Cole Hersee is the leading manufacturer of electromechanical, electronic and digital switches and connectors. They have been manufacturing dependable products for the heavy duty vehicle industry and to the marine trade since 1920. Their engineers work with OEMs to create innovative switching and connector solutions.
Use switches to dim interior lights, for heater, heater-defroster or air-conditioning control. Choose from classic ceramic rheostat types or the new electronic dimmers with negligible-heat generation. Choose from rotary and push-pull types.
These useful switches change headlights from low to high beam, or select lighting combinations. Choose from panel- or floor-mounted Ignition.
They're often used as starters. The most commonly used type is the 'push to start' (Off-On, spring return to Off).
Opening or closing of a door or safety gate actuates these switches, so they can be used to control internal lighting or for safety purposes.
Cole Hersee 91800 has override. 91050 operates five circuits.
One- or two-circuit switches operated by a push or pull of the knob. See also Headlamp Push-Pull Switches.
Cole Hersees broad rocker switch selection gives you lots of choice: different actuator styles, mounting options, terminals, imprints, lighted or unlit.
Use for a variety of functions such as lighting or ignition. Fuel tank switches are for 2- or 4-tank vehicles.
These devices monitor engine temperature. Use switches with one or two pilot lights (Hot or Hot & Cold). Use senders with gauges.
Q: What is the preferred mounting for a Momentary Push-Pull Switch?
They are best mounted on a vertical (or close to vertical) panel. Avoid mounting them on an exposed panel that is more horizontal than vertical.
Q: Can I have a different knob on my Push-Pull Switch?
Sure. Choose chromium-plated solid brass knobs in a variety of styles, or plastic knobs. Plastic knobs all have a metal core that provides a solid connection to the spindle of the switch. You will need to consider shaft size, threads (if any) and symbol or text.
Q: I need to control one load from two different locations with a Push-Pull Switch.What type of switch should I use?
Use Cole Hersee M-630 Push-Pull Switch. It's an On-On switch. Install one in each location and wire them to control the Off-On function of a single load.
Q: I need to mount an SPST Push-Pull switch so that the knob side of the switch will be exposed to the weather.
Try not to mount it so that it will be exposed to the full force of nature. If it has be exposed to the elements then the preferred mounting is on a vertical panel, rather than being mounted at an angle to the weather. A switch such as our 50066 would be a good choice because it has an o-ring in the mounting stem that gives an added protection against the inclemency of the weather.
Q: Can I replace the bulb in any of your toggle or rocker switches?
The bulbs are wired inside the switch and therefore cannot be replaced. Cole Hersee uses a long lasting bulb so that the need for bulb replacement is unlikely in a normal automotive application.
Q: Can I use your non-lighted toggle or rocker switches in 110V AC applications?
Except for switches M-493, 5507 and similar switches, none of our switches are officially rated for AC voltage application. While Cole Hersee is confident some of them can, it is totally up to the end user to determine their suitability for such application.
Q: Can I use your non-lighted toggle and rocker switches at 24V DC?
Yes. They are rated at 12V, so you must reduce the amp rating by half to obtain the same durability.
As the vehicle industry migrates to electronic systems, Cole Hersee is keeping pace by introducing innovative electronic switching solutions.
Q:What is the difference between a sender and a switch?
A switch creates a situation that is all or nothing. That is, it allows current to flow or not to flow. The current that flows is not graduated, and is suitable to actuate a pilot light. A sender gives a variable signal of graduated intensity that is suitable to actuate a gauge, indicating a certain level.
Our temperature switches have a mechanical contact that is actuated on or off with changes in the temperature surrounding the switch. A temperature senders have a resistive element that varies depending on the surrounding temperature. The temperature sender provides a resistance value to the gauge causing the gauge to fluctuate.
Q: What's the difference between an insulated and a non-insulated switch?
In an insulated switch, the contacts are isolated from the chassis ground or engine block.
In a non-insulated switch, the contacts short to the chassis ground or engine block when the switch makes, essentially providing a ground connection to your load.
Q: Can I use your non-insulated pressure or temperature switches with 110V AC?
No. These switches are not rated for 110V AC application. Have a knowledgeable electrician determine suitability for your application.
Q:Can I use your pressure or temperature switches to operate a gauge?
No. You need a temperature or pressure sender.
Q: Can your pressure switches handle more pressure than the On/Off rated pressure?
Generally Yes. These switches have an On/Off rated pressure and a higher safe burst pressure. For your own safety your system pressure should be less than the burst pressure. Before you install a pressure switch, you should always determine your maximum system pressure first.
Q:What is the advantage of using a Electronic Dimmer instead of the Rheostat type?
1. Solid state devices dissipate very little power.They are either fully on or fully off. The power dissipation of a Rheostat Dimmer is proportional to the maximum load current, independent of the position of the dimmer. The energy used to overcome the resistance produces heat.2. Electronic dimmers are not load sensitive.Changing the load (for example by adding or removing a light) will not produce a noticeable difference in brightness of a light.3 Electronic dimmers are considerably more efficient.There is less loss in the feed cables and substantially less loss (more than 50 times) in the dimmer unit itself. It therefore doesn't generate a noticeable amount of heat.
Q:Can I use Electronic Dimmers to control the speed of the motor?
Typical Electronic Dimmers can supply power to motors and make them run, but the dimmers aren't designed for it. Connecting inductive loads to dimmers can damage them.
To hold stud (can) style breakers, snap-in or screw-down.
Solid copper or brass, from 2- to 12-gang.
For glass fuses or plug-in fuses and breakers.
Q:What's the difference between the M-412 type Fuse Blocks and the 4622?
The M-412 type is all brass construction and the 4622 has steel rivets in them.
Q:What size breaker or fuse can I use in a 46377 type Circuit Breaker/ Fuse Block?
The breaker or fuse should not be rated for more than 25A per breaker or fuse with the total of all items used not to be more than 150A.
Q: What types of solenoids do you have?
Cole Hersee has about 50 of solenoids including 12V, 24V, and 36V continuous or intermittent duty solenoids. The also manufacture steel or molded bakelite housings and plasticized housings for weather-resistance. Cole Hersee also produces a latching solenoid, which is energized and de-energized by a momentary switch. Their electronic solenoid rated at 85A continuous that can be used for voltages from 9 to 31.
Q: How much current does the control circuit in a solenoid draw?
Generally, the control circuit for a continuous duty solenoid rated at 12V DC draws approximately ae of an ampere. The control circuit for a 24V DC continuous duty solenoid draws approximately 0.3 amps. An intermittent duty 12V DC solenoid draws approximately 3A, and the 24V DC about 1.2A.
Q: My continuous duty solenoid gets hot. Is something wrong?
The coil circuit (control circuit) in a continuous duty solenoid is usually energized for long periods of time. Under these conditions the coil will generate heat and within less than an hour the solenoid housing will become hot to the touch. This is normal. Always make sure that all wiring is properly sized for the load it is carrying, that the terminals are the correct size and have been securely crimped to the wire, that the terminals have the proper torque to the solenoid studs. Alternatively, you might be able to use the Latching Solenoid that only needs a one-time momentary actuation to stay in the On position.
Q: Are there any special mounting instructions for solenoids?
Electromechanical solenoids should be mounted on a non-vibrating surface such as a fender well or firewall. They should not be mounted on a surface that vibrates such as an engine, as this may reduce the lifetime of the component. Continuous duty solenoids should be mounted in an area that has ventilation, as the coil circuit normally generates heat. Orientation of the solenoid, i.e. bracket up, bracket down, or bracket at right angle to the ground does not usually affect solenoid performance. Electronic solenoids are much more rugged, because they have no moving parts. They also will stand up to an incredible one million On-Off cycles.
Q: What is 'make' and 'break'?
Make and break are terms which apply to any switching situation, but particularly to Intermittent Duty Solenoids, where the buildup of heat can cause failure of the component.
Make and break are RATINGS. A particular component, such as a solenoid, may be rated for duty at a given amperage and voltage that should not be exceeded.
Make is when the switch (or solenoid) is turned On (the circuit is 'made'), and break is when the switch is turned Off (the circuit is 'broken'). Such values would need to be checked with an instrument such as a meter.
Q: I just installed a 24420 continuous duty solenoid on my road bus. With no load on the secondary contacts, the can runs warm to hot when energized.
If this is a normal event, then I have no problem. I always assumed that continuous duty solenoids ran cool.
When the coil is energized continuously the heat from the coil circuit causes the can to run warm to hot. This is normal. Cole Hersee solenoids No. 24400, 24401, 24402, and 24401-01 are similar, but have two modes of continuous duty service which makes them suitable for forward and reverse systems in some applications.
Without the coil energized the contacts which are closed are rated at 35A. In this instance the can should not run hot. With the coil energized the contacts which were closed open and the contacts which were open close. The circuit that is closed is rated at 85A.
When the coil is energized continuously the heat from the coil circuit causes the can to run warm to hot.
Cole Hersee 24400, 24401, 24402, and 24401-01 are commonly used in forward and reverse systems in golf carts, garden tractors, winches, fork lift trucks, and many other applications.
Cole Hersee has the solutions to connecting wire, fuses and breakers, and the clamps, clips and cleats to secure the wire harnesses.
For standard 3-prong flasher units.
To connect sealed beam headlights.
For use with Cole Hersee Switches 7762, 7702, 7776.
Make battery connections at easily-accessible locations, inside or outside the vehicle.
Universal connectors for rapid connections on equipment and vehicles.
For protection against the weather, salt spray, dust, etc.
Protect against dirt and moisture.
For protection of momentary push-button switches.
For protection of sockets and other components.
For easy installation of wire harnesses, cable or conduit.
A wide selection in chrome-plated brass or plastic, with or without SAE symbols.
