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2015 Top 40 Season in Review: Javier Guerra
This week, we recap the players ranked 7, 6, and 5 in the SoxProspects.com season-end Top 40. All entries in this year's Top 40 Season in Review series can be found here.
#6 Javier Guerra, SS
2015 Team: Greenville Drive
Final Stats: 477 PA, .279/.329/.449, 15 HR, 30 BB, 112 K
2015 Peak Ranking: 6 (October)
Fiorino: The Write-Up, March 20
Dunne: System Restart, Middle Infielders
Hatfield: Notes from the Field, May 6
Guerra named South Atlantic League All-Star
SoxProspects.com Player of the Week (July 6-12)
Cundall: Scouting Scratch, September 3
2015 SoxProspects.com All-Stars
Red Sox name Guerra Defensive Player of the Year
SoxProspects.com 2015 season-end award winners
Season in Review: Guerra entered the year with some scouting buzz due to his elite defensive potential, but he was still flying under the radar to some degree, beginning the season at 16th in the SoxProspects.com rankings. However, he quickly put himself on the map after a hot start to the season, hitting .321/.365/.526 over his first 86 plate appearances, despite striking out in over 30 percent of those. He cooled off over his next 31 games, batting .229/.294/.431, with his strikeout rate remaining around 30 percent while his batting average on balls in play decreased significantly, a sign that he was getting a bit lucky with balls falling in early in the season.
Posted by Matt Huegel
Fall/Winter League Roundup: Playoffs begin in Dominican Republic
This week's roundup covers play from the period of December 21-27. For the full list of Red Sox prospects participating in offseason action, check out our Fall and Winter Leagues page, which will be updated continuously through the end of the offseason.
Dominican Professional Baseball League
The regular season ended on the 21st, with Este, Oriente, Escogido, and Licey all making the playoffs. Every Red Sox prospect was on one of these four teams, so there will be names to follow throughout the playoffs. The first games of the postseason took place yesterday, with Este defeating Oriente, and Escogido beating Licey. Marco Hernandez (pictured) went 1 for 3 for Licey.
2015 Top 40 Season in Review: Michael Kopech
#7 Michael Kopech, RHP
2015 Teams: Greenville Drive
Final Stats: 65 IP, 2.63 ERA, 1.23 WHIP, 70 K, 27 BB
2015 Peak Ranking: 5 (Current)
2015 SoxProspects Pre-season All-Stars
Dunne: System Restart, Mid-Minors Pitchers
SoxProspects.com Pitcher of the Week, April 20-26
Eight Drive Players Named SAL All-Stars
Michael Kopech Suspended 50 games
Fiorino: The Write-Up, October 14
Season in Review: Kopech was selected with the 33rd overall pick in the 2014 draft, but threw just 13 innings in the Gulf Coast League in his professional debut, giving only a small indication of what might be expected from the Texan right-hander. In 2015, the soon-to-be 19-year-old broke camp with the Greenville Drive, three years younger than the average pitcher in the South Atlantic League. He had a short adjustment period, failing to make it through four innings in three of his first five starts, allowing eight runs in 18 2/3 innings, walking seven and allowing 14 hits although he did strike out 17 hitters. But from that point forward Kopech really turned it on. In what would be his final 11 appearances, he allowed only 11 earned runs over 46 1/3 innings for a 2.14 ERA. Consistency was key for him over that stretch, giving up one earned run or less in eight of those 11 appearances while averaging over a strikeout an inning, and his still-high 20 walks in that span ballooned due to the nine free passes he gave up over nine innings in his final two starts, perhaps signaling fatigue.
2015 Top 40 Season in Review: Brian Johnson
This week, we recap the next three players in the season-end Top 40, going from 10 to 8. All entries in this year's Top 40 Season in Review series can be found here.
#8 Brian Johnson, LHP
2015 Team: Pawtucket Red Sox, Boston Red Sox
Final Stats: 96 IP, 2.53 ERA, 1.10 WHIP, 90 K, 32 BB (minors only)
Peak Ranking: 4 (August)
Season in Review: 2014 | 2013 | 2012
Owens, Johnson among eight invited to Red Sox spring training
Dunne: System Restart: Upper Level Pitchers
Fiorino: The Write-Up: April 28
Huegel: Brian Johnson ignores the noise, dominates in Pawtucket
SoxProspects.com Pitcher of the Week (May 25-31)
SoxProspects.com Pitcher of the Week (June 22-28)
Johnson named to International League All-Star Team
Report: Brian Johnson called up to Boston
2015 Season in Review: Brian Johnson's ascent through the Red Sox system reached its apex when the former first-round pick made his major league debut on July 21. While it was a tremendous accomplishment for the left-hander, one that was well earned following a tremendous start to the year, it also represented a turning point in his year. After making that debut following a long layoff, Johnson made only two more starts before being shut down for the season with an elbow injury.
Posted by Harry Burnham
2015 Top 40 Season in Review: Sam Travis
#9 Sam Travis, 1B
2015 Teams: Salem Red Sox, Portland Sea Dogs
Final Stats: 559 PA, .307/.381/.452, 9 HR, 59 BB, 77 K
Dunne: System Restart, Corner Infielders
Player of the Week, April 27-May 3
Player of the Week, June 1-June 8
Travis to represent Salem as Carolina League All-Star
Report: Sam Travis promoted to Portland
June Player of the Month
Travis highlights six announced for Arizona Fall League
Travis, Moncada highlight Red Sox minor league awards
Season In Review: Travis did not miss a beat in his second professional season, passing just about every challenge thrown at him in 2015. After raking in Lowell and Greenville in 2014 just after being drafted, Travis posted very impressive offensive numbers again in 2015 over two levels. He earned the Red Sox Minor League Offensive Player of the Year award from the organization, as well as two SoxProspects.com Player of the Week honors and the SoxProspects.com Player of the Month award for June. In that month for Salem, Travis posted a .406/.474/.638 slash line with three home runs and five doubles before being called up to Portland on June 24. He had nine multi-hit games in June, including a 4-for-4 day for Salem on June 12. He was also named to the Carolina League All-Star Game, where he collected a pair of hits.
Podcast Ep. 89: Alex Speier on Baseball America's Red Sox Top 10 Prospects
It's ranking season, and that gave us an excuse to get our friend Alex Speier of the Boston Globe and Baseball America to discuss his recently released list of the top 10 Red Sox prospects! We discuss the organization's first-class top 10 and potentially worrisome lack of depth after the top 7, whether the Red Sox gave up too much in the Craig Kimbrel deal, and much more!
And as always, thanks to The Ludlow Thieves for our music! Get their new EP Sing Me Back, released Dec. 18, on iTunes!
Click through for links and in-site player!
Fall/Winter League Roundup: Brentz sees first action
This week's roundup covers play from the period of December 14-December 20. For the full list of Red Sox prospects participating in offseason action, check out our Fall and Winter Leagues page, which will be updated continuously through the end of the offseason.
Marco Hernandez started the week hot, going 2 for 3 with two doubles and a run scored on Tuesday, but proceeded to go 0 for his next 10 to close out the week. Aneury Tavarez was 2 for 8 with an RBI in three games this week.
Roman Mendez was the only Red Sox pitcher to appear in the Dominican League last week. He appeared in two contests, tossing an inning of relief, allowing a run on two hits and two walks. He picked up the loss in Wednesday's contest against Licey.
Posted by John Gray
2015 Top 40 Season in Review: Deven Marrero
#10: Deven Marrero, SS
2015 Teams: Pawtucket Red Sox, Boston Red Sox
Final Stats: 419 PA, .256/.316/.344, 6 HR, 33 BB, 87 K (minors); 56 PA, .226/.268/.283, 1 HR, 3 BB, 19 K (majors)
Eight invited to Red Sox spring training
Red Sox option Bradley and Castillo to Pawtucket, among latest cuts
Marrero working to bring selective approach from AFL to Pawtucket
Cundall: Scouting Scratch, June 23
Report: Marrero, Aro, Bradley up to Boston
Rabasco: Notes from the Field, September 2
Season In Review: Marrero has always been lauded for his defensive talents at shortstop, and that was enough to get him into 25 games for the major league club, making his debut in the bigs in his fourth year in the Red Sox system. He was used as a defensive replacement 13 times over two stints, one due to Dustin Pedroia's injury in late June and early July and the other when the rosters expanded in September. With Xander Bogaerts playing his best shortstop of his career, Boston primarily used Marrero at third base for his time with the big league club. Marrero had never played more than three games at third base before this season, but handled his time on the hot corner well—he committed just one error in 22 chances at third and also played errorless defense at second for 20 innings.
2015 Top 40 Season in Review: Luis Alexander Basabe and Michael Chavis
This week, we recap the next six players in the season-end Top 40, going from 16 to 11. All entries in this year's Top 40 Season in Review series can be found here.
#12: Luis Alexander Basabe, OF
2015 Team: Lowell Spinners
2015 Peak Ranking: 10 (Current)
Dunne: System Restart 2015, Pt. 4: Outfielders
Fiorino: The Write-Up: Benintendi, Basabe and more from Lowell
Five Spinners named to All-Star Game
Fiorino: The Write-Up: Chavis, Basabe, Espinal
Season In Review: An intriguing raw outfield talent, 19-year-old Basabe was an All-Star in his first season with the Lowell Spinners. Basabe - not to be confused with his twin brother Luis Alejandro, who played shortstop and second base for the GCL Red Sox - signed as an international free agent with the Red Sox out of Venezuela at the age of 16. Flashing a combination of power, speed and arm strength in the field, it is easy to see why Basabe has risen through the ranks of Red Sox prospects.
2015 Top 40 Season in Review: Trey Ball and Logan Allen
#14 Trey Ball, LHP
2015 Teams: Salem Red Sox
Final Stats: 129 1/3 IP, 4.73 ERA, 1.46 WHIP, 77 K, 60 BB
Season in Review: 2014 | 2013
Cundall: Scouting Scratch, March 24, 2015
Meoli: Pitching coach's prediction for Trey Ball turnaround came to fruition in 2014
Pitcher of the Week, April 13-19
Pitcher of the Week, June 8-14
Podcast Episode 87: Trey Ball Interview
Season in Review: A season after the 2013 first-round pick split his season between a brutal, 6.52-ERA first half and a redeeming, 2.70 ERA second half, Ball struggled with inconsistency in 2015. After giving up 10 hits and six runs during his debut with Salem, he rebounded to throw six no-hit innings in his second start of the campaign. Those two starts were indicative of how his season would progress. He surrendered 16 earned runs over his next 20 innings, then did not allow a run in three starts from June 4 through June 14, spanning 15 2/3 innings. He allowed just six hits over that stretch. Ball finished on a sour note, giving up 42 runs over his final 66 2/3 innings.
Red Sox sign six players to minor league contracts
The Red Sox announced today that they signed six players to minor league contracts with invitations to spring training, including four players who saw varying degrees of playing time in the majors in 2015. Right-handers William Cuevas (pictured), Sean O'Sullivan, and Anthony Varvaro will all get a chance to contribute in Pawtucket this season, while third baseman Chris Dominguez, center fielder Ryan LaMarre, and catcher Ali Solis will offer depth for the lineup.
Cuevas and Varvaro are familiar faces, with Cuevas spending his entire career with the Red Sox after debuting in 2009, and Varvaro spending the first month of last season in Boston's bullpen before undergoing surgery to repair a torn flexor tendon in his pitching arm.
Fall/Winter League Roundup: Vazquez swinging it well in Puerto Rican League
This week's roundup covers play from the period of December 7-December 13. For the full list of Red Sox prospects participating in offseason action, check out our Fall and Winter Leagues page, which will be updated continuously through the end of the offseason.
Marco Hernandez (pictured) went 5 for 21 with a double, two runs, and two RBI this past week at shortstop for Licey. Aneury Tavarez followed up a nice week by going 3 for 11 with a double.
Roman Mendez was the only Red Sox pitcher to appear in the Dominican League last week. He made two appearances and tossed 2 1/3 scoreless frames, allowing two hits along the way.
2015 Top 40 Season in Review: Nick Longhi and Wendell Rijo
#16 Nick Longhi, 1B/OF
Final stats: .281/.338/.403, 7 HR, 34 BB, 88 K 2015
Peak Ranking: 13 (Current)
Huegel: With injury behind him, Longhi honing selective approach this spring
Dunne: System Restart, Outfielders
Podcast Episode 83: Longhi Interview
Season in Review: Longhi often seemed overshadowed on a star-studded Greenville roster, but the Springfield, Massachusetts-born prospect quietly turned in a solid 2015 season. Coming off a torn UCL in his thumb that ended his 2014 season after only 30 games, Longhi quickly put to rest any worries about potential rust or lingering effects. He opened the season with a 10-game hitting streak, going 16 for his first 41 at-bats with four doubles and two home runs. While he did not keep that torrid pace throughout the summer, Longhi finished the year with 124 hits and 27 doubles, good for fifth in the farm system in both categories. This all came while being 19 for most of the season, making him one of the younger members of the South Atlantic League. He was the third-youngest position player to appear for the Drive in 2015, older than only Rafael Devers and Javier Guerra, and only 23 of Longhi's 488 plate appearances were against younger pitchers.
2015 Top 40 Season In Review: Mauricio Dubon and Marco Hernandez
#18 Mauricio Dubon, SS/2B
2015 Teams: Greenville Drive, Salem Red Sox
Huegel: Dubon taking journey from Honduras to the majors one stop at a time
Dunne: System Restart 2015, Pt. 3: Middle Infielders
Hatfield: Notes from the Field
Dubon promoted to Salem
Season in Review: Dubon continued to do in 2015 what he's done since being drafted in the 26th round of the 2013 draft: make contact. The 21-year-old righty got off to a hot start in Greenville, collecting a hit in 14 of his first 16 games. Dubon had a .301/.354/.428 slash line with the Drive in 58 games and had an impressive 22 multi-hit games. He also recorded 19 of his 29 extra-base hits with Greenville. While he didn't totally fall off after his promotion, facing more advanced pitching with Salem was a definite challenge. Dubon hit .274 in High-A, but his power numbers declined steeply, with just one homer and no triples in 269 plate appearances. By the end of the season, Dubon began to show signs of adjustment. He entered August hitting only .231 at High-A and finished at a .323 pace in August and September. He also showcased his speed for the first time in 2015, racking up 30 steals on the year. That tally ranked fourth in the Red Sox system behind only Yoan Moncada, Manuel Margot and Quintin Berry. -Eric Gendron
Garin Cecchini traded to Brewers for cash considerations
The Red Sox announced today a deal that sends utilityman Garin Cecchini to the Milwaukee Brewers in exchange for undisclosed cash considerations. Cecchini had been designated for assignment last week in order to clear a spot on the 40-man roster for free agent pitcher David Price.
Cecchini, 24, was a highly touted prospect in recent years but saw his star fade due to struggles at the Triple-A level. He labored to a .213/.286/.296 line with Pawtucket in 2015, finding himself the only healthy position player on the 40-man roster not to receive a recall when rosters expanded in September. His drop-off at the plate was magnified by a lack of progress in the field. Exclusively a third baseman during his first three years in the organization, he was slow to take to the position and started seeing time in the outfield in 2014. In 2015, he appeared at third base in only 19 of his PawSox games, instead seeing the majority of his playing time at left field and first base.
Sox nab righties Polanco, Leclerc in Triple-A phase of Rule 5 draft
The Red Sox were not active in the major league portion of the 2015 draft, but used the Triple-A phase to supplement their minor league pitching depth. Right-handed pitchers Jhonny Polanco (pictured) and Angelo Leclerc were taken from the St. Louis Cardinals and Texas Rangers organizations, respectively. The Chicago Cubs tabbed Red Sox outfielder Jesus Loya in the Triple-A portion of the draft.
Boston was not eligible to make a selection in the major league portion because it did not have a free spot on its 40-man roster. For the first time since 2008, the Red Sox did not have one of their own players selected by another team. Players taken in the major league portion of the draft must remain on the 25-man roster of the drafting team all season or be offered back to their original team.
2015 Top 40 Season in Review: Teddy Stankiewicz and Pat Light
#20 Teddy Stankiewicz, RHP
Meoli: Stankiewicz debuted streamlined delivery in first spring outing
Podcast Ep. 82: Teddy Stankiewicz Interview
Season in Review: Stankiewicz has not posted standout numbers on paper, but he continues to show the potential to be a workhorse pitcher. The 6-foot-4 Texan topped the 140 innings mark for the second season in a row and ranked second among all pitchers in the Red Sox system in innings pitched. He also ranked fourth in the Carolina League in innings pitched. Stankiewicz showed flashes of brilliance last season with eight innings of shutout ball on May 25 then seven scoreless frames on July 3 as well as in his season finale on Sept. 6.
Sam Travis named to AFL Top Prospects Team
First baseman Sam Travis capped a solid showing in this year's Arizona Fall League with a selection to the circuit's Top Prospects Team. The league's managers and coaches voted for the 22 honorees, basing their votes on a combination of performance and major league projectability.
Travis hit .344/.394/.505 in 23 games for the Scottsdale Scorpions, hitting 10 doubles, a triple, and a home run over his 93 at-bats. He and Mets first baseman Dominic Smith were the two first basemen selected. Notably, the recently traded Carlos Asuaje was one of the two honorees at second base.
Red Sox trade Miley, Aro to Seattle for Carson Smith, Roenis Elias
The Red Sox made their first trade of the 2015 Winter Meetings on Monday, sending left-hander Wade Miley and right-hander Jonathan Aro (pictured) to Seattle in exchange for right-handed reliever Carson Smith and left-handed starter Roenis Elias. Smith is expected to slot into a setup role in front of Craig Kimbrel, along with Koji Uehara, while Elias may either compete for the fifth spot in the rotation or be used against left-handers out of the bullpen.
Here at SoxProspects, we reviewed Aro's 2015 season and provided a scouting report in last Friday's Top 40 Season in Review entry, with SoxProspects Director of Scouting Ian Cundall summing him up with the following:
Fall/Winter League Roundup: Liga Paralela playoffs set to begin
This week's roundup covers play from the period of November 30-December 6. For the full list of Red Sox prospects participating in offseason action, check out our Fall and Winter Leagues page, which will be updated continuously through the end of the offseason.
Playing both shortstop and second base this week, Marco Hernandez (pictured) went 5 for 13 with two doubles, a walk, and a run scored as he rebounded from an 0 for 12 performance last week. Appearing in his first games in over a month, Aneury Tavarez went 4 for 7 with a double, walk, and three stolen bases. Free agent Carlos Peguero went 2 for 12 with three walks and two strikeouts, while Rafael Devers did not see any playing time for the third week in a row.
2015 Top 40 Season in Review: Luis Ysla and Williams Jerez
#22 Luis Ysla, LHP
2015 Teams: San Jose Giants (SFG), Salem Red Sox
Final Stats: 84 2/3 IP, 5.85 ERA, 1.80 WHIP, 101 K, 43 BB
Acquired from San Francisco on Aug. 31 for Alejandro De Aza and cash
Cundall: Scouting Scratch, Oct. 12
Season in Review: After being signed by the Giants out of Venezuela in September 2012 as an older international free agent at age 21, Ysla had shown promise at the lower levels of the minors. As an older pitcher in the Gulf Coast League, he struck out 52 hitters in 51 innings with a 1.00 WHIP. He continued that success in 2014 at a more age-appropriate level, posting a 2.45 ERA and striking out 115 hitters in 121 1/3 innings, although his 45 walks were a bit high. But Ysla struggled when he was promoted to High-A San Jose and the hitter-friendly California League to start 2015. The 23-year-old allowed 22 earned runs in 14 innings on 31 hits and 14 walks in his first five starts and was summarily moved to the bullpen until mid-July. After a brief return to the rotation began with four solid starts and unraveled with 10 more earned runs in 6 2/3 innings in his final two starts, he again returned to the bullpen, again finding improved success. In all, Ysla fared better in relief, posting a 4.69 ERA in 48 innings as opposed to an 8.18 ERA in nine total starts for San Jose.
Red Sox designate Cecchini to make room for Price
The Red Sox announced today that Garin Cecchini has been designated for assignment to make room on the roster for newly acquired free agent pitcher David Price.
Cecchini, a once-promising prospect, has tumbled down the prospect lists over the past couple seasons. He peaked as high as third on our rankings here at SoxProspects.com back in September of 2013 after hitting .322/.443/.471 between Salem and Portland that season. However, Triple-A has proved to be a challenge that he has been unable to conquer thus far. Cecchini's fall from grace began in 2014 with Pawtucket, batting .263/.341/.371 in 114 games. He was called up to Boston for a game on June 1 of that year, but was sent right back down after the game. He reappeared in Boston for a cup of coffee in late September of 2014, playing in 11 total games with the Red Sox.
2015 Top 40 Season in Review: Jonathan Aro and Ty Buttrey
#24 Jonathan Aro, RHP
2015 Teams: Portland Sea Dogs, Pawtucket Red Sox, Boston Red Sox
Final Stats: 74 IP, 3.04 ERA, 1.03 WHIP, 72 K, 18 BB (minors); 10 1/3 IP, 6.97 ERA, 1.84 WHIP, 8 K, 4 BB (majors)
Dunne: System Restart, Upper Level Pitchers
Aro promoted to Pawtucket
Cundall: Scouting Scratch, May 28
Marrero, Aro, Bradley up to Boston
Aro named Lou Gorman Award recipient
Season in Review: Aro's rapid ascent through the system culminated with two brief stints in Boston in 2015. After spending time with Greenville and Salem in 2014, Aro started this season in Portland, and after only 22 1/3 successful innings, he moved up to Pawtucket. He allowed four runs over his first 3 1/3 innings with the PawSox, but after that he absolutely dominated the International League, going 19 straight scoreless innings, walking three and striking out 27 while allowing only 10 hits.
November Notes: Margot & co. depart & reviews ramp up
Here are this month's minor league notes:
The biggest news of last month was the trade that sent Red Sox prospects to San Diego in exchange for closer Craig Kimbrel. It took four prospects to get the deal done: Outfielder Manuel Margot (ranked fourth at the time by SoxProspects.com, pictured, right), shortstop Javier Guerra (sixth), left-handed pitcher Logan Allen (13th), and infielder Carlos Asuaje (25th). SoxProspects.com staff writer Nick Rabasco summarized the trade shortly after the news broke.
