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Category Praxis Manned Spaceflight Log 1961-2006
A Selected Timeline
Posted by admin in Praxis Manned Spaceflight Log 1961-2006	on November 2, 2015
Apr Yuri Gagarin becomes the first person fly into space and completes one orbit May Alan Shepard becomes the first American in space on a sub-orbital flight Aug Gherman Titov is launched on the first 24-hour mission, of 17 orbits
Feb John Glenn becomes the first American to orbit the Earth, with 3 orbits Jul First X-15 flight to exceed 50 miles (Robert White)
Aug Andrian Nikolayev sets new endurance record (3 days 22 hours)
Jun Valeri Bykovsky sets new endurance record (4 days 23 hours)
Valentina Tereshkova becomes first woman in space (2 days 22 hours)
Aug Highest X-15 flight (66.75 miles) – Pilot Joseph Walker
Oct First multi-person space crew (3) – Voskhod 1; First civilians in space
Mar Alexei Leonov becomes first person to walk in space
Mar First US multi-person crew (2) on Gemini 3
Jun Ed White becomes first American to walk in space
Aug Gemini 5 sets new endurance record (7 days 22 hours)
Cooper becomes first person to orbit Earth a second time Dec Gemini 7 set new endurance record (13 days 18 hours)
First space rendezvous – Gemini 6 with Gemini 7
Mar First space docking – Gemini 8 with Agena target
Sep Gemini 11 attains highest altitude of Earth orbital manned flight (850 miles)
Jan 27 Three Apollo 1 astronauts killed in pad fire
Apr Soyuz 1 pilot Vladimir Komarov killed during landing phase
Oct X-15 fastest flight (4520 mph – Mach 6.7) (Pete Knight)
Nov X-15 pilot Michael Adams is killed in crash of #3 aircraft after attaining
Aug Thirteenth and final X-15 "astro-flight"
Oct First three-man Apollo flight (Apollo 7)
Schirra becomes first person to make three orbital spaceflights Dec Apollo 8 becomes first lunar orbital mission
Jan Soyuz 5/4 first manned docking and crew transfer (by EVA)
Mar Manned test of LM in Earth orbit (Apollo 9)
May Manned test of LM in lunar orbit (Apollo 10)
Jul First manned lunar landing – Apollo 11
Oct First triple manned spacecraft mission (Soyuz 6, 7, 8)
Nov Second manned lunar landing Apollo 12
Apr Apollo 13 aborted lunar landing mission
Lovell becomes first to fly in space four times Jun Soyuz 9 cosmonauts set new endurance record (17 days 16 hrs)
Feb Third manned lunar landing (Apollo 14)
Apr Launch of world's first Space Station – Salyut (de-orbits Oct 1971)
Jun First space station (Salyut) crew. Killed during entry phase (Soyuz 11) Jul Fourth manned lunar landing (Apollo 15)
Apr Fifth manned lunar landing (Apollo 16)
Dec Sixth and final (Apollo) manned lunar landing (Apollo 17)
Apr Salyut 2 (Almaz) fails in orbit (de-orbits in 26 days)
May Launch of unmanned Skylab (re-enters Jul 1979)
First Skylab crew sets new endurance record of 28 days Jul Second Skylab crew increases endurance record to 59 day 11 hrs
Nov 3rd and final Skylab crew increases endurance record to 84 days 1 hr
Jun Launch of Salyut (Almaz) 3 (de-orbits Jan 1975)
Jul First successful Soviet space station mission (Soyuz 14)
Dec Launch of Salyut 4 (de-orbits Feb 1977)
Apr Soyuz 18 crew survive launch abort
Jul Soyuz 19 and Apollo dock in space – first international mission
Sep Salyut 6 launched (de-orbits Jul 1982)
Dec First Salyut 6 resident crew set new endurance record of 96 days 10 hrs
Jan First Soyuz exchange mission (Soyuz 27 for Soyuz 26)
Mar First Soviet Interkosmos mission (Czechoslovakian)
First non-Soviet, non-American person in space (Remek)
Jun Second Salyut 6 crew sets new endurance record of 139 days 14 hrs
Feb Third Salyut 6 resident crew increases endurance record to 175 days
Apr Fourth Salyut 6 resident crew increases endurance record to 184 days 20 hrs Jun First manned flight of Soyuz T variant
Apr First Shuttle launch (Columbia STS-1) on 20th anniversary of Gagarin's flight
John Young becomes first to make five space flights
Nov First return to space by manned spacecraft (Columbia STS-2)
Apr Salyut 7 launched (de-orbits Feb 1991)
May First Salyut 7 resident crew sets new endurance record of 211 days 9 hrs
