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Maurya Empire
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The Maurya Empire was a geographically-extensive Iron Age historical power based in Magadha and founded by Chandragupta Maurya which dominated the Indian subcontinent between 322 and 187 BCE. Comprising the majority of South Asia, the Maurya Empire was centralized by the conquest of the Indo-Gangetic Plain, and its capital city was located at Pataliputra (modern Patna).[6][7] The empire was the largest political entity to have existed in the Indian subcontinent, spanning over 5 million square kilometres (1.9 million square miles) at its zenith under Ashoka[8].
Jambudvīpa, Pṛthvī[1]
322 BCE–185 BCE
The maximum extent of the Maurya Empire, as shown in many modern maps.
See also this alternative map.[2]
(Present-day Patna, Bihar)
Sanskrit, Magadhi Prakrit
Ajivika
Absolute monarchy, as described in Chanakya's Arthashastra
• 322–298 BCE
Chandragupta
Bindusara
Dasharatha
Samprati
Shalishuka
Devavarman
Shatadhanvan
Brihadratha
• Conquest of the Nanda Empire
322 BCE
• Assassination of Brihadratha by Pushyamitra Shunga
261 BCE[3]
3,400,000 km2 (1,300,000 sq mi)
• 261 BCE[5]
Nanda Empire
Mahajanapada
Magadha
Pauravas
Shunga Empire
Satavahana dynasty
Mahameghavahana dynasty
Indo-Scythians
Chandragupta Maurya raised an army, with the assistance of Chanakya (also known as Kauṭilya),[9] and overthrew the Nanda Empire in c. 322 BCE. Chandragupta rapidly expanded his power westwards across central and western India by conquering the satraps left by Alexander the Great, and by 317 BCE the empire had fully occupied northwestern India.[10] The Mauryan Empire then defeated Seleucus I, a diadochus and founder of the Seleucid Empire during the Seleucid–Mauryan war, thus acquiring territory west of the Indus River.[11][12]
At its greatest extent, the empire stretched along the natural boundary of the Himalayas, to the east into Assam, to the west into Balochistan (southwest Pakistan and southeast Iran) and the Hindu Kush mountains of what is now eastern Afghanistan.[13] The dynasty expanded into India's southern regions[14][15] by the reign of the emperors Pushkar and Bindusara, but it excluded Kalinga (modern Odisha), until it was conquered by Ashoka.[16] It declined for about 50 years after Ashoka's rule, and dissolved in 185 BCE with the foundation of the Shunga dynasty in Magadha.
Under Chandragupta Maurya and his successors, internal and external trade, agriculture, and economic activities all thrived and expanded across South Asia due to the creation of a single and efficient system of finance, administration, and security. The Maurya dynasty built the Grand Trunk Road, one of Asia's oldest and longest trade networks, connecting the Indian subcontinent with Central Asia.[17] After the Kalinga War, the Empire experienced nearly half a century of centralized rule under Ashoka. Chandragupta Maurya's embrace of Jainism increased socio-religious reform across South Asia, while Ashoka's embrace of Buddhism and sponsorship of Buddhist missionaries allowed for the expansion of that faith into Sri Lanka, northwest India, Central Asia, Southeast Asia, Egypt, and Hellenistic Europe.[18]
The population of the empire has been estimated to be about 50–60 million, making the Mauryan Empire one of the most populous empires of antiquity.[19][20] Archaeologically, the period of Mauryan rule in South Asia falls into the era of Northern Black Polished Ware (NBPW). The Arthashastra[21] and the Edicts of Ashoka are the primary sources of written records of Mauryan times. The Lion Capital of Ashoka at Sarnath is the national emblem of the modern Republic of India.
The name "Maurya" does not occur in Ashoka's inscriptions, or the contemporary Greek accounts such as Megasthenes's Indica, but it is attested by the following sources:[22]
The Junagadh rock inscription of Rudradaman (c. 150 CE) prefixes "Maurya" to the names Chandragupta and Ashoka.[22]
The Puranas (c. 4th century CE or earlier) use Maurya as a dynastic appellation.[22]
The Buddhist texts state that Chandragupta belonged to the "Moriya" clan of the Shakyas, the tribe to which Gautama Buddha belonged.[22]
The Jain texts state that Chandragupta was the son of a royal superintendent of peacocks (mayura-poshaka).[22]
According to the Buddhist tradition, the ancestors of the Maurya kings had settled in a region where peacocks (mora in Pali) were abundant. Therefore, they came to be known as "Moriyas", literally, "belonging to the place of peacocks". According to another Buddhist account, these ancestors built a city called Moriya-nagara ("Moriya-city"), which was so called, because it was built with the "bricks coloured like peacocks' necks".[23]
The dynasty's connection to the peacocks, as mentioned in the Buddhist and Jain traditions, seems to be corroborated by archaeological evidence. For example, peacock figures are found on the Ashoka pillar at Nandangarh and several sculptures on the Great Stupa of Sanchi. Based on this eviedence, modern scholars theorize that the peacock may have been the dynasty's emblem.[24]
Some later authors, such as Dhundiraja (a commentator on the Mudrarakshasa) and an annotator of the Vishnu Purana,state that the word "Maurya" is derived from Mura, the name of the wife of a Nanda king and the mother (or grandmother) of the first Maurya king. However, the Puranas themselves make no mention of Mura and do not talk of any relation between the Nanda and the Maurya dynasties.[25] Dhundiraja's derivation of the word seems to be his own invention: according to the Sanskrit rules, the derivative of the feminine name Mura (IAST: Murā) would be "Maureya"; the term "Maurya" can only be derived from the masculine "Mura".[26]
The Maurya dynasty ruled for 137 years.[27]
Chandragupta Maurya and ChanakyaEdit
Main articles: Chanakya and Chandragupta Maurya
See also: List of Mauryan rulers
The Maurya Empire was founded by Chandragupta Maurya, with help from Chanakya, at Takshashila, a noted center of learning. According to several legends, Chanakya travelled to Magadha, a kingdom that was large and militarily powerful and feared by its neighbours, but was insulted by its king Dhana Nanda, of the Nanda dynasty. Chanakya swore revenge and vowed to destroy the Nanda Empire.[28] Meanwhile, the conquering armies of Alexander the Great refused to cross the Beas River and advance further eastward, deterred by the prospect of battling Magadha. Alexander returned to Babylon and re-deployed most of his troops west of the Indus River. Soon after Alexander died in Babylon in 323 BCE, his empire fragmented into independent kingdoms led by his generals.[29]
The Greek generals Eudemus and Peithon ruled in the Indus Valley until around 317 BCE, when Chandragupta Maurya (with the help of Chanakya, who was now his advisor) orchestrated a rebellion to drive out the Greek governors, and subsequently brought the Indus Valley under the control of his new seat of power in Magadha.[10]
Chandragupta Maurya's rise to power is shrouded in mystery and controversy. On one hand, a number of ancient Indian accounts, such as the drama Mudrarakshasa (Signet ring of Rakshasa – Rakshasa was the prime minister of Magadha) by Vishakhadatta, describe his royal ancestry and even link him with the Nanda family. A kshatriya clan known as the Maurya's are referred to in the earliest Buddhist texts, Mahaparinibbana Sutta. However, any conclusions are hard to make without further historical evidence. Chandragupta first emerges in Greek accounts as "Sandrokottos". As a young man he is said to have met Alexander.[30] He is also said to have met the Nanda king, angered him, and made a narrow escape.[31] Chanakya's original intentions were to train army under Chandragupta's command.
Conquest of MagadhaEdit
Main articles: Chandragupta Maurya, Nanda Dynasty, and Magadha
Territorial evolution of the Mauryan Empire
Territory of Magadha and the Maurya Empire between 600 and 180 BCE, including Chandragupta's overthrow of the Nanda Empire (321 BCE) and gains from the Seleucid Empire (303 BCE), the southward expansion (before 273 BCE), and Ashoka's conquest of Kalinga (261 BCE).[32]
The same animation, modified in accordance with Kulke and Rothermund (see right). Hermann Kulke and Dietmar Rothermund believe that Ashoka's empire did not include large parts of India, which were controlled by autonomous tribes.[2]
Chanakya encouraged Chandragupta Maurya and his army to take over the throne of Magadha. Using his intelligence network, Chandragupta gathered many young men from across Magadha and other provinces, men upset over the corrupt and oppressive rule of king Dhana Nanda, plus the resources necessary for his army to fight a long series of battles. These men included the former general of Taxila, accomplished students of Chanakya, the representative of King Parvataka, his son Malayaketu, and the rulers of small states. The Macedonians (described as Yona or Yavana in Indian sources) may then have participated, together with other groups, in the armed uprising of Chandragupta Maurya against the Nanda dynasty.[33][34] The Mudrarakshasa of Visakhadutta as well as the Jaina work Parisishtaparvan talk of Chandragupta's alliance with the Himalayan king Parvataka, often identified with Porus,[35][36] although this identification is not accepted by all historians.[37] This Himalayan alliance gave Chandragupta a composite and powerful army made up of Yavanas (Greeks), Kambojas, Shakas (Scythians), Kiratas (Himalayans), Parasikas (Persians) and Bahlikas (Bactrians) who took Pataliputra (also called Kusumapura, "The City of Flowers"):[38]
"Kusumapura was besieged from every direction by the forces of Parvata and Chandragupta: Shakas, Yavanas, Kiratas, Kambojas, Parasikas, Bahlikas and others, assembled on the advice of Chanakya" in Mudrarakshasa 2 [39][38]
Preparing to invade Pataliputra, Maurya came up with a strategy. A battle was announced and the Magadhan army was drawn from the city to a distant battlefield to engage with Maurya's forces. Maurya's general and spies meanwhile bribed the corrupt general of Nanda. He also managed to create an atmosphere of civil war in the kingdom, which culminated in the death of the heir to the throne. Chanakya managed to win over popular sentiment. Ultimately Nanda resigned, handing power to Chandragupta, and went into exile and was never heard of again. Chanakya contacted the prime minister, Rakshasas, and made him understand that his loyalty was to Magadha, not to the Nanda dynasty, insisting that he continue in office. Chanakya also reiterated that choosing to resist would start a war that would severely affect Magadha and destroy the city. Rakshasa accepted Chanakya's reasoning, and Chandragupta Maurya was legitimately installed as the new King of Magadha. Rakshasa became Chandragupta's chief advisor, and Chanakya assumed the position of an elder statesman.
Chandragupta MauryaEdit
Main article: Chandragupta Maurya
Pataliputra, capital of the Mauryas. Ruins of pillared hall at Kumrahar site.
The Pataliputra capital, discovered at the Bulandi Bagh site of Pataliputra, 4th-3rd c. BCE.