Plated steel or brass for mounting of switches, or to fit terminals.
Chrome- or nickel-plated brass or aluminum.
Seals out dirt, road splash.
Master Disconnect Switches protect against theft, accidental starting and battery drain. Cole Hersee has switches for 125A through 2000A.
These solid-state parts prevent the battery with the higher charge draining into the lower. They also allow to batteries to be charged at the same time from one source.
These components give visual and audible feedback that lets you know your systems are operating smoothly or about to cause trouble.
Use these audible/flashing alarms with sensor switches: oil, air, vacuum, neutral safety, backup (see appropriate sections) or with door switches or regular switches.
Choose from a wide selection of pilot indicator lights: different styles, lenses, colors, mounting options, single- or double-contact.
Solidly-constructed from brass, plated steel or rugged plastic. Single- or double-contact, with or without J-slots.
Housings that typically mount on a panel to illuminate a small area on a vehicle or boat.
Q: What is the voltage drop between the center stud (alternator terminal) and the battery terminals?
Q: According to the wiring diagram the battery to the "S" must be connected to the primary terminal (yellow wire). My alternator does not have an "S" terminal.
In this case disregard this part of the installation instruction.
Q: How is the Battery Isolator current capability defined?
Maximum alternator rating is the maximum charging current capability of the Battery Isolator for both batteries. Maximum current per leg is a half of the maximum alternator current rating.
Q:What type of Battery Isolator should be used with the Delcotron CS Series alternator?
Use the four terminal Battery Isolator (Cole Hersee 48122, 48092 or 48162). The fourth terminal (#10 stud) is used to excite the alternator .It supplies +12V to the alternator when the ignition switch is turned On.


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Q: how to store the value of first line of text file through code for iphone how to store the value of first line of text file through code for iphone

A: Try this:
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A: Adam Rosenfield answered your question here:
Reading a file line by line

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Investigation of the water quality of daily used surface-sources for drinking and irrigation by the population of Segou in the center of Mali
Amadou Toure;
Amadou Toure
1School of Forestry, Northeast Forestry University, No. 26 Hexing Road Xiangfang District, Harbin, 150040, China,
E-mail: touamare03@yahoo.fr
Duan Wenbiao;
Duan Wenbiao
Zakaria Keita;
Zakaria Keita
2Department of Study and Research in Public Health, Faculty of Medicine and Odontostomatology of Bamako, Bamako, Mali
Abdramane Dembele
3College of Automation, Harbin Engineering University, Harbin, Heilongjiang Province, 150001, China
https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2018.085
Amadou Toure, Duan Wenbiao, Zakaria Keita, Abdramane Dembele; Investigation of the water quality of daily used surface-sources for drinking and irrigation by the population of Segou in the center of Mali. J Water Health 1 April 2019; 17 (2): 338–349. doi: https://doi.org/10.2166/wh.2018.085
This study evaluates the quality and pollution status of source surface waters in Segou, Mali. The nature, sources, and extent of pollution of Comatex Stream, Cerfitex Pond, and Sonikoura River were studied for a period of twelve months (July 2016–June 2017). Analysis included 209 water samples collected from eleven different locations in the study area. Laboratory and field analysis were realized using the standard methods and concerned eleven parameters including four physicals, six chemicals and one bacteriological. Also, organoleptic parameters were observed. Most of the average values of parameters addressing the quality of water were significantly higher (P < 0.05) in both the stream and river compared to the pond. Fecal coliform counts (FCC) were not in significant correlation with the temperature; pH and turbidity; but had a significant and positive correlation (P < 0.05) with conductivity: total dissolved solids (TDS); total suspended solids (TSS); Cl−; PO4−P; NO3−N and 5-day biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5). Analysis of samples revealed a level of FCC that is above the permissible limit for both drinking water and of fresh vegetable irrigation water. In all, there is a pressing need to inform the public about the state of water bodies and the application of relevant laws regarding the proper treatment of sewage before it is discharged into surface water.
evaluation, irrigation, Mali, pollution, sewage, water sources
According to Hamid et al. (2007), only 0.014% of the 13,600 million km3 of water that covers our planet constitutes fresh water which is in the form of surface water. If this quantity is sufficient to meet the future needs of humanity, alteration of water quality makes it compatible with ever smaller human uses (Wheal 1991). In fact, the quality of water is affected by an overload of organic matter, toxic substances from agricultural activities and industrial and domestic effluents being discharged into the environment.
Contamination of surface water by pathogens is a pollution problem that goes back a long way. During the nineteenth century, water-borne and food-borne diseases were responsible for widespread epidemics of dysentery, typhoid fever, cholera, among others (Pruss et al. 2002; Servais & Isabelle 2002; WHO 2009). Nowadays, these diseases are responsible for the high morbidity and mortality rates among people in developing countries. Worldwide, about six million children die each year globally from gastroenteritis, 100 million people permanently suffer from waterborne gastroenteritis, 260 million people have schistosomiasis, 2–3 million deaths are observed each year among the 800 million malarious subjects, and 30 million onchocerciases are counted (Payment & Riley 2002). Most of the global populations which do not have access to potable water sources fulfilling the WHO recommendations are in West and Central Africa (WHO 2011). Water sources with poor sanitation conditions are likely to be affected by pathogenic germs (fecal pathogens) leading to public health hazards. The health issues may be due not only to the nutrient level beyond the allowable threshold but also to enteric pathogens that affect water destined for human consumption, and domestic uses as well as irrigation (Shivasharanappa et al. 2011). In addition to point sources (industrial effluents and sewage treatment plants), animal waste, domestic wastewater, malfunctioning septic system, and runoff flows are potential diffuse sources of contamination (Igbinosa & Okoh 2009; Odjadjare & Okoh 2010; Chigor et al. 2012). Moreover, high population growth, land expansion along river banks and in the watersheds, industrialization as well as climate change, impose a raised need on surface waters not only as sources of water for various purposes, but also as porters of treated and non-treated sewage (Raghuwansh & Pandey 2013; Soncy et al. 2015). Consequently, access to clean water and proper sanitation increased needs for good health and it is also a fundamental element for the proper running order of a community (Rodier et al. 2009; WHO 2009). Three recent case-control studies in Mali identified the drinking of surface water as a risk factor for children's enteric infections (Bryce et al. 2006; Halvorson et al. 2011; Toure et al. 2018). However, in Mali, diarrheal disease accounts for about 22% of the annual deaths of children under five years of age and 90% of these deaths are directly related to contaminated water, lack of sanitation and hygiene (Bryce et al. 2006; CPS/MS et al. 2007; Halvorson et al. 2011).
Segou is the capital city of the fourth region situated in the center of the Republic of Mali. In Segou, surface water sources susceptible to fecal contamination constitute, in general, the main sources that are used by the population for drinking and irrigation (Byamukama et al. 2000; Agbogu et al. 2006; Karu et al. 2013). Using non-treated and treated effluent for the irrigation of fresh vegetables is a habit in this locality and the Nianankoro Fomba Hospital of Segou recorded a high prevalence of enteric and waterborne infections within the population (Hamidou & Sutton 2006; Diallo 2010; Seib 2011). Also, investigations showed that the sanitary condition of potable water as distributed to inhabitants in the region is dissatisfying (Seib 2011). It was thus necessary to investigate the water quality of the water sources that serve the population in this locality. Hence, the impact of industrial wastewater and chemical pollutants on waters source (surface waters) has been reported by several works (Hamidou & Sutton 2006; Diallo 2010; Seib 2011). Unfortunately, less care has been directed to the microbiological status of surface water sources in the investigation area. In this study, we evaluated the physicochemical, bacteriological properties and sensory of water from Comatex Stream, Cerfitex Pond and Sonikoura River situated in Segou. Also, the nature, sources, and extent of pollution of these surface waters were characterized.
Study area and sampling sites
The study was conducted in the region of Segou, which is situated between 12°30′–15°30′N and 4°–7°W in Mali. The region of Segou covers an area of 62,504 km², representing 5% of the total land area of Mali. It has a total population estimated at 2,338,349 inhabitants according to the population and housing census of 2009 (INSTAT 2011). The region is served over 292 km by the Sonikoura and Niger River as well as one of their tributaries which is called Bani. Segou has a typical sudano-sahelian climate with a dry season (October–May) and a rainy season (June–September). The annual mean values of the temperature and rainfall are 28 °C and 200–800 mm, respectively (Sourisseau et al. 2016). Farming, animal husbandry, and angling are the major activities of the population in the area of Segou (OWAS 2007). Our investigations focused on three sites (Comatex Stream, Sonikoura River, Cerfitex Pond) constituting raw sources for drinking water production industries. Comatex Stream discharges into the Sonikoura River, from where the inhabitants of Alamisani and Comatex City source water for domestic uses. Cerfitex Pond discharges into Niger River. It should be noted that the Niger River is the primary raw water source for Segou waterworks. While Comatex Stream plays the role of the recreation and flock watering, Sonikoura River is mainly used for gardening.
The water samples were collected at eleven sampling points (possible contamination sites) which are presented in Figure 1. However, three sites, namely S1, S2, and S3, were chosen along the Comatex Stream. S1 represents the source of contamination from municipal wastewater from Comatex and Koukoun village; S2 is the site close to the Comatex residence septic pits, and S3 is a point where the stream meets the Sonikoura River. Four sites were chosen along the Cerfitex Pond namely S4, S5, S6, and S7. S4 is a site where treated sewage effluent enters the Niger River; S5 is the site where anthropogenic activities are frequent; S6, where water is sourced for crop wetting and livestock needs; S7 is another point where effluent is drained into the pond. Finally, four sampling zones, namely S8, S9, S10, and S11, were adopted along the Sonikoura River. S8 is a site at a superficial area where herdsmen water their animals; S9, S10, and S11 were at 500-meters intervals downstream from S8.