SoxProspects.com director of scouting Ian Cundall and assistant director Chaz Fiorino broke down the trade in their Trade Analysis write-up going into fantastic depth with scouting reports from each of the prospects dealt.
When the news suddenly broke, executive editor Chris Hatfield sent out the signal and assembled the SoxProspects.com podcast team for an emergency trade podcast. They left no stone unturned and dove into questions such as was this an overpay, does the strong depth of the system affect the way we should look at the deal, and many more.
2015 Top 40 Season in Review: Noe Ramirez and Carlos Asuaje
#26 Noe Ramirez, RHP
Final stats: 42 2/3 IP, 2.32 ERA, 1.20 WHIP, 38 K, 18 BB (minors); 13 IP, 4.15 ERA, 1.54 WHIP, 13 K, 7 BB (majors)
Owens, Johnson among eight invited to spring training
Coyle, Shaw optioned; four others reassigned
Red Sox purchase contract of Noe Ramirez
Rabasco: Notes from the Field, Sept. 2, 2015
Season in Review: A third consecutive standout season by Ramirez took him all the way to the major leagues in 2015, making him the eighth member of the Red Sox fruitful 2011 draft class to make it to the show. The 25-year-old righty made his big league debut on July 3, coming on for the 10th inning and taking the loss against the Houston Astros. His first three major league outings were inauspicious, as he allowed nine runs, only three earned, in five innings. Ramirez was much better after his September 1 recall, giving up three runs on six hits in eight innings across 14 appearances.
Fall/Winter League Roundup: Vazquez gets into a groove, Basabe impresses
This week's roundup covers play from the period of November 23-29. For the full list of Red Sox prospects participating in offseason action, check out our Fall and Winter Leagues page, which will be updated continuously through the end of the offseason.
Marco Hernandez was quiet this week, going 0 for 12 in the four games he entered this week. Hernandez was the only position player prospect to see action this week.
On the mound, Jonathan Aro made two relief appearances allowing a run on two hits and a walk in 1 1/3 innings of work. Aro is 1-1 with a 2.84 ERA in eight games for Licey. Roman Mendez also made two relief appearances, tossing two scoreless innings, both against Escogido.
2015 Top 40 Season in Review: Dayan Diaz and Edwin Escobar (UPDATED)
#28 Dayan Diaz, RHP
2015 Teams: Portland Sea Dogs, Pawtucket Red Sox
Final Stats: 72 ⅔ IP, 1.73 ERA, 1.16 WHIP, 66 K, 31 BB
2015 Peak Ranking: 24 (Current, post-trade)
12:26 PM UPDATE: Diaz has signed with Cincinnati as a minor league free agent.
Season in Review: Diaz returned to Portland for the start of the 2015 season after a successful 11-game stint with the Sea Dogs at the end of 2014. He quickly proved he was ready for the next step, allowing only two runs over his first 15 2/3 innings, striking out 17 and walking only two. He was bumped up to Pawtucket on May 11, where he got off to a bit of a rocky start, pitching to a 4.60 ERA over his first seven appearances.
Diaz was able to put that rough stretch behind him, and over the next month, he did not allow an earned run. From June 13 to July 25, Diaz tossed 24 1/3 scoreless innings over 11 appearances, walking eight and striking out 22. He missed some time at the end of August with a right elbow strain, but he came back to make three appearances for the PawSox in September, and he has pitched well this fall for Lara in the Venezuelan Professional Baseball League. - Jim Crowell
2015 Top 40 Season in Review: Garin Cecchini and Yoan Aybar
#30 Garin Cecchini, OF/3B
2015 Teams: Pawtucket Red Sox; Boston Red Sox
Final Stats: 469 PA, .213/.286/.296, 7 HR, 40 BB, 100 K (minors); 4 PA, .000/.000/.000, 0 HR, 0 BB, 3 K (majors)
2015 Peak Ranking: 12 (April 9)
Owens reassigned to minors in latest roster cuts
Fiorino: The Write Up, June 18
Huegel: After slow start Cecchini heating up
Season in Review: 2015 was unquestionably Cecchini's worst season as a professional. His star was quite bright at one point, peaking as the third-ranked prospect in the system after an impressive 2013 season. However, he struggled in 2014 and those struggles only got more pronounced this season. While at Triple-A, he posted career worst marks in every rate stat, despite repeating the level. His calling card at one time during his career was his excellent batting eye and approach, but even that regressed in 2015 with more than twice as many strikeouts as walks. The struggles began right from the outset, with a slow start leading to a .188/.266/.286 line through the end of June. He did manage to put together a strong period between July 6 and August 6, hitting .341/.398/.429, leading to a brief stint in the majors. Perhaps losing confidence after striking out in three of four major league at-bats, he finished the year with only 11 hits in his last 60 at-bats. This year, Cecchini added to his defensive versatility, adding first base to his previous repertoire of third base and left field. -William Woodward
2015 Top 40 Season in Review: Kevin McAvoy and Bryce Brentz
#32 Kevin McAvoy, RHP
2015 Team: Salem Red Sox
Final Stats: 141 IP, 3.89 ERA, 1.47 WHIP, 82 K, 71 BB
Pitcher of the Week, May 11-17
Season in Review: A fourth-round pick in 2014 out of Bryant University, McAvoy made his professional debut in Lowell last year, and skipped straight to Salem to start the 2015 season. He initially proved up to the challenge, posting a 2.04 ERA over his first 39 2/3 innings, though his 25-to-21 strikeout-to-walk ratio and .234 batting average on balls in play hinted that he may not have been pitching as well as his ERA indicated. His numbers regressed significantly over the next two months, as he went on an 11-game skid that saw him pitch to a 6.59 ERA over 56 innings, while allowing 71 hits and 30 walks while striking out only 30.
Fall/Winter League Roundup: Travis leads way as Scottsdale wins AFL title
Sam Travis (pictured) continued his torrid stretch at the plate this fall in the AFL's final week. Although Travis went 0 for 4 in the league championship game on Saturday as his (and the rest of the Sox contingent's) Scottsdale Scorpions won the AFL championship, he went 7 for 13 with three doubles and a walk in four games to close out the regular season. He ended the fall hitting .344/.394/.505 in 23 games.
Justin Haley started on Wednesday and pitched very well. He went four innings, allowing just one hit, no runs, and no walks while striking out six to earn the win. He finished with a 0.64 ERA in 14 innings this fall.
Chandler Shepherd had a solid week, tossing 3 1/3 innings while giving up just one earned run with no walks and two punch outs. Danny Rosenbaum struggled with his control but was able to limit the damage, walking four over 1 2/3 innings without allowing a run. Jamie Callahan added a scoreless inning that included a strikeout.
2015 Top 40 Season in Review: Travis Lakins and Jalen Beeks
#34 Travis Lakins, RHP
2015 Teams: GCL Red Sox, Lowell Spinners; Ohio State University
Final Stats: 3 IP, 0.00 ERA, 0.33 WHIP, 4 K, 1 BB (minors); 96 I P, 3.75 ERA, 1.34 WHIP, 84 K, 32 BB (college)
Red Sox select Travis Lakins with sixth-round pick
2015 Draft Recap: How Boston's picks ranked
Red Sox sign sixth-rounder Lakins
Lakins promoted to Lowell
Fiorino: The Write-Up, October 5
Season in Review: Lakins entered the 2015 college season with a chance to be selected in the first few rounds of the draft, after a freshman year that saw him strikeout 55 batters in 55 innings. Pitching only out of the bullpen in 2014, his fastball reportedly touched 96, and his secondary offerings showed promise. The draft-eligible sophomore moved into the rotation for the Buckeyes in 2015, but both his results and pure stuff took a step back. His ERA rose from 2.45 to 3.75, and he proved to be very hittable, giving up 97 hits in 96 innings to go along with 84 strikeouts and 32 walks. He did reportedly change his arsenal after 2014, scrapping his slider for a curveball that would be better for his long-term development.
Light, Jerez, and Hernandez added to 40-man roster
The Red Sox added three players to the 40-man roster before Friday's deadline to protect players from the Rule 5 draft. A pair of relievers, right-hander Pat Light (pictured) and lefty Williams Jerez, will join infielder Marco Hernandez on the major league roster. The moves line up with those projected by Chris Hatfield of SoxProspects.com in his in-depth roster breakdown. The Red Sox cleared two spots by designating infielder Josh Rutledge for assignment and outrighting pitcher Anthony Varvaro off the 40-man roster. Varvaro elected free agency following his outright.
Light, 24, was a supplemental first-round draft choice out of Monmouth University in 2012. The hard-throwing right-hander took quickly to a move to the bullpen in 2015 after struggling as a starter. Light posted a 2.43 ERA in 21 appearances with Double-A Portland, striking out 32 in 29 1/3 innings before an early-June promotion to Triple-A. He struggled some with his control with the PawSox, walking 26 in 33 innings, but he continued to strike out more than a batter per inning. Light joins fellow 2012 draftees Deven Marrero and Brian Johnson on the 40-man roster.
Light, Hernandez top list of potential Friday roster additions
On Friday, the Red Sox will decide which minor league players to add to the 40-man roster in order to protect them from selection in the Rule 5 Draft, which will take place in early December at the Winter Meetings. Often a process that draws inordinate fan attention in comparison to its actual importance, the modern Rule 5 Draft rarely, if ever, results in the selection of an impact player along the lines of past Rule 5 draftees Johan Santana, Josh Hamilton, and Joakim Soria. However, teams' determinations of who to protect, who not to protect, and who to cut loose in order to make roster additions can still have at least moderate impact down the line - see the Red Sox's busy 2012 set of roster moves, in which they declined to protect Josh Fields, designated David Carpenter and Danny Valencia for assignment to make room for other players, and protected Dan Butler and Alex Hassan, where the first three have since been positive MLB contributors and the latter two have barely seen time in the majors between them.
This season, Red Sox face only very simple decisions regarding who to protect from selection. To start, the trade of outfielder Manuel Margot removed the lone slam-dunk 40-man roster addition from the organization, with Craig Kimbrel effectively taking his roster spot. Of the players left, shortstop Marco Hernandez and right-handed reliever Pat Light are near-certain additions, with left-handed reliever Williams Jerez also a possibility. But before we review the players eligible for selection if left unprotected, let's review the basics of the draft. Further details can be found on the SoxProspects.com Wiki.
2015 Top 40 Season in Review: Christopher Acosta and Ben Taylor
Last week, we recapped the 13 players who were in the top 40 in the SoxProspects.com rankings at some point this season, but no longer are. Monday we began our recap of the players ranked in the site's end-of-season top 40, and today is the third installment. All entries in this year's Top 40 Season in Review series can be found here. Note that because we set the schedule for this feature several weeks ago, we are going to move forward with using the season-end rankings, despite the recent trade.
#36 Christopher Acosta, RHP
2015 Teams: DSL Red Sox
Final Stats: 33 2/3 IP, 4.28 ERA, 1.22 WHIP, 22 K, 5 BB
2015 Peak Ranking: 30 (May)
Dunne: System Restart, Low Minors Pitchers
Season in Review: At this time last year, Acosta was almost always linked in conversation with 2015 breakout phenom Anderson Espinoza. The two even shared a paragraph in our System Restart back in Spring Training. While there might be some natural inclination to be disappointed that Acosta didn't match Espinoza's breakthrough, that would be totally unfair to Acosta (or to any player, really). Realistically, 2015 did not give much more insight into the 17-year-old right-hander than there was heading into the season. A 4.28 ERA is not the sort of dominance one would hope to see out of a $1.5 million pitcher, but DSL stats are notoriously non-predictive and Acosta pitched only nine times. If you are looking for bright spots, Acosta did not allow a home run, he issued only five walks, and his arm was healthy – his four-week stint on the disabled list was due to an ankle injury. - James Dunne
2015 Top 40 Season in Review: Austin Glorius and Jordan Procyshen
Last week, we recapped the 13 players who were in the top 40 in the SoxProspects.com rankings at some point this season, but no longer are. Monday we began our recap of the players ranked in the site's end-of-season top 40, and today is the second installment. All entries in this year's Top 40 Season in Review series can be found here. Note that because we set the schedule for this feature several weeks ago, we are going to move forward with using the season-end rankings, despite the recent trade.
#38 Austin Glorius, RHP
2015 Teams: Lowell Spinners; Valdosta State
Final Stats: 26 2/3 IP, 2.70 ERA, 1.28 WHIP, 36 K, 13 BB (minors); 53 IP, 3.74 ERA, 1.13 WHIP, 60 K, 21 BB (NCAA D-II)
Season in Review: Glorius signed with Boston as an undrafted free agent this past August out of Division II Valdosta State University, making his professional debut for Lowell on August 5. He made seven appearances, with five starts, striking out 36 batters while walking 13 over his 26 1/3 strong innings for the Spinners. The 6-foot-3, 205-pound right-hander posted a 2.70 ERA and surrendered just 21 hits. He had a couple hiccups though, giving up three earned runs in one outing and five in another. However, Glorius did not give up any earned runs in his other five appearances, and threw 15 consecutive scoreless innings at one point in August. One final fun fact on Glorius: He tied national records in a high school game with five home runs, including two grand slams, and 17 RBI as part of his team's 38-0 victory. – Nick Rabasco
Fall/Winter League Roundup: Travis blasts walk-off home run
This week's roundup covers play from the period of November 9-15. For the full list of Red Sox prospects participating in offseason action, check out our Fall and Winter Leagues page, which will be updated continuously through the end of the offseason.
With Carlos Asuaje being traded in the Craig Kimbrel trade, the Red Sox lost one position player participating in the league, but they added Jamie Callahan (pictured) to Scottsdale's roster, with the former second-round pick making two appearances out of the bullpen last week. He went one inning in each appearance, giving up a total of one run on one hit and one walk while notching a strikeout.
The big play of the week came on Monday, when Sam Travis stepped to the plate with two runners on and his team down by one in the bottom of the ninth. He connected for his first home run of the fall league for the walk-off victory. He finished the week going 6 for 22 with the home run, two doubles, and five runs batted in. He also struck out four times while drawing a walk. He is currently 10th in the league with a .313 batting average, while his .371 on-base percentage ranks 15th.
2015 Top 40 Season in Review: Chandler Shepherd and Kyle Martin
Last week, we recapped the 13 players who were in the top 40 in the SoxProspects.com rankings at some point this season, but no longer are. Today, we start our recap of the seasons of the players ranked in the site's end-of-season rankings. Note that because we set the schedule for this feature several weeks ago, we are going to move forward with using the season-end rankings, despite the recent trade of Manuel Margot, Javier Guerra, Logan Allen, and Carlos Asuaje to San Diego.
#40 Chandler Shepherd, RHP
2015 Peak Ranking: 40 (October)
Sox promote trio of top relievers in Aro, Gunkel, Shepherd
Sam Travis highlights six announced for Arizona Fall League
Season in Review: Shepherd was one of the sensations of the Cape Cod League back in 2013, generating buzz as a potential top-100 pick the following spring. Unfortunately, a laceration on his pitching hand forced him into the Kentucky bullpen, and the right-hander ended up falling all the way to the 13th round of the 2014 draft. The Red Sox gave Shepherd a slightly conservative placement out of spring training this year, assigning him to Low A Greenville. The 6-foot-2 righty faced little resistance at that level, striking out 16 of the 64 batters he faced (25 percent) in seven outings and earning an early promotion to Salem on May 14.
Podcast Ep. 88: Breaking down the Kimbrel trade
Well, it did not take very long into the offseason for Dave Dombrowski to make a blockbuster move, as the Red Sox traded four of their top 25 prospects on Friday for Padres closer Craig Kimbrel. If there ever was a time for an emergency podcast, this is it, so Chris, Matt, and Ian got on the horn to discuss the ins and outs of the deal. We have scouting reports on Manuel Margot, Javier Guerra, Logan Allen, Carlos Asuaje, and even Kimbrel. Was it an overpay, and even if it was, does it still make sense for the Sox? How much does it matter that the system is so deep and the Sox are set at shortstop and center field? How did the free agent market influence the deal? We leave no stone unturned in our debate!
Trade Analysis: Scouting the prospects dealt for Kimbrel
The Red Sox announced Friday night the acquisition of right-hander Craig Kimbrel from the San Diego Padres in return for outfielder Manuel Margot, shortstop Javier Guerra, left-handed pitcher Logan Allen and second baseman Carlos Asuaje. In dealing those four prospects, the Red Sox took advantage of two of the deeper positions in their system, dealing from a surplus of outfielders and middle infielders in order to trade up for proven closer.
But we won't sugar coat it: The Red Sox paid a steep price to get that proven closer. Margot and Guerra were two top 100 prospects in the game, and Logan Allen had the potential to move up the prospect ranks next year as a polished left-hander getting his first taste of full-season ball.
- Manuel Margot has been with the Red Sox since he signed as an international free agent in July 2011 for an $800,000 signing bonus. Since he entered the system, he has excelled at every level, reaching Portland this season and putting up a .271/.326/.419 line in 258 at-bats as a 20-year-old. Margot is listed at 6-foot-0, 170 pounds with an athletic frame. He is a quick-twitch athlete who projects to add strength as he continues to physically mature.
His best present tools are defensive ability and speed, but he also has potential to hit for average and some power. Margot is a potential plus-to-better center fielder with no questions about his ability to stay up the middle. He gets solid reads off the bat and does a good job tracking the ball, wasting little movement in his routes. His arm strength is only solid-average, but he is accurate with his throws and has a quick release that will play in center. Although he is not the same caliber defender as a Jackie Bradley, he still plays a very impressive center field, and with his instincts and speed he will be a very good fit in the spacious outfield in San Diego. Margot is also a plus-to-better runner with the type of speed that makes the defense rush. He gets out of the box well for a right-hander, and though he has not put up big-time steal totals in the minors, he has the potential to steal 30-plus bases at the big league level.
Posted by Ian Cundall
Red Sox acquire Craig Kimbrel for Margot, Guerra, Allen, Asuaje
The Red Sox have announced that they have traded for Padres closer Craig Kimbrel. Boston will send Manuel Margot (pictured), Javier Guerra, Logan Allen, and Carlos Asuaje to San Diego in return.
Margot had a strong 2015 season that began in Salem and ended in Portland. The SoxProspects.com fourth-ranked prospect hit .282/.321/.420 in 46 games for Salem and .271/.326/.419 in 64 games with Portland. Some speculated that Margot would be involved in some type of deal this winter, as the Red Sox have plenty of young talent in the outfield, especially in the big leagues, but now do look thin at the position in the upper minors. Margot just turned 21 this past September and signed with Boston as an international free agent in July of 2011. He was working his way up that ladder in the Red Sox system and is currently playing in the Dominican Winter League. His speed and power combination make for an intriguing prospect that many believe will become an impact outfielder in the future, though he does not project to have an elite-level ceiling.
2015 Top 40 Season in Review: Ex-Top 40, Part 3
This marks part three of three of our look at players who were once in the top 40 but fell out for various reasons. Next week, we start our recap of the current top 40.
Austin Rei, C
2015 Teams: U. of Washington Huskies; Lowell Spinners
Final Stats: 130 PA, .179/.287/.295, 2 HR, 11 BB, 39 K (minors); 110 PA, .330/.445/.681, 7 HR, 12 BB, 28 K (NCAA D-I)
2015 Peak Ranking: 21 (July)
Current Ranking: 41
Red Sox select Austin Rei with third-round pick
Red Sox sign five more draftees
Fiorino: The Write-Up, August 4
The 2015 third rounder entered the rankings at 21 on the strength of pre-draft scouting reports that pegged him as one of the best defensive catchers in the draft and a Baseball America top 100 draft prospect. He missed time during his junior season at Washington with a torn left thumb ligament which may have hurt his draft stock, and it is quite possible that it still bothered him in Lowell, as he did not nearly come as advertised, struggling both at the plate and in the field. He flashed plus tools defensively at times, but at others, he had a hard time even catching pitches in the strike zone. At the plate, the numbers tell the story, although he did right the ship somewhat after a 2-for-30 stretch to start his pro career. While he may have been a candidate to start 2016 in Salem, after his performance in Lowell, Rei will almost certainly begin 2016 in Greenville.
2015 Top 40 Season in Review: Ex Top-40, Part 2
This marks part two of three of our look at players who were once in the top 40 but fell out for various reasons. Next week, we start our recap of the current top 40.
Victor Acosta, 2B/3B
2015 Peak Ranking: 40 (April, May)
With Acosta, his appearance here is less about falling out of the Top 40 than it is about his hovering right around the edges of its periphery all season, as he ranked between 40 and 47 at all points since Opening Day. The 19-year-old Venezuelan has shown the ability to hit for power in the past, slugging a more-impressive-than-it-sounds eight home runs in the Dominican Summer League in 2013. However, he had his lowest power output in his three professional seasons in 2015, hitting just one home run and slugging .351 while working through struggles against New York-Penn League pitching. Acosta started hot with 15 hits in his first nine games of the season, but he had just 38 more in his final 47 games, posting a .216/.278/.307 line over that stretch. His power also came in bunches, as eight of his 16 doubles came in a 10-game stretch from July 31 to August 13.