In 305 BCE, Chandragupta led a series of campaigns to retake the satrapies left behind by Alexander the Great when he returned westwards, while Seleucus I Nicator fought to defend these territories. The two rulers concluded a peace treaty in 303 BCE, including a marital alliance. Chandragupta snatched the satrapies of Paropamisade (Kamboja and Gandhara), Arachosia (Kandhahar) and Gedrosia (Balochistan), and Seleucus I Nicator received 500 war elephants that were to have a decisive role in his victory against western Hellenistic kings at the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BCE. Diplomatic relations were established and several Greeks, such as the historian Megasthenes, Deimakos and Dionysius resided at the Mauryan court. Megasthenes in particular was a notable Greek ambassador in the court of Chandragupta Maurya.[40] According to Arrian, ambassador Megasthenes (c.350–c.290 BCE) lived in Arachosia and travelled to Pataliputra.[41]
Chandragupta established a strong centralized state with an administration at Pataliputra, which, according to Megasthenes, was "surrounded by a wooden wall pierced by 64 gates and 570 towers". Aelian, although not expressly quoting Megasthenes nor mentionning Pataliputra, described Indian palaces as superior in splendor to Persia's Susa or Ectabana.[42] The architecture of the city seems to have had many similarities with Persian cities of the period.[43]
Chandragupta's son Bindusara extended the rule of the Mauryan empire towards southern India. The famous Tamil poet Mamulanar of the Sangam literature described how the Deccan Plateau was invaded by the Maurya army.[44] He also had a Greek ambassador at his court, named Megasthenes.[45]
Chandragupta renounced his throne and followed Jain teacher Bhadrabahu.[46][47][48] He is said to have lived as an ascetic at Shravanabelagola for several years before fasting to death, as per the Jain practice of sallekhana.[49]
BindusaraEdit
Main article: Bindusara
A silver coin of 1 karshapana of the Maurya empire, period of Bindusara Maurya about 297-272 BC, workshop of Pataliputra. Obv: Symbols with a Sun Rev: Symbol Dimensions: 14 x 11 mm Weight: 3.4 g.
Bindusara was born to Chandragupta, the founder of the Mauryan Empire. This is attested by several sources, including the various Puranas and the Mahavamsa.[50][full citation needed] He is attested by the Buddhist texts such as Dipavamsa and Mahavamsa ("Bindusaro"); the Jain texts such as Parishishta-Parvan; as well as the Hindu texts such as Vishnu Purana ("Vindusara").[51][52] According to the 12th century Jain writer Hemachandra's Parishishta-Parvan, the name of Bindusara's mother was Durdhara.[53] Some Greek sources also mention him by the name "Amitrochates" or its variations.[54][55]
Historian Upinder Singh estimates that Bindusara ascended the throne around 297 BCE.[44] Bindusara, just 22 years old, inherited a large empire that consisted of what is now, Northern, Central and Eastern parts of India along with parts of Afghanistan and Baluchistan. Bindusara extended this empire to the southern part of India, as far as what is now known as Karnataka. He brought sixteen states under the Mauryan Empire and thus conquered almost all of the Indian peninsula (he is said to have conquered the 'land between the two seas' – the peninsular region between the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea). Bindusara didn't conquer the friendly Tamil kingdoms of the Cholas, ruled by King Ilamcetcenni, the Pandyas, and Cheras. Apart from these southern states, Kalinga (modern Odisha) was the only kingdom in India that didn't form the part of Bindusara's empire.[56] It was later conquered by his son Ashoka, who served as the viceroy of Ujjaini during his father's reign, which highlights the importance of the town.[57][58]
Bindusara's life has not been documented as well as that of his father Chandragupta or of his son Ashoka. Chanakya continued to serve as prime minister during his reign. According to the medieval Tibetan scholar Taranatha who visited India, Chanakya helped Bindusara "to destroy the nobles and kings of the sixteen kingdoms and thus to become absolute master of the territory between the eastern and western oceans."[59] During his rule, the citizens of Taxila revolted twice. The reason for the first revolt was the maladministration of Susima, his eldest son. The reason for the second revolt is unknown, but Bindusara could not suppress it in his lifetime. It was crushed by Ashoka after Bindusara's death.[60]
Bindusara maintained friendly diplomatic relations with the Hellenic World. Deimachus was the ambassador of Seleucid emperor Antiochus I at Bindusara's court.[61] Diodorus states that the king of Palibothra (Pataliputra, the Mauryan capital) welcomed a Greek author, Iambulus. This king is usually identified as Bindusara.[61] Pliny states that the Egyptian king Philadelphus sent an envoy named Dionysius to India.[62][63] According to Sailendra Nath Sen, this appears to have happened during Bindusara's reign.[61]
Unlike his father Chandragupta (who at a later stage converted to Jainism), Bindusara believed in the Ajivika sect. Bindusara's guru Pingalavatsa (Janasana) was a Brahmin[64] of the Ajivika sect. Bindusara's wife, Queen Subhadrangi (Queen Aggamahesi) was a Brahmin[65] also of the Ajivika sect from Champa (present Bhagalpur district). Bindusara is credited with giving several grants to Brahmin monasteries (Brahmana-bhatto).[66]
Historical evidence suggests that Bindusara died in the 270s BCE. According to Upinder Singh, Bindusara died around 273 BCE.[44] Alain Daniélou believes that he died around 274 BCE.[59] Sailendra Nath Sen believes that he died around 273-272 BCE, and that his death was followed by a four-year struggle of succession, after which his son Ashoka became the emperor in 269-268 BCE.[61] According to the Mahavamsa, Bindusara reigned for 28 years.[67] The Vayu Purana, which names Chandragupta's successor as "Bhadrasara", states that he ruled for 25 years.[68]
AshokaEdit
Main article: Ashoka
Aśoka pillar at Sarnath. ca. 250 BCE.
Ashoka pillar at Vaishali.
Fragment of the 6th Pillar Edict of Ashoka (238 BCE), in Brahmi, sandstone, British Museum.
As a young prince, Ashoka (r. 272–232 BCE) was a brilliant commander who crushed revolts in Ujjain and Takshashila. As monarch he was ambitious and aggressive, re-asserting the Empire's superiority in southern and western India. But it was his conquest of Kalinga (262–261 BCE) which proved to be the pivotal event of his life. Ashoka used Kalinga to project power over a large region by building a fortification there and securing it as a possession.[69] Although Ashoka's army succeeded in overwhelming Kalinga forces of royal soldiers and civilian units, an estimated 100,000 soldiers and civilians were killed in the furious warfare, including over 10,000 of Ashoka's own men. Hundreds of thousands of people were adversely affected by the destruction and fallout of war. When he personally witnessed the devastation, Ashoka began feeling remorse. Although the annexation of Kalinga was completed, Ashoka embraced the teachings of Buddhism, and renounced war and violence. He sent out missionaries to travel around Asia and spread Buddhism to other countries.[citation needed]
Ashoka implemented principles of ahimsa by banning hunting and violent sports activity and ending indentured and forced labor (many thousands of people in war-ravaged Kalinga had been forced into hard labour and servitude). While he maintained a large and powerful army, to keep the peace and maintain authority, Ashoka expanded friendly relations with states across Asia and Europe, and he sponsored Buddhist missions. He undertook a massive public works building campaign across the country. Over 40 years of peace, harmony and prosperity made Ashoka one of the most successful and famous monarchs in Indian history. He remains an idealized figure of inspiration in modern India.[citation needed]
The Edicts of Ashoka, set in stone, are found throughout the Subcontinent. Ranging from as far west as Afghanistan and as far south as Andhra (Nellore District), Ashoka's edicts state his policies and accomplishments. Although predominantly written in Prakrit, two of them were written in Greek, and one in both Greek and Aramaic. Ashoka's edicts refer to the Greeks, Kambojas, and Gandharas as peoples forming a frontier region of his empire. They also attest to Ashoka's having sent envoys to the Greek rulers in the West as far as the Mediterranean. The edicts precisely name each of the rulers of the Hellenic world at the time such as Amtiyoko (Antiochus), Tulamaya (Ptolemy), Amtikini (Antigonos), Maka (Magas) and Alikasudaro (Alexander) as recipients of Ashoka's proselytism.[citation needed] The Edicts also accurately locate their territory "600 yojanas away" (a yojanas being about 7 miles), corresponding to the distance between the center of India and Greece (roughly 4,000 miles).[70]
Ashoka was followed for 50 years by a succession of weaker kings. Brihadratha, the last ruler of the Mauryan dynasty, held territories that had shrunk considerably from the time of emperor Ashoka. Brihadratha was assassinated in 185 BCE during a military parade by the Brahmin general Pushyamitra Shunga, commander-in-chief of his guard, who then took over the throne and established the Shunga dynasty.[71][27]
Shunga coup (185 BCE)Edit
Buddhist records such as the Ashokavadana write that the assassination of Brihadratha and the rise of the Shunga empire led to a wave of religious persecution for Buddhists,[72] and a resurgence of Hinduism. According to Sir John Marshall,[73] Pushyamitra may have been the main author of the persecutions, although later Shunga kings seem to have been more supportive of Buddhism. Other historians, such as Etienne Lamotte[74] and Romila Thapar,[75] among others, have argued that archaeological evidence in favour of the allegations of persecution of Buddhists are lacking, and that the extent and magnitude of the atrocities have been exaggerated.
Establishment of the Indo-Greek Kingdom (180 BCE)Edit
Main article: Indo-Greek Kingdom
The fall of the Mauryas left the Khyber Pass unguarded, and a wave of foreign invasion followed. The Greco-Bactrian king, Demetrius, capitalized on the break-up, and he conquered southern Afghanistan and parts of northwestern India around 180 BCE, forming the Indo-Greek Kingdom. The Indo-Greeks would maintain holdings on the trans-Indus region, and make forays into central India, for about a century. Under them, Buddhism flourished, and one of their kings, Menander, became a famous figure of Buddhism; he was to establish a new capital of Sagala, the modern city of Sialkot. However, the extent of their domains and the lengths of their rule are subject to much debate. Numismatic evidence indicates that they retained holdings in the subcontinent right up to the birth of Christ. Although the extent of their successes against indigenous powers such as the Shungas, Satavahanas, and Kalingas are unclear, what is clear is that Scythian tribes, renamed Indo-Scythians, brought about the demise of the Indo-Greeks from around 70 BCE and retained lands in the trans-Indus, the region of Mathura, and Gujarat.[citation needed]
AdministrationEdit
Statuettes of the Mauryan era
The Empire was divided into four provinces, with the imperial capital at Pataliputra. From Ashokan edicts, the names of the four provincial capitals are Tosali (in the east), Ujjain (in the west), Suvarnagiri (in the south), and Taxila (in the north). The head of the provincial administration was the Kumara (royal prince), who governed the provinces as king's representative. The kumara was assisted by Mahamatyas and council of ministers. This organizational structure was reflected at the imperial level with the Emperor and his Mantriparishad (Council of Ministers).[citation needed]
Historians theorise that the organisation of the Empire was in line with the extensive bureaucracy described by Kautilya in the Arthashastra: a sophisticated civil service governed everything from municipal hygiene to international trade. The expansion and defense of the empire was made possible by what appears to have been one of the largest armies in the world during the Iron Age.[76] According to Megasthenes, the empire wielded a military of 600,000 infantry, 30,000 cavalry, 8,000 chariots and 9,000 war elephants besides followers and attendants.[77] A vast espionage system collected intelligence for both internal and external security purposes. Having renounced offensive warfare and expansionism, Ashoka nevertheless continued to maintain this large army, to protect the Empire and instil stability and peace across West and South Asia.[citation needed]
See also: Economic history of India and Coinage of India
Maurya statuette, 2nd century BCE.