Map of Segou region showing sampling sites.
Organoleptic parameters
Organoleptic parameters that may affect or cause a nuisance or undesirable environmental impact in waters used for recreation and drinking were detected using sensory methods. These include appearance, color, and odor of the water.
Water sampling
Sampling was carried out throughout 12 months during the dry and rainy seasons, from July 2016 to June 2017. A total of 209 water samples were collected from 11 different sites within the study area (as highlighted above). Sampling time was between 09:00 and 11:00 hrs, and samples were collected at a depth of about 30 cm in the wave direction. Samples were collected in polypropylene and sterile glass bottles (500 mL) for physico-chemical and bacteriological analyses, respectively. The water samples were labeled and kept between 0 and 4 °C using a cooler. The samples were transferred to the laboratory for bacteriological analysis within 6 hours of collection.
Physicochemical analyses
Temperature, pH, EC, and turbidity were measured in situ using a digital thermometer pH meter WTW (Wissenschaftlich-Technische Werkstätten GmbH, Germany), conductivity meter WTW, and turbidimeter, respectively. The subsequent mentioned analyses were carried following the procedures described by Rodier et al. (2009). Water samples were passed through a 0.45 μm filter paper, and the permeates was analyzed for total dissolved solids (TDS), and total suspended solids (TSS). Nitrate (NO3−N) concentrations were measured using the salicylate method. Chloride was measured using the Mohr's method. Phosphate (PO4−P) was measured using the phosphomolybdate method. Five-day biochemical oxygen demand (BOD5) was measured titrimetrically after incubation in BOD flasks at 20 °C in obscurity conditions.
Bacteriological analysis
The Multiple Tube Fermentation Method (APHA 1998; Stevens et al. 2003) was used for the bacteriological analysis of water samples comprising the most probable number (MPN) of presumptive coliforms, fecal coliforms (MPN/100 mL water). Furthermore, we relied on morphological, cultural and biochemical characteristics to detect suspected colonies of coliform groups.
The statistical analysis was carried out using SPSS software version 21.0. The average values of physicochemical parameters for the dry and the rainy seasons were compared by applying Student's t-test, and one-way analysis of variance (ANOVA) and Duncan's multiple range tests were used to establish the difference between the average values of parameters that were measured at various water bodies through the whole sampling sites. The correlation coefficient between different water quality parameters was calculated by the Pearson correlation test, using a 5% significance level (P < 0.05).
Sensory parameters
The results presented in Table 1 are organoleptic characteristics of water samples from Comatex Stream, Cerfitex Pond, and Sonikoura River obtained during the dry and the rainy seasons. In the dry season, the Comatex Stream water had water hyacinths and emitted undesirable odors. During the rainy season, trash solids were present in both the Comatex Stream and Sonikoura River. The Cerfitex pond water was clean and clear during the dry season, and in the rainy season, the water was clear despite having water hyacinths at the sampling point. Results show that almost all the waters were colorless and odorless except for Comatex Stream which had an undesirable odor in the dry season.
Results of organoleptic parameters
Surface water .
Dry season .
Rainy season .
Comatex Stream Not clear with water hyacinth Not clear with trash solids Colorless Colorless Undesirable odor Odorless
Cerfitex Pond Clean and clear Clear with water hyacinth Colorless Colorless Odorless Odorless
Sonikoura River Clear with algae aquatic weeds Not clear many trash solids Colorless Colorless Odorless Odorless
Water quality assessment using different water parameters
The water samples from Comatex Stream (S1, S2, S3), Cerfitex Pond (S4, S5, S6, S7) and Sonikoura River (S8, S9, S10, S11) were measured and a comparison between the average values of the different water quality parameters for each sampling sites is shown in Table 2 and Figures 2(a)–2(c). Since water from those sites is also used for domestic purposes, the results were compared with the World Health Organization (WHO 2008) and the United States Public Health (USPH 1998) Guidelines for Drinking Water. The water samples at the sampling sites had a temperature range of 18–31 °C with an average value range of 25.18–25.84°. S5 had the highest average value. pH was in the range of 5.80–7.85. In all the tested sites, S9 had the highest pH value, and S1 had the lowest values (Figure 2(a)). The electrical conductivity of the water samples from the different waters ranged from 71 to 1,012 μs/cm. The highest concentration was obtained by the S1 sample, whereas the lower value was found in the S7 sample. The turbidity of the samples ranged from 2.3 to 786 NTU, with the highest being the S3 sample.
Average values of water parameters compared to all the sampling sites
Site .
Variables (average ±standard deviation)
T (°C) .
pH .
EC (μS/cm) .
Turbidity (NTU) .
TDS (mg/L) .
TSS (mg/L) .
Chloride (mg/L) .
PO4−P (mg/L) .
NO3−N (mg/L) .
BOD5 (mg/L) .
FCC (MPN/100 mL) .
Comatex stream S1 25.18a ± 2.58 6.30a ± 0.43 647.27a ± 45.48 55.66cd ± 4.18 45.43a ± 1.81 31.71a ± 1.41 97.79a ± 4.46 0.31a ± 0.04 2.47a ± 0.14 7.95a ± 0.20 6.7 × 105a ± 7.6 × 104
S2 25.67a ± 3.24 6.41ab ± 0.28 515.82b ± 43.38 38.50cd ± 3.07 29.00bc ± 1.15 31.14a ± 1.80 82.39a ± 2.63 0.15cd ± 0.03 2.16ab ± 0.04 5.75b ± 050 1.2 × 105a ± 1.1 × 104
S3 25.46a ± 3.46 6.54ab ± 0.22 233.92cd ± 26.27 259.92a ± 9.35 19.14d ± 1.57 23.07bcd ± 1.09 35.29bc ± 1.92 0.24bc ± 0.03 1.74bc ± 0.25 1.33dc ± 0.11 25 × 103b ± 0.3 × 103
Cerfitex pond S4 25.62a ± 3.45 6.59ab ± 0.15 251.36cd ± 30.74 227.87ab ± 7.48 26.86bc ± 1.21 20.36bcd ± 1.99 36.92bc ± 2.28 0.17cd ± 0.03 1.99abc ± 0.25 1.65dc ± 0.09 6.7 × 103b ± 4.7 × 102
S5 25.84a ± 3.14 6.56ab ± 0.19 192.49cd ± 26.59 86.30cd ± 6.02 20.00cd ± 1.29 16.07cd ± 1.77 21.16c ± 2.41 0.08d ± 0.06 1.46c ± 0.09 0.63c ± 0.15 0.4 × 102c ± 0.2 × 101
S6 25.38a ± 3.31 6.45ab ± 0.30 203.04cd ± 59.87 101.69bcd ± 4.70 19.71cd ± 2.81 25.71ab ± 1.04 25.10bc ± 2.07 0.16cd ± 0.03 1.67bc ± 0.15 1.52dc ± 0.06 3.2 × 103b ± 1.6 × 102
S7 25.50a ± 3.20 6.29a ± 0.18 180.53cd ± 14.64 128.79bcd ± 4.75 22.29bcd ± 2.43 12.14d ± 1.25 30.52bc ± 3.18 0.25ab ± 0.03 1.74bc ± 0.03 1.06dc ± 0.07 1.1 × 103b ± 1.1 × 102
Sonikoura river S8 25.52a ± 3.57 6.37ab ± 0.19 279.32c ± 13.68 38.00cd ± 4.29 30.00bc ± 2.58 15.21cd ± 0.86 29.85bc ± 1.51 0.21abc ± 0.23 1.95abc ± 0.13 3.47c ± 0.38 3.0 × 104b ± 0.8 × 103
S9 25.54a ± 3.47 6.65b ± 0.25 252.42c ± 5.42 80.17cd ± 1.91 24.71bcd ± 1.38 12.86cd ± 0.69 27.59bc ± 1.56 0.16cd ± 0.03 1.67cd ± 0.11 1.00dc ± 0.11 0.4 × 104b ± 0.2 × 103
S10 25.56a ± 3.25 6.58ab ± 0.22 190.21cd ± 23.65 133.13bcd ± 5.58 22.29bcd ± 0.95 19.29bcd ± 1.25 22.56c ± 1.99 0.15cd ± 0.02 1.84abc ± 0.04 1.10dc ± 0.09 0.1 × 104b ± 0.1 × 103
S11 25.27a ± 3.09 6.41ab ± 0.36 190.47cd ± 17.61 168.55abcd ± 6.77 33.36ab ± 1.95 25.50ab ± 1.71 40.38b ± 2.55 0.14cd ± 0.09 2.00abc ± 0.05 2.40c ± 0.16 2.4 × 104b ± 5.5 × 103
Range 18–31 5.80–7.85 71–1,012 2.3–786 12–69 11–71 9.6–175 0.02–0.37 0.50–2.95 0.12–13.1 3.95 × 101–1.9 × 106
WHO – 6.5–8.5 – 5 500 – 250 – 50 – 0
USPH – 6.0–9.0 – ≤ 5 500 – 250 0.1 50 – 0
For each parameter, averages with the different letters (superscripts) are significantly different (P < 0.05), using Duncan's multiple range tests.
PO4−P phosphate-phosphorus, NO3−N nitrate-nitrogen, FCC fecal coliform counts, WHO World Health Organization, USPH United States Public Health.
(a)–(c) Physical, chemical and bacteriological parameters of the different water samples.
