary devices used in "The Necklace"?
Latest answer posted January 30, 2009 at 10:37:42 AM
How does Madame Loisel change as a result of her experience in "The Necklace"?
4 Educator answers
What are the differences and similarities between Madame Loisel and Monsieur Loisel in "The Necklace"?
Latest answer posted November 11, 2013 at 10:00:42 PM
In the beginning of "The Necklace," how does Madame Loisel feel about her life?
1 Educator answer
Latest answer posted October 31, 2015 at 1:11:21 AM
Describe Madame Loisels's character in "The Necklace."
Latest answer posted September 24, 2015 at 6:54:57 PM
In Guy de Maupassant's short story "The Necklace," how is Madame Loisel ungrateful?


This aging 1970s-era shopping center at the corner of Westheimer and Gessner project included a face-lift, new retail buildings and a Randalls. While portions of the existing shopping center were demolished, part of the center had modernized storefronts to update the outdated look. The theme accomplished an organically grown center instead of the typical cookie-cutter.


David Benowitz is an experienced attorney with a successful track record of fighting for his clients. As a criminal defense lawyer in Washington, DC, Mr. Benowitz is committed to providing the highest level criminal defense at affordable prices. Mr. Benowitz is AV-rated by Martindale-Hubbell, has earned a perfect 10 rating by AVVO, and is a member of the National College of DUI Defense. He is also the only Washington, DC-based criminal defense attorney who has been board-certified as a criminal advocate by the National Board of Trial Advocacy. Mr. Benowitz is a faculty member at Harvard Law School's Trial Advocacy Workshop, and a Professorial Lecturer in Law at the George Washington University School of Law.