For the first time in South Asia, political unity and military security allowed for a common economic system and enhanced trade and commerce, with increased agricultural productivity. The previous situation involving hundreds of kingdoms, many small armies, powerful regional chieftains, and internecine warfare, gave way to a disciplined central authority. Farmers were freed of tax and crop collection burdens from regional kings, paying instead to a nationally administered and strict-but-fair system of taxation as advised by the principles in the Arthashastra. Chandragupta Maurya established a single currency across India, and a network of regional governors and administrators and a civil service provided justice and security for merchants, farmers and traders. The Mauryan army wiped out many gangs of bandits, regional private armies, and powerful chieftains who sought to impose their own supremacy in small areas. Although regimental in revenue collection, Maurya also sponsored many public works and waterways to enhance productivity, while internal trade in India expanded greatly due to new-found political unity and internal peace.[citation needed]
Under the Indo-Greek friendship treaty, and during Ashoka's reign, an international network of trade expanded. The Khyber Pass, on the modern boundary of Pakistan and Afghanistan, became a strategically important port of trade and intercourse with the outside world. Greek states and Hellenic kingdoms in West Asia became important trade partners of India. Trade also extended through the Malay peninsula into Southeast Asia. India's exports included silk goods and textiles, spices and exotic foods. The external world came across new scientific knowledge and technology with expanding trade with the Mauryan Empire. Ashoka also sponsored the construction of thousands of roads, waterways, canals, hospitals, rest-houses and other public works. The easing of many over-rigorous administrative practices, including those regarding taxation and crop collection, helped increase productivity and economic activity across the Empire.[citation needed]
In many ways, the economic situation in the Mauryan Empire is analogous to the Roman Empire of several centuries later. Both had extensive trade connections and both had organizations similar to corporations. While Rome had organizational entities which were largely used for public state-driven projects, Mauryan India had numerous private commercial entities. These existed purely for private commerce and developed before the Mauryan Empire itself.[78][unreliable source?]
Maurya Empire coinage
Hoard of mostly Mauryan coins.
Silver punch mark coin of the Maurya empire, with symbols of wheel and elephant. 3rd century BCE.[citation needed]
Mauryan coin with arched hill symbol on reverse.[citation needed]
Mauryan Empire coin. Circa late 4th-2nd century BCE.[citation needed]
Mauryan Empire, Emperor Salisuka or later. Circa 207-194 BCE.[79]
ReligionEdit
JainismEdit
Bhadrabahu Cave, Shravanabelagola where Chandragupta is said to have died
Chandragupta Maurya embraced Jainism after retiring, when he renounced his throne and material possessions to join a wandering group of Jain monks. Chandragupta was a disciple of the Jain monk Acharya Bhadrabahu. It is said that in his last days, he observed the rigorous but self-purifying Jain ritual of santhara (fast unto death), at Shravana Belgola in Karnataka.[80][48][81][47] Samprati, the grandson of Ashoka, also patronized Jainism. Samprati was influenced by the teachings of Jain monks like Suhastin and he is said to have built 125,000 derasars across India.[82] Some of them are still found in the towns of Ahmedabad, Viramgam, Ujjain, and Palitana.[citation needed] It is also said that just like Ashoka, Samprati sent messengers and preachers to Greece, Persia and the Middle East for the spread of Jainism, but, to date, no research has been done in this area.[83][84]
Thus, Jainism became a vital force under the Mauryan Rule. Chandragupta and Samprati are credited for the spread of Jainism in South India. Hundreds of thousands of temples and stupas are said to have been erected during their reigns.
BuddhismEdit
The stupa, which contained the relics of Buddha, at the center of the Sanchi complex was originally built by the Maurya Empire, but the balustrade around it is Sunga, and the decorative gateways are from the later Satavahana period.
The Dharmarajika stupa in Taxila, modern Pakistan, is also thought to have been established by Emperor Asoka.
Magadha, the centre of the empire, was also the birthplace of Buddhism. Ashoka initially practised Hinduism but later embraced Buddhism; following the Kalinga War, he renounced expansionism and aggression, and the harsher injunctions of the Arthashastra on the use of force, intensive policing, and ruthless measures for tax collection and against rebels. Ashoka sent a mission led by his son Mahinda and daughter Sanghamitta to Sri Lanka, whose king Tissa was so charmed with Buddhist ideals that he adopted them himself and made Buddhism the state religion. Ashoka sent many Buddhist missions to West Asia, Greece and South East Asia, and commissioned the construction of monasteries and schools, as well as the publication of Buddhist literature across the empire. He is believed to have built as many as 84,000 stupas across India, such as Sanchi and Mahabodhi Temple, and he increased the popularity of Buddhism in Afghanistan, Thailand and North Asia including Siberia. Ashoka helped convene the Third Buddhist Council of India's and South Asia's Buddhist orders near his capital, a council that undertook much work of reform and expansion of the Buddhist religion. Indian merchants embraced Buddhism and played a large role in spreading the religion across the Mauryan Empire.[85]
Architectural remainsEdit
Main articles: Edicts of Ashoka, Sanchi Stupa, and Mauryan art
Mauryan architecture in the Barabar Caves. Lomas Rishi Cave. 3rd century BCE.
The greatest monument of this period, executed in the reign of Chandragupta Maurya, was the old palace at the site of Kumhrar. Excavations at the site of Kumhrar nearby have unearthed the remains of the palace. The palace is thought to have been an aggregate of buildings, the most important of which was an immense pillared hall supported on a high substratum of timbers. The pillars were set in regular rows, thus dividing the hall into a number of smaller square bays. The number of columns is 80, each about 7 meters high. According to the eyewitness account of Megasthenes, the palace was chiefly constructed of timber, and was considered to exceed in splendour and magnificence the palaces of Susa and Ecbatana, its gilded pillars being adorned with golden vines and silver birds. The buildings stood in an extensive park studded with fish ponds and furnished with a great variety of ornamental trees and shrubs.[86][better source needed] Kauṭilya's Arthashastra also gives the method of palace construction from this period. Later fragments of stone pillars, including one nearly complete, with their round tapering shafts and smooth polish, indicate that Ashoka was responsible for the construction of the stone columns which replaced the earlier wooden ones.[citation needed]
An early stupa, 6 meters in diameter, with fallen umbrella on side. Chakpat, near Chakdara. Probably Maurya, 3rd century BCE.
During the Ashokan period, stonework was of a highly diversified order and comprised lofty free-standing pillars, railings of stupas, lion thrones and other colossal figures. The use of stone had reached such great perfection during this time that even small fragments of stone art were given a high lustrous polish resembling fine enamel. This period marked the beginning of the Buddhist school of architecture. Ashoka was responsible for the construction of several stupas, which were large domes and bearing symbols of Buddha. The most important ones are located at Sanchi, Bharhut, Amaravati, Bodhgaya and Nagarjunakonda. The most widespread examples of Mauryan architecture are the Ashoka pillars and carved edicts of Ashoka, often exquisitely decorated, with more than 40 spread throughout the Indian subcontinent.[87][better source needed]
The peacock was a dynastic symbol of Mauryans, as depicted by Ashoka's pillars at Nandangarh and Sanchi Stupa.[24]
Maurya structures and decorations at Sanchi
(3rd century BCE)
Approximate reconstitution of the Great Stupa at Sanchi under the Mauryas.
Remains of the Ashokan Pillar in polished stone (right of the Southern Gateway).
Remains of the shaft of the pillar of Ashoka, under a shed near the Southern Gateway.
Pillar and its inscription (the "Schism Edict") upon discovery.
The capital nowadays.[88]
Natural historyEdit
The two Yakshas, possibly 3rd century BCE, found in Pataliputra.
The protection of animals in India became serious business by the time of the Maurya dynasty; being the first empire to provide a unified political entity in India, the attitude of the Mauryas towards forests, their denizens, and fauna in general is of interest.[89]
The Mauryas firstly looked at forests as resources. For them, the most important forest product was the elephant. Military might in those times depended not only upon horses and men but also battle-elephants; these played a role in the defeat of Seleucus, one of Alexander's former generals. The Mauryas sought to preserve supplies of elephants since it was cheaper and took less time to catch, tame and train wild elephants than to raise them. Kautilya's Arthashastra contains not only maxims on ancient statecraft, but also unambiguously specifies the responsibilities of officials such as the Protector of the Elephant Forests.[90]
On the border of the forest, he should establish a forest for elephants guarded by foresters. The Office of the Chief Elephant Forester should with the help of guards protect the elephants in any terrain. The slaying of an elephant is punishable by death.
—  Arthashastra
The Mauryas also designated separate forests to protect supplies of timber, as well as lions and tigers for skins. Elsewhere the Protector of Animals also worked to eliminate thieves, tigers and other predators to render the woods safe for grazing cattle.[citation needed]
The Mauryas valued certain forest tracts in strategic or economic terms and instituted curbs and control measures over them. They regarded all forest tribes with distrust and controlled them with bribery and political subjugation. They employed some of them, the food-gatherers or aranyaca to guard borders and trap animals. The sometimes tense and conflict-ridden relationship nevertheless enabled the Mauryas to guard their vast empire.[91]
When Ashoka embraced Buddhism in the latter part of his reign, he brought about significant changes in his style of governance, which included providing protection to fauna, and even relinquished the royal hunt. He was the first ruler in history[failed verification] to advocate conservation measures for wildlife and even had rules inscribed in stone edicts. The edicts proclaim that many followed the king's example in giving up the slaughter of animals; one of them proudly states:[91]
Our king killed very few animals.
—  Edict on Fifth Pillar
However, the edicts of Ashoka reflect more the desire of rulers than actual events; the mention of a 100 'panas' (coins) fine for poaching deer in royal hunting preserves shows that rule-breakers did exist. The legal restrictions conflicted with the practices freely exercised by the common people in hunting, felling, fishing and setting fires in forests.[91]
Contacts with the Hellenistic worldEdit
Mauryan ringstone, with standing goddess. Northwest Pakistan. 3rd Century BCE
Foundation of the EmpireEdit
Relations with the Hellenistic world may have started from the very beginning of the Maurya Empire. Plutarch reports that Chandragupta Maurya met with Alexander the Great, probably around Taxila in the northwest:[92]
"Sandrocottus, when he was a stripling, saw Alexander himself, and we are told that he often said in later times that Alexander narrowly missed making himself master of the country, since its king was hated and despised on account of his baseness and low birth". Plutarch 62-4[93][92]
Reconquest of the Northwest (c. 317–316 BCE)Edit
Chandragupta ultimately occupied Northwestern India, in the territories formerly ruled by the Greeks, where he fought the satraps (described as "Prefects" in Western sources) left in place after Alexander (Justin), among whom may have been Eudemus, ruler in the western Punjab until his departure in 317 BCE or Peithon, son of Agenor, ruler of the Greek colonies along the Indus until his departure for Babylon in 316 BCE.[citation needed]
"India, after the death of Alexander, had assassinated his prefects, as if shaking the burden of servitude. The author of this liberation was Sandracottos, but he had transformed liberation in servitude after victory, since, after taking the throne, he himself oppressed the very people he has liberated from foreign domination" Justin XV.4.12–13[94]
"Later, as he was preparing war against the prefects of Alexander, a huge wild elephant went to him and took him on his back as if tame, and he became a remarkable fighter and war leader. Having thus acquired royal power, Sandracottos possessed India at the time Seleucos was preparing future glory." Justin XV.4.19[95]
Conflict and alliance with Seleucus (305 BCE)Edit
Main article: Seleucid–Mauryan war
A map showing the north western border of Maurya Empire, including its various neighboring states.