The TDS of the samples had a range of 12–69 mg/L with S1 having the highest concentration (Figure 2(b)). The TSS varied from 12.14 to 31.71 mg/L and the highest average value observed was presented by S1. Distinctive lower chloride (Cl−) concentration was noticed at Cerfitex Pond and Sonikoura River compared to that of Comatex Stream. Similarly, S1 had the highest phosphate concentration, and S5 had the lowest concentration. Overall, the concentrations of the nitrate in all the water samples were below the WHO and USPH limits (250 mg/L). The highest concentrations were observed in the Comatex Stream (Figure 2(b)). BOD5 values for different sites ranged from 0.12 to 13.1 mg/L, the highest average value (7.95 mg/L) was observed in the Comatex Stream (S1) and the lowest (0.63 mg/L) in the Cerfitex Pond (S5). However, the significantly higher (P< 0.05) average BOD5 values were noticed at S1, S2, S8, and S11.
S1 and S2 had higher FC counts, respectively, while S3 was the lowest. Also, S8 had significantly higher fecal coliform counts (FCC) values than S9, S10, and S11 (Figure 2(c)).
The correlation analysis (Table 3) indicated that temperature correlated positively with pH, turbidity, TDS, phosphate, and nitrate (0.67, 0.55, 0.19, 0.35 and 0.29, respectively). No significant correlation was observed between pH and FCC and between pH and other parameters. EC was highly significantly and positively correlated with the TDS (0.76; P < 0.05), TSS (0.68; P < 0.05), phosphate (0.50; P < 0.05), nitrate (0.77; P < 0.05) and BOD5 (0.94; P < 0.05), chloride (0.95; P < 0.05), FCC (0.85; P < 0.05). Turbidity was found to be significantly and positively correlated (P < 0.05) with the water temperature (0.55), TSS (0.45) and phosphate (0.30). Similarly, TDS had a positive relationship with temperature (0.19), conductivity (0.76), TSS (0.54), nitrate (0.85), chloride (0.78), phosphate (0.51), BOD5 (0.85), and FCC (0.83), but negatively correlated with turbidity (–0.34). TSS positively correlated with conductivity (0.68), BOD5 (0.72) and FCC (0.58). Similarly, chloride (Cl−) indicated a significant positive correlation with EC (0.95), TDS (0.78), TSS (0.77), nitrate (0.82), PO4−P (0.48), BOD5 (0.95), and FCC (0.84), but negatively correlated with turbidity (–0.33). Phosphate-phosphorus related positively with nitrate-nitrogen, BOD5 and FCC, (0.60, 0.50 and 0.60, respectively). Finally, BOD5 was in positive correlation with EC (0.94), TDS (0.85), TSS (0.72), chloride (0.95), phosphate (0.49), nitrate (0.83), and FCC (0.86); and in negative correlation with turbidity (–0.49).
Pearson correlation between different water quality parameters of the study site
Variables .
Temperature .
EC .
Turbidity .
TDS .
TSS .
Chloride .
PO4−P .
NO3 − N .
BOD5 .
FCC .
pH 0.67* 1.00
EC 0.10 –0.08 1.00
Turbidity 0.55* 0.10 –0.45 1.00
TDS 0.19* –0.09 0.76* –0.34 1.00
TSS 0.14 0.003 0.68* 0.45* 0.54* 1.00
Chloride 0.05 –0.15 0.95* –0.33 0.78* 0.77* 1.00
PO4−P 0.35* 0.09 0.50* 0.30* 0.51* 0.14 0.48* 1.00
NO3-N 0.29* 0.01 0.77* –0.16 0.85* 0.68* 0.82* 0.60* 1.00
BOD5 0.04 –0.11 0.94* –0.49* 0.85* 0.72* 0.95* 0.50* 0.83* 1.00
FCC –0.001 –0.13 0.86* –0.05 0.83* 0.58* 0.84* 0.60* 0.71* 0.86* 1.00
*Correlation is significant at P<0.05.
The samples were grouped into three groups, namely Comatex Stream (S1, S2, S3), Cerfitex Pond (S4, S5, S6, S7) and Sonikoura River (S8, S9, S10, S11), and the average values for each group with respect to the different seasons and quality parameters are presented in Table 4. The results are also graphically exemplified in Figures 3(a)–3(c). Water temperature reflected changes corresponding to the seasons, with significantly higher values (P < 0.05) recorded during the rainy season. The highest average value (28.20 °C) was observed in Cerfitex Pond, while the lowest was seen in Sonikoura River (21.89 °C). The average pH value varied between 6.16 and 6.26 during the dry season (i.e. significantly lower average values were observed in the dry period); and in the rainy season, the average value varied from 6.65 to 6.81. Similarly, the highest EC during the rainy season was obtained in the Comatex Stream, whereas the lowest average values were found in the dry season at the Cerfitex Pond (Figure 3(a)). Turbidity values were heightened during the rainy season.
Average values of water parameters compared to two seasons at the three water bodies
Parameter .
Comatex Stream
Cerfitex Pond
Sonikoura River
WHO .
USPH .
T (°C) 22.23b ± 0.84 28.08a ± 1.03 22.06b ± 0.68 28.20a ± 0.97 21.89b ± 0.43 28.06a ± 0.75 – –
pH 6.16b ± 0.28 6.69a ± 0.14 6.26b ± 0.25 6.65a ± 0.11 6.24b ± 0.13 6.81a ± 0.08 6.5–8.5 6.0–9.0
EC (μS/cm) 397.04b ± 171.56 445.81a ± 203.77 166.47b ± 41.69 219.80a ± 33.02 220.21a ± 58.67 230.68a ± 33.20 – –
Turbidity (NTU) 103.42b ± 100.67 111.51a ± 109.04 117.59b ± 48.34 127.93a ± 51.43 90.73b ± 49.31 119.04a ± 51.16 5 ≤5
TDS (mg/L) 34.29a ± 12.43 28.14b ± 11.36 20.86b ± 3.76 23.71a ± 2.63 25.64b ± 4.19 29.21a ± 5.42 500 500
TSS (mg/L) 27.43b ± 4.68 30.36a ± 4.04 17.29b ± 5.77 19.36a ± 07 16.00b ± 4.13 19.93a ± 5.85 – –
Chloride (mg/L) 63.64b ± 28.78 78.54a ± 29.14 25.38b ± 6.68 30.89a ± 6.67 26.38b ± 5.46 31.78a ± 8.10 250 250
PO4−P (mg/L) 0.19b ± 0.06 0.25a ± 0.08 0.11b ± 0.07 0.21a ± 0.05 0.16b ± 0.03 0.19a ± 0.03 – 0.1
NO3−N (mg/L) 1.91b ± 0.38 2.24a ± 0.28 1.60b ± 0.15 1.80a ± 0.22 1.73b ± 0.14 1.94a ± 0.13 50 50
BOD5 (mg/L) 4.21b ± 2.97 5.37a ± 2.85 1.06b ± 0.48 1.41a ± 0.35 1.71b ± 1.09 1.72a ± 0.77 – –
FCC (MPN/100 mL) 1.96 × 105a ± 2.66 × 105 8.99 × 105a ± 5.95 × 105 2.79 × 103a ± 2.65 × 103 3.40 × 103a ± 2.90 × 103 1.33 × 104a ± 1.37 × 104 1.35 × 103b ± 1.34 × 103 0 0
For each parameter, averages with the different letters (superscripts) are significantly different (P < 0.05), using Student's test.
Seasonal variations in some physical, chemical and bacteriological parameters in the water sample from the three water bodies.
The Comatex Stream water had the highest average TDS value (P < 0.05) which was in the dry season, and the Cerfitex Pond during the dry season had the lowest average TDS concentration (Figure 3(b)). In the rainy season, the highest average TSS values were recorded, whereas the lowest was obtained in the dry season in the three different water bodies. The Comatex Stream water had the highest average Cl− value (P < 0.05) which was recorded in the rainy season, while the Cerfitex Pond had the lowest mean value which was observed in the dry season. The observed values for chloride in both seasons were within the permissible limit. Overall, the nitrate concentrations were higher in Comatex Stream and Sonikoura River as compared to Cerfitex Pond. However, the Comatex Stream during the rainy season had a significantly higher average value (P < 0.05) than the other samples. The highest BOD5 average values were recorded by the Comatex Stream during the rainy season, while the Cerfitex Pond in the dry season had the lowest average BOD5 value.
According to the Student's t-test, among the sample groups, Comatex Stream had a significantly greater (P < 0.05) FCC (MPN/100 mL) during the rainy season as compared to the dry period (Figure 3(c)).
The effect of climatic seasons on different surface waters contaminated by physical, chemical and microbial contaminants serve as the basis for this study. It is noticed that almost all the water bodies were colorless and odorless except for Comatex stream which had an undesirable odor in the dry season. Indeed, it was noted that during the dry season, the Comatex Stream had water hyacinth and emitted undesirable odors, which consequently limited their use for recreational purposes. Additionally, in the rainy season, trash solids (polythene bags and plastic bottles, cans, etc.) were found in the Comatex Stream and Sonikoura River. This indicates poor sanitary and wastes disposal practices by inhabitants around those water systems. It was observed that the Cerfitex Pond was clean (clear water) during the dry season and also clear in the rainy season, despite the presence of water hyacinths. A large flora of water hyacinths was observed downstream where treated sewage effluent from Cerfitex enters the Niger River. Similar observations were noted by Alhou et al. (2009) on the Niger River and revealed that it is the visual and odorous aspects of the environment that considerably impacts on the popular conception of water quality.
Correlation of physical parameters
The temperature of the three water bodies was variable according to the sampling period (rainy or dry). The highest temperature was observed from May to October corresponding to the rainy season. Thus, water temperature was significantly higher (P < 0.05) in the rainy season than in the dry season. Results showed that there was a significant correlation between water temperature and pH, turbidity, TDS, and nitrate, respectively. This is due to the fact that the temperature has an impact on physical and chemical properties of water; in particular density, viscosity, the solubility of its gases (in particular that of oxygen) and speed of chemical and biochemical reactions (HCEFLCD 2006). Although there was no significant correlation between temperature and FCC, it was noted that S5 recorded not only the highest temperatures but also the lowest number of coliforms. This could be explained by the fact that the water was retained for a considerable time in the extraction pipe.