text:
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Welcome to Styal Tennis Club
Styal Tennis Club is set in lovely surroundings and open countryside in the National Trust Estate and in close proximity to Quarry Bank Mill.
The club has 3 recently refurbished tarmac courts and a clubhouse with a social area and changing facilities.
PLEASE SEE LATEST COVID-19: RETURN TO PLAY GUIDELINES
Come and Play
We are a small friendly club and it is easy to get a game.There are playing opportunities for all standards of members throughout the week. Social tennis is played on a Thursday evening, Saturday morning and Sunday afternoon. The club has a Men's team in the North East Cheshire League and a Mixed team in the North East Cheshire Winter League. Monthly American Tournaments are organised for all members throughout the year. We offer professional coaching for seniors and juniors.
New members are always welcome and it is half price for the first year!.
The membership form can be downloaded here.
We are pleased to offer a full, exciting and competitively priced coaching programme for beginners, juniors and seniors which is supported by the LTA, including the Tennis for Kids package. Our next course starts on 8th June, so please don't miss out.
Please click here for details of coaching and to sign up
Enjoy a wide range of exclusive benefits that are appropriate for individuals of all ages, whatever your standard or interest in tennis.
Sign up forBritish Tennis Membership.
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Styal Tennis Club,
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Styal,
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text:
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text:
El (god)
El is
a generic term for " god ", "divine being" or "divine nature" in many Semitic languages (hence the Arabic title Allah , "the god"),
the name of the highest god of the Ugarites in the 2nd millennium BC,
a title for YHWH , the only God of the Israelites in the Tanakh . The Hebrew plural of El אֵל, Elohim אַלִּים also אֱלֹהִים ("gods"), became an alternative name for YHWH יְהֹוָה, e.g. B. in יְהוָה צְבָאוֹת, אֱלֹהֵי יִשְׂרָאֵל YHWH hosts God of Israel
a theophoric name , that is, a "God-bearing" component of personal names, place names or properties in the Tanach, which refers to YHWH.
1 Ugarit
1.1 Myths
1.2 Representation
1.3 Adoration
1.4 Change among the Sea Peoples
2 bible
2.1 Kindred god of the Arameans and Hebrews
2.2 attributes
2.3 Shaddai
2.4 Identification with YHWH
2.5 Theophores place names and proper names
For the first time the name El appeared around 1400 BC. In the cuneiform texts of Ugarit . Depending on the context, the word means the proper name of God or the generic term. In Ugaritic mythology , ʿEl is paraphrased using the Ugaritic i l , plural or dual i lm as the "builder of the built", "father of humanity" or "creator of creation" (bny bnwt) . The word i lm occurs in large mythological texts, where in some word combinations it usually means the plural of the generic name. The sun goddess Šapšu carries the predicate nrt i lm , "lamp of the gods". Even in Ugarit's small texts, the plural predominantly denotes the general term God. In contrast, the singular i l predominantly denotes the proper name.
For a time, El held the position of supreme god for part of the Ugaritic population. He was given the nickname "King", "The Friendly" or "Bull". The call "Taurus-El" is meant to emphasize his outstanding strength and power and suggests that the bull was his symbol.
El is represented in Ugaritic mythology as the creator of the earth. His dwelling is the source of the two rivers of the underground depth . A cuneiform tablet (the "myth of the kind and beautiful gods") tells: El surprised the goddesses ( Athirat and Šapšu ) at a well and made them pregnant, first Šahar , the deity of the dawn, and her brother Šalim , the god of the dusk, conceived, later anonymous demons. The totality of all gods thus begotten is called Banu Elima ("El-Sons").
The name of El's first wife Athirat , the mother of the gods, is found in various paraphrases such as Athirat, Elat and Qudšu, which in translation mean "the female deity" or "the saint". She is also called "Mistress Athirat of the Sea". In the sources she has her own place of residence apart from El and also makes decisions on her own. Seventy gods and goddesses are considered to be her and El's common children, others are the children of El's second wife Šapsu.
The society of gods appears at regular intervals in front of El on a high mountain. There, decisions are made about actions to be taken, since every subordinate god has to follow Els's instructions. For example, Ba'al has to ask permission before he can kill the sea god Yam . Ba'al's sister, the moon goddess Anat , only gets El's approval for Baal's plan after she threatens violence.