Nov First "operational" Shuttle mission, STS-5, is also the first four-person
Apr First flight of Challenger
Jun Sally Ride becomes first US woman in space during STS-7, the first five – person launch
Sep Soyuz T10-1 launch pad abort
Nov First Spacelab mission – STS-9; first six-person launch John Young flies record sixth mission
Feb First use of MMU (STS 41-B) on untethered spacewalks Feb Third Salyut 7 resident crew sets new endurance record of 236 days 22 hrs
Jul Svetlana Savitskaya becomes the first woman to walk in space (Soyuz T12/
Salyut 7)
Aug First flight of Discovery on STS 41-D Oct First seven-person launch (STS 41-G)
Kathy Sullivan becomes first American woman to walk in space
Jan First classified DoD Shuttle mission (STS 51-C)
Jul First Shuttle Abort-to-Orbit profile (STS 51-F)
Oct First flight of Atlantis (STS 51-J)
Oct First eight-person launch (STS 61-A)
Jan Challenger and its crew of seven lost 73 seconds after launch (STS 51-L) Feb Mir core module launched unmanned
Mar First resident crew to Mir (Soyuz T15)
Feb Second Mir resident crew sets new endurance record of 326 days 11 hrs First manned Soyuz TM variant
Dec First flight of over a year as third Mir resident crew sets endurance record of 365 days 22 hrs
Sep Shuttle Return-to-Flight mission (STS-26)
Apr Hubble Space Telescope deployment (STS-31)
May First flight of Endeavour (STS-49)
Dec First Hubble Service Mission (STS-61)
Jan Valery Polyakov sets new endurance record (437 days 17 hrs) for one mission (lands Mar 1995)
Feb First Russian cosmonaut to fly on Shuttle (Krikalev STS-60)
Feb First Shuttle-Mir rendezvous STS-63/Mir
Eileen Collins becomes first female Shuttle pilot Mar First American launched on Soyuz (Thagard – TM21)
Jul First Shuttle docking with Mir (STS-71 – Thagard down)
Nov Second Shuttle-Mir docking (STS-74)
Mar Third Shuttle-Mir docking (STS-76 – Lucid up)
Sep Fourth Shuttle-Mir docking (STS-79 – Lucid down, Blaha up)
Nov Longest Shuttle mission (17 days 15 hrs – STS-80)
Musgrave becomes only astronaut to fly all five orbiters
Jan Fifth Shuttle-Mir docking (STS-81 – Blaha down, Linenger up)
Feb Second Hubble service mission (STS-82)
May Sixth Shuttle-Mir docking (STS-84 – Linenger down, Foale up)
Jun Collision between unmanned Progress vessel and Mir space station damages Spektr module
Sep Seventh Shuttle-Mir docking (STS-86 – Foale down, Wolf up)
Jan Eighth Shuttle-Mir docking (STS-89 – Wolf down, Thomas up)
Jun Ninth and final Shuttle-Mir docking (STS-91 – Thomas down)
Oct John Glenn returns to space aged 77, 36 years after his first space flight Nov First ISS element launched – Zarya FGB Dec First ISS Shuttle mission (STS-88)
Jul Eileen Collins becomes first female US mission commander (STS-93)
Aug Mir vacated for first time in ten years Dec Third Hubble service mission (STS-103)
Apr Last (28th) Mir resident crew (72 days)
Oct First ISS resident crew launched
Mar Mir space station de-orbits after 15 years service
Apr Dennis Tito becomes first space flight participant, or "tourist"
Mar Fourth Hubble service mission (STS-109)
Apr Jerry Ross becomes first person to fly seven missions in space Oct First manned flight of Soyuz TMA
Feb Columbia and crew of seven lost during entry phase of mission STS-107
Apr ISS assumes two-person caretaker crews
Oct First Chinese manned spaceflight (Shenzhou 5)
Yang Liwei becomes first Chinese national in space
Sep Spaceship One flies to 337,500 ft (102.87 km)
Oct Spaceship One flies to 367,442 ft (111.99 km) claiming $10 million X-Prize
Jul Shuttle Return-to-Flight mission 1 – STS-114 Oct First Chinese two-man space flight – Shenzhou 6
Jul Second Shuttle Return-to-Flight mission – STS-121 Aug ISS returns to three-person capability
Resumption of ISS construction – STS-115
The authors have referred to their own extensive archives in the compilation of this book. In addition, the following publications and resources were of great help in assembling the data:
The Press Kits, News releases and mission information from NASA, ESA, CSA, RKK-Energiya, JAXA (NASDA), CNES, and Novosti have been invaluable resources for many years
Flight International 1961-2006