No significant correlation was observed between pH and FCC. However, significantly lower pH value was observed at S1 during the dry season. It may be as a result of the discharge of stormwater (which was alkaline in nature) from Comatex and Koukoun village into this water source. The low pH values during the dry season may be due to rising CO2 concentrations as a result of the reduction in water level. All the sampling locations were found to have pH within the permissible limits prescribed by USPH (1998) and WHO (2008).
EC is a numerical term which is the capacity of water to transport electric current, while ionic force as conductivity is a measure of TDS (Agbogu et al. 2006). The ionic force of a sample depends not only on the ionization of solutes, but also on other dissolved substances (WHO 2008). However, the significant positive correlation that has been found between EC and TDS (0.76), chloride (0.95), nitrate (0.77), respectively, is consistent with this relationship. The higher conductivity obtained at point S1, compared with other sampling locations, may be explained by the discharge of effluent from domestic sewage from Comatex village.
Interestingly, the turbidity load of the water samples did not significantly correlate with the FCC of the samples. It may be linked to the fact that turbidity typically is influenced by the presence of clay or silt particles, plankton, as well as organic and inorganic matter (WHO 2008). It was therefore not surprising that the highest turbidity value was recorded at S3 as field investigations revealed that S3 was more affected by the water from upper Sonikoura river that was more influenced by soil erosion, stormwater runoff, and eutrophication. It was observed that the turbidity values at Comatex Stream, Cerfitex Pond, and Sonikoura River were above 5.00 NTU, the allowable limit recommended by USPH (1998) and WHO (2008) for drinking water. Turbidity was severely influenced by storms, which allowed the highest values to be recorded in a rainy season. Variations obtained during this season may be due to possible sedimentation, according to the time interval among storm event and sampling. The significantly greater turbidity values experienced in the rainy period is similar to Chigor et al. (2012) who stated that the turbidity was strongly affected by storm events within the rainy period in Zaria surface waters, Nigeria.
Correlation of chemical parameters
Dissolved solids were analyzed in order to ascertain the level of inorganic and organic substances contained in the water samples which were in molecular, ionized or micro-granular suspended forms. A positive correlation existed between TDS and temperature, conductivity, TSS, nitrate, chloride, phosphate, BOD5, and fecal coliform count, respectively. The most desirable limit of TDS is 500 mg/L (USPH 1998; WHO 2008). The highest TDS average value (34.29 mg/L) was obtained in the Comatex Stream during the dry season, which is below the permissible limit. However, this high level of TDS could be attributed to the low volume of water during the dry season when water flow becomes low. This observation agreed with Chigor et al. (2012) who reported a correlation between TDS and water flow.
The concentrations of TSS related significant positive correlation with conductivity, BOD5, and FCC. July had the highest TSS level, whereas the lowest was obtained in April in Comatex Stream, Cerfitex Pond, and Sonikoura River. The high average value of TSS was noticed in the rainy season in Comatex Stream compared to that of Cerfitex Pond, and Sonikoura River may be attributed to effluents from industrial premises and runoff waters from Comatex and Koukoun village.
Throughout the study period, distinctly lower chloride (Cl−) concentration was noticed at Cerfitex Pond and Sonikoura River compared to that of Comatex Stream. The Cl− contents were in the order of 9.6–175 mg/L and indicated a significant positive correlation with EC, TDS, TSS, nitrate, PO4−P, BOD5, as well as FCC. These strong correlations (between Cl− and EC, TDS) suggest, on the one hand, that Cl− raises the EC of water, and on the other hand, that Cl− is one of the main anionic components of dissolved solids. Additionally, domestic waters and thermal waters of the Comatex Stream (rich in chlorides) could be at the origin of these fluctuations because according to WHO (2008), Cl− levels are higher in domestic sewage than raw water. According to WHO and USPH, the maximum permissible limit for chloride in drinking water is 250 mg/L. Results showed that average values in this present study ranged from 21.16 to 97.79 mg/L, which indicates less contamination of chloride.
Phosphates come not only from domestic sewage (human urine and detergents) but also from agricultural activities via soil erosion (Nora et al. 2015). High concentrations of phosphates and nitrates can bring about eutrophication, which substantially increases algae content in the water body. These algae may affect the passage of light and oxygen consumption in a water body, which can be hazardous to existing wildlife in such water (Garras et al. 2015). The phosphate values of the water samples from the different water bodies ranged from 0.02 to 0.37 mg/L, and 10 of the 11 sites exceed the permissible limit (0.1 mg/L) of the US Public Health Standards. The highest phosphate value (0.31 mg/L) was noted during the study in April at S1, and the lowest value (0.09 mg/L) was observed in July at S5. This increase in value in April may be explained by the significant release of domestic wastewater which contained high amounts of phosphate constituents. There was a significant correlation between phosphate-phosphorus and nitrate-nitrogen, BOD5, and FCC, (0.60, 0.50, and 0.60, respectively). Lehtola et al. (1999) demonstrated that phosphorus determines the microbial growth of water. The positive correlation between phosphate and BOD5 suggests that nutrient enrichment may cause eutrophication in aquatic systems, thus affecting the level of dissolved oxygen in the water. Additionally, the positive correlation between PO4−P and FCC suggests that phosphorus can influence the microbial growth of water (Chigor et al. 2012).
Currently, the most common ecological challenges with surface waters are eutrophication and the presence of excess nitrogen. However, results showed that the Comatex Stream had nitrate concentrations higher than Sonikoura River and Cerfitex Pond. It may be caused by run-off of soils containing inorganic fertilizers into the stream as a result of rainfall or floods, as well as the discharge of organic matter from domestic wastewater into the stream by the community close to the stream. In high concentrations, nitrate may cause methemoglobinemia, also known as 'blue baby' syndrome which usually affects bottle-fed infants (Karu et al. 2013). Despite some sampling sites recording relatively high levels of nitrates, the mean values of all the analyzed water samples were in accordance with the WHO and USPH standards (50 mg/L). Therefore, monitoring the level of algal growth in Comatex Stream is necessary because it can present significant health risks to consumers and generate severe environmental issues.
BOD5 is another significant element used to evaluate the water quality concerning both suspended and dissolved organic materials. However, surface water is considered to be free from pollutants when it has a BOD5 ≤ 2 mg/L (Hobson & Poole 1988). In all the tested sampling sites, the highest average BOD5 value was observed in the Comatex Stream during the rainy season, and the lowest average value was the Cerfitex Pond in the dry season. The high amount of BOD observed within the rainy season may be due to the increased efficiency of surface run-off, discharge of municipal sewage from Comatex and Koukoun villages, Sebougou sewage treatment plant and industrial effluents discharge into Comatex Stream and Sonikoura River. Additionally, the low BOD5 values (<5.00 mg/L) noticed at Cerfitex Pond suggest low organic pollution. Owing to the high volume of water, the extent of pollution may not pose a significant danger to aquatic life and people using it for domestic and irrigation purposes.
Correlation of biological parameters
Fecal coliforms are common bacteria in the digestive tract of humans and animals. It is an index of fecal contamination of water. The results in Table 2 and Figure 2(c) shows that high FC counts were recorded at S1 and S2, and S3 had the lowest count. The high coliform at S1 and S2 is an indication of poor sanitary practices of inhabitants around those sites. Moreover, the FCC at S8 was significantly higher than S9, S10, and S11. It may be due to the malfunction of the Sebougou sewage treatment plant (STP) which released raw wastewater into the river at a point upstream of S8. Notably, in January, all the water samples had low FCCs which coincided with the usual drop in population and anthropogenic activities associated with migration of inhabitance during the Christmas and New Year holiday period. The Student's t-test revealed that Sonikoura River had significantly greater (P < 0.05) FCC (MPN/100 mL) during the dry season compared to the rainy period. The high presence of FCC in the dry period is a result of the combined effect of the discharge of effluent from Sebougou wastewater treatment plant as well as the low water volume during the dry season. The result of the correlation analysis between the bacteriological and physicochemical parameters concurred with the previous works reported by Katherine et al. (2015). So, the present analysis meets the requirement that consists of using the bacterial density as the fundamental measure in evaluating freshwater sources quality. The results reveal coliform bacteria in every water sample, and none of the water samples met the WHO and USPH guidelines for human consumption. The fecal coliform count should be zero (per 100 mL) of the sample in all drinking water supplies, piped or unpiped, treated or untreated, and <1,000 fecal coliforms/100 mL for unrestricted irrigation (USPH 1998; WHO 2008). Therefore, these waters are not suitable for domestic use, recreation purpose, and the irrigation of fresh vegetables without treatment.
This paper investigated the pollution status of Comatex Stream, Cerfitex Pond, and Sonikoura River which are polluted continuously by both point and non-point sources of feces, especially by municipal wastewater, failing septic tanks, surface run-off and an inefficient sewage treatment plant. With respect to the significant differences in BOD5 and FCC, Comatex Stream and Cerfitex Pond were the highest and lowest polluted, respectively. This study revealed that the quality of the water exceeded the limits set for microbiological infection risks proposed in water quality guidelines, notably for domestic use, recreation purpose, as well as for irrigation of fresh vegetables. Excessive applications of chemical fertilizers and pesticides have increased the nitrate concentration in Comatex River. It is suggested that heightened attention regarding sanitary and waste disposal practices in the study area should be given in order to prevent an epidemic of waterborne diseases in that area.
The authors acknowledge the Segou community for their immense assistance in order to achieve the sampling of the waters used in this study. Special thanks to the anonymous reviewers for comments which aided in improving this manuscript.