Florida State University women's golf tops the list of highest grossing programs in the state, reporting $1.04 million – or $86,763 per athlete – in 2016, according to a Higher Education Tribune analysis of the latest federal data.
Sears will close five stores in Florida this summer, according to reports.
In Florida, owners of 408,567 properties with mortgages owe at least 25 percent more on their loans than their property is worth, according to an analysis by ATTOM Data Solutions looking at home equity at the end of the first quarter.
Tuition and fees fell 4 percent for 2017-18 at Miami Lakes Educational Center and Technical College, according to the latest disclosure from the U.S. Department of Education.
Tuition and fees rose 1.4 percent for 2017-18 at Paul Mitchell the School-Tampa, according to the latest disclosure from the U.S. Department of Education.
Tuition and fees rose 4.1 percent for 2017-18 at Trinity College of Florida, according to the latest disclosure from the U.S. Department of Education.
Tuition and fees fell 23.5 percent for 2017-18 at Aveda Institute-Tallahassee, according to the latest disclosure from the U.S. Department of Education.
Tuition and fees rose 7.7 percent for 2017-18 at Empire Beauty School-Lauderhill, according to the latest disclosure from the U.S. Department of Education.
Tuition and fees rose 2.4 percent for 2017-18 at Fashion Focus Hair Academy, according to the latest disclosure from the U.S. Department of Education.
Tuition and fees rose 1 percent for 2017-18 at Emerald Coast Technical College, according to the latest disclosure from the U.S. Department of Education.
In-state tuition and fees was unchanged for 2017-18 at University of South Florida-Sarasota-Manatee, according to the latest disclosure from the U.S. Department of Education.
In-state tuition and fees fell 0.1 percent for 2017-18 at Daytona State College, according to the latest disclosure from the U.S. Department of Education.
Tuition and fees was unchanged for 2017-18 at Florida Barber Academy, according to the latest disclosure from the U.S. Department of Education.