El is represented in human form and in royal robes. In pictures he can be seen with gray hair as a sign of his old age. A 13 centimeter high bronze sculpture shows a seated god with a beard and an Egyptian Atef crown . He wears a long coat with a Syrian beaded hem and sandals. The right hand is raised in a gesture of blessing. The bull horns, an object in his left hand, and the throne on which the figure, not clearly identified as El, sat, have disappeared. On the 47 centimeter high so-called "El-Stele" made of serpentine sits on the right a bearded god with a long cloak and horned crown, his feet rest on a stool. Opposite him stands as a prayer the king with a crown on his head, in his hands he holds a scepter and a jug with offerings.
The texts from Ugarit from the 2nd half of the 2nd millennium BC Chr. Represent the most important testimonies about El. A typical prayer to El is:
Oh El! Oh sons of Els!
Oh assembly of the sons of El!
Oh meeting of the sons of Els
Oh El and Ashirat
Be gracious, oh El
Be support, oh El
El, hurry, El, come quickly
to the help of Zaphons ,
to the help of Ugarits
With the lance, oh El,
with the raised, oh El .
With the battle ax, oh El,
with the smashing one, oh El.
Change among the sea peoples
With the invasion of the so-called Sea Peoples around 1200 BC A sudden change from Els to Ugarit began. The city itself was destroyed by the Sea Peoples. El lost its importance in this region over the next two hundred years. From approx. 1000 BC The name Athirat, his first wife, no longer appears. A new god, Ba'alšamen (Phoenician) or Be'elšamen (Aramaic) dissolved from around 1000 BC. Chr. El in Ugarit finally from.
With the advance of the Sea Peoples, new names came up. The Bible names the Philistines as residents of the coastal region of Palestine and early enemies of the Israelites in pre-state times. They are considered related to the Phoenicians , who settled mainly in the coastal area in the region of the destroyed Ugarits to Sidon .
El lost its importance in these regions. Athirat was only mentioned by the Philistines. As in the region of the destroyed Ugarit, the new god Ba'alšamen / Be'elšamen was now given preference over ʿEl.
With Philon von Byblos the family tree of Phoenician deities begins with Eliun and his wife Beruth, whose descendants Uranos and Ge together fathered a family tree from a total of seven generations with over 40 deities. Among them was El ( Kronos ), who, after growing up, defeated his father Uranus and made himself ruler in his place.
Kinship god of the Arameans and Hebrews
In Genesis , El is combined with the names of the semi-nomadic clan heads to whom he first appeared. This uses El like a name:
"God of my (your) father"
"God of our (your) fathers"
"God of Abraham" (El Avraham)
"God of Isaac" (El Jitzchaq)
"God of Jacob" (El Ja'aqov)
The combination "God of my father" probably originally only referred to one's own family father ( Gen 26.24 EU ; 46.1 EU ), so that his god differed from other family gods. This is shown by old fathers' stories such as the meeting of Jacob with his relative, the Aramean Laban ( Gen 31: 5, 29, 42 EU ). Also in the Joseph story ( Gen 43.23 EU ) it says distantly and singularly: "Your God and the God of your father has given you a treasure ..." In Gen 31.53 EU it says clearly: "The God of Abraham and the God of Nahor - the god of her father! - be judge between us. "Only after several clans merged into one tribe, the" God of my (your, your, their) father "became the" God of our (your, their) fathers ".
The combination of Els with personal names is often considered to be the early stage of an ancient oriental monotheism in which God was still nameless. It is controversial whether the names denote fictional ancestors of clans and tribes or real people. From the finds of clay tablets from the Mesopotamian city of Mari from around 1900 BC. One knows names like Abram, Isaac and Jacob, which denoted individual Aramaic persons.
In the course of a presumed second Aramaic migration wave (around 1500 BC), groups of semi-nomads from Mesopotamia and Syria or from the Sinai Peninsula came to the fertile cultivated land of Canaan , where they met and exchanged their stories. Their deities were probably already identified with each other, so that rankings such as "God of Abraham, Isaac and Jacob" ( Ex 3.6 EU ) arise and could be summarized as "God of our (your) fathers" ( Ex 3.16 EU ).