Aviation Week and Space Technology 1961-2006
BIS Spaceflight 1961-2006
Soviet Weekly/Soviet News 1961-1990
Orbiter, Astro Info Service 1984-1992
Zenit, Astro Info Service, 1985-1991
ESA Bulletin 1975-2006
British Interplanetary Society Books:
History of Mir 1986-2000; Mir: The Final Year Supplement, Editor Rex Hall 2000/ 2001
The ISS Imagination to Reality Volume 1 Ed Rex Hall 2002 The ISS Imagination to Reality Volume 2, Ed Rex Hall 2005
NASA Reports:
NASA Astronautics and Aeronautics, various volumes, 1961-1995
Mir Hardware Heritage, David S. F. Portree NASA RP-1357, March 1995. Walking to Olympus: An EVA Chronology, David S. F. Portree and Robert C. Trevino, NASA Monograph in Aerospace history, #7 October 1997
NASA Histories:
1966 This New Ocean, a History of Project Mercury, SP-4201
1977 On the Shoulders of Titans: A history of Project Gemini, NASA SP-4203
1978 The Partnership: A history of Apollo-Soyuz Test Project, NASA SP-4209
1979 Chariots for Apollo: A history of manned lunar spacecraft, NASA SP-4205 1983 Living and working in space: A history of Skylab NASA SP 4208
1977 Where No Man Has Gone Before: a history of Apollo lunar exploration missions, NASA SP-4214
2000 Challenge to Apollo: the Soviet Union and the Space Race 1945-1974, Asif Siddiqi, NASA SP-2000-4408
Other Books:
1980 Handbook of Soviet Manned Space Flight, Nicholas L. Johnson, AAS Vol 48, Science and Technology Series
1981 The History of Manned Spaceflight, David Baker
1987 Heroes in Space: From Gagarin to Challenger, Peter Bond
1988 Space Shuttle Log: The First 25 Flights, Gene Gurney and Jeff Forte
1988 The Soviet Manned Space Programme, Phillip Clark
1989 The Illustrated Encyclopaedia of Space Technology, Chief Author Ken Gatland
1990 Almanac of Soviet Manned Space Flight, Dennis Newkirk
1992 At the Edge of Space: The X-15 Flight Program, Milton O. Thompson 1999 Who's Who in space: The ISS Edition, Michael Cassutt 2001 Space Shuttle, History and Development of the National STS Program, Dennis Jenkins
Springer-Praxis Space Science Series (which include extensive references and bibliographies for further reading)
1999 Exploring the Moon: The Apollo Expeditions, David M. Harland
2000 Disasters and Accidents in Manned Spaceflight, David J. Shayler
2000 The Challenges of Human Space Exploration, Marsha Freeman
2001 Russia in Space: The Failed Frontier, Brian Harvey
2001 The Rocket Men, Vostok & Voskhod, the First Soviet Manned Spaceflights, Rex Hall and David J. Shayler 2001 Skylab:; America's Space Station, David J. Shayler 2001 Gemini: Steps to the Moon, David J. Shayler
2001 Project Mercury: NASA's First Manned Space Programme, John Catchpole
2002 The Continuing Story of the International Space Station, Peter Bond
Creating the International Space Station, David M. Harland and John E. Catchpole
Apollo: Lost and Forgotten Missions, David J. Shayler
Soyuz, a Universal Spacecraft, Rex Hall and David J. Shayler
China's Space Programme: From Concept to Manned Spaceflight, Brian
Walking in Space, David J. Shayler
The Story of the Space Shuttle, David M Harland
The Story of Space Station Mir, David M. Harland
Women in Space: Following Valentina, David J Shayler and Ian Moule
Space Shuttle Columbia: Her Missions and Crews, Ben Evans.
Russia's Cosmonauts: Inside the Yuri Gagarin Training Center, Rex Hall, David J. Shayler and Bert Vis
Apollo: The Definitive Source Book, Richard W. Orloff and David M. Harland
NASA Scientist Astronauts, Colin Burgess and David J. Shayler
Future Flight Manifest 2006-2011 (as at 1 October 2006)
Country Crew
Jan STS-128 ? (128) 17A USA Establish six person crew capability on ISS
No crew assigned
MPLM; Lightweight Multi-Purpose Experiment Support Structure Carrier (LMC); Three crew quarters, galley, second treadmill (TYIS2); Crew Flealth Care System 2 (CHeCS 2)
Soyuz TMA13
ISS-19
Krikalev (TMA/ISS Cdr)?; Surayev (FE) plus ?
Additional EO crew members?
STS-129? (129)
ULF-3
EXPRESS Logistics Carrier 1 (ELC 1); EXPRESS Logistics Carrier 2 (ELC 2)
MPLM; Lightweight Multi-Purpose Experiment Support Structure Carrier (LMC)
Soyuz TMA14?
Sep?