Seleucus I Nicator, the Macedonian satrap of the Asian portion of Alexander's former empire, conquered and put under his own authority eastern territories as far as Bactria and the Indus (Appian, History of Rome, The Syrian Wars 55), until in 305 BCE he entered into a confrontation with Emperor Chandragupta:
"Always lying in wait for the neighbouring nations, strong in arms and persuasive in council, he [Seleucus] acquired Mesopotamia, Armenia, 'Seleucid' Cappadocia, Persis, Parthia, Bactria, Arabia, Tapouria, Sogdia, Arachosia, Hyrcania, and other adjacent peoples that had been subdued by Alexander, as far as the river Indus, so that the boundaries of his empire were the most extensive in Asia after that of Alexander. The whole region from Phrygia to the Indus was subject to Seleucus". Appian, History of Rome, The Syrian Wars 55[96]
Though no accounts of the conflict remain, it is clear that Seleucus fared poorly against the Indian Emperor as he failed to conquer any territory, and in fact was forced to surrender much that was already his. Regardless, Seleucus and Chandragupta ultimately reached a settlement and through a treaty sealed in 305 BCE, Seleucus, according to Strabo, ceded a number of territories to Chandragupta, including eastern Afghanistan and Balochistan.[citation needed]
Marital allianceEdit
Chandragupta and Seleucus concluded a peace treaty and a marital alliance in 303 BCE. Chandragupta received vast territories and in a return gave Seleucus 500 war elephants,[97][98][99][100][101] a military asset which would play a decisive role at the Battle of Ipsus in 301 BCE.[102] In addition to this treaty, Seleucus dispatched an ambassador, Megasthenes, to Chandragupta, and later Deimakos to his son Bindusara, at the Mauryan court at Pataliputra (modern Patna in Bihar). Later, Ptolemy II Philadelphus, the ruler of Ptolemaic Egypt and contemporary of Ashoka, is also recorded by Pliny the Elder as having sent an ambassador named Dionysius to the Mauryan court.[103][better source needed]
Mainstream scholarship asserts that Chandragupta received vast territory west of the Indus, including the Hindu Kush, modern-day Afghanistan, and the Balochistan province of Pakistan.[104][105] Archaeologically, concrete indications of Mauryan rule, such as the inscriptions of the Edicts of Ashoka, are known as far as Kandahar in southern Afghanistan.
" He (Seleucus) crossed the Indus and waged war with Sandrocottus [Maurya], king of the Indians, who dwelt on the banks of that stream, until they came to an understanding with each other and contracted a marriage relationship. "
" After having made a treaty with him (Sandrakotos) and put in order the Orient situation, Seleucos went to war against Antigonus. "
— Junianus Justinus, Historiarum Philippicarum, libri XLIV, XV.4.15
The treaty on "Epigamia" implies lawful marriage between Greeks and Indians was recognized at the State level, although it is unclear whether it occurred among dynastic rulers or common people, or both.[citation needed].
Exchange of presentsEdit
Classical sources have also recorded that following their treaty, Chandragupta and Seleucus exchanged presents, such as when Chandragupta sent various aphrodisiacs to Seleucus:[54]
"And Theophrastus says that some contrivances are of wondrous efficacy in such matters [as to make people more amorous]. And Phylarchus confirms him, by reference to some of the presents which Sandrakottus, the king of the Indians, sent to Seleucus; which were to act like charms in producing a wonderful degree of affection, while some, on the contrary, were to banish love." Athenaeus of Naucratis, "The deipnosophists" Book I, chapter 32[106]
His son Bindusara 'Amitraghata' (Slayer of Enemies) also is recorded in Classical sources as having exchanged presents with Antiochus I:[54]
"But dried figs were so very much sought after by all men (for really, as Aristophanes says, "There's really nothing nicer than dried figs"), that even Amitrochates, the king of the Indians, wrote to Antiochus, entreating him (it is Hegesander who tells this story) to buy and send him some sweet wine, and some dried figs, and a sophist; and that Antiochus wrote to him in answer, "The dry figs and the sweet wine we will send you; but it is not lawful for a sophist to be sold in Greece." Athenaeus, "Deipnosophistae" XIV.67[107]
Greek population in IndiaEdit
An influential and large Greek population was present in the northwest of the Indian subcontinent under Ashoka's rule, possibly remnants of Alexander's conquests in the Indus Valley region. In the Rock Edicts of Ashoka, some of them inscribed in Greek, Ashoka states that the Greeks within his dominion were converted to Buddhism:
"Here in the king's dominion among the Greeks, the Kambojas, the Nabhakas, the Nabhapamkits, the Bhojas, the Pitinikas, the Andhras and the Palidas, everywhere people are following Beloved-of-the-Gods' instructions in Dharma." (Rock Edict Number 13)
An Edict of Ashoka in Shahbazbarhi, KPK, Pakistan.
"Now, in times past (officers) called Mahamatras of morality did not exist before. Mahdmatras of morality were appointed by me (when I had been) anointed thirteen years. These are occupied with all sects in establishing morality, in promoting morality, and for the welfare and happiness of those who are devoted to morality (even) among the Greeks, Kambojas and Gandharas, and whatever other western borderers (of mine there are)." (Rock Edict Number 5)
The Kandahar Edict of Ashoka, a bilingual edict (Greek and Aramaic) by king Ashoka, from Kandahar. Kabul Museum. (Click image for translation).
Fragments of Edict 13 have been found in Greek, and a full Edict, written in both Greek and Aramaic, has been discovered in Kandahar. It is said to be written in excellent Classical Greek, using sophisticated philosophical terms. In this Edict, Ashoka uses the word Eusebeia ("Piety") as the Greek translation for the ubiquitous "Dharma" of his other Edicts written in Prakrit:[non-primary source needed]
"Ten years (of reign) having been completed, King Piodasses (Ashoka) made known (the doctrine of) Piety (εὐσέβεια, Eusebeia) to men; and from this moment he has made men more pious, and everything thrives throughout the whole world. And the king abstains from (killing) living beings, and other men and those who (are) huntsmen and fishermen of the king have desisted from hunting. And if some (were) intemperate, they have ceased from their intemperance as was in their power; and obedient to their father and mother and to the elders, in opposition to the past also in the future, by so acting on every occasion, they will live better and more happily". (Trans. by G.P. Carratelli [1])[unreliable source?]
Buddhist missions to the West (c. 250 BCE)Edit
The distribution of the Edicts of Ashoka.[108]
Map of the Buddhist missions during the reign of Ashoka.
Territories "conquered by the Dharma" according to Major Rock Edict No.13 of Ashoka (260–218 BCE).[109][110]
Also, in the Edicts of Ashoka, Ashoka mentions the Hellenistic kings of the period as recipients of his Buddhist proselytism, although no Western historical record of this event remains:
"The conquest by Dharma has been won here, on the borders, and even six hundred yojanas (5,400–9,600 km) away, where the Greek king Antiochos rules, beyond there where the four kings named Ptolemy, Antigonos, Magas and Alexander rule, likewise in the south among the Cholas, the Pandyas, and as far as Tamraparni (Sri Lanka)." (Edicts of Ashoka, 13th Rock Edict, S. Dhammika).[non-primary source needed]
Ashoka also encouraged the development of herbal medicine, for men and animals, in their territories:
"Everywhere within Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi's [Ashoka's] domain, and among the people beyond the borders, the Cholas, the Pandyas, the Satiyaputras, the Keralaputras, as far as Tamraparni and where the Greek king Antiochos rules, and among the kings who are neighbors of Antiochos, everywhere has Beloved-of-the-Gods, King Piyadasi, made provision for two types of medical treatment: medical treatment for humans and medical treatment for animals. Wherever medical herbs suitable for humans or animals are not available, I have had them imported and grown. Wherever medical roots or fruits are not available I have had them imported and grown. Along roads I have had wells dug and trees planted for the benefit of humans and animals". 2nd Rock Edict[non-primary source needed]
The Greeks in India even seem to have played an active role in the propagation of Buddhism, as some of the emissaries of Ashoka, such as Dharmaraksita, are described in Pali sources as leading Greek ("Yona") Buddhist monks, active in Buddhist proselytism (the Mahavamsa, XII[111][non-primary source needed]).
Subhagasena and Antiochos III (206 BCE)Edit
Sophagasenus was an Indian Mauryan ruler of the 3rd century BCE, described in ancient Greek sources, and named Subhagasena or Subhashasena in Prakrit. His name is mentioned in the list of Mauryan princes[citation needed], and also in the list of the Yadava dynasty, as a descendant of Pradyumna. He may have been a grandson of Ashoka, or Kunala, the son of Ashoka. He ruled an area south of the Hindu Kush, possibly in Gandhara. Antiochos III, the Seleucid king, after having made peace with Euthydemus in Bactria, went to India in 206 BCE and is said to have renewed his friendship with the Indian king there:
"He (Antiochus) crossed the Caucasus and descended into India; renewed his friendship with Sophagasenus the king of the Indians; received more elephants, until he had a hundred and fifty altogether; and having once more provisioned his troops, set out again personally with his army: leaving Androsthenes of Cyzicus the duty of taking home the treasure which this king had agreed to hand over to him". Polybius 11.39[non-primary source needed]
322 BCE: Chandragupta Maurya founded the Mauryan Empire by overthrowing the Nanda Dynasty.
317–316 BCE: Chandragupta Maurya conquers the Northwest of the Indian subcontinent.
305–303 BCE: Chandragupta Maurya gains territory from the Seleucid Empire.
298–269 BCE: Reign of Bindusara, Chandragupta's son. He conquers parts of Deccan, southern India.
269–232 BCE: The Mauryan Empire reaches its height under Ashoka, Chandragupta's grandson.
261 BCE: Ashoka conquers the kingdom of Kalinga.
250 BCE: Ashoka builds Buddhist stupas and erects pillars bearing inscriptions.
184 BCE: The empire collapses when Brihadnatha, the last emperor, is killed by Pushyamitra Shunga, a Mauryan general and the founder of the Shunga Empire.
In literatureEdit
According to Vicarasreni of Merutunga, Mauryans rose to power in 312 BC.[112]
Pradyota dynasty
Gupta Empire
History of India
List of largest empires that existed in India
List of Hindu Empires and Dynasties
^ Niharranjan Ray; Brajadulal Chattopadhyaya (2000). A Sourcebook of Indian Civilization. Orient Blackswan. p. 553. ISBN 978-81-250-1871-1. Aśoka is known to have designated his realm as Jambudvīpa. [...] Two terms, Jambudvīpa and Pṛthvī now appear to have stood for the [...] Maurya realm.