RVPower 6S 22.2V 16000mAh LiPO battery pack is a great choice for large sized aerial photography vehicles like the DJI S800, S1000, Gryphon X8, OnyxStar and more. This battery pack has a ton of power in a compact form factor, giving you the flight time you need on your heavy-lifting aerial photography rigs. The RVPOWER batteries provide high quality, reliable power for your Multirotor or Aircraft. All RVPOWER LiPos are packed with vibration-proof & fire-proof material and our luxury battery box ensuring you get your battery in perfect condition. An automatic procedure & computer system battery cell matching process ensures the batteries stability and quality.


If you're lucky enough to have a "guest bathroom", one that isn't used by the family and one where you can always keep clean hand towels hanging for the guests, good for you. For most of us however, we have one or two bathrooms, and they both get a lot of use from the family members on a daily basis. Let's see how you can organize your bathroom so that it's guest ready too.
The one thing that most of us have too much of is lots of bottles of "stuff" sitting around the sink and countertop. Go through these and discard what you don't use on a daily basis, and what only has a drip left in it. Go buy two decorative baskets and have a "his" and "hers". One for his stuff, and one for her stuff. You could keep your toothpaste, hairspray, brush and comb, moisturizer, etc., in a basket that can be simply picked up and moved when guests come, and then put back when you're ready to use them again.
If you like to have magazines in the bathroom don't let them just pile up in a corner next to the toilet, get a nice magazine rack for them.
Next take a look at the inside of the shower. How moldy is that curtain? They cost around $4.00 - buy a new one. Look at the bottles in the shower, they tend to get left in the shower even when they're almost empty. Throw them out and try to streamline the number of bottles in the shower. If you don't have built in shelves around your shower get an organizer that hangs over your showerhead, or one on an extension pole you can put in the corner of the shower.
A cheap way to make your bathroom like new is with accessories. Buy a nice shower curtain with a matching rug. You can also get matching towels. If you have limited towel space you can buy a towel rack that hangs on the wall, they come in many different designs. With a nice wall towel rack you can make a display of beautifully colored towels - which you can also use too! Purchase a set of matching bathroom accessories, soap dish, toothbrush holder, cup, liquid soap dispenser.