On the basis of such observations, the Old Testament scholar Albrecht Alt put forward the influential thesis of the "God of the Fathers" as a preliminary stage of the YHWH religion. For him, "the decisive characteristic is not the firm bond to a place, but the constant relationship with a group of people". As in the later all-Israeli YHWH belief, the father religion emphasized the relationship between God and man, God and social group. The lack of local ties made her, according to Alt, "all the more flexible in responding to all changes in the fate of the admirers".
The gods of the fathers did not need a pilgrimage to a permanent sanctuary and no mediation by priests whose duties the father of the family took over. They were always present to their people and were probably worshiped without any image. Only in the land of culture they were victims offered ( Gen 31.54 EU ; 46.1 EU ). Their task was to protect the clan from all kinds of dangers on the way ( Gen 28.15 EU ; 31.3.5 EU , 35.3 EU ; 46.4 EU ), to move with them ( Gen 26.3.24.28 EU ) and for to care for their right to life. As patron gods of a clan, they were especially responsible for the gifts on which the future of all depended: land, descendants and peace with neighboring peoples ( Gen 12: 1-3 EU ).
El is also combined with various attributes in the Bible. For El Olam and El Aeljon see below. Hagar , the maid and mother of Ishmael who was cast out by Abraham's first wife Sarah , calls God El-Roï (Hebrew אל רואי) after her rescue from dying of thirst : "God who sees me" ( Gen 16.13 EU ). Gen 33:20 speaks of "El, God of Israel".
Shaddai
In some places that are counted among the priestly components of the Pentateuch ( Gen 17.1 EU ; Ex 6.3 EU ), El and the epithet become שדי Schaddaj formed the divine designation El Schaddai . More common, however, is the use of Shaddai as an independent designation for God, without El . The meaning of Shaddai is unclear. The Zurich Bible takes this into account by continuously transcribing Schaddai like a proper name. The Septuagint has Pentateuch El Shaddai , depending on the speech situation, as your God and my God given, so understood as שדי relativischen connection (see. The relative particles Hebrew שand Aramaic די). The most common playback but "the Mighty", so in the Vulgate of Hieronymus ( latin omnipotens ) and in the King James . Shaddai is already translated as Pantocrator in the Greek translation of the Book of Job .
A connection with the Hebrew verb שדד schaddad ("to be violent", "to devastate") is usually assumed as an etymology . Then Schaddai could be translated as "mighty" or "destroyer", cf. Isa 13,6 ZB . But Schaddai is also traced back to the Hebrew word schad (" breast "), which is suggested by Gen 49.25 ZB . Some exegetes associate Schaddai with the Akkadian word schadu ("mountain"; as a verb: "rise") and then translate the name as "God the Most High" or "God the Most High". Others derive it from the Neo-Assyrian schaddaju ("mountain dweller") and translate the name as "god of the mountains" with regard to passages such as Gen 49.25 ZB and Ps 68.15 ZB . The Canaanite god El was inextricably linked with the mountains. Bernhard Lang brings the name Schaddai, also mentioned several times in the book of Job ( Hi 40,1–2 EU ), in connection with the Egyptian god Sched , the Horus- shaped god of wild animals, and interprets him as the lord of the fields (the mountain steppe).
Identification with YHWH
The real history of Israel as a people in its own right begins in the 2nd book of Moses : therefore, the rankings of paternal names recede from there. The combination "God of Moses " is also missing, although he was called to Ex 3 EU similar to the patriarchs. Instead, terms like "God of the Hebrews" or "God of Israel" dominate.
In the calling history of Moses (Ex 3), El, known as the God of the Fathers, introduces himself for the first time with his proper name JHWH (v. 14). According to Ex 6.3 EU , YHWH is the one who was known to the fathers under the name El Schaddaj . This relates to God's self-conception as El Schaddaj in Gen 17 EU . This conspicuous periodization of salvation history has often been viewed as a feature of a hypothetical source and editing of the Pentateuch, the exiled priestly pamphlet . Pentateuch texts that designate God as El Schaddaj have been assigned to this source.