^ a b Hermann Kulke 2004, p. 69-70.
^ Taagepera, Rein (1979). "Size and Duration of Empires: Growth-Decline Curves, 600 B.C. to 600 A.D.". Social Science History. 3 (3/4): 132. doi:10.2307/1170959. JSTOR 1170959.
^ Turchin, Peter; Adams, Jonathan M.; Hall, Thomas D (December 2006). "East-West Orientation of Historical Empires". Journal of world-systems research. 12 (2): 223. ISSN 1076-156X. Archived from the original on 17 September 2016. Retrieved 16 September 2016.
^ Thanjan, Davis K. (2011). Pebbles. Bookstand Publishing. ISBN 9781589098176.
^ Hermann Kulke 2004, pp. xii, 448.
^ Thapar, Romila (1990). A History of India, Volume 1. Penguin Books. p. 384. ISBN 0-14-013835-8.
^ Turchin, Peter; Adams, Jonathan M.; Hall, Thomas D (December 2006). "East-West Orientation of Historical Empires". Journal of world-systems research. 12 (2): 223. ISSN 1076-156X. Archived from the original on 17 September 2016. Retrieved 16 September 2016
^ Keay, John (2000). India: A History. Grove Press. p. 82. ISBN 978-0-8021-3797-5.
^ a b R. K. Mookerji 1966, p. 31.
^ Seleucus I ceded the territories of Arachosia (modern Kandahar), Gedrosia (modern Balochistan), and Paropamisadae (or Gandhara). Aria (modern Herat) "has been wrongly included in the list of ceded satrapies by some scholars [...] on the basis of wrong assessments of the passage of Strabo [...] and a statement by Pliny." (Raychaudhuri & Mukherjee 1996, p. 594).
^ John D Grainger 2014, p. 109:Seleucus "must [...] have held Aria", and furthermore, his "son Antiochos was active there fifteen years later."
^ The account of Strabo indicates that the western-most territory of the empire extended from the southeastern Hindu Kush, through the region of Kandahar, to coastal Balochistan to the south of that (Raychaudhuri & Mukherjee 1996, p. 594).
^ Sri Lanka and the southernmost parts of India (modern Tamil Nadu and Kerala) remained independent, despite the diplomacy and cultural influence of their larger neighbor to the north (Schwartzberg 1992, p. 18; Kulke & Rothermund 2004, p. 68).
^ The empire was once thought to have directly controlled most of the Indian subcontinent excepting the far south, but its core regions are now thought to have been separated by large tribal regions (especially in the Deccan peninsula) that were relatively autonomous. (Kulke & Rothermund 2004, p. 68-71, as well as Stein 1998, p. 74). "The major part of the Deccan was ruled by [Mauryan administration]. But in the belt of land on either side of the Nerbudda, the Godavari and the upper Mahanadi there were, in all probability, certain areas that were technically outside the limits of the empire proper. Ashoka evidently draws a distinction between the forests and the inhabiting tribes which are in the dominions (vijita) and peoples on the border (anta avijita) for whose benefit some of the special edicts were issued. Certain vassal tribes are specifically mentioned." (Raychaudhuri & Mukherjee pp. 275–6)
^ Kalinga had been conquered by the preceding Nanda Dynasty but subsequently broke free until it was re-conquered by Ashoka, c. 260 BCE. (Raychaudhuri & Mukherjee, pp. 204–209, pp. 270–271)
^ Bhandari, Shirin (5 January 2016). "Dinner on the Grand Trunk Road". Roads & Kingdoms. Retrieved 19 July 2016.
^ Hermann Kulke 2004, p. 67.
^ Boesche, Roger (1 March 2003). The First Great Political Realist: Kautilya and His Arthashastra. p. 11. ISBN 9780739106075.
^ Demeny, Paul George; McNicoll, Geoffrey (May 2003). Encyclopedia of population. ISBN 9780028656793.
^ "It is doubtful if, in its present shape, [the Arthashastra] is as old as the time of the first Maurya," as it probably contains layers of text ranging from Maurya times till as late as the 2nd century CE. Nonetheless, "though a comparatively late work, it may be used [...] to confirm and supplement the information gleaned from earlier sources." (Raychaudhuri & Mukherjee 1996, pp.246–7)
^ a b c d e Irfan Habib & Vivekanand Jha 2004, p. 14.
^ R. K. Mookerji 1966, p. 14.
^ H. C. Raychaudhuri 1988, p. 140.
^ R. K. Mookerji 1966, p. 8.
^ a b Thapar 2013, p. 296.
^ Sugandhi, Namita Sanjay (2008). Between the Patterns of History: Rethinking Mauryan Imperial Interaction in the Southern Deccan. pp. 88–89. ISBN 9780549744412.
^ Paul J. Kosmin 2014, p. 31.
^ :"Androcottus, when he was a stripling, saw Alexander himself, and we are told that he often said in later times that Alexander narrowly missed making himself master of the country, since its king was hated and despised on account of his baseness and low birth." Plutarch 62-3 Plutarch 62-3
^ :"He was of humble Indian to a change of rule." Justin XV.4.15 "Fuit hic humili quidem genere natus, sed ad regni potestatem maiestate numinis inpulsus. Quippe cum procacitate sua Nandrum regem offendisset, interfici a rege iussus salutem pedum ceieritate quaesierat. (Ex qua fatigatione cum somno captus iaceret, leo ingentis formae ad dormientem accessit sudoremque profluentem lingua ei detersit expergefactumque blande reliquit. Hoc prodigio primum ad spem regni inpulsus) contractis latronibus Indos ad nouitatem regni sollicitauit." Justin XV.4.15 Archived 1 February 2016 at the Wayback Machine
^ Schwartzberg, Joseph E. A Historical Atlas of South Asia, 2nd ed. (University of Minnesota, 1992), Plate III.B.4b (p.18) and Plate XIV.1a-c (p.145)
^ Mookerji, Radhakumud (1966). Chandragupta Maurya and His Times. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 27. ISBN 9788120804050. ; Mookerji, Radha Kumud (1957). "The Foundation of the Mauryan Empire". In K. A. Nilakanta Sastri (ed.). A Comprehensive History of India, Volume 2: Mauryas and Satavahanas. Orient Longmans. p. 4. : "The Mudrarakshasa further informs us that his Himalayan alliance gave Chandragupta a composite army ... Among these are mentioned the following : Sakas, Yavanas (probably Greeks), Kiratas, Kambojas, Parasikas and Bahlikas."
^ Shashi, Shyam Singh (1999). Encyclopaedia Indica: Mauryas. Anmol Publications. p. 134. ISBN 9788170418597. : "Among those who helped Chandragupta in his struggle against the Nandas, were the Sakas (Scythians), Yavanas (Greeks), and Parasikas (Persians)"
^ Chandragupta Maurya and His Times, Radhakumud Mookerji, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1966, p.26-27 "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 27 November 2016. Retrieved 26 November 2016. CS1 maint: Archived copy as title (link)
^ Sir John Marshall, "Taxila", p. 18 et passim
^ K. A. Nilakanta Sastri (ed., 1967), Age of the Nandas and Mauryas, p.147
^ a b Chandragupta Maurya and His Times, Radhakumud Mookerji, Motilal Banarsidass Publ., 1966, p.27 "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 27 November 2016. Retrieved 26 November 2016. CS1 maint: Archived copy as title (link)
^ Sanskrit original: "asti tava Shaka-Yavana-Kirata-Kamboja-Parasika-Bahlika parbhutibhih Chankyamatipragrahittaishcha Chandergupta Parvateshvara balairudidhibhiriva parchalitsalilaih samantaad uprudham Kusumpurama". From the French translation, in "Le Ministre et la marque de l'anneau", ISBN 2-7475-5135-0
^ "Megasthenes lived with Sibyrtius, satrap of Arachosia, and often speaks of his visiting Sandracottus, the king of the Indians." Arrian, Anabasis Alexandri Arrian. "Book 5". Anabasis.
^ "In the royal residences in India where the greatest of the kings of that country live, there are so many objects for admiration that neither Memnon's city of Susa with all its extravagance, nor the magnificence of Ectabana is to be compared with them. ... In the parks, tame peacocks and pheasants are kept." Aelian, "Characteristics of animals" Aelian, Characteristics of animals, book XIII, Chapter 18, also quoted in The Cambridge History of India, Volume 1, p411
^ "The architectural closeness of certain buildings in Achaemenid Iran and Mauryan India have raised much comment. The royal palace at Pataliputra is the most striking example and has been compared with the palaces at Susa, Ecbatana, and Persepolis" Aśoka and the decline of the Mauryas, Volume 5, p.129, Romila Thapar, Oxford University Press, 1961
^ a b c Upinder Singh 2008, p. 331.
^ R. K. Mookerji 1966, pp. 39–40.
^ a b Geoffrey Samuel 2010, pp. 60.
^ a b Romila Thapar 2004, p. 178.
^ Srinivasachariar 1974, p. lxxxvii.
^ Vincent Arthur Smith (1920). Asoka, the Buddhist emperor of India. Oxford: Clarendon Press. pp. 18–19. ISBN 9788120613034.
^ Rajendralal Mitra (1878). "On the Early Life of Asoka". Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal. Asiatic Society of Bengal: 10.
^ Motilal Banarsidass (1993). "The Minister Cāṇakya, from the Pariśiṣtaparvan of Hemacandra". In Phyllis Granoff (ed.). The Clever Adulteress and Other Stories: A Treasury of Jaina Literature. Translated by Rosalind Lefeber. pp. 204–206.
^ a b c Paul J. Kosmin 2014, p. 35.
^ Alain Daniélou 2003, p. 108.
^ Dineschandra Sircar 1971, p. 167.
^ William Woodthorpe Tarn (2010). The Greeks in Bactria and India. Cambridge University Press. p. 152. ISBN 9781108009416.
^ Mookerji Radhakumud (1962). Asoka. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 8. ISBN 978-81-208-0582-8. Archived from the original on 10 May 2018.
^ a b Alain Daniélou 2003, p. 109.
^ Eugène Burnouf (1911). Legends of Indian Buddhism. New York: E. P. Dutton. p. 59.
^ a b c d S. N. Sen 1999, p. 142.
^ "Three Greek ambassadors are known by name: Megasthenes, ambassador to Chandragupta; Deimachus, ambassador to Chandragupta's son Bindusara; and Dyonisius, whom Ptolemy Philadelphus sent to the court of Ashoka, Bindusara's son", McEvilley, p.367
^ India, the Ancient Past, Burjor Avari, p.108-109
^ P. 138 and P. 146 History and doctrines of the Ājīvikas: a vanished Indian religion by Arthur Llewellyn Basham
^ P. 24 Buddhism in comparative light by Anukul Chandra Banerjee
^ P. 171 Ashoka and his inscriptions, Volume 1 by Beni Madhab Barua, Ishwar Nath Topa
^ Kashi Nath Upadhyaya (1997). Early Buddhism and the Bhagavadgita. Motilal Banarsidass. p. 33. ISBN 9788120808805.
^ Fitzedward Hall, ed. (1868). The Vishnu Purana. IV. Translated by H. H. Wilson. Trübner & Co. p. 188.