text:
Solar donations to GA regulators' campaigns raise questions
Images Money
Disclosures from the Georgia Government Transparency and Campaign Finance Commission show incumbent regulators Doug Everett and Lauren "Bubba" McDonald together have received more than $14,000 in total from individual solar companies, national and Georgia solar industry groups, lobbyists, contractors, and associated attorneys as donations to their re-election campaigns. "McDonald got roughly $10,000, and Everett got about $3,500," E&E reporter Kristi Swartz told Utility Dive.
Members of Georgia's Public Service Commission (PSC), which governs utility rates and policy regulations, is one of few elected state commissions. Most commissions are Governor-appointed.
These revelations constitute a striking turnaround because environmental and consumer advocates typically accuse elected commissioners for accepting donations from utilities, natural gas and telephone companies and this one of the first times that concerns about solar industry donations have been raised.
Solar industry advocates say, like campaign donors from other industries have said in the past, that they are simply trying to support elected representatives who are doing a good job.
A key decision from Georgia's PSC recently went in favor of sustaining solar's net energy metering incentive but the larger decision on how to value solar over the long term is still to come.
Georgia's solar industry reportedly represented $189 million in investments in 2013 and is made up of 150 companies that provide 2,600 jobs.
The PSC approved a Georgia Power program in 2012 to support 210 megawatts of rooftop and central station solar and expanded it last year as part of Georgia Power's long-term energy plan.
Georgia Power is a subsidiary of Southern Company, a utility that regularly incurs the wrath of the anti-coal movement for millions in lobbying donations.
Everett is a major supporter of Georgia's Vogtle nuclear plant expansion scheduled for completion by 2018 whereas McDonald, an aggressive solar advocate, last year called for Georgia Power to add 525 new megawatts of solar capacity.
EnergyWire Solar industry is a top donor in Georgia PSC elections

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


text:
E-book published in 2012 by Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., in association with Arcturus Publishing Limited, 26/27 Bickels Yard, 151-153 Bermondsey Street, London SE1 3HA. Britannica, Encyclopædia Britannica, and the Thistle logo are registered trademarks of Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.

ISBN-13: 978-1-61535-653-9 (e-book)

This edition first published by Arcturus Publishing

Distributed by Black Rabbit Books

123 South Broad Street

Mankato

Minnesota MN 56001

Copyright © 2006 Arcturus Publishing

All rights reserved

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Ganeri, Anita 1961-

Volcano! / by Anita Ganeri

p. cm. -- (Nature's fury)

Includes index

1. Volcanoes--Juvenile literature. 2. Natural disasters--Juvenile literature.

I. Title

QE521.3.G366 2007

363.34'95--dc22

2006022608

9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2

Editor: Alex Woolf

Design: Mind's Eye Design

Picture Research: Shelley Noronha

Picture credits:

_Corbis_ : 23 (Roger Ressmeyer), 27 (Reuters)

_Frank Lane Picture Agency:_ 10.

_NASA:_ 18 (Jeff Schmaltz, MODIS Rapid Response Team, NASA/GSFC),
20 (Landsat 7 project and EROS Data Center), 21 (Jacques Descloitres, MODIS Rapid Response Team, NASA/GSFC)

_Rex Features:_ 9 (The Travel Library), 12 (Sipa Press), 13 (Sipa Press), 14 (Rich/Wasaki),
22 (Eye Ubiquitous), 25 (Mauro Carraro), 26 (Mauro Carraro)

_Science Photo Library:_ 4 (Krafft/Explorer), 5 (G. Brad Lewis), 6 (Simon Fraser),
7 (Gary Hincks), 8 (Gary Hincks), 11 (Ray Fairbanks), 15 (Bernhard Edmaier),
16 (Dennis Flaherty), 17 (Tony Craddock), 19 (Stephen and Donna O'Meara),
24 (Krafft/Hoa-Qui), 28 (Adam G. Sylvester), 29 (Anne Kahle, JPL-Caltech)

## **Contents**

What Are Volcanoes?

How Do Volcanoes Form?

Inside a Volcano

Shields and Cinders

Explosive Volcanoes

Mountains and Islands

Volcano Destruction

Environmental Effects

Mud and Flood

Living with Volcanoes

Human Disaster

Rescue and Aid

Volcano Science

Glossary

Further Information

Index

## **What Are Volcanoes?**

A volcano is a hill or mountain where molten rock spurts to the surface from deep underground. Aboveground, the magma is known as lava. A volcano is made up of lava that has cooled and solidified, together with cinders and ash. Volcanic eruptions are among the most violent and spectacular natural events on earth. Accompanied by red-hot rivers of lava, towering clouds of ash, and thick flows of mud, they can devastate the landscape and people's lives.

Volcanoes have been erupting since the earth was formed 4.5 billion years ago. Today, about 25 volcanoes around the world erupt every year on land. Some of these active volcanoes erupt almost all the time. Others may erupt only once every few hundred years. Some volcanoes erupt with giant explosions. Others erupt more gently, producing fizzing lava fountains.

_A spectacular fountain of lava shooting from a volcano on the island of Bali in Indonesia_.

**Volcanoes and the landscape**

Much of earth's surface is made up of rocks that have come from volcanoes. Volcanoes create and build mountains and islands, but they can also be destructive. They cover the landscape with lava, ash, and mud, burning and burying plants and destroying animal habitats. Houses, villages, and towns may also be buried or burned. In the past, eruptions have killed thousands of people.

**Vulcan's island**

The word _volcano_ comes from "Vulcano," the name of an island off the coast of Italy. The ancient Romans believed that the god Vulcan lived in a volcano on the island, where he made weapons for the other gods, such as arrows, armor, and lightning bolts. Fiery eruptions from the island's volcanoes were believed to be sparks from Vulcan's forge.

_Molten lava cools to form new rock. This school bus was caught in a lava flow in Hawaii and is now trapped in rock forever_.

  **CASE STUDY**

**Krakatau**

One of the biggest volcanic eruptions ever recorded happened in 1883. A volcano on the tiny island of Krakatau in Indonesia erupted with a series of enormous explosions. The explosions were so loud they could be heard more than 2,200 miles (3,500 kilometers) away. The island itself was blasted to pieces, leaving a massive crater 957 feet (290 meters) deep. But the effects of the eruption were felt far and wide. Hot ash clouds destroyed villages 30 miles (50 kilometers) away across the sea, and giant waves swamped nearby coasts, killing 36,000 people. A new volcano called Anak Krakatau (child of Krakatau) is growing where Krakatau erupted.