Shenzhou 8 & Shenzhou 9
No crew assigned No crew assigned
Shenzhou 8 & 9 to perform first Chinese manned docking and creation of small short-stay space station
EXPRESS Logistics Carrier 3 (ELC 3); EXPRESS Logistics Carrier 4 (ELC 4); two Shuttle-equivalent flights for contingency
Node 3 with Cupola
816 Appendix С
ISS Assembly complete – Shuttle fleet retired Sep Soyuz TMA16 ? ISS-22 Russia No crew assigned
Mar Soyuz TMA17 ? ISS-23 Russia No crew assigned
The following information was compiled with the help of Collect Space 7 Oct 2006, Robert Pearlman
Soyuz TMA-crewing 2007-2008
TMA10 ISS-15: April 2007-September 2007
FE2a
FE2b
FE2c
Oleg Kotov Fyodor Yurchikhin
Suni Williams (up on STS-116) until June 2007 Clay Anderson (up on STS-118) until September 2007 Dan Tani (up on STS-120) until October 2007
TMA11 ISS-16:
FE2d
September 2007-March 2008 Yuri Malenchenko Peggy Whitson
Dan Tani (up on STS-120) until October 2007 Leopold Eyharts (up on STS-122) until December 2007 Bob Thirsk (up on STS-123) until March 2008 Koichi Wakata (up on STS-124) until April 2008
FE-1
FE-2b
FE-2c
March 2008-September 2008 Sergei Volkov
Peggy Whitson (stays on ISS for 9 months returns on STS-119) Shalizhan Sharipov (launched on TMA-12)
Sandy Magnus (up on STS-119) until September 2008 Greg Chamitoff (up on STS-126) until November 2008.
Reaching the Heavens
Space – the so-called "final frontier" or the "new ocean" – has been beckoning humans since ancient times. Our ancestors looked to the heavens and saw their Gods as bright sparking pin-picks of light in the night sky. By day, the position of the Sun was often used for ceremonies and worship rituals as it moved across the sky. The changing face of the Moon, the occasional blocking of the sunlight and the movements of some of those small speckles of light all frightened and intrigued our forebears for thousands of years.
In the first four hundred years or so of the second millennium ad, our understanding of the heavens, planets, stars, moons and "space" began to grow, and while our interpretations were often wrong, or were subjugated to the religious beliefs of the day, developments in scientific instrumentation, medical advances, engineering capabilities, industrial processes and human curiosity began to focus on what lay beyond the confines of our own world. Fanciful stories were conceived and published, weird and wonderful machines proposed, and myths and monsters imagined.
In the twentieth century, the development of flight and research into rocketry gradually opened up the possibility of exploring the void of space. Advances in miniaturisation, computation, medicine, pressurised chambers and life support systems to explore the upper atmosphere and deepest oceans were the stepping stones to get there. But the driving force behind the final stage would be the military, at least at first. The desire for supremacy over a rival superpower was the catalyst behind our first tentative steps into the "new ocean". Eventually, what had started as a race became a team event, a combination of what both sides had learned – sometimes at painful and tragic cost – into a new era of understanding and exploration.
THE SUB-ORBITAL MERCURY FLIGHTS
The "stepping stones to space" process of developing the Space Shuttle from the rocket planes and lifting bodies had its precedent in the ballistic capsule programmes. Unmanned variants were tried out in pad aborts, sub-orbital and orbital missions, before committing them to manned missions. In Russia, dogs were used in the Vostok (and Voskhod) programme as test subjects prior to sending cosmonauts into space, while in the United States, primates performed a similar function for the Mercury programme. These "animal space explorers" paved the way for humans to venture into space by qualifying launch, orbital and entry systems and flight profiles. Though several biological payloads and research subjects have been flown on other missions, never again have animal tests preceded human flights in order to qualify new spacecraft variants.
One way to qualify human flight systems prior to committing to a more challenging orbital mission was by means of a "sub-orbital" flight – essentially a simple boosted ascent and almost immediate re-entry and landing. This profile was first proposed in both the Russian and American programmes, but the Russians abandoned the idea in favour of securing orbital flight prior to the Americans. The Americans went through with their sub-orbital test, but reduced the number of flights from seven to three, and finally two when they proved so successful. Though the two astronauts (Alan Shepard and Gus Grissom) surpassed 185 km (well over the FAI or USAF criteria), they did not enter orbit, both making only 15-minute "space flights" with about 5 minutes in weightlessness. All the record books accredit these two flights as "official space flights" as do we, but we have categorised them in this chapter as part of the "quest for space".
MERCURY REDSTONE 3
None – sub-orbital flight 5 May 1961
Pad 5, Cape Canaveral, Florida 5 May 1961 Atlantic Ocean
Redstone No. 7; capsule no. 7 15 min 28 sec Freedom 7
First sub-orbital test of Mercury spacecraft with a human occupant; first US manned ballistic space flight
SHEPARD, Alan Bartlett Jr., 38, USN, pilot
Between 1961 and 1977, all manned space flight orbital programmes had been completed by either American (NASA) astronauts (Mercury-Gemini-Apollo- Skylab-ASTP) or Russian cosmonauts (Vostok-Voskhod-Soyuz-Salyut). American plans to fly the Space Shuttle, with reduced stress on launch and landing and with nonpilot crew positions, offered the chance to fly non-professional crew members – scientists or engineers who could operate specialist equipment on the orbital stages of the flight, either in a dedicated research laboratory (Spacelab), on the mid-deck, or on pallets in the payload bay from the aft flight deck. These opportunities were offered to foreign space agencies as well, including those of Australia, Canada, Europe and Japan.