^ Allchin, F.R.; Erdosy, George (1995). The Archaeology of Early Historic South Asia: The Emergence of Cities and States. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. p. 306.
^ Edicts of Ashoka, 13th Rock Edict, translation S. Dhammika.
^ Army and Power in the Ancient World by Angelos Chaniotis/Pierre Ducrey(Eds.), Franz Steiner Verlag Stuttgart, P35
^ According to the Ashokavadana
^ Sir John Marshall, "A Guide to Sanchi", Eastern Book House, 1990, ISBN 81-85204-32-2, pg.38
^ E. Lamotte: History of Indian Buddhism, Institut Orientaliste, Louvain-la-Neuve 1988 (1958)
^ Aśoka and the Decline of the Mauryas by Romila Thapar, Oxford University Press, 1960 P200
^ Gabriel A, Richard (30 November 2006). The Ancient World :Volume 1 of Soldiers' lives through history. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 28.
^ R. C. Majumdar 2003, p. 107.
^ The Economic History of the Corporate Form in Ancient India. Archived 4 February 2016 at the Wayback Machine University of Michigan.
^ CNG Coins Archived 27 August 2017 at the Wayback Machine
^ R. K. Mookerji 1966, pp. 39-41.
^ Hermann Kulke 2004, pp. 64-65.
^ John Cort 2010, p. 142.
^ Tukol, T. K. Jainism in South India. Archived from the original on 4 March 2016.
^ Jerry Bentley, Old World Encounters: Cross-Cultural Contacts in Pre-Modern Times (New York: Oxford University Press), 46
^ "L'age d'or de l'Inde Classique", p23
^ Described in Marshall p.25-28 Ashoka pillar.
^ Allen, Charles (2012). Ashoka: The Search for India's Lost Emperor. London: Hachette Digital. p. 274. ISBN 978-1-408-70388-5.
^ Rangarajan, M. (2001) India's Wildlife History, pp 7.
^ a b c Rangarajan, M. (2001) India's Wildlife History, pp 8.
^ a b Mookerji, Radhakumud (1966). Chandragupta Maurya and His Times. Motilal Banarsidass. pp. 16–17. ISBN 9788120804050.
^ "Plutarch, Alexander, chapter 1, section 1".
^ "(Transitum deinde in Indiam fecit), quae post mortem Alexandri, ueluti ceruicibus iugo seruitutis excusso, praefectos eius occiderat. Auctor libertatis Sandrocottus fuerat, sed titulum libertatis post uictoriam in seruitutem uerterat ; 14 siquidem occupato regno populum quem ab externa dominatione uindicauerat ipse seruitio premebat." Justin XV.4.12–13 Archived 20 April 2017 at the Wayback Machine
^ "Molienti deinde bellum aduersus praefectos Alexandri elephantus ferus infinitae magnitudinis ultro se obtulit et ueluti domita mansuetudine eum tergo excepit duxque belli et proeliator insignis fuit. Sic adquisito regno Sandrocottus ea tempestate, qua Seleucus futurae magnitudinis fundamenta iaciebat, Indiam possidebat." Justin XV.4.19 Archived 20 April 2017 at the Wayback Machine
^ "Appian, The Syrian Wars 11". Archived from the original on 3 November 2007.
^ Ancient India, (Kachroo, p.196)
^ The Imperial Gazetteer of India, (Hunter, p.167)
^ The evolution of man and society, (Darlington, p.223)
^ W. W. Tarn (1940). "Two Notes on Seleucid History: 1. Seleucus' 500 Elephants, 2. Tarmita", The Journal of Hellenic Studies 60, p. 84-94.
^ "Pliny the Elder, The Natural History (eds. John Bostock, M.D., F.R.S., H.T. Riley, Esq., B.A.)". Archived from the original on 28 July 2013.
^ Vincent A. Smith (1998). Ashoka. Asian Educational Services. ISBN 81-206-1303-1.
^ Walter Eugene Clark (1919). "The Importance of Hellenism from the Point of View of Indic-Philology", Classical Philology 14 (4), p. 297-313.
^ "Problem while searching in The Literature Collection". Archived from the original on 13 March 2007.
^ "The Literature Collection: The deipnosophists, or, Banquet of the learned of Athenæus (volume III): Book XIV". Archived from the original on 11 October 2007.
^ Reference: "India: The Ancient Past" p.113, Burjor Avari, Routledge, ISBN 0-415-35615-6
^ Kosmin, Paul J. (2014). The Land of the Elephant Kings. Harvard University Press. p. 57. ISBN 9780674728820.
^ Thomas Mc Evilly "The shape of ancient thought", Allworth Press, New York, 2002, p.368
^ Full text of the Mahavamsa Click chapter XII Archived 5 September 2006 at the Wayback Machine
^ Kailash Chand Jain 1991, p. 85.
Alain Daniélou (2003). A Brief History of India. Simon and Schuster. ISBN 978-1-59477-794-3.
Arthur Llewellyn Basham (1951). History and doctrines of the Ājīvikas: a vanished Indian religion. foreword by L. D. Barnett (1 ed.). London: Luzac.
Burton Stein (1998). A History of India (1st ed.), Oxford: Wiley-Blackwell.
Geoffrey Samuel (2010). The Origins of Yoga and Tantra. Indic Religions to the Thirteenth Century. Cambridge University Press.
H. C. Raychaudhuri (1988) [1967]. "India in the Age of the Nandas". In K. A. Nilakanta Sastri (ed.). Age of the Nandas and Mauryas (Second ed.). Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-0466-1.
H. C. Raychaudhuri; B. N. Mukherjee (1996). Political History of Ancient India: From the Accession of Parikshit to the Extinction of the Gupta Dynasty. Oxford University Press.
Hermann Kulke; Dietmar Rothermund (2004). A History of India (4th ed.). London: Routledge. ISBN 0-415-15481-2.
Irfan Habib; Vivekanand Jha (2004). Mauryan India. A People's History of India. Aligarh Historians Society / Tulika Books. ISBN 978-81-85229-92-8.
J. E. Schwartzberg (1992). A Historical Atlas of South Asia. University of Oxford Press.
John Keay (2000). India, a History. New York: Harper Collins Publishers.
John Cort (2010). Framing the Jina: Narratives of Icons and Idols in Jain History. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-538502-1.
John D Grainger (2014). Seleukos Nikator (Routledge Revivals): Constructing a Hellenistic Kingdom. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-1-317-80098-9.
Kailash Chand Jain (1991). Lord Mahāvīra and His Times. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-0805-8.
Paul J. Kosmin (2014). The Land of the Elephant Kings: Space, Territory, and Ideology in Seleucid Empire. Harvard University Press. ISBN 978-0-674-72882-0.
R. K. Mookerji (1966). Chandragupta Maurya and His Times. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 978-81-208-0405-0.
R. C. Majumdar (2003) [1952]. Ancient India. Motilal Banarsidass. ISBN 81-208-0436-8.
Romila Thapar (2004) [first published by Penguin in 2002]. Early India: From the Origins to A.D. 1300. University of California Press. ISBN 978-0-520-24225-8.
S. N. Sen (1999). Ancient Indian History and Civilization. New Age International. ISBN 978-81-224-1198-0.
Upinder Singh (2008). A History of Ancient and Early Medieval India: From the Stone Age to the 12th Century. Pearson. ISBN 978-81-317-1677-9.
Thapar, Romila (2013), The Past Before Us, Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0-674-72651-2
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Mauryan Empire.
Livius.org: Maurya dynasty
Extent of the Empire
Ashoka's Edicts
Nanda dynasty Magadha dynasties
Maurya Empire Succeeded by
Shunga dynasty
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Maurya_Empire&oldid=904560972"


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MC Lively Net Worth 2022, Age, Biography, Cars, And House
When you are bored and tired, or just feel like you need someone lively around, then listen to MC Lively. Just as the name implies, within few minutes with MC Lively, you feel elated again. Sounds like fun, right?
In this article today, we bring you all you need to about the veteran comedian MC Lively.
MC Lively Net Worth 2022, Age, Biography, Cars, And House:
Brief History Of The Name Mc Lively
Mc Lively – Michael Sani Amanesi
READ: Mr Funny (Sabinus) Net Worth, Age, Biography, Cars And Houses
Real name Michael Sani Amanesi
Date of birth 14 August 1992
Country of Origin Federal Republic of Nigeria
Source of Wealth Businesses, Promotions, and Endorsement.
Net worth $125,000
READ: Broda Shaggi Net worth, Age, Biography, Cars, and Houses
Some people are just naturally endowed with the talent of making people laugh. Right from a young age of 7, MC Lively has been known for being funny. He has the unusual talent of just cracking up a place with laughter, hence he was tagged a 'lively' person to be with. This brought about the name MC Lively.
READ: John Mikel Obi Net Worth, Real Age, Salary, Cars and House
Now, let's go on to his personal profile
MC Lively was christened Michael Sani Amanesi, MC Lively is his stage name. Born 14th August, 1992, MC Lively is a native of Agenebode, Edo State, Nigeria. He had most of his early years in Ile-Ife Osun state, where he was born and grew up too. MC Lively grew up in a family of seven, with five children. Amongst his siblings, he was the only one who attended a public school.
Just like every African mother, Mc Lively was disciplined by his mother. Although he admitted he was a stubborn child, he felt his discipline from his mum was too much than usual to the extent that he doubted if it was his mother who gave birth to him. On a fateful day, MC Lively's mother beat him so much and gave him a cut to which she rubbed raw pepper on it (typical of African mothers…lol). What was his offense that day? He and his brother had left their baby brother unattended to who his mother left in their care.
Mc Lively Education
Michael Sani Amanesi
For his primary school education, Mc Lively attended Ideal Nursery and Primary School and Moremi High School for his secondary school.
Determined to continue his education, MC Lively kept on writing JAMB even though JAMB kept 'jamming' him. He wrote JAMB thrice, it was on the third trial he finally gained admission to study Law at Obafemi Awolowo University, Ife, Osun state. His initial choice was to study mass communication, however, he had to take the offer to study since this was his third trial and Law also gave him the opportunity to stand before people and speak.
Career Journey And Failures
The opportunity to study and practice law is obviously one most Nigerians would not hesitate to take, however, that is not the case for MC Lively. Though he graduated with a degree in Law, went to law school for a year, and was called to bar in 2016, MC Lively still decided to let Law go to pursue his passion and talent in comedy. According to him, putting aside law to pursue a career in comedy wasn't a tough decision for him to make, he had always had a knack for making people laugh. When he was young, one of his favourite shows and videos is Nights of a thousand laughs.
The journey to becoming an outstanding comedy wasn't a bed of roses for MC Lively, he too has had a fair share of failure and heartbreak. Would you believe MC Lively once gave a comedy that nobody in the crowd found funny? Or even gave a laugh to? Well, that must have been embarrassing for him. According to him, there were four times he gave a joke in the university as a stand-up comedian which nobody laughed too. On one such occasion, even his girlfriend didn't laugh at his joke. MC Lively couldn't sleep a wink all night; it was so embarrassing for him. One thing that came out of that failure though, MC Lively found out he was better at being an acting comedian.