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Local water-cross enthusiast, Trevor Fjosne, placed second in Saturday's feature. Fjosne competed in the semi-pro class on his 800cc machine.
The Snowmobile Water-Cross event marked the beginning of the season for water-cross racing. June 2, dawned with blue skies and puffy clouds, welcomed all to the racing event.
The local Boy and Girl Scouts presented the colors at the beginning of the day, followed by "The Star Spangled Banner." The colors presentation was accompanied by a fly-over of miniature airplanes. The next sound was of racing engines, and snowmobiles began their descent into the water. The announcer for the day was Skip Schultz.
Weske spoke of the safety precautions used. Each snowmobile also has a 20-foot length of rope attached to assist in removing it from the lake in the case of a mishap.
It was certain the crowd gathered at the beach was enjoying the beautiful day and the events unfolding in front of their eyes. There were vendors selling good things to eat, as well as water-cross merchandise such as T-shirts, sweatshirts, and decals.
A beer garden was held at the event. Beer products were furnished by the Moose lake Municipal Liquor Store.
Weske shared that one of the contestants was Mark Maki, 12-time winner of the World Championship. His son, Chad, "The Chop" Maki was also racing. Mark Maki has been honored by recognition in the Snowmobile Hall of Fame.
Sponsors for the water-cross races were: O'Reilly Auto Parts, R & G Waldheim Contracting, Doc's, Fjosne Construction, Market Place Foods, Edward Jones, Nordstrom's Sanitation, Moose lake Implement and Sport, Grimms Collosion, State Farm Insurance, Como Oil and Propane, WMOZ – 106.9, B 105, MIX 108, and legends Rock 96.5.
The Water Cross Grand Prix brings many positive results to the city of Moose Lake: It brings dollars into the city; it brings more people in to shop and enjoy the area; and it brings revenue to the Scouts who collect the aluminum cans from the event and convert them into income for the troops. When the event was over, Weske made sure the entire area was left in the same condition it was found.


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text:
All About Sudden...
All About Sudden cardiac arrest- By Dr Srikant Sharma
By Hina Zahid Published On 2019-10-04T19:00:24+05:30 | Updated On 4 Oct 2019 1:30 PM GMT
Sudden cardiac arrest (SCA) is a condition in which the heart suddenly and unexpectedly stops beating thereby jeopardising the blood stops the flow to the brain and other vital organs and it may lead to if it's not treated within minutes. Dr Srikant Sharma has exhaustively covered all the aspects of Sudden Cardiac Arrest in an exhaustive manner for readers of Specialty Medical Dialogues.
Q1) What is Sudden Cardiac Arrest?
Sudden cardiac arrest (SCA) is defined as "sudden cessation of cardiac activity resulting in the victim becoming unresponsive with no normal breathing and no signs of circulation, within 1 hour of presentation of symptoms". The condition generally results from an electrical disturbance in the heart that disrupts its ability to function.
In simple terms, if you were to consider the heart to be a house, Sudden Cardiac Arrest is an electricity supply problem whereas a Heart Attack is a plumbing problem; Heart Attack/Myocardial Infarction being tissue death (infarction) of the heart muscle (myocardium) resulting from nil or severely restricted blood flow in
the corresponding coronary artery supplying it.
A Sudden Cardiac Arrest in almost 50% of cases occurs suddenly without any symptoms and if corrective measures aren't taken rapidly, the condition progresses to Sudden Cardiac Death. (SCD)
Q2) How common is Sudden Cardiac Arrest?
In the USA, Sudden Cardiac Arrest outside hospital occurs in 13/10,000 people per year (326,000 cases) In-hospital cardiac arrest occurs in an additional 209,000. survival rates with treatment being 8%.
In Delhi approximately 25 to 45 people die daily due to SCA.
Based on death certificates, Sudden Cardiac Deaths accounts for about 15% of all deaths in western countries. The lifetime risk is three times greater in men (12.3%) than women (4.2%) based on analysis of the Framingham Heart Study.
However, this gender difference disappears after 85 years of age.
Q3) Am I, as an Indian at a higher risk for SCA?
In India, the incidence of SCD is a grossly understudied area, studies done project an incidence of 39.7/100,000 on mathematical grounds in people of ages over 35
years of age. In comparison to the west, the peak incidence group of SCDs in India was 5-8 yrs younger.
Survival rate in India is less than 1%; major contributory factor to it being ignorance pertaining to CPR specifically in Out-Of-Hospital settings.
Widespread availability of CPR training in general population and availability of Automatic External Defibrillators (AED) can bring about a huge difference in the survival rates undoubtedly.
Q4) What are the risk factors?
Risk factors for Sudden Cardiac Death are similar to those of Coronary Artery Disease. Factors like smoking, lack of physical exercise, hypertension, non-HDL cholesterol, central apple shaped obesity, diabetes mellitus and significant family history.
Smoking increases the risk of SCDs 2-3 folds in ages of 30-59yrs. Also to be noted is that the risk of SCDs in smokers who have quit smoking reaches levels closer to those who have never smoked, provided the period of cessation of smoking has been 10 years or more.
Another significant factor which has found its way into being classified as a major risk factor is Air Pollution especially in cities like Delhi/Beijing amongst others.
Q5) What are the causes of Sudden Cardiac Death?
Theoretically, it can be classified into 4 separate etiological groups:
1) Ischaemic Heart Disease
2) Non Ischaemic Heart Disease/ Structural Heart Disease
3) Non Structural Heart Disease
4) Non Cardiac Causes
Q6) What Ischaemic Heart Diseases lead to Sudden Cardiac Arrest/Sudden Cardiac Death?
This etiological group alone contributes to about 70% of all cases.
Coronary artery disease with myocardial infarction or angina
Coronary artery embolism
Non Atherogenic coronary artery diseases – arteritis, dissection, congenital coronary artery anomalies.
Coronary artery spasm.
Q7) What are the Non Ischaemic Heart Diseases/Structural Heart Diseases leading to Sudden Cardiac Arrest?
10% of all Sudden Cardiac Arrest cases are contributed by this particular group of etiologies.
Arrhythmogenic Right Ventricular Dysplasia
Acute Pericardial Tamponade
Acute Myocardial Rupture
Aortic Dissection
Q8) What is the leading cause of death amongst Non Ischaemic Heart Diseases?
Left Ventricular Hypertrophy is thought to be the leading cause of death from this particular etiological group.
Q9) Does Congestive Heart Failure increase the risk of SCA/SCD?
Congestive Heart Failure increases the risk by 5 times.
Q10) What are the Non Structural Heart Diseases contributing to Sudden Cardiac Arrest / Sudden Cardiac Death?
5-10% is estimated to be the contribution of this etiological group towards Sudden Cardiac Arrests.
Long QT syndrome (It affects repolarization of the heart after a heartbeat. This results in the affected individual being at a predisposed risk of an irregular heartbeat. Incidence in the west being 1 in 5000 to 7000 newborns and is projected to be the cause for 3000 deaths each year out of 300,000 [cardiac arrests seen by emergency departments.)
Brugada syndrome (It is a genetic disorder in which the electrical activity within the heart is inherently abnormal; incurable per se, it can be managed with ICD therapy.)
Catecholaminergic polymorphic ventricular tachycardia (It is an inherited genetic disorder that predisposes those affected to potentially life-threatening abnormal heart rhythms or arrhythmias. The arrhythmias generally occur during exercise or at times of emotional stress; typically presenting as bidirectional ventricular tachycardia or ventricular fibrillation)
Q11) What about Non Cardiac causes?
Sudden Cardiac Arrests due to non-cardiac causes accounts for the remaining 15 to 25%.
GI Bleeding
Misc: eg. Stings of certain Jellyfish species.
Q12) What is the age wise distribution of causes in Sudden Cardiac Arrest/Sudden Cardiac Death?
Q13) How does a healthcare professional diagnose Sudden Cardiac Arrest?
For ages, the absence of a pulse has been the backbone of diagnosing a Sudden Cardiac Arrest. Nonetheless, studies have shown that rescuers often make a mistake when checking the carotid pulse in an emergency, whether they are healthcare professionals or lay persons. Human errors aside, certain conditions on presentation to the Emergency Department elicit an extremely feeble pulse which may not be felt and hence, misdiagnosed as a Cardiac Arrest. One notorious example being Shock.
Due to the non-specificity in this method of diagnosis, the ERC (European Resuscitation Council) amongst others have played down the importance of using Pulse alone as the primary gold standard diagnostic tool. The Resuscitation Council (UK), in conjunction with the ERC's recommendations and those of the American Heart Association have suggested that the technique should be used only by healthcare professionals with specific knowledge, and even then it should be viewed along with the other pointers of life.
The International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation (ILCOR) recommendations were for healthcare professionals to search for "signs of circulation" and not just the pulse alone. [28] These included gasping, coughing, color-touch, twitching and movement. However, in face of evidence that these guidelines were not completely effective, ILCOR currently advises that sudden cardiac arrest should be diagnosed in all patients who on presentation are unconscious/low Glasgow Coma Scale score and not breathing normally.
Q14) How is Sudden Cardiac Arrest treated upon presentation in the Emergency Department?
It is treated as per the AHA 2015 guidelines in modern Emergency Medicine Departments.
Vf – Ventricular Fibrillation
pVT – Pulseless Ventricular Tachyardia
PEA – Pulseless Electrical Activity
ROSC – Return of Spontaneous Circulation.
IO- Intravenous.
IV-Intravenous
Q15) What entails a good quality CPR?
Using both hands, place the heel of one over the sternum at the nipple level; push hard (atleast 2 inches = 5cms ) and fast (100-120/min), allowing complete chest recoil.
Minimize interruptions in compressions.
Avoid excessive ventilation.
Rotate compressor every 2 mins, or sooner if fatigues.