According to Gen 14.18–24 EU , Abraham identified El with YHWH . After a victorious battle he met the priest-king Melchizedek of Salem (later Jerusalem ). He had blessed him in the name of El Aeljon , "the one who created heaven and earth". Thereupon Abraham Melchizedek paid the " tithe of everything", that is, a share of his spoils of war and called his God " YHWH , who made heaven and earth". From this it is concluded that the inhabitants of Salem, the Jebusites , lived around 1200 BC. A creator god El Aeljon ("God the Most High") worshiped, who was not identical with the father gods. The city god of Be'er Scheva El Olam ("God the Eternal", Gen 21.33 EU ) was called similarly . The attributes of Aeljon and "creator of heaven and earth" (that is, of the entire known cosmos) are not documented in the finds of Ugarit; a related creation myth is also missing. Outside the Bible, ancient inscriptions only attest to an "El, Creator of the Earth"; the attribute "creator of heaven" is missing. Nevertheless, a connection between El Aeljon and a Canaanite creation myth is assumed. Whether the Melchizedek scene reflected an early recognition of this Canaanite creator god by Hebrew semi-nomads or was created afterwards to legitimize Jerusalem as a place of YHWH worship is controversial. What is certain is that YHWH was only called the creator of the world late in the Bible and that the creator attribute comes from the religion of Canaan.
According to another theory of the history of religion, the Israelites and the Canaanites both originally worshiped the same god El , from whom YHWH developed. The god father El, known from Ugarit, was identified with YHWH in such a way that YHWH was first worshiped as the highest, later as the only god, and in the last development step the existence of the other gods was contested.
Theophore place names and proper names
In Genesis, the name El is often combined with place names and proper names and then added:
Isra-El : "who quarrels with God" or "warrior of God" ( Gen 32.29 EU )
Ishmael : "God hears" ( Gen 16.11 EU )
Bet-El : literally "House of God", a cult place of Els in the later northern Reich of Israel , which the infiltrating nomads took over ( Gen 31.13 EU ). The legend of the origin ( etiology ) for this is Jacob's vision of the ladder to heaven, whereupon he erects a stone monument to this god ( Gen 28.10–22 EU ).
Penu-El : "God's face " ( Gen 32.31 EU )
and other.
Klaus Koch: The Yahwä-El synthesis. In: Klaus Koch: The God of Israel and the Gods of the Orient - Religious History Studies II. Vandenhoeck & Ruprecht, Göttingen 2006, ISBN 352553079X , pp. 13-18
Walter Baumgartner: History of the Israelite religion: Basel lectures. Debreceni Református Hittudományi Egyetem, 2004, ISBN 9638429429
Wolfram Herrmann: El. In: Karel van der Toorn, Bob Becking, Pieter W. van der Horst (eds.): Dictionary of Deities and Demons in the Bible. Leiden 1999, ISBN 90-04-11119-0 , pp. 274-280.
Manfred Weippert: Yahweh and the other gods. Studies on the religious history of ancient Israel in its Syrian-Palestinian context, research on the Old Testament 18, Mohr Siebeck Tübingen 1997.
Rolf Rendtorff: El as an Israelite name for God. Journal for Old Testament Science (ZAW) 106, 1994, pp. 4-21.
Walter Beltz : God and the Gods - Biblical Mythology. Structure, Berlin 1990, ISBN 3-351-00976-3 .
Werner H. Schmidt: Kingship of God in Ugarit and Israel: On the origin of Yahweh's king predication. (ZAW 80, 1966) Reprint: Walter de Gruyter, Berlin 2013, ISBN 3110055775
Ingo Kottsieper: Article: El In: Michaela Bauks, Klaus Koenen, Stefan Alkier (Hrsg.): The scientific Bible lexicon on the Internet (WiBiLex), Stuttgart 2006 ff.
Wiktionary: El - explanations of meanings, word origins, synonyms, translations
↑ Mechon Mamre Jeremiah Chapter 27 יִרְמְיָהוּ
↑ Otto Eißfeldt: El in the Ugaritic pantheon. 1951, pp. 5-24, 40-44
↑ Izak Cornelius, Herbert Niehr: Gods and Cults in Ugarit. Culture and religion of a northern Syrian royal city in the Late Bronze Age. Verlag Philipp von Zabern, Mainz 2004, p. 44f, ISBN 3-8053-3281-5
↑ Martin Noth: Mari and Israel. A personal name study. In: History and Old Testament: Contributions to Historical Theology 16, 1953
↑ Quoted from Werner H. Schmidt: Old Testament Faith in Its History. 4th edition, Neukirchener Verlag, Neukirchen-Vluyn 1982, p. 21
↑ Roger Aubrey: Discovering God. Xulon Press, 2008, ISBN 978-1-60647-364-1 , p. 39
↑ Jan Bauke-Ruegg: The omnipotence of God. Systematic-theological considerations between metaphysics, postmodernism and poetry. Walter de Gruyter, Berlin 1998, ISBN 3-11-015905-8 , p. 343
↑ Roger Aubrey: Discovering God. 2008, p. 37.
↑ Bernhard Lange: Yahweh. The biblical god. Munich 2002, p. 131 f.
↑ Jan Bauke-Ruegg: The omnipotence of God. Systematic-theological considerations between metaphysics, postmodernism and poetry. Berlin 1998, p. 348 and note 106
↑ Werner H. Schmidt: Old Testament Faith in its History. 4th edition, Neukirchen-Vluyn 1982, p. 146f.
↑ Herbert Niehr: The highest God. Old Testament YHWH belief in the context of the Syrian-Canaanite religion of the 1st millennium BC Chr. Berlin / New York 1990.
This page is based on the copyrighted Wikipedia article "El_%28Gott%29" (Authors); it is used under the Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 Unported License. You may redistribute it, verbatim or modified, providing that you comply with the terms of the CC-BY-SA.