Mir in 1998 showing the four add-on modules, a docked Progress and Kvant at rear, and a Soyuz TM spacecraft in centre. Clockwise from left: Kvant-2 showing unused MMU outside on support frame; Priroda; Spektr (showing damaged arrays); and Kristall with attached Shuttle Docking Module
Table 3.3. Mir and its modules
Max dia.
Hab. volume
Docked
Kvant 1
1989 Dec 6
The four latter modules were initially docked to the front port before being relocated to the required side docking port using a small robot arm.
The seven NASA astronauts who lived and worked on Mir between 1995 and 1998: l to r – Thagard, Thomas, Blaha, Lucid, Linenger, Foale, Wolf
The Soviet Union, wishing to steal some of the thunder from flying the first mission and payload specialists on the Shuttle, initiated a programme in 1976 to fly "guest cosmonauts" under the Interkosmos programme, starting in 1978. Interkosmos was a cooperative space science programme of the Eastern bloc countries, which was expanded to include flights of minimally-trained "cosmonauts" from these member countries alongside flight-experienced Soviet cosmonauts on short "visiting missions" to space stations. These "international" missions were gradually expanded to include other space-partner nations (France, India) and later with a more commercial eye following the break-up of the Soviet Union. The US Shuttle flight opportunities also expanded to include representative crew members from countries who booked a majority payload, representatives from US governmental departments, or military officers supporting DoD payloads. There were also plans to fly a teacher and a journalist on the Shuttle, in what was hoped to be the beginning of more "routine" access to space for anyone suitably qualified and trained from across the planet.
With the International Space Station, such opportunities have again been promoted "for the benefit of all mankind", although the programme still remains to realise its status as a truly international space complex.
Table 3.4. Shuttle orbiters summary 1977-2006
ALT/Ground
Retired in 1985
Lost during STS-107
Lost during STS 51-L
Int. Designation
Pad 39A, Cape Kennedy, Florida
Landing Site
Saturn V AS-503; spacecraft designations: CSM-103; Lunar Module Test Article: LTA-B
6 days 3 hrs 0 min 42 sec
Manned qualification of Saturn V; demonstration of crew, spacecraft and ground support team over lunar mission distance to include lunar orbital operations.
BORMAN, Frank, 40, USAF, commander, 2nd mission Previous mission: Gemini 7 (1965)
LOVELL, James Arthur, 40, USN, command module pilot, 3rd mission Previous missions: Gemini 7 (1965); Gemini 12 (1966)
ANDERS, William Alison, 35, USAF, lunar module pilot
Flight Log
The epic Apollo 8 mission began life in 1966 as what would have been Apollo 3, a flight test of the Lunar Module in a highly elliptical Earth orbit, launched on the first manned Saturn V vehicle. This was to follow Apollo 2, which would have been the first low-Earth orbit test of the Lunar Module, following two launches of the Saturn 1B with the Apollo CM and LM respectively, and a rendezvous and docking in Earth orbit. After the Apollo 1 fire, Apollo 2 became Apollo-Saturn 503, to conduct an all-up, Saturn V-boosted test of the modules in Earth orbit; and Apollo 3, with its original objectives, became Apollo-Saturn 504. AS-503, which was to become known as Apollo 8, was due to take place in late 1968, soon after Apollo 7 returned to Earth, but it became clear that the Lunar Module for the mission would not be ready in time.
At the same time, the Soviets had completed an unmanned, recoverable, lunar looping mission with Zond 5, basically an unmanned Soyuz craft without the Orbital Module, launched on a Proton vehicle. A hyped-up NASA clearly expected a manned Zond lunar looping flight soon and offered the commander of Apollo 8 the chance to make a lunar orbital mission, without his Lunar Module. The commander, James McDivitt, refused and decided to wait for his module. NASA therefore brought the Apollo-Saturn 504 mission forward as Apollo 8, and its crew was prepared for the lunar mission, which was given even more impetus when Zond 7 made another lunar
Earth rise
loop, this time making a landing inside the Soviet Union after a relatively benign 7-G re-entry.
As Apollo 8 was readied for history, there were rumours that Zond 8 was on the pad, with a lone cosmonaut atop a Proton preparing to beat the USA to the Moon. Despite the rumours, it is unlikely that the flight was ready in time. So, with much ado, Frank Borman, Michael Collins and William Anders made ready, only for Collins to be replaced by James Lovell when it was discovered that he needed back surgery.
Apollo 8 captured the imagination of the world. Watched worldwide live on television, the Saturn V thundered off the pad at 07:51 hrs local time on 21 December. Apollo 8 was in 32.6° inclination, 182-188 km (113-117 miles) Earth orbit in 11 minutes 25 seconds, still attached to the S-IVB third stage, which reignited at T + 2 hours 50 minutes. The 5 minute 17 second burn propelled Apollo 8 to a speed of 38,761 kph (24,086 mph) – escape velocity. Man was leaving the Earth for the first time. Gradually the Earth reduced in size and the crew beamed back live TV to
incredulous viewers, caught up in the emotion and history of the epic mission. A major milestone occurred as Apollo's speed had dwindled to 3,556 kph (2,215mph) some 62,240 km (38,676 miles) from the Earth, as lunar gravity took control and the speed increased. Two mid-course manoeuvres later, on Christmas Eve at T + 68 hours 58 minutes 45 seconds, the Earth lost contact with the Apollo crew as it disappeared behind the Moon, the first people to be cut off from their home planet.