MC Lively rose to prominence with a comedy skit he produced titled 'Agidi', which targeted real life issues in Nigeria concerning fuel scarcity. Generally, his comedy skits are focused on addressing real life issues affecting Nigerians. The inspiration for this skit came from the sermon of his Reverend Father when he was in church. Right there in the church, MC Lively wrote the script which brought him to the limelight. Now, MC Lively boasts of 1.7M followers on Instagram, 216k+ likes on Facebook, and 43K+ likes on Twitter.
His brilliant talent has made a way for him to perform on live shows with other big names in the Entertainment industry; the likes of Basketmouth, Ali Baba, Brother Shaggi, Mr. Macaroni, Gbenga Adeyinka, Julius Agwu, Teju Babyface, Lasisi Elenu, AY, Bovi and many others.
MC Lively's comedy video has won him several awards in the entertainment industry. He won the Comedy Act of the year award at the City people music award. He was also the recipient of The Royal African Youth Leadership Award conferred by the Ooni of Ile-Ife.
MC Lively is not yet married; however, he is engaged as at 2020.
MC Lively Net Worth
MC Lively has an estimated net worth of $125,000.
Mc Lively Car
MC lively, Buys Toyota Sienna For His Parents
Last year December, MC Lively gave his parents a Toyota Sienna Car as a Christmas gift. He said this was to appreciate them for their love, care, and support for him and his siblings when they were younger.
Mercedes Benz C300
MC Lively Mercedes Benz C300
MC Lively has been spotted in different events with this white Mercedes Benz C300, Mercedes Benz C300 is one of Mercedes Benz's most popular sedans that has massively gained a lot of popularity in many countries, and Nigeria is not left behind. Just like other classes, the C class is never lagging in technology innovations and luxury. This c300, for instance, is a very good example of simplicity, luxury, class, and innovation. Check out cheap Mercedes Benz C300 for sale
Mc Lively House
No record of MC Lively's personal house is known at the moment. However, it is presumed he lives in Lagos from where he shoots his skits.
MC Lively keeps growing in his career. He has also featured in the Nigerian movie industry. He starred in the 2020 comic Movie "Fate of Alakada" as "Dele". He also featured in 'Introducing the Kujus', 'Lagos Real Fake Life' and others.
The post Mc Lively Net Worth, Biography, Cars, And House 2022 appeared first on Latest car news, car blog news in Nigeria, car import duties in Nigeria, latest car release.
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HomePosts tagged 'Packard'
Sunday Morning Breakfast Runs – The Early Years, Pt. I
December 31, 2017 RichardReina Drives, Events	Packard, Sunday morning breakfast drive
Our Sunday Morning Breakfast Runs, about which I've blogged so much, started well before I joined the fray. I believe I had been told that the initial trio who launched these events began back in 1999 or 2000.
Earlier this year, someone in our group who had joined around the same time as I did asked me, "when did all this start?" Great question, I responded to myself as much to anyone else, and decided to pore through my photos to see how far back I could trace my involvement.
The earliest photographic evidence of my participation takes me to early spring of 2006. Since the trees in the photos have yet to bloom, I would pin the timeframe as late March/early April. The photos were taken in Cold Spring NY, which was a frequent destination for many of the early runs. We parked our cars around a little cul-de-sac, with the Hudson River in the background, and this served as a wonderful photo op (that's Burton standing on the bench, primed for some excellent shots). Note that there are SEVEN cars, a typical number for our group at that time.
Burton on the bench…
Mustang among Corvettes and 911s
My '68 Mustang California Special (GT/CS) had been in my possession for only 2 ½ years. The year 2006 would be the year in between driving that car in the '05 and '07 New England 1000 rallies.
Another Corvette hiding behind
Hudson River, Storm King Park in back
The next time I photographed a Breakfast Run was June of 2008, and since the pictures reveal that our destination was Granny's Pancake House in Hamburg NJ, I know that this was one of the, if not THE first time that Larry and I "hosted" the run. Granny's had been recommended to me by a colleague at Volvo, and it proved to be a tasty breakfast place.
The GT/CS at the start of the run
A Corvette behind me again!
Not to mention more 911s
Ron shows off Packard's engine
As we exited the restaurant, I asked each driver (and passenger, if there was one) to pose next to their automobiles. As is always the case, the eclectic mix of vehicles is a big part of the draw. Our NE1000 buddy Ron dared to show up in his 1937 Packard convertible. I can report that he doesn't baby the car on the road, as I had to keep my foot into my 390 to keep up with him!
Again, there were seven cars, which made it easy to keep everyone together in a caravan. Little could we imagine the size to which our outfit would expand.
In a future post, we'll continue to look back at some of our older Sunday Breakfast Runs.
Our June 2008 participants (NOT the dude standing up at the left)
Ken and son with Porsche 911
Peter with Porsche 911
Larry with Chevy Monte Carlo
Richard with Mustang GT/CS
Ron with Packard
Rich and son with Mustang
Bill with Corvette
Spotting the Packard over the Mustang's hood
Summer of '08: check out those high fuel prices!
A 1937 Packard Super Eight convertible coupe, with a 135 hp, 320 c.i. inline-8, cost $2,680 new. Or, one could purchase a 1937 Ford DeLuxe cabriolet, with an 85 hp, 221 c.i. V8, and pay $719 (27% of the Packard's cost).
AACA Hershey Event, October 2016
October 10, 2016 RichardReina Car shows, Events	AACA, Alfa Romeo, Buick, Hagerty, Hershey, Jaguar, Lancia, Lincoln, Mazda RX-7, Mercedes Benz SL, Packard, Studebaker, Thunderbird, Triumph
Flea market parts hunting the old-fashioned way
The Antique Automobile Club of America (AACA) hosted their Eastern Division National Fall Meet for the umpteenth (61st) time in Hershey PA during the first week of October this year. As someone who has attended "Hershey" at least 25 times over the years, I find myself asking "what is it that keeps drawing the crowds?"
Car Corral merchandise lines up on the perimeter road
After all, as has been reflected in numerous posts here as well as within every publication which covers collector cars, the old car hobby has changed in so many ways. The Internet, obviously, has driven transactions online. The greying of the hobby means that the aging boomers, who may finally have the means to buy that dream car, will buy it not as a project, but as a restored, ready-to-go vehicle, and may pursue that dream at an auction. Younger generations are not showing interest in 25-year-old and older stock vehicles, and frankly may be reluctant to join a club with the word "Antique" in its title.
Bargains still available, you supply the labor to restore
This blog has now been up and running long enough that some annual events are being reported for the second time. And so it is with Hershey. It may be instructive to revisit what was said a year ago: in essence, thanks in large part to its six-decade history, Hershey continues to be the go-to place for cars and parts which can be found in few other places, in person or online.
Two well-known hobby names in attendance
The sheer size of the event, with its combination of old-fashioned flea market, car corral, and judged car show can account for the crowds. (Again this year, the influx of foreigners was huge.) Weather may sometimes play a role (who remembers the Hershey mud?), but even that is a relic of the past, as the entire flea market and corral are on pavement.
Wooden road wheels and steering wheels
There certainly are things to see and do which cannot be duplicated on a tablet screen. For example, Hagerty Insurance, as they did last year, ran a "Search, Build, Drive" contest whereby they would purchase a project vehicle from the Car Corral, and bring it to running, driving condition using parts found in the flea market. And one more small detail: they challenge themselves to accomplish this within the 4 days of Hershey. You can read more about it here.
The Hagerty Team hard at work on this year's Ford Model A project
Due to personal commitments, I was unable to attend Saturday's judged meet this year. I did attend the RM-Sotheby auto auction, held about a mile away at the Hershy Lodge, which will be covered as a separate blog post.
Caffeine oasis in the flea market
The bulk of this post will be a report on a random sample of cars, domestic and foreign, in the Car Corral. While there are hundreds of cars for sale, I'm especially drawn to both imports and to orphan makes. Comments about each car follow the photos.
1956 "Clipper by Packard"
Dig the buttons on a stalk
This 1956 Packard Clipper 2-door hardtop was driven down from Ontario, Canada to the meet. It allegedly had 40,000 original miles, but much of the lower body was wavy with Bondo. The ask was $14,750. If that were Canadian bucks, it would be an even better deal.
1973 Mercedes Benz 450 SL
Rear bumper as streamlined as front
This generation of the Mercedes-Benz SL (known as the "107" chassis to the devoted) was sold here from 1973-1989. We are so used to seeing them with their diving-board bumpers that we forget how elegant the original design was. This '73 U.S.-spec car reminds us. This car claimed to have 45,000 original miles, and the owner was asking $18,500.
Wagonaire featured sliding roof panel
Wagonaire interior
This 1963 Studebaker Wagonaire was rough around the edges, but it looked like it was all there. Price was $7,500 OBO. It was the only one at Hershey.
T-Bird wrap-around dash
This '61 T-Bird was claimed to be highly optioned with power steering, brakes, top, windows, and seats. It also had wire wheels. The beige-on-beige may not be your first choice, but I liked it. Asking $24,000 "cash! Priced to sell!"
1987 Alfa Romeo Graduate Spider
Alfa dash had gone electronic
The sign on this 1987 Alfa Romeo Graduate Spider gave little info other than "Low miles, $9,900".
1980 Mazda RX-7
'80 still had original rear styling
This 1980 Mazda RX-7, a first-generation car, still wore the original tail light design, which was updated a year later. The sign claimed this car was an Anniversary Edition (whatever that is), and with 63,000 miles, the ask was $9,800.
1977 Jaguar XJ6-C
Interior shows auto, torn seat
This 1977 Jaguar XJ6-C is a rare 2-door version of the better-known XJ four-door sedan. My recollection is that 100% of these vehicles had factory vinyl roofs. This one's was removed in favor of black paint. The car looked like it had needs, and these are known to be rust-prone, so check carefully before you pay the $12,500 asking price.
1982 Lancia Beta Zagato
Clean interior supports mileage claim
This 1982 Lancia Beta Zagato is from the final year of U.S. sales for this Italian import. Like the Beta coupe, the transverse engine drove the front wheels. The Zagato version has a fold-down soft rear window plus a removable targa top, giving an almost-convertible feel. The sign claimed 59,000 pampered miles, and it looked it. The owner was asking $5,995.
1989 Buick Reatta
Very clean red leather interior
The Buick Reatta has been on the "appreciating future collectible" list for so long that I think most people have forgotten it. There are always a few for sale, and this one's colors and condition made it stand out. The sign claimed it to be a two-owner car for only $6,800.
Series 2: tail lights under bumper, no fender flares
Stock interior, correct wood wheel
This 1969 Jaguar E-Type OTS (Open Two Seater) was claimed to be an unrestored original car with only 48,000 miles. Primrose yellow is one of my favorite E-Type colors. If solid, it may be a good buy at $75,900.
1971 Continental Mark III
Mark III interior
This 1971 Lincoln Continental Mark III was alleged to be a 62,000 mile all-original car. A little bland in white with a black vinyl top and black leather interior, it would look good in your garage (provided it fit) for only $6,500.