## **How Do Volcanoes Form?**

Volcanoes form in places where molten rock forces its way upward through a crack in the earth's surface. The molten rock, or magma, comes from many miles underground, from a layer of the earth called the mantle. The mantle lies beneath the solid upper layer of the earth, called the crust. On the continents, the crust is about 30 miles (50 kilometers) thick, while under the oceans, it is about 3 miles (5 kilometers) thick.

_Iceland is on a boundary between two tectonic plates that are moving away from each other. The rocks here are being torn apart, making giant cracks in the landscape_.

**Moving plates**

The crust is cracked into huge pieces called tectonic plates. The plates drift on the hot rock beneath, but they move only an inch or so a year. Scientists think they are moved by slow, swirling currents in the mantle. Most volcanoes form where two plates meet. The lines between plates are called plate boundaries.

At some boundaries, two plates collide, and one plate dives under the other and into the mantle. These boundaries are called destructive boundaries or subduction zones. The plate that dives down melts, making magma that rises again to produce volcanoes. At other boundaries, two plates move apart. These are called constructive boundaries. Magma rises up from the mantle to fill the gap between the plates.

**Submerged volcanoes**

Many more volcanoes are hidden under the oceans than can be seen on land. Most form along constructive (divergent) boundaries on the ocean floor, where magma leaks out between tectonic plates that are moving apart. These boundaries are also called spreading ridges (centers). The magma solidifies to make new crust on each side of the boundary. Other undersea volcanoes form at hot spots ( _see box_ ) and at destructive (convergent) boundaries.

_Oahu, one of the Hawaiian Islands, is the tip of a hot-spot volcano. The volcano is fed by magma that leaks through the crust from below_.

  **HOT-SPOT VOLCANOES**

Some volcanoes grow in the middle of tectonic plates, far from where plates are colliding or spreading apart. Scientists think that they form over "hot spots" in the mantle, where magma forces it way up through the crust. Hot-spot volcanoes in the middle of oceans form undersea mountains called seamounts. The islands of Hawaii in the middle of the Pacific Ocean are the summits of giant seamounts.

## **Inside a Volcano**

At the top of a volcano, there is often a dish-shaped hollow called a crater. Beneath the crater is a hole called a vent that stretches down into the earth's crust. At the bottom of the vent, is a chamber full of magma, which may be 60 miles (100 kilometers) or more underground. During an eruption, magma rises from the magma chamber, through the vent, and out into the air.

**A composite cone**

Most volcanoes on land, such as Mount Fuji in Japan and Vesuvius in Italy, are tall cones made up of layers of broken lava and ash. The layers were formed by many eruptions over hundreds, thousands or millions of years. A main vent in the center and side vents lead to the volcano's lower slopes.

This type of volcano is called a composite cone or stratovolcano. It is like a giant heap of loose rubble. Magma sometimes flows in between the layers of lava and ash and then solidifies, making the volcano more stable.

**Magma ingredients**

Magma is molten rock underground (molten rock on the surface is called lava). Some types of magma are runny and flow easily, like syrup. Others are thick and sticky, like tar. Magma has a temperature of about a thousand degrees.

_A composite cone or stratovolcano. Magma rises up the vent from the magma chamber. The volcano's layers consist of material from previous eruptions_.

Magma also contains gas dissolved in it. When magma is deep inside the earth, high pressure keeps the gas dissolved. But when the magma rises through the vent of a volcano, the gas is released and bursts out of the volcano with the molten rock. This is exactly what happens when you open a fizzy drink. Gas dissolved in the liquid bubbles out when you open the can or bottle, releasing the pressure.

_Sugarloaf Mountain in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil, is made of magma that solidified in the vent of a volcano. The volcano's cone has been eroded away over thousands of years_.

  **ACTIVE, DORMANT, AND EXTINCT**

Scientists classify volcanoes as active, dormant, or extinct. An active volcano is a volcano that people have seen erupt in the past few thousand years. There are about 500 active volcanoes in the world. A dormant volcano is an active volcano that is not erupting at the moment. An extinct volcano is a volcano that nobody has ever seen erupt and is not expected to erupt again—although that doesn't mean it never will!

## **Shields and Cinders**

Not all volcanic eruptions are the same. Gentle eruptions produce rivers of red-hot lava. Violent eruptions produce towering clouds of ash but very little lava. Other eruptions produce both ash and lava. These different types of eruption build different types of volcano.

**Shield volcanoes**

Shield volcanoes are made by gentle eruptions. They happen at constructive boundaries and at hot spots, where thin, runny lava comes up from the ground.

A shield volcano is wide and low with gently sloping sides, like an upside-down plate. During an eruption, gas in the magma makes it shoot upward, firing blobs of lava out of the vent in spectacular fountains. The lava falls to the ground and flows down the volcano's sides in glowing rivers called lava flows. Gradually, the lava cools and turns to solid rock. Over thousands or millions of years, the lava flows build on top of each other to make a mountain.

Powerful eruptions can throw blobs of lava hundreds of feet into the air. Large blobs, called bombs, weigh several tons. Two types of lava are produced, called pahoehoe and aa. Pahoehoe cools to form round heaps with a surface like coiled rope. When aa cools, it forms jagged lumps. _Pahoehoe_ and _aa_ are Hawaiian words.

_Fountains of lava form where runny lava reaches the surface and is blown into the air by gases_.

**Cinder cones**

Sometimes the gas in magma forms bubbles in the blobs of lava that hurtle out of a volcano. The blobs cool in the air and fall to the ground as red or black pieces of rock called cinders. The cinders pile up to form a steep-sided volcano called a cinder cone. Cinder cones often form on the sides of shield volcanoes.

_Cinder cones on the island of Maui in the Hawaiian Islands. Cinder cones often form in groups_.

  **HAWAIIAN ERUPTIONS**

Eruptions that produce lava fountains and lava flows are called Hawaiian eruptions because they happen regularly on the island of Hawaii in the Pacific Ocean. Hawaii is made up of five giant shield volcanoes. One of them, called Kilauea, is the most active volcano on earth. It has been erupting almost constantly since 1983, producing fountains of red and yellow lava thousands of feet high.

## **Explosive Volcanoes**

Volcanoes at destructive boundaries erupt violently. The eruptions are dramatic and dangerous and have created the greatest explosions in earth's history. These eruptions happen because the magma at destructive boundaries is thick and sticky. It blocks a volcano's vent until the pressure from the magma chamber underneath builds up so much that the magma is forced upward.

**Plinian eruptions**

The gas in the magma cannot bubble upward because the magma is too thick. Instead, it explodes, blasting the molten rock into tiny pieces. These violent eruptions build steep-sided volcanoes made up of layers of ash and lava called composite cones or stratovolcanoes (see _page_). The eruptions are known as Plinian eruptions after Pliny the Elder, a Roman who died in the explosive eruption of Mount Vesuvius in 79 CE.

During a Plinian eruption, a high-speed jet of hot gas fires tiny pieces of molten rock into the air. These pieces are smaller than grains of sand but quickly solidify to form clouds of ash. The gas jet eventually slows down, but the hot gases continue to float upward through the atmosphere, carrying the ash with them. The towering cloud of ash is called an eruption column. The biggest eruptions produce columns more than 30 miles (50 kilometers) high.

_The volcano on the Caribbean island of Montserrat erupted violently in 1997. Much of the island was buried under ash_.

**Volcanic hurricanes**

Ash clouds are often so thick with ash and small drops of molten rock that they cannot keep rising into the air. Instead, they collapse and surge down the sides of a volcano. These billowing avalanches of red-hot ash and gas are called pyroclastic flows or volcanic hurricanes. They travel at speeds up to 96 miles (160 kilometers) per hour.

_A pyroclastic flow pours down the slopes of Mount Unzen in Japan during the eruption of 1991. Forty journalists were killed as they tried to photograph these flows_.

  **CASE STUDY**

**Mount Pinatubo**

The eruption of Mount Pinatubo in the Philippines in 1991 was one of the most violent eruptions ever witnessed. Pinatubo had not erupted for 400 years. The eruption began with rumbling noises from the mountain. It ended with a series of massive explosions that blew 660 feet (200 meters) off the top of the mountain and formed an ash cloud 24 miles (40 kilometers) high, turning the sky black for weeks. The cloud spread all around the world. Pyroclastic flows spread more than nine miles (15 kilometers) from the volcano.

## **Mountains and Islands**

Ash, lava, and cinders that have spewed out from volcanoes build up the landscape. Volcanoes start life as vents in the ground. As soon as they start erupting, a hill begins to form from the ash, lava, or cinders. Eventually the hill may become a volcano several miles high.

Shield volcanoes are made from layers of lava that flow down their sides. Cinder cones are heaps of loose cinders. Composite volcanoes are heaps of ash and lava built up in layers. Volcanoes can be single mountains, such as Mount Fuji in Japan, or part of huge mountain ranges, such as the Andes in South America.

_The perfect cone of Mount Fuji in Japan rises to 12,460 feet (3,776 meters). Mount Fuji last erupted in 1707_.

**Volcanic islands**

Lava that erupts on the seafloor piles up into undersea mountains called seamounts. If the volcano continues to erupt, it eventually breaks the surface and forms a new island. Volcanic islands grow along destructive boundaries. They form long, curving chains of islands called island arcs.

Volcanic islands also form over hot spots and sometimes over spreading ridges. The island of Hawaii is the tip of a seamount that rises some 29,700 feet (9,000 meters) from the seabed, making it the tallest mountain on earth.

**Igneous rocks**

When volcanic rock cools and solidifies, it forms igneous, or fiery, rock. There are many different types of igneous rocks. For example, runny lava from shield volcanoes cools to make a black rock called basalt. The part of the earth's crust that forms the seabed is made from basalt. It forms when lava flows out at spreading ridges. Volcanic ash that falls from clouds and pyroclastic flows builds up in thick layers. Gradually, the bottom layers are squeezed together and turn into a rock called tuff.

_A volcanic island off the north coast of Iceland. It is covered with craters that formed as hot gases bubbled up through the cooling lava_.

  **CASE STUDY**

**A volcano grows**

In February 1943, a Mexican farmer named Dionisio Pulido began to feel small earthquakes and noticed that the ground under his feet was warm. Soon a crack opened in his fields, and ash and lava began to pour out. A volcano began erupting in front of his eyes! By July, the volcano was 990 feet (300 meters) high and Dionisio's village had been buried. The eruption eventually stopped in 1952.

## **Volcano Destruction**

Volcanic eruptions build up volcanoes and make new rock, but the eruptions of composite cone volcanoes are also very destructive. They blow volcanoes to pieces and create vast holes in the earth's surface.