The SPS engine ignited for 242 seconds, reducing the speed of the spacecraft from 8,000 kph (4,971 mph) to 5,953 kph (3,699 mph) and lunar orbit was achieved, only confirmed to the rest of the world when Apollo 8 reappeared on the other side of the Moon. The initial orbit of 112-308km (70-191 miles) was circularised at 112km (70 miles) by a second SPS burn on the third orbit. The highlight of the twenty lunar orbits was the crew's message of goodwill on Christmas Day, including the reading of passages from Genesis from the Bible. Twenty hours 11 minutes in lunar orbit ended with an SPS burn of 203.7 seconds, again on the unseen far side of the Moon.
Thankfully, Apollo 8 emerged triumphantly from the other side and began the journey home, which was to end with a dramatic, double-skip re-entry, at a speed of 39,513kph (24,553mph), during which the Command Module gained 9,144m (30,000 ft) altitude, losing momentum before descending into the atmosphere for the final plunge. The mission ended with a splashdown at 8° north 165° west in the Pacific Ocean at mission elapsed time of 6 days 3 hours 0 minutes 42 seconds. The three men, who were hailed as the Columbuses of the Space Age, were aboard the USS Yorktown 88 minutes later.
28th manned space flight 18th US manned space flight 2nd Apollo CSM manned mission
1st manned space flight to achieve escape velocity, approx 22,500 mph (36,202 kph)
1st manned flight to the Moon 1st manned flight to orbit the Moon
1st manned spacecraft to enter atmosphere from lunar distance, at 24,681 mph (39,713 kph)
STS-9
Pad 39A, Kennedy Space Center, Florida
Runway 17, Edwards Air Force Base, California
OV-102 Columbia/ET-11/SRB A55; A60/SSME #1 2011; #2 2018; #3 2019
10 days 7 hrs 47 min 23 sec
First flight of European-built Spacelab pressurised scientific laboratory (Spacelab 1)
YOUNG, John Watts Jr., 53, USN, commander, 6th mission Previous missions: Gemini 3 (1965); Gemini 10 (1966); Apollo 10 (1969); Apollo 16 (1972), STS-1 (1981)
SHAW, Brewster Hopkinson Jr., 38, USAF, pilot
GARRIOTT, Owen Kay, 53, civilian, mission specialist 1, 2nd mission
Previous mission: Skylab 3 (1973)
PARKER, Robert Allan Ridley, 46, civilian, mission specialist 2 MERBOLD, Ulf, 42, civilian, payload specialist 1 LICHTENBERG, Byron Kurt, 35, civilian, payload specialist 2
This mission, originally scheduled for 30 September, was delayed for a month to allow time for Columbia's SRB nozzles to be replaced following the STS-8 launch scare. The Shuttle rose from Pad 39A at 16: 00 hrs local time at the Kennedy Space Center, carrying a unique crew of six, including the apparently ageless veteran of space flight, John Young, in the commander's seat. Columbia performed a startling 140° roll programme to place it on an azimuth heading for a 57° inclination orbit – the highest achieved on a US manned space flight. As a result, the Shuttle could be seen passing over Britain just after entering its orbit, which would have a maximum altitude of 216 km (134 miles).
On the schedule was a nine-day intensively scientific mission aboard the first Spacelab payload bay-mounted laboratory. This was built by the European Space Agency as a result of an agreement signed with NASA ten years earlier, at a cost of $850 million. The nine-day mission, which featured the first time that the principal investigators could talk directly to experiments in space via the TDRS-1 relay satellite, was judged a phenomenal success. Altogether, 73 separate investigations were
The Spacelab 1 Module in Columbia's payload bay. In the foreground is the access tunnel from the Shuttle mid-deck
completed in the fields of astronomy, physics, atmospheric physics, Earth observations, life sciences, material sciences, space plasma physics and technology. The crew split into two shifts which lasted twelve hours, sometimes more like eighteen hours, so much so that mission controllers extended the mission. The Red Shift comprised Young, Parker and Merbold (representing ESA), while the Blue Shift included Shaw, Garriott and Lichtenberg (representing the American science community).
Strapped in their seats and ready to come home, the crew got an unplanned nine hour flight extension when a major computer failure stopped the OMS retro-burn just before it started. Computer 1 failed, then computer 2, which had taken over operations instantly, also shut down. Young and his pilot Brewster Shaw sweated over troubleshooting the problem, and with everything crossed, fired the OMS engines for another try. The computer fault had been due to contaminated integrated circuits. All went well and Columbia homed in on Edwards Air Force Base's dry lake bed runway 17, landing at T + 10 days 7 hours 47 minutes 23 seconds, the longest six-crew
mission. Two minutes later, the troubled Columbia caused another scare by catching fire, leaking hydrazine from an APU being the cause. As the pilot and commander winged their way to Houston, the four other crewmen took part in intensive life sciences investigations, which included another dose of zero-G in a KC-135 aircraft.