1994 Jaguar XJS convertible
All U.S. XJS's were automatic
This 1994 Jaguar XJS convertible had the 4.0 six-cylinder engine, but had bad paint, with clearcoat failure on several horizontal surfaces. The ask was $7,850 /offer.
1968 Triumph Spitfire
Spitfire interior
It's rare to see a Triumph Spitfire this old that has not turned into a pile of iron oxide, but this 1968 appeared to be all there. Sure, it needed work, but it looked like you could drive it on weekends and attend to its needs during the week. The sign claimed that this car had been put away in storage between 1986 and 2015, and that accounts for the 28k original miles. The price, you ask? $4,975.
1964 Studebaker Commander
Power-nothing interior
This 1964 Studebaker Commander (in Bermuda Brown Metallic, the same FACTORY shade as the GT Hawk at Carlisle last week) had 21,000 original miles on it, was an unrestored car, and looked it. We had a lengthy discussion with the owner, who pointed out that the only option on this 6-cylinder engine, 3-speed manual car was a cigar lighter. He was asking $5,500.
1972 Triumph TR-6
Nice TR-6 interior, non-original wheel
There were several Triumph TR-6s in the corral, and this was one of the nicer ones. A 1972 model has the smaller bumpers, and this green-over-tan car was nicely set off by oversize tires on Panasport wheels. The mods continued under the hood with dual Webers. It was cosmetically spotless. The owners were asking $12,900.
TR-3 interior; keep your arms in
This 1958 Triumph TR-3 was in baby blue over a medium blue interior, with whitewalls on chrome wires. It looked like you could hop right in and go for a cruise. This "older restoration" was for sale for $17,900.
1966 Lincoln convertible
Last of the American 4-door 'verts
This 1966 Lincoln Continental convertible was parked next to an identical model from 1965. It was interesting to note the styling changes, both inside and out, with my vote going to the '66. This one was cosmetically less attractive, but it had the more reasonable asking price of $20,000.
1971 Jaguar E-Type Series III
All Series III cars had longer wheelbase
This 1971 Jaguar XKE Series III coupe, again in Primrose yellow, was claimed to be a 97,000 mile unrestored car (you may have noticed the continuing trend toward "unrestored / all-original / barn find" cars for sale). All Series III cars rode on the longer 2+2 wheelbase and used the V-12 engine. This one was a stick (many Series III cars were automatic). There were rough spots, but it was about as reasonably-priced an E-Type as you'll find for $39,000.
Jurassic World comes to Hershey
Test Drive: 1956 Packard Clipper
August 20, 2016 RichardReina Cars on the street, Drives, Events	Packard, Packard Clipper
Went to visit my pal Pete yesterday. He's the family friend from whom I purchased the Alfa. A trip to Pete's place is always a guaranteed entry into some automotive fun, as he has a nice collection of "older" and "newer" cars, and always gives me a chance to take several of his cars out for drives.
There was no way I could have anticipated the "drive" which was on the horizon this day for both of us.
We were cruising in his 1979 Volvo 265 (original owner, 41,000 miles, AACA Preservation Award winner), with me behind the (thin-rimmed, non-air bag) wheel, when Pete said "see those cars on the left? Pull into that lot". Those cars on the left were unmistakable, even from a distance of several hundred yards: a first-generation Corvair sedan, and a mid-fifties two-tone Packard sedan. I stopped the car. Pete got out and said "let me find the guy".
1956 Packard Clipper Custom 4-door sedan
The guy was the proprietor of the gravestone marker business in whose parking lot we were sitting. Pete returned within moments, the Packard's keys clutched in his hand, the guy right behind him. They were discussing a test drive route in the area. The guy motioned for me to climb in, said to both of us "have fun", and went back to tend to several ladies who were shopping for granite.
Packard from the rear: it's as large as it looks
"We" were going for a test drive in this car, a 1956 Packard Clipper 4-door sedan.
Steering wheel feels 3 feet wide – it's just that modern wheels are so much smaller
Observation #1: there is a lot of room in the front seat of a '56 Packard. The bench seat, combined with a dash barely extending out from the windshield base, provides a lot of stretch-out space. Pete, who is fit and slender, looked lost behind that enormous steering wheel. With the key in the ignition, the big V8 fired right up. Pete moved the column-mounted shifter into "R", which on this car is at the far right, next to "L" (can't say "PRNDL" here), and backed the car out of its parking spot.
Observation #2: a 1956 Packard does not have seat belts, unless some previous owner had decided to install them at some point during the car's 50 years of life. No previous owner had made that decision here.
Grab rope is in lieu of belts; note obligatory ashtray
As we headed toward the road, a busy two-lane highway with a de facto speed limit of around 60, I asked Pete "are we turning left or right?"
Pete: "left".
To myself: "oh shit".
We both were trusting that this rig would not stall when the gas was mashed, that the steering wheel would at least pretend to be vaguely connected to the front tires, and that the brake pedal would not sink to the floor upon initial application. In other words, there was no parking lot test drive before stepping out to play with Friday's traffic.
Pete successfully made the left turn, and the car was up to 50-55 with little effort. We cruised for several miles at that speed. I noticed that with Pete's hand steadily on the wheel, the steering did not need constant correction in order to continue straight – impressive (and certainly not how my '57 Ford steered).
Orange valve covers out of place on green engine block
The road started downhill, the posted speed limit dropped to 40, there was construction on the right, an 18-wheeler was behind us, and the traffic light up ahead turned red. We needed to slow down QUICKLY. Pete braked with his left foot. The car dove to the right, he let up on the pedal, reapplied the brake, and the car darted left. The brakes pulled badly. The tractor trailer, in Pete's words, was "up my butt". To his credit, Pete controlled that big wheel, modulated the brakes, and got us safely stopped. Speaking of stopped, my breathing did for about 10 seconds. I recovered. Did I mention that the car had no seat belts?
Battery, hoses, clamps look recent; otherwise things look refreshingly original
As we turned left into a residential area, I was relieved to be away from that busy 2-lane. This was when Pete pulled over, put it in Park, and said "OK, your turn". I had not driven a '50s-era automobile in many years. I had never driven a Packard. This was going to be a thrill.
With the transmission back in "D", I pulled out onto the quiet 25-mph street. The car's power steering certainly was effortless, but inputs did have a direct effect on the car's direction. Accelerator tip-in was fine, and the V8 had lots of torque. The most remarkable observation during the test drive was the car's ride. It was supple without being too floaty. There was nary a squeak or rattle from any of the four corners. The car handled better than a 2-ton '50s American car would be expected to handle. (And this on bias-plies.)
Kids: handle on right controls door window. Rotate one direction to raise, the other to lower
The two issues with the car were the aforementioned (drum) brakes, which needed adjustment or perhaps a service, and the transmission, which needed its quadrant adjusted, and which at one point during a downshift made a groaning sound.
The car's odometer indicated 57,614 miles, and Pete and I agreed that nothing we saw before, during, or after our test drive would give us reason to doubt those miles were original.
Car's styling rivals anything else from Big 3 for '56; note exhaust pipe
Back at the gravestone store, I parked the Packard exactly where we had found it. Pete ran the keys back to the owner. It was then that I got the story that the Packard (and the Corvair) had belonged to the owner's father, who passed away a year ago. He was just getting around to putting them up for sale. The ask was $16,000. Pete told him that he would think about it.
1962 Chevrolet Corvair 4-door
Ask is lots less than Packard
Roofline shared with full-size GM cars
I know that Pete would love to have the car, but like many of us, he has an issue with room. His 4-car garage is full, and there's still one (newer) car outside. Additionally, at almost 19 feet in length, there's some doubt that it would fit (unless one drilled holes in the wall for the Dagmars). This car looks like it's had one high-quality repaint but otherwise appears to be in fine original condition. It's just several weekend's worth of detailing away from being an HPOF candidate at an AACA event.
Front & rear badges say "Clipper"; "Packard" is in small font on side of decklid
Observation #3: a 1950s-era Packard motorcar would make a fine addition to anyone's car collection.
SIDEBAR: 1956: the year of the last "real" Packards
The history of the Packard Motor Company is a fascinating study of how a successful maker of some of America's finest luxury cars still managed to go out of business. It is impossible to go into great detail here, except to note that by the 1950s, Packard merged with Studebaker, and finally replaced its straight-8 engine with a V8 for 1955. But there was much more to the 1955 Packards than that. Quoting from my copy of the Encyclopedia of American Cars, by the Auto Editors of Consumer Guide:
"… the 1955 Packard was a technological marvel. Prime among its wonders was "Torsion Level" suspension: long torsion bars connecting front and rear wheels on each side. A complex electrical system enabled the suspension to correct for load weight, and effectively interlinked all four wheels for truly extraordinary ride and handling despite two-ton bulk…. …these were impressively fast and roadable cars…. Customers were scared away by … the '55 Packards' notorious quality and service problems. Ironically, the '56s were better built…."
Their write-up goes on to say that in a truly desperate move, Packard decided that the "Clipper" would be an entirely separate make for 1956:
"Besides registering the name as a distinct make, (company President James J. Nance) decreed separate Clipper and Packard dealer signs…. As a final touch, "Packard" appeared nowhere on '56 Clippers except for tiny decklid script – and some didn't even have that."
By the 1957 model year, Packards were being built in South Bend, Indiana on restyled Studebaker bodies. It was the end of an era. But reading the above, it's now understandable why our test-drive car rode so well (and why I'd want to learn more about the suspension's electrics before plunking down my hard-earned cash). I also had no idea that "Clipper" was a separate make in 1956, which explains the badging on this particular car. Based on the quality and the engineering of the example we drove, it is a shame that Packard did not survive.


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The Office of Secretary of the State Denise W. Merrill
In order to practice social distancing and slow the spread of the novel coronavirus (COVID-19), public access to our building, 165 Capitol Avenue, will be restricted. Although in-person interactions will be limited, our office staff will be available via email as normal. For the Business Services Division email CRD@ct.gov and for the Legislative & Elections Administration Division email LEAD@ct.gov. We apologize for the inconvenience and hope to return to normal business as soon as the immediate threat to public health has subsided.
Secretary of the State Denise W. Merrill
Current: Voter Registration Deadlines Approaching
Search Office of The Secretary of State
Voter Registration Deadlines Approaching
Unaffiliated or New Voters Must Register with a Party in Order to Vote in the August 14 Primary Deadline to Register by Mail, Online, or at the DMV is August 9 Deadline to Register in Person at Town Halls is August 13 at 12:00pm
HARTFORD – With Primary Election Day on August 14th fast approaching, and following several media reports about increased interest in the upcoming elections and increased voter registration in Connecticut, please note that the deadlines to register in a party in time to vote in this year's primary are also approaching.
The deadline for new or unaffiliated voters to register in person with the local registrar of voters or town clerk of the town of residence is noon on August 13th.
The deadline for new or unaffiliated voters to register for the primary by mail is August 9th (postmarked). New or unaffiliated voters can also register at myvote.ct.gov/register by 11:59pm on August 9th, or at the DMV by the close of business on August 9th.
The deadline to change parties in order to vote on August 14th in the new party has already passed.
Please note that there is no Election Day Registration for Primary Elections, only for General Elections.
Voters can check their registration status at myvote.ct.gov/lookup.
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