If no advanced airway established, maintain 30:2 compression – ventilation ratio.
Quantitative waveform capnography – If ETCO2 (expiratory carbon dioxide) <10mmhg, improve CPR quality.
Q16) What are the shock-able rhythms and what is the Shock Energy used for defibrillation?
Ventricular Fibrillation (V-fib/vF) & Pulseless Ventricular Tachycardia(pVT) are the two shock-able rhythms. Biphasic: Manufacturer recommendation (eg. Initial dose of 120-200 Joules; if unknown then use the maximum available) Second and subsequent doses should be equivalent and higher doses may be considered.
If Monophasic: 360 Joules.
Q17) Which drugs are part of the treatment algorithm for Sudden Cardiac Arrest and what are their doses?
Epinephrine: IV/IO dose - 1mg every 3-5 minutes.
Amiodarone: IV/IO dose – First dose being 300mg bolus; Second dose being 150mg.
Q18) What are the 2018 AHA Review/2018 CoSTR (Consensus on CPR and ECC Science with Treatment Recommendation) inputs which intend to contribute towards updated standardized care and rise in rates of ROSC achieved?
The review considered the use of Amiodarone, Lidocaine, Magnesium and Beta-blockers for antiarrhythmic therapy during and immediately after adult ventricular
fibrillation (VF) and pulseless ventricular tachycardia (pVT) cardiac arrest.
Q19) Can Amiodarone or Lidocaine be considered for VF/pVT that is unresponsive to defibrillation?
As per the 2018 review, Amiodarone or lidocaine may be considered for VF/pVT that is unresponsive to defibrillation (3 shocks).
These drugs may be particularly useful for patients with witnessed arrest, for whom time to drug administration may be shorter (Class IIb, LOE B-R).
Q20) Can Magnesium be routinely used for treating cardiac arrest?
As reviewed in 2018, the routine use of magnesium for cardiac arrest is not recommended in adult patients (Class III: No Benefit, LOE C-LD). Magnesium may be considered for torsades de pointes (ie, polymorphic VT associated with long QT interval) (Class IIb, LOE C-LD).
Q21) What is the take on using Beta blockers within the first hour after ROSC?
As per the 2018 review, there is insufficient evidence to support or refute the routine use of a β-blocker early (within the first hour) after ROSC.
Q22) Has Lidocaine been deemed helpful for routine use?.
As per the 2018 review, there is insufficient evidence to support or refute the routine use of lidocaine early (within the first hour) after ROSC. In the absence of contraindications, the prophylactic use of lidocaine may be considered in specific circumstances (such as during emergency medical services transport), when treatment of recurrent VF/pVT might prove to be challenging.
Q23) How is SCD assessed & investigated?
It is imperative to investigate SCDs and identify high-risk groups viz. immediate family members prone/predisposed to SCAs/SCDs. This not only allows the high risk groups to take preventive measures but also informs them to take care of underlying modifiable risk factors. In essence, determining the cause of death in SCD cases is a vital step in caring for surviving relatives. A diagnosis of genetic cause can provide critical guidance in family screening and help prevent further SCA/SCD events.
In Survivors of sudden cardiac arrest (secondary prevention), or patients presenting with haemodynamically significant or sustained ventricular tachycardia (VT), detailed clinical assessment should be done to determine the underlying pathology. This includes a comprehensive history, 12 lead electrocardiogram, transthoracic echocardiogram, coronary imaging (eg. CT Angio, Cardiac Magnetic Resonance(CMR) etc), drug testing (e.g. sodium channel blocker for Brugada syndrome), stress test and genetic testing. Confirming a diagnosis allows management of the underlying disease and family screening if inherited heart disease is found. A secondary prevention ICD is recommended if no reversible pathology is found and there is no contraindication.
In those at risk of SCD (primary prevention) but who have not had an event, a diagnosis and disease‐specific therapy is used to manage any symptoms and can effectively reduce mortality. The risk stratification process is disease dependent and can include history (eg. family history of SCD), electrocardiographic features, LVEF, CMR imaging & electrophysiological studies.
Following a Sudden Unexplained Death, as a consequence of a hereditary pathology, family screening of first degree relatives should be performed. In cases where a cause has been identified in the decedent, a pathogenic genetic mutation may be identified in the proband, which may be used in cascade testing of first degree relatives.
Q24) What is an I.C.D.?
An implantable cardioverter defibrillator(ICD) also known as AICD (Automated Implantable Cardioverter Defibrillator) is a device implanted inside the body wherein it is able to perform the functions of cardioversion, defibrillation, and pacing of the heart when deemed necessary upon detection. It is therefore capable of correcting most life-threatening cardiac arrhythmias and has become the first-line treatment and prophylactic tool for patients who are at risk of sudden cardiac death due to potentially fatal abnormal heart rhythms like ventricular fibrillation and ventricular tachycardia.
Q25) How & where did its development come about?
The development of the ICD was pioneered at Sinai Hospital in Baltimore, USA by a team including Michel Mirowski, Morton Mower, Alois Langer and William Staewen. Mirowski teamed up with Mower and Staewen and together they commenced their research in 1969 but it was 11 years before they treated their first patient.
There was doubt that their ideas would ever become a clinical reality and work was commenced against much scepticism even by leading experts in the field of arrhythmias and sudden death citing that the implanted defibrillator system represents an imperfect solution in search of a plausible and practical application.
Q26) What were the challenges which the innovators faced during the developmental stages of ICD?
The problems to be overcome were the design of a system which would allow detection of ventricular fibrillation or ventricular tachycardia. Despite the lack of financial backing, they persisted and the first device was implanted in February 1980 at Johns Hopkins Hospital by Dr. Levi Watkins Jr.
The first devices required the chest to be cut open and a mesh electrode sewn onto the heart; pulse generator was placed in the abdomen.
Modern-day devices have been advanced to the extent that they detect abnormal heart rhythms and deliver therapy via programmable anti-tachycardia pacing in addition to low-energy and high-energy shocks.
Q27) What are the components of an I.C.D.?
ICDs are composed of an ICD generator and of wires. The first component or generator contains a computer chip or circuitry with RAM (memory), programmable software, a capacitor and a battery; this is implanted typically under the skin in the left upper chest.
The second part of the system is an electrode wire or wires that, similar to pacemakers, are connected to the generator and passed through a vein to the right chambers of the heart. The lead usually lodges in the apex or septum of the right ventricle. Just like pacemakers, ICDs can have a single wire or lead in the heart (in the right ventricle, single-chamber ICD), two leads (in the right atrium and right ventricle, dual-chamber ICD) or three leads (biventricular ICD, one in the right atrium, one in the right ventricle and one on the outer wall of the left ventricle).
Q28) What is the difference in their primary functional modality from that of a paceamaker?
The difference between pacemakers and ICDs is that pacemakers are also available as temporary units and are generally designed to correct slow heart rates, i.e.
bradycardia, while ICDs are often permanent safeguards against sudden life- threatening arrhythmias.
Q29) How does an I.C.D. look on a X-ray and how do we differentiate it from a pacemaker?
Shown above is the radiographic appearance of an implantable cardioverter-defibrillator i.e. I.C.D [A] and a cardiac pacemaker [B].
A reliable way to differentiate an ICD from a pacemaker is the presence of shocking coil(s) as seen indicated by the arrows in the right ventricle and sometimes in the Superior Vena Cava. These are seen as parts of the lead presenting as being more wider and radiodense.
Q30) What are the considerations to be kept in mind for ICD therapy?
ICDs carry the risk of acute procedural complications at implantation, such as pneumothorax, bleeding, acute lead dislodgement and cardiac tamponade as well as chronic risks, including infection, lead-related issues and inappropriate shocks.
For these reasons, balancing the benefits versus harms is important and should be discussed with the patient. Accurate risk stratification is critical to ensure adequate primary prevention without exposing people at low risk.
Q31) What are the indications for I.C.D. implantation?
Implantation of ICD is meant to prevent sudden cardiac death and is indicated in numerous conditions. These conditions are classified as primary and secondary prevention.
Those patients who have not suffered an arrhythmia episode which was life threatening in nature fall under Primary Prevention whereas Secondary prevention provides the strongest evidence for benefit and it is primarily for survivors of cardiac arrest secondary to ventricular fibrillation or hemodynamically unstable sustained ventricular tachycardia only after the reversible causes are excluded of course.
Q32) What purposes are served with an ICD implant?
Two broad but distinct classifications of conditions exist for whom ICD therapy is used – they fall into Primary Prevention & Secondary Prevention groups.
Some conditions belonging to Primary prevention include prior myocardial infarction (within a minimum of 40 days ago) and LVEF lesser than or equal to 35%, Non-Ischaemic Dilated Cardiomyopathy with LVEF lesser than or equal to 35%, Long QT, Torsades on treatment, Brugada etc.
Secondary Prevention entails conditions like prior episode of resuscitated VT/Vf or sustained hemodynamically unstable VT, episodes of spontaneous sustained ventricular tachycardia in conjunction with prevalent heart disease (valvular, iscahemic, hyperthrophic, dilated etc) and channelopathies.
Q33) What are the contraindications of ICD implantation?
ICDs are contraindicated in patients experiencing tachyarrhythmias with transient or reversible causes including but not limited to acute myocardial infarction, drug intoxication, drowning, electric shock, hypoxia, patients with incessant ventricular tachycardia or ventricular fibrillation and patients whose primary disorder is chronic atrial tachyarrhythmias with no concomitant VT or VF.
Q34) A conundrum - Is ICD therapy superior to treatment with Anti Arrhythmic drugs for managing and preventing sudden cardiac death?
This conundrum has however been laid to rest after numerous clinical trials & studies have demonstrated the superiority of the ICD by far over AAD (antiarrhythmic drugs) as a treatment modality altogether.