text:
The renderer used to render top level components server side and to create client
bundles. Add any "pages" (top level components) here for rendering, by adding a
route and the webpack config necessary to create a client bundle.

## Usage

In order to create a bundle, we need for all packages to have their own `rnw` bundle.
Use `npx lerna run bundle` at the root to simulate a published package.

```bash
yarn bundle:dev
```

Create a client-side dev bundle to hydrate the SSR page, useful for checking
developer level warnings which you may need to fix

```bash
yarn bundle:prod
```

Create a client-side prod bundle to hydrate the SSR page, this will have the
various optimisations applied with code splitting and silence any console
warnings/errors. The server-side response is also compressed for testing client
perf.

```bash
GRAPHQL_ENDPOINT=<API endpoint> SPOT_ID=<SpotIM ID> yarn start
```

Run a simple node server which serves up the various pages which currently
include:

- `/article/:article-id`
- `/profile/:author-slug`
- `/topic/:topic-slug`

They will use the client side bundle you generated above.

- `GRAPHQL_ENDPOINT` is used for data fetching.
- `SPOT_ID` is used to render comments on article pages.
- You can optionally set `GRAPHQL_TOKEN` (instructions should be available from your
  API provider) to get unteased articles.

```bash
yarn bundle:profile
```

This will generate the webpack `stats.json` file in `dist`. You can then use a
command such as `npx webpack-bundle-analyzer stats.json` in the `dist` folder to
visualise the webpack bundle or upload it to other tools
[suggested by webpack](https://webpack.js.org/guides/code-splitting/#bundle-analysis)

```bash
yarn start:testserver
```

Simply starts the SSR server but sets the `SPOT_ID` to a fixed dummy value (so
the SpotIM script will written on the article page, but not found/run), and sets
`GRAPHQL_ENDPOINT` to port 4000 which is where the test TPA server should be running.

## Contributing

Please read [CONTRIBUTING.md](./CONTRIBUTING.md) before contributing to this
package

## Running the code

Please see our main [README.md](../README.md) to get the project running locally

## Development

The code can be formatted and linted in accordance with the agreed standards.

```bash
yarn fmt
yarn lint
```

## Testing

As the future of the website, we want to improve the end-to-end testing DX which
[Cypress](https://www.cypress.io/) may help us with. There is currently a very
simple implementation which could be developed to the point where editorial content
is developed with a TDD approach here, that just happens to use components in the monorepo.

Currently there is one simple test that is run separately in CI with no coverage measured.

The tests can be developed as follows:

```bash
yarn start:testservers
npx cypress open
```

you can then use the Cypress GUI to develop your tests.

For CI or to check you haven't broke anything there is:

```bash
yarn test:integration
```

This will create a dev client side bundle with the mock `GRAPHQL_ENDPOINT`,
start up the mock server and SSR, run the Cypress tests inside electron and
then shutdown the servers.