**Blowing its top**

The eruption of a large volcano can be so violent that it blows the top off the volcano, leaving the volcano hundreds of feet lower than before. This happens when thick magma has built up inside the vent but cannot get out. Ash and rock are blown into the air and also cascade down the mountainside.

Composite volcanoes cannot keep growing upward forever. Eventually, they become unstable. Then pressure from the magma inside makes their upper slopes bulge and collapse, sending down massive avalanches of ash and rock that spread for many miles. This also releases the magma, which explodes sideways out of the volcano.

_A gaping hole is left where the summit of Mount St. Helens, once stood. The mountain was blown apart in 1980 by a gigantic volcanic explosion_.

**Calderas**

A caldera is a giant volcanic crater. A caldera forms when explosive eruptions leave an empty space in a volcano's magma chamber, and the ground above collapses into the chamber. Small calderas are a few miles across. The largest ones found are more than 30 miles (50 kilometers) across and were formed by gigantic eruptions in the distant past.

Three of the largest calderas on earth are in Yellowstone National Park. The widest is 36 miles (60 kilometers) across. They were formed by the eruption and collapse of incredibly large volcanoes more than 500,000 years ago. Several miles under Yellowstone, the magma from the eruptions is still hot. The heat creates the hot springs and geysers that tourists flock to the park to see. The Yellowstone eruptions were a thousand times more powerful than the eruption of Mount St. Helens ( _see box_ ) and buried half of North America under ash.

_Crater Lake in Oregon lies in a caldera formed when Mount Mazama collapsed in a volcanic eruption 7,700 years ago. The cone-shaped island in the center is a sign that volcanic activity is continuing_.

  **CASE STUDY**

**Mount St. Helens**

The top of Mount St. Helens in Washington State was blown apart by an eruption in 1980. The eruption began with small earthquakes caused by magma moving underground. Ash clouds rose from the crater. Then the north face of the mountain began to bulge outward. Eventually, the bulge collapsed and slid downwards in a massive avalanche. The collapse released magma that exploded, blowing 1,320 feet (400 meters) of the mountaintop to pieces and leaving a gaping hole.

## **Environmental Effects**

The lava, ash, and gas from a volcanic eruption can affect the countryside all around the volcano. Lava flows spread across the landscape, covering it and burning and burying trees and fields. Most lava flows are slow moving and travel only a couple of miles before they cool and stop. But ash clouds and pyroclastic flows from violent eruptions are much more dangerous.

_A satellite photograph shows a plume of ash blowing away from Mount Etna on the island of Sicily in Italy. Winds can carry ash hundreds of miles_.

**Ash layers**

Violent eruptions from volcanoes throw vast clouds of ash into the atmosphere. Scientists estimate that in 1980, a staggering 1.7 cubic miles (2.5 cubic kilometers) of ash erupted from Mount St. Helens. That is enough ash to fill 5,000 Olympic stadiums. Winds can carry the clouds, leaving a dusting of ash on the ground hundreds of miles from the eruption. Deep ash deposits make it impossible for plants to grow, turning green countryside into a gray desert.

Pyroclastic flows have the most devastating effects. They sweep downhill, scorching the ground with hot gas, ash, and rocks as they go. Trees are knocked down and burned, and animals are killed instantly.

**Global effects**

Ash from the biggest eruptions travels more than nine miles (15 kilometers) up into the atmosphere. It stays there for weeks or months and is carried by winds for thousands of miles—sometimes right around world. This ash blocks sunlight, which can make the weather slightly colder all over the world. Gases from eruptions also cause problems. For example, sulfur dioxide mixes with rain to make acid rain, which slowly kills plants and wildlife in lakes and rivers as it falls.

_The Soufrière Hills volcano on the island of Montserrat in the Caribbean. Pyroclastic flows have stripped the mountainside of vegetation and altered the coastline_.

  **CASE STUDY**

**The year without summer**

In 1815, a volcano called Tambora erupted on the Indonesian island of Sumbawa. Scientists think that this was the biggest eruption in the last 10,000 years. It threw 30 times as much ash into the atmosphere as Mount St. Helens in 1980. The ash spread around the world, blocking out the sun. This caused cold, damp weather in many places over many months. Crops didn't grow, causing food shortages that led to riots. In America, 1816 was called "the year without summer."

## **Mud and Flood**

The landscape around volcanoes is not just affected by lava, ash clouds, and pyroclastic flows. Water also causes problems. Water from melting glaciers mixes with ash and pours down the sides of volcanoes in mudflows. Water released in eruptions causes floods, and explosive volcanoes cause giant waves at sea.

**Mudflows**

Giant composite cone volcanoes are thousands of feet high, and their summits are covered in snow and ice all year round. During an eruption, the heat from the magma melts the snow and ice to make water. The water flows down the volcano's slopes, mixing with ash to form thick mudflows. These flows are called lahars.

_Mount St. Helens, seen from space in 1999. The gray river-like areas are the remains of mudflows that formed from ash and molten snow during the 1980 eruption_.

The mud hurtles along river valleys at speeds of up to 90 miles (150 kilometers) per hour, destroying everything in its path. It can flow up to 180 miles (300 kilometers) before coming to a stop. Then the mud sets hard, like concrete.

Mudflows also happen when heavy rain mixes with fresh falls of ash. The rain often comes from thunderstorms that happen inside ash clouds.

**Monster waves**

Volcanic eruptions under the sea can cause giant waves called tsunamis. The waves race across the sea at hundreds of miles per hour. In the open sea, tsunamis are only a few yards high. But when they reach coasts, they rear up and water pours inland, devastating coastal areas and causing massive loss of life. Tsunamis are also triggered by underwater earthquakes.

_Iceland photographed from a satellite. The thick ice cap covers several volcanoes. When eruptions melt the ice, gigantic floods pour out to sea along the south coast_.

  **CASE STUDY**

**Iceland flood**

Part of Iceland is covered in a thick sheet of ice called an ice cap. Underneath the ice cap are several volcanoes. Occasionally, the erupting volcanoes melt the ice, causing floods that flow down to the sea. In 1996, an eruption melted enough water to fill one Olympic-sized swimming pool every second. The water gathered under the ice cap for days before suddenly breaking out in a colossal flood. The flood carried chunks of ice the size of houses for nine miles (15 kilometers) and covered the land between the ice cap and the sea with ash and rock.

## **Living with Volcanoes**

About 500 million people, or one in 10 of the world's population, live in places that are at risk from volcanoes. Their homes could be hit by lava flows, pyroclastic flows or mudflows. Many people live on old lava flows and in valleys that have been swept by mudflows or pyroclastic flows in the past.

**Cities at risk**

Naples, Italy, could be affected by pyroclastic flows from a major eruption of Vesuvius. Parts of Seattle could be swamped by mudflows if Mount Rainier explodes like Mount St. Helens did. These risks were not known when these cities were founded and as they developed. It would be impossible to move the cities now.

_Plowing fields in the shadow of Mayon, an active volcano in the Philippines. The rich volcanic soil is good for growing crops, but the fields could be swept away by pyroclastic flows_.

**Volcanic soil**

Millions of people live near volcanoes because there is nowhere else for them to live. Others choose to take a risk because volcanoes produce fertile soil and are good places to farm.

The soil on the lower slopes of volcanoes is made from eroded lava and ash. It is full of minerals that plants need to grow, which makes it excellent for growing crops. Many huge coffee plantations are situated on volcanoes in Central America, for example, and there are many vineyards around Mount Vesuvius. Farmers often return to volcanic slopes even after their farms have been destroyed by eruptions because the soil is so rich.

There are other advantages to living near volcanoes. Volcanic rocks make good building materials. Lava and tuff can be sawn into building blocks, and cinders are used on the surface of paths and roads. The heat from hot rocks in volcanic areas is used to heat water and to generate electricity.

_These children live near the Sakurajima volcano in Japan. They always wear helmets on the way to and from school to protect them from rocks hurled out by eruptions_.

  **CASE STUDY**

**Farming on Mayon**

The Mayon volcano in the Philippines has a major eruption about every 10 years, sending out ash columns, pyroclastic flows, and mudflows. There is not much farmland in the area, so farmers grow rice, coconut palms, and vegetables on Mayon's slopes. But it is a risky way to live. Tragically, 75 farmers were killed during an eruption in 1993.

## **Human Disaster**

Volcanoes can have devastating effects on local communities. They destroy towns and villages, bury farmland, and damage roads, bridges, and electricity supplies.

The greatest volcanic hazards faced by people are pyroclastic flows and mudflows. Lava flows are not usually dangerous because they normally move slowly and people can easily move out of their way. But lava slowly engulfs houses and other buildings, knocking them down and setting them on fire. Farmland covered in lava is useless for many years.

**Burning and burying**

Pyroclastic flows are much more lethal. They contain hurricane-force, super-hot winds that knock down and burn any buildings in their path. These flows travel so fast that people often cannot outrun them, even in cars.

Mudflows are just as destructive. They sweep buildings away and then form a hard crust around the remains. Ash that settles on buildings looks light and dusty but is as heavy as concrete when the ash is wet, and causes roofs to collapse.

Lava flows, pyroclastic flows, and mudflows also damage the infrastructure of a place by blocking roads and knocking down bridges so that people can no longer get around. They also bring down telephone lines and power lines, making communication difficult. Other damage is harder to see. For example, tiny particles of ash block the air filters of machines. Wet ash damages electrical equipment, and ash clogs sewage plants.

_Many houses on the island of Heimaey, off Iceland, were destroyed by lava flows in 1973_.

**Ash and aircraft**

Aircraft are also in danger. If a jet flies into an ash cloud, the ash can damage the engines. In 1982, a Boeing 747 lost power in all four engines when it flew into an ash cloud billowing out from Galunggung volcano in Indonesia at night. The aircraft glided downward for 23,100 feet (7,000 meters) before the crew managed to start up three of the engines and land the plane safely. It was a terrifying ordeal.

_Fields and buildings were buried under mudflows that swept through Armero, Colombia, in 1985. Fewer than one in 10 of the town's population survived_.

  **CASE STUDY**

**A deadly mud flow**

The volcano of Nevado del Ruiz in Colombia erupted in 1985. It was not a big eruption, but its heat melted ice, which mixed with ash and rushed down a river valley. The resulting mudflow hit the town of Armero, 30 miles (50 kilometers) away, at night, when people were asleep. The town was swept away, and 25,000 people drowned in the mud. Only 2,000 escaped. The remains of Armero are still buried under the dried-out mud.

## **Rescue and Aid**

If scientists think that a major eruption is about to happen, they advise people to evacuate areas that could be hit by lava flows, pyroclastic flows, and mudflows. Sometimes warnings are given too late or never arrive. Even when people are advised to evacuate, they don't always leave. Some don't believe the warnings, and some don't want to leave their homes.

_Rescuers pull a survivor from the ruins of Armero, Colombia, after mudflows from a volcanic eruption destroyed the town_.