The SCD-HeFT trial (published in 2005) showed a significant all-cause mortality benefit for patients with ICD. Congestive heart failure patients that were implanted with an ICD had an all-cause death risk 23% lower than placebo and an absolute decrease in mortality of 7.2 percentage points after five
years in the overall population.
Reporting in 1999, the Antiarrhythmics Versus Implantable Defibrillators (AVID) trial consisted of 1,016 patients, and deaths in those treated with Anti Arrhythmic drugs were more frequent (n = 122) compared with deaths in the ICD groups (n = 80, p< 0.001).
In 2002 the MADITII trial showed benefit of ICD treatment in patients after myocardial infarction with reduced left ventricular function (EF<30).
Q35) What is MICRA?
Developed by Medtronic, it is the world's smallest Transcatheter Pacing System approved for use in the United States by the FDA in April 2016 weighing 1.75grams, completely self contained within the heart, no leads required powered by an ultra-low circuit designed to deliver a 12 year battery life. It has a 99% plus implant success rate with 63% fewer complications.
Q36) What are the complications of associated with ICD implantation which have been drastically reduced/eliminated by MICRA?
Eliminated Pocket-related Complications:
Erosion Eliminated Lead-related Complications:
Insulation breaches
Venous thrombosis and obstruction
Tricuspid regurgitation
Long-term Lead- and Pocket-related Complications with Traditional Systems:
Pocket-related complications 8% at five years
Lead-related complications 11% at five years
Although the leadless pacemaker is a relatively new technology, the preliminary reports of long-term performance and complications are promising, including low complications, few system revisions, and stable pacing parameters. These exciting new devices are not for all patients, however, and are contraindicated in those who require dual-chamber pacing, who have existing cardiovascular implantable electronic devices, mechanical tricuspid valves, pulmonary hypertension, or inferior vena cava (IVC) filters.
Q37) Is MICRA like devices a gamechanger of sorts in future?
While the future appears to be bright for these tiny-like devices, there are some concerns, including chronic right ventricular pacing due to single-chamber pacing potentially leading to atrioventricular and mechanical dysfunction and heart failure. Other noted drawbacks include the need for larger venous access tools for delivery, limited safety data from nonrandomized studies, and estimated but unproven longevity of the device.
Leadless pacing offers an innovative and safe alternative for cardiac pacing in patients who require single-chamber pacing while avoiding the common pitfalls of traditional transvenous pacemaker systems. Future avenues of development in this specialized area are boundless and include transforming kinetic energy from cardiac motion to fuel the pacemaker, wireless left ventricular pacing system, potentially utilizing leadless pacemakers with subcutaneous defibrillators, and the development of a leadless pacemaker with dual-chamber pacing capabilities and resynchronization therapy.
Q38) What can we infer and take back?
Sudden Cardiac/Sudden Cardiac Death is a major public health issue and among the top contributors to the global premature death burden. Although the incidence has declined with the advances in IHD management. Lesser gains have been made in the younger cohort and those with known cardiac disease and families of SCD victims. For families of SCD victims, a definitive diagnosis is paramount, where ever possible, genetic screening.
At a population level, By-stander BLS(basic life support)training and AED availability (Automatic External cardiac Defibrillator) have improved survivals rate in the western hemisphere, but further gains can be made globally with regular, high‐impact public health campaigns.
In essence, with USD 95 billion spent on medical research annually. In developing countries like India; It is imperative to acknowledge that a cumulative effort in terms of BLS/ACLS/CPR awareness, widespread availability of AEDs (Automatic External cardiac Defibrillator) and adoption of standardized protocols itself can certainly bring about a positive impact towards a rise in survival rates of Sudden Cardiac Arrests.
Dr Srikant Sharma, Senior Consultant Physician, and Dr Faraz Nawaz Resident Emergency; Moolchand Medcity, New Delhi
bidirectional ventricular tachycardia breathing cardiac arrest Dr. Srikant Sharma emergency department heart diseases heart failure Hypertension implantable cardioverter defibrillator lidocaine non-HDL cholesterol Physical exercise Pulseless Electrical Activity QT syndrome SCA Srikant Sharma sudden cardiac arrest The International Liaison Committee on Resuscitation ventricular fibrillation X ray


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내가 사용하고 있는 컴퓨터가 인터넷에서 접속할 때 내가 어떤 공인 IP로 접속하는지 확인해보고자 한다.
이렇게 하면 Test-Connection 명령을 사용할 때 어떤 Parameter를 사용할지를 금방 알 수 있다.
각 Parameter에 대한 Name, Aliases,Position, Mandatory, Pipeline, ByName에 대한 것을 알 수 있다.
아래 그림을 보면 Test-Connection을 할 때 -ComputerName을 Mandatory이고, Position은 첫번째이며, String을 comma로 찍어서 여러개의 문자열을 사용할 수 있음을 알 수 있다.
즉, Test-Connection -cn pc1, pc2,server1으로 사용할 수 있다는 뜻이다.


text:
Giant-Shimano on hot winning streak
Wild, Degenkolb, Kittel and Ludvigsson contributing to early season flyer
Sophie Smith February 14, 2014 4:53 pm
John Degenkolb (Giant Shimano) won Stage 1 of the 2014 Tour Méditerranéen, from Danilo Napolitano (Wanty-Groupe Gobert) and Sonny Colbrelli (Bardiani-CSF)
John Degenkolb
There are few, if any, races Giant-Shimano hasn't celebrated a victory in this month and its dramatic evolution and rise in stature has surprised even stalwart pilot Koen de Kort.
De Kort was an integral part of the train dedicated to supporting Marcel Kittel at the recent Dubai Tour in which the latter celebrated three consecutive, and convincing, stage wins against a proven field of sprinters including Mark Cavendish.
At the same time, Kirsten Wild was on her way to winning the Ladies Tour of Qatar whilst, in Europe, Tobias Ludvigsson took out the Etoile de Besseges. Versatile sprinter and six-time Grand Tour stage winner, John Degenkolb was knocking on the door there with podium places in stages two, three and four, contributing to his third place overall, before claiming the first two stages of the Tour of the Med yesterday and today.
It's not bad for the youngest team of the WorldTour that secured its top-tier licence just last year, and has proven its aptitude for identifying, developing and verifying tomorrow's leaders, as opposed to signing established talent.
Kittel, as one example, within three seasons has transformed from first thought time trialist, to fast man, to most successful neo-professional, to quadruple Tour de France stage winner and, increasingly so, the pure sprinter of reference.
"It's obviously been really good the last two years," de Kort told Cycling Weekly from Spain. "Both these sprinters, Degenkolb and Kittel, have evolved and turned out to be world class. The support that they get in the team, it's maybe not a surprise, looking back at it, that it's like that at the moment but I never anticipated that at all. We're also in a different position now and hopefully we can stand up and do it."
De Kort puts the team's increasing dominance down to its musketeer attitude as much as anything else. Although it has also advertised "innovative" training approaches from science to mental coaching.
"That's the way we work and I think not a lot teams work like that – the riders want to do their own thing and get their own results. I can understand that as well," he said. "In another team I probably would have done the same but I know that in my team it's really appreciated, the way we all ride for one rider, even early on in the season."
De Kort has supported Kittel at both the Tour Down Under and Dubai Tour but, like last year, is now due to switch to good friend Degenkolb's programme at least until the Classics where he also has his own aspirations.
"I should be pretty good for it. Obviously I won't have the whole team working for me but I think there's still possibilities for myself and I think we should be able to be there with a pretty strong team this year," he said.
"We're not the team to beat but we should play a role in the finals."
The 31 year old 12 months ago was recovering from a broken collarbone sustained in a crash at the Tour of Qatar and is thus in better shape than the same time last year. That may also be due, in part, to starting pre-season training earlier. De Kort broke his collarbone for a second time at August's Vattenfall Cyclassics, which effectively ended his season.
"The biggest problem was trying not to train too hard, too early. My goals are still the same this year and I still want to have my first dig at the Classics," he said. "Training too hard too early definitely would have been detrimental to that. I'm on track to be in peak form at the end of March."
Playing a vital role in the Tour de France will once again be a major target for the Dutchman. Giant-Shimano may not be, in de Kort's eyes, the team to beat in the Classics, but it stands to be in Grand Tours. Last year the squad, through Degenkolb, Kittel and the 22 year old Warren Barguil, won at least a stage in every one. The battle between Kittel, Cavendish and Andre Greipel (Lotto Belisol) in bunch sprints at the Tour promises to be a feverish talking point in the lead-up and throughout.
Cavendish's Quick Step outfit will most likely determine its lead-out order, this year including class recruits Mark Renshaw and Alessandro Petacchi, on the road whereas Greipel traditionally takes the same men to major races. Giant-Shimano on the contrary has demonstrated a more fluid approach in the big bunch sprints, which seemingly works, no less in Dubai.
"We've all really trained for our specific position but we can definitely pick up another, and we're all not too proud to do that," de Kort said.
"Twice in the [Dubai] sprints we lost Marcel for a little while and then the whole team still managed to get him back. [Chief pilot] Tom [Veelers] brought him back to us and the rest of the guys picked up a different role. And you can see then that Marcel is just a really smart sprinter. Where it seems he would get to the front too early he just lets one or two guys in and he's still in the right position. He's very switched on like that.
"I think that's the main difference with Omega Pharma-Quick Step and Mark Cavendish," he continued.
"They have massive potential with the final guys in the lead-out now. I think they need a little bit more time to get used to each other and know exactly what to do and when to do it. It might get a little bit frustrating for Cavendish to have to do that, you know, and see one of his direct competitors win three stages, but I'm sure that they'll get there."
If February is any indication, Cavendish and company won't be the only ones nervously looking at the Dutch squad as the season progresses.