## Persisted Queries

To enable persisted queries in the client, add the following line to your client-side javascript:

```
window.nuk.graphqlapi.usePersistedQueries = true;
```

## Future

- Publish : potentially we want to look at using this as our source of truth for
  server-side rendering, this would mean exporting and publishing the code to be
  used by render, so it's "all the same code"

- Bundle Size: we bundle packages on CI in master, we could then bundle here and
  lint for excessively sized bundles

- Testing: flesh out the mock server to auto-generate several scenarios for e2e
  testing and add more Cypress tests to move away from render specific and/or
  Java tests

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


text:
Browse Chicago Books
Sounds of Murder – A Pamela Barnes Acoustic Mystery
Patricia Rockwell | Aurora, Illinois
When Pamela Barnes discovers her department's star researcher Charlotte Clark strangled to death in the computer lab, she is determined to find the killer. She extracts an audio recording of the murder and analyzes it acoustically to determine if any of the sounds made during the murder can help identify the killer. Unfortunately, her aggressive attempts to solve the crime lead her into danger, and she ultimately finds herself in a face-to-face confrontation with the killer.
Sounds of Murder tells a tale of academic intrigue and death. At Grace University, a small southern college, no one in the Psychology Department likes Charlotte Clark, so no one is particularly upset when she is found murdered in the department's million-dollar computer lab. But because she discovered the body, Associate Professor Pamela Barnes feels obligated to find Charlotte's killer, and when she discovers a recording of the murder that was accidentally produced during Charlotte's struggle with the killer, she begins her own investigation. Along the way, Pamela agonizes with her own conscience, fights her growing fear, attempts to understand her mysterious Department Chair, keeps her curious colleagues informed, placates her protective husband, and avoids antagonizing a local rube detective who belittles her efforts--all while she struggles to make sense of the sounds on the recording. As she gets deeper and deeper into her analysis—trying to connect what she hears in the recording with sounds from people (and potential killers) around her--she gets closer and closer to the killer, who unbeknownst to her, is observing Pamela's efforts to find the killer, and resolving to prevent her. When Pamela finally identifies the one sound on the tape that positively identifies the killer, she works with the detective to trick the killer into a confession.
About Patricia Rockwell (Chicago, Illinois Author)
Patricia Rockwell is the author of two cozy mystery series. The Pamela Barnes acoustic mysteries follows the exploits of a southern university psychology professor and acoustics expert. Books include SOUNDS OF MURDER, FM FOR MURDER, VOICE MAIL MURDER, STUMP SPEECH MURDER, and MURDER IN THE ROUND. Her Essie Cobb senior sleuth series features a retirement home resident and her attempts to solve problems in her facility. The books include BINGOED, PAPOOSED, VALENTINED, GHOSTED, and FIRECRACKERED. Patricia lives in Aurora, IL and enjoys speaking to groups in the west Chicago suburbs.
Bingoed


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So you've been around the improv block but crave more? Well, HOO-HAAcademy: Hoo-Haarder is here for you, giving you the opportunity to explore our beloved long-form - CLIFFHANGER!
This time, we'll take you further. Not only will we continue to share our nuggets of golden improv knowledge and experience, but you'll get to delve into character, story, environments, shape of show concepts and genre, all while continuing to play and be silly and hilarious in the good old Hoo-Haa way!
The course ends with a graduation showcase on 13 March to impress your family and friends!


text:
The Chingawa forest rat (Chingawaemys rarus) is a species of rodent endemic to Ethiopia. It is the only member of the monotypic genus Chingawaemys. It was only described in 2021, when it was discovered during a broad phylogenetic analysis of the tribe Praomyini.

It is thought to have diverged from its closest relatives over 6 million years ago, during the Pliocene. The species inhabits the last remnant of tropical rainforest present in Ethiopia, in an area called Chingawa near the border with South Sudan. It is only known from one specimen collected 15 years prior to description, and researchers have been unable to regain access the type locality of the specimen. The genus is at major risk of extinction due to mass deforestation in the area for coffee production.