94th manned space flight
40th US manned space flight
9th Shuttle mission
6th flight of Columbia
1st Spacelab Long Module mission
1st flight with six crew members
1st flight to carry a West German
1st flight with crew member on sixth mission
1st US flight with non-American crew member
1st flight with payload specialist crew members
STS 61-C
OV-102 Columbia/ET-30/SRB BI-024/SSME #1 2015;
#2 2018; #3 2109
Satellite deployment mission
GIBSON, Robert Lee "Hoot", 39, USN, commander, 2nd mission Previous mission: STS 41-B (1984)
BOLDEN, Charles Frank Jr., 39, USMC, pilot
NELSON, George Driver, 35, civilian, mission specialist 1, 2nd mission Previous mission: STS 41-C (1984)
HAWLEY, Steven Alan, 34, civilian, mission specialist 2, 2nd mission Previous mission: STS 41-D (1984)
CHANG-DIAZ, Franklin Ramon, 35, civilian, mission specialist 3 CENKER, Robert J., 37, civilian, payload specialist 1 NELSON, C. William, 43, US Congressman, payload specialist 2
This mission was dubbed "Mission Impossible" by the press and thoroughly earned its nickname, making eight attempts to launch, five of them when the crew was aboard. Columbia, making its first space flight since STS-9 in 1983 and after a planned period of modification, was on the pad on 18 December 1985 for its first attempt, which was routinely postponed for a day because of the longer time it was taking to close out the aft compartment of the orbiter. The launch reached T — 14 seconds on 19 December, when a back-up hydraulic unit on one of the SRBs failed to activate on time.
With Christmas coming up and with the orbiter Challenger already poised for a lift-off on sister pad 39B, NASA felt comfortable about delaying "Mission Impossible" until 6 January. That launch was scrubbed at T — 31 seconds after 6,350 kg (14,000 lb) of liquid oxygen had been accidentally drained from the external tank by a careless but overworked controller. The following day, the crew climbed aboard resigned to another launch scrub, at T — 9 minutes, such were the appalling weather conditions. Before the crew had got aboard, all seemed to augur well for
Payload specialist and US Congressman Bill Nelson exercises on the treadmill in the mid-deck of Columbia
9 January, but the countdown again reached T — 9 minutes only for a sensor to break on the launch pad and stop the count. After another delay due to bad weather and with the crew on board for the fifth time (and, thanks to his 41-D experience, with Steven Hawley on board a Shuttle poised for lift-off for a record eighth time), Columbia at last made a dramatic dawn exit from the Kennedy Space Center on 12 January, leaving a dark contrail in the dark blue sky with a pinpoint of light at its end as it headed for space. A hydraulic failure on one of the SSMEs just after lift-off momentarily raised fears of an RTLS abort.
With commander Hoot Gibson and his crew of two veterans and four rookies, including Congressman Bill Nelson (who served on a Senate committee which controlled NASA's purse strings) flying as a political observer, Columbia set to work. This did not seem too hard, since only one satellite, Satcom Ku 1, needed to be deployed. A special camera designed to photograph Halley's Comet failed, much to the chagrin of astronomer George Nelson (no relation to Bill, on the first flight to include crew members with the same surname). Another passenger was the second industrial payload specialist, RCA's Robert Cenker. NASA planned to fly several more from other companies, and even a citizen's representative, a US teacher, during 1986.
The "Mission Impossible" tag stuck until the end of the mission too, since NASA, wanting Columbia home at the Kennedy Space Center for the first landing there since 51-D for a turnaround of the 61-E Shuttle mission to observe Halley's Comet, delayed the landing twice, by which time the weather was so bad that it was diverted to Edwards. Columbia landed at T + 6 days 2 hours 3 minutes 51 seconds – the shortest seven-crew flight – adding days to the turnaround time. Maximum altitude achieved in the 28° inclination orbit was 296 km (184 miles).
114th manned space flight 55th US manned space flight 24th Shuttle flight 7th flight of Columbia
1st manned space flight carrying two crew with same surname
SCOBEE, Francis Richard "Dick", 47, USAF, commander, 2nd mission Previous mission: STS 41-C (1984)
SMITH, Michael John, 40, USN, pilot
ONIZUKA, Ellison Shoji, 39, USAF, mission specialist 1, 2nd mission Previous mission: STS 51-C (1985)
RESNIK, Judith Arlene, 40, civilian, mission specialist 2, 2nd mission Previous mission: STS 41-D (1984)
McNAIR, Ronald Erwin, 35, civilian, mission specialist 3, 2nd mission Previous mission: STS 41-B (1984)
JARVIS, Gregory Bruce, 41, civilian, payload specialist 1 McAULIFFE, Sharon Christa Corrigan, 37, civilian, payload specialist 2
The apparently routine nature of Space Shuttle missions and the transportation of industrial payload specialists, foreign passengers and political observers resulted in an inevitable call for a US citizen to fly. At first, a journalist-in-space programme was suggested, but President Reagan decided that the first citizen in space would be a teacher. A nationwide competition resulted in the choice of Christa McAuliffe, while at the same time, a journalist-in-space nationwide competition reached a stage where 100 had been short-listed for a flight to take place later in 1986.