**To the rescue**

When people are caught in an eruption, they need to be rescued. If they have lost their homes, they need immediate shelter and food, and eventually they need help to rebuild their homes or find new ones.

The first job after an eruption is to rescue survivors and search for missing people. Rescue services can then take them to safety outside the eruption zone. Helicopters are especially useful because roads are often blocked or destroyed, making it hard for rescue vehicles to reach survivors. Helicopters can also lift people trapped by mudflows and floods. Emergency services often have problems organizing rescues because communications are damaged.

**Cleaning up and moving back**

After the rescue operation, the difficult task of cleaning up begins. Where the landscape is covered in lava, or thick layers of ash or mud, it is often impossible for people to return to their old homes, and the area must be abandoned. But thin layers of ash can be swept up and removed. Roads, bridges, and communications have to be rebuilt.

In less economically developed countries, people who lose their land can be left with nothing. Help may be needed from aid agencies to provide people with temporary shelter and food until new homes can be found for them.

_People of Goma carrying their belongings across lava flows in the town's streets. Those who lost their homes were given shelter in camps set up by aid agencies_.

  **CASE STUDY**

**Aid in Goma**

In January 2002, Mount Nyiragongo in the Democratic Republic of Congo erupted suddenly, pouring lava into the streets of the town of Goma. A third of the city was destroyed, and 400,000 people fled to nearby Rwanda. International aid agencies quickly began handing out food and other items such as clothes and blankets. Together with the local authorities, the agencies then established supply depots and distribution points in Goma for people returning to the city. They also set up clean water supplies and sanitation to stop disease from spreading and provided materials for people to rebuild their homes.

## **Volcano Science**

Scientists who study volcanoes are called vulcanologists. They investigate what happens to volcanoes before they erupt and while they are erupting. These investigations help the scientists to understand how volcanoes work. It also helps them to predict when a volcano could erupt so that people can be evacuated. This is not an easy job because every eruption is different.

**Measuring layers**

Vulcanologists examine lava flows, layers of ash, mudflows, and volcanic rock around volcanoes. They measure the thickness of different layers of material and how old the layers are. This tells them how often the volcano has erupted in the past and also how violent each eruption was. With this knowledge vulcanologists are able to draw hazard maps showing which areas around the volcano could be hit by future eruptions.

_A vulcanologist measuring the temperature of lava. He is using a long probe to reach the molten lava. His shiny protective suit reflects some of the intense heat_.

**Predicting eruptions**

Vulcanologists also make measurements to see if a volcano is about to erupt. The measurements show if magma is beginning to move deep underground. For example, the scientists take samples of gas coming from the volcano's vent. If it contains a gas called sulfur dioxide, then magma is probably rising upward. Measuring devices called seismometers are used to detect earthquakes. Small quakes indicate that magma is on the move.

In 1991, vulcanologists successfully predicted the violent eruption of Mount Pinatubo ( _see page_). Their seismometers had detected hundreds of small earthquakes, and gas samples had shown an increase in sulfur dioxide. Danger areas around the volcano were evacuated, and the lives of tens of thousands of people were saved.

_The island of Stromboli, Italy, seen through a heat-sensing scanner. The different colors show the temperature of the ground. Red areas are recent lava flows giving off heat_.

  **GROUND MOVEMENTS**

The global positioning system (GPS) used for in-car navigation is also used to predict volcanic eruptions. Vulcanologists place GPS receivers on the tops of volcanoes. The receivers detect whether the ground is swelling upward, which indicates that magma is moving up from underneath and an eruption is on the way.

### **THE 10 MOST DESTRUCTIVE VOLCANOES**

### **GLOSSARY**

**ash** Powder made up of tiny pieces of glassy rock.

**ash cloud** A large cloud of ash blown into the air by a volcano. Also called an eruption column.

**boundary** Where the edges of two tectonic plates meet.

**caldera** A giant hole in the ground or on the seabed formed when the ground collapses into the empty magma chamber of a volcano.

**cinder cone** A volcano made from a heap of cinders.

**cinders** Small pieces of red or black rock filled with gas bubbles.

**composite cone** A steep-sided volcano that is made up of layers of ash and lava.

**constructive (divergent) boundary** A boundary where two tectonic plates move away from each other and new rock forms in the gap that is made.

**crater** A bowl-shaped hole in the top of a volcano.

**crust** The solid outer layer of the earth.

**destructive (convergent) boundary** A boundary where two tectonic plates move toward each other and one dips into the Earth and melts.

**forge** The place where a blacksmith works, bending and hammering red-hot iron into objects.

**glacier** A slow-moving river of ice that flows down a valley in high mountain ranges.

**hot-spot volcano** A volcano in the middle of a tectonic plate, over a hot spot in the earth's crust (a place where magma forces its way to the surface).

**lava** Molten or solid rock on the surface that has come from a volcano.

**magma** Molten rock deep under the earth's surface.

**magma chamber** A magma-filled space deep under a volcano.

**mudflow** A fast-moving mixture of ash and water. Also called a lahar.

**pyroclastic flow** A thick cloud of red-hot ash and rock that flows down the side of a volcano.

**seismometer** A device that measures tiny vibrations in the ground.

**shield volcano** A low, wide volcano made of lava flows piled on top of each other.

**tectonic plate** One of the giant pieces that make up the earth's crust.

**tuff** A type of rock made from compressed layers of volcanic ash.

**vent** A hole through the middle of a volcano from which ash and lava escape.

### **FURTHER INFORMATION**

#### **Books**

Farndon, John. _How The Earth Works_. Dorling Kindersley, 1992.

Ganeri, Anita. _Horrible Geography: Violent Volcanoes_. Scholastic, 1999.

Newson, Lesley. _The Atlas of the World's Worst Natural Disasters_. Dorling Kindersley, 1998.

Oxdale, Chris. _Earth's Changing Landscape: Earthquakes and Volcanoes_. Franklin Watts, 2004.

#### **Web sites**

www.visibleearth.nasa.gov
Includes a collection of images of volcanoes taken by NASA spacecraft.

www.volcanoes.com
Contains hundreds of links to volcano sites.

www.volcanoworld.org
Lots of information, photographs, and videos about volcanoes around the world.

www.swisseduc.ch/stromboli
Site dedicated to eruptions of Stromboli but also has photographs and videos of other volcanoes.

#### **Videos/DVDs**

_Volcano: Nature's Inferno_. (National Geographic, 2000).

_Eyewitness: Volcano_. (Dorling Kindersley, 2000).

### **INDEX**

Page numbers in **bold** refer to illustrations.

acid rain 19

active volcanoes 4, 9

aid 26–27

Armero, Colombia 25, **25** , **26**

ash 4, 8, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15, 16, 18, 19, 20, 21, 23, 24, 25, 28, 30

ash clouds 5, 10, 12, **12** , 13, 17, 18, 20, 21, 23, 25, 30

calderas 16, **16** , 17, 30

Crater Lake **17**

Yellowstone 17

cinder cones 11, **11** , 14, 30

cinders 4, 11, 14, 23, 30

composite cones 8, **8** , 12, 14, 16, 20, 30

constructive boundaries 6, 7, 10, 30

craters 5, 8, **15** , 30

crust 6, 7, 8, 15, 30

destructive boundaries 6, 7, 12, 15, 30

dormant volcanoes 9

earthquakes 15, 17, 21, 29

environmental impact 18–19

eruption columns 13

extinct volcanoes 9

floods 20, 21, 27

glaciers 20, 30

global positioning system (GPS) 29

Goma, Democratic Republic of Congo 27, **27**

Hawaii **5** , 7, **7** , 10, 11, **11** , 15

Hawaiian eruptions 11

hot spots 7, 10, 15

hot-spot volcanoes 7, **7** , 30

human settlements, impact on 4, 22–27

Iceland **6** , **15** , 21, **21** , **24**

igneous rocks 15, 28

basalt 15

tuff 15, 23, 30

island arcs 15

lahars _see_ mud flows

landscape, impact on the 4, 14, 16–17, 18, **19** , 27

lava 4, **5** , 8, 10, 11, 12, 14, 15, 18, 20, 23, 27, 28, **28** , 30

aa 10

pahoehoe 10

lava flows 10, 11, 18, 22, 24, 26, 28, **29**

lava fountains 4, **4** , 10, **10** , 11

magma 4, 6, 7, 8, 9, 11, 12, 16, 17, 20, 29, 30

magma chamber 8, **8** , 12, 16, 30

mantle 6

mudflows 4, 20–21, **20** , 22, 23, 24, 25, 26, 27, 28, 30

plate boundaries 6

Plinian eruptions 12

predicting eruptions 26, 28, 29

pyroclastic flows 13, **13** , 15, 18, **19** , 20, 22, 23, 24, 26, 30

rescue 26–27

seamounts 7, 15

seismometers 29, 30

shield volcanoes 10, 11, 14, 15, 30

spreading ridges 7, 15

stratovolcanoes _see_ composite cones

subduction zones _see_ destructive boundaries

submerged volcanoes 7

Sugarloaf Mountain, Brazil **9**

sulfur dioxide 19, 29

tectonic plates 6, 7, 30

tsunamis 20, 21

vents 8, **8** , 9, 10, 12, 14, 16, 29, 30

volcanic hurricanes _see_ pyroclastic flows

volcanic islands 15, **15**

volcanic soil 23

volcanoes

Anak Krakatau, Indonesia 5

Etna, Italy **18**

Fuji, Japan 8, **14**

Galunggung, Indonesia 25, 30

Kilauea, Hawaii 11

Krakatau, Indonesia 5, 30

Mayon, Philippines **22** , 23

Mazama, Oregon **17**

Nevado del Ruiz, Colombia 25, 30

Nyiragongo, Democratic Republic of Congo 27

Oahu, Hawaii **7**

Pinatubo, Philippines 13, 29

Rainier, Washington 22

St. Helens, Washington **16** , 17, 18, 19, **20**

Sakurajima, Japan **23**

Soufrière Hills, Montserrat **12** , **19**

Stromboli, Italy **29**

Tambora, Indonesia 19, 30

Unzen, Japan **13** , 30

Vesuvius, Italy 8, 12, 22, 23, 30

Vulcan 5

Vulcano 5

vulcanologists 28–29, **28**

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaBook


There is a greater breadth and freedom to this work compared with other, earlier, works by Cox in the collection. N. Neal Solly (active 1873 - 1894) described it as one of Cox's works of 'the highest quality' in his 'Memoir of the Life of David Cox' in 1873.
The view may show a scene in North Wales. Cox made annual sketching trips there between 1844 and 1856.
View looking across a stream from one side to the other. A trail of figures on horseback are crossing. Some have reached the opposite bank in the distance under a stormy sky. On the left foreground is a dense copse of trees by which two figures on horseback are waiting.
Inscription text: Boydell Galleries, 15 Castle Street.