References

Old World rats and mice
Endemic fauna of Ethiopia
Mammals described in 2021

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


text:
How to Reassign Power in the Humanitarian Sector
from Women Around the World
Samantha Power, President Joe Biden's nominee to lead USAID, walks to her seat prior to her confirmation hearing. Jim Lo Scalzo/REUTERS
Blog Post by Guest Blogger for Women Around the World
March 24, 2021 11:54 am (EST)
This post was authored by Wale Osofisan, senior director, governance technical unit at the International Rescue Committee.
When we analyze leadership in the humanitarian sector, we often see images of mostly white men, a few white women, and, if one looks hard enough, one may be lucky to spot a few black and brown men and women working within western cities such as New York, London, Paris, Geneva, or Washington, DC. This is not exclusive to the aid sector. As of 2020, a review of FTSE 250 companies found that 69 percent have no ethnic diversity on their boards. These are the people who have the privilege of making decisions that affect millions of people around the world, particularly those who are seen as living "over there," in conflict and crisis-affected countries in the Middle East, Africa, and Southeast Asia.
Women and Women's Rights
Power and how we use it are central to our ability to enact meaningful and lasting change, irrespective of where a person may live. Yet, we often see examples of decisions affecting people thousands of miles away, with little to no input from the people these decisions are meant to serve, especially women and girls who are disproportionately impacted by crises.
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It is no secret that decision-making powers in the international aid sector mostly sit in western capitals. This is understandable to the extent that resources from richer countries to poorer countries come from a combination of individual donors, taxpayers through their aid institutions, and shareholders in the case of private sector donors. However, the connection between the individual donors, taxpayers, and shareholders to the clients meant to receive these resources is either non-existent or, at best, cosmetic in nature.
What will it look like for taxpayers in a donor country to develop a relationship with refugees and internally displaced persons thousands of miles apart? What does it mean for refugees and internally displaced people to have power? These are questions not easily answered in the humanitarian sector. When we think about the power of a voter to choose and remove their leaders, we think of their ballot. When we think about a consumer, we think of their wallet and their choice to purchase an item. What the voter and consumer have in common is choice and voice.
Refugees and internally displaced persons don't have the same type of power. Some are recipients of cash, which in theory should accord them the freedom to spend as they wish, but often there are conditions attached to what they can purchase with this money. While refugees and internationally displaced persons can try to make their voices heard through project suggestion boxes and complaint and grievance mechanisms, they don't have the power to ensure there are consequences if they are not satisfied with donor services, or if donors do not keep their promises.
At the International Rescue Committee, where I lead our work in governance programming, we measure our success in terms of our impact on the lives of the people we serve. This means that we take an intersectional approach to working with local partners, including by amplifying the voices of women and girls whose lives have been affected by conflict and crisis; championing their rights to influence the issues that affect their cities, towns, and communities; and ensuring their priorities and preferences inform program design and implementation.
To create real, transformational change, we must be comfortable with power being shared, given, and even lost. Such a dramatic change is likely to provoke some pushback, but to ease the transition, there are several things that people working within the humanitarian sector can do.
The sector should prioritize respecting people and communities as sources of knowledge and decision makers on issues that directly affect their lives. How do we do this in practice? One approach is to ensure a gender lens in every program, hearing directly from affected women and girls about what works best in their communities.
Humanitarian agencies should also skew donor accountability downwards. Who determines what a successful development program or project looks like? Evaluators frequently come from wealthy, western contexts, often from the donor country itself. What if we shifted to a model where the people and, in particular, women and girls from the marginalized groups we serve, make the final judgments, further influencing where future donations can be spent? This could also take the form of an independent network where representatives of refugees and internally displaced people dictate the greatest needs for their communities. This type of initiative would not only give refugees and internally displaced people a voice, but also generate direct voting and purchasing power on their behalf.
To make this work, a solidarity alliance of taxpayers or shareholders could be established to connect directly with representatives of refugees and internally displaced persons. The donors and clients could form an alliance where the former transfer their power to the latter. This would require an overhaul of current accountability practices, where real power currently flows upward.
As we move forward in 2021, the humanitarian sector has the opportunity not only to avoid making the same mistakes, but also to chart a new course where power is developed among a new generation of leaders—including women and girls. If we are serious about enacting lasting and meaningful change, it is time for us to create accountability mechanisms that put people, their families, and communities at the forefront.
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