McAuliffe was assigned to Challenger mission STS 51-L, along with an industrial payload specialist from Hughes, Gregory Jarvis, whose bad luck it had been to have already been assigned to and bumped off three missions in 1985. STS 51-L was delayed from December 1985 to 22 January 1986 and was routinely delayed further due to operational difficulties on 23 and 24 January. By 25 January, the launch window was to have been pushed into the morning, requiring reprogramming of computers, so
Teachers in Space candidates Barbara Morgan (centre) and Christa McAuliffe (right) practice working on experiments for STS 51-L aboard NASA's zero-G aircraft
another delay ensued. The following day, 26 January, seemed acceptable, but officials decided to cancel the attempt because of predicted bad weather, which actually turned out to be fine. Vice President George Bush had expressed an interest in seeing the Challenger launch but would not have been able to get to the Kennedy Space Center until 27 January (which was also the 19th anniversary of the Apollo 1 fire), he told NASA. In the end, he did not come for the new launch attempt on that date, which was cancelled when the handle of the orbiter hatch would not close properly. When that problem had been fixed, crosswinds at the KSC runway in the event of an RTLS abort were unacceptable.
The crew exited, prepared for an attempt the following day, and were aboard Challenger again at 08: 36 hrs on a bright but very cold day, with ice having been reported on the launch pad. Liquid hydrogen tanking delays caused by hardware interface problems further delayed the launch two hours, until 11 : 38 hrs. As the SSMEs built up to full thrust as usual, the Shuttle "stack" thrusted forward laterally, only to be "twanged" back at SRB ignition. This manoeuvre places an excessive load on the lower attach rings of each booster where they are linked to the external tank. In the case of 51-L, the excessive loads caused a small rupture in the casing of the right – hand SRB, which immediately caused a sideways spurt of flame that could not be spotted within the intense brilliance of the main SRB exhaust at lift-off.
Mission specialist Judy Resnik immediately noticed that the temperature of the liquid hydrogen being fed from the external tank to the SSMEs was high. Commander Dick Scobee tried to look sideways and backwards out of his window to see if he could spot the reason why. As Challenger completed its roll programme, it was obvious to the crew and observers north and south of the pad that the Shuttle was "fishtailing". Loss of thrust in the right-hand SRB was being compensated for by the thrust vector control in the left-hand booster. Challenger continued its rocky and wild ride upwards, startling the pilot Mike Smith. Scobee and Smith realised that there was a serious problem and called up the pressure reading on the right-hand SRB. Meanwhile, the rupture in the SRB casing, which was shedding debris throughout the launch and causing an extremely messy contrail, in stark contrast to previous launches, caused the double О-rings to fail in one of the joints of the SRB and flame was later seen emanating from it.
When Scobee and Smith saw the pressure reading on the SRB they must have known that they were in trouble. Meanwhile, Houston had given Challenger the "go at throttle up" call, indicating that all was well, and no doubt a somewhat puzzled Scobee gave the last public utterance from the doomed ship, acknowledging the call. Leaking hydrogen from the now-breached external tank was igniting and a glow could be seen in the TV shots of Challenger, which did not show what was about to happen in a matter of milliseconds on its other side. At T + 73 seconds, pilot Smith uttered the final recorded words, "Uh-oh," as the right-hand booster broke from its mooring, broke through the wing of Challenger as the upper attachment broke, and ruptured the external tank.
Flying at Mach 1.92 at an altitude of 14,020 m (45,997 ft), Challenger was enveloped in the explosion, and broke apart under severe aerodynamic loads. The cabin section of Challenger emerged intact from the cataclysm, imposing a tolerably brief period of 20-G forces on the crew, as the two SRBs continued their flight independently before being blown up some seconds later. The cabin may have depressurised, rendering the astronauts unconscious in seconds, but there is evidence to suggest that it did not happen immediately, as at some stage, Resnik activated both Scobee and Smith's emergency compressed air packs. These would not have been much use at high altitude. The crew was alive but not necessarily conscious as the cabin began a two-and-a-half minute plunge into the Atlantic Ocean, breaking up on impact and instantly killing all seven crew members, Scobee, Smith, Resnik and Ellison Onizuka in the flight deck and Ronald McNair, Jarvis and McAuliffe in the mid-deck. Along with several pieces of debris, the shattered crew cabin and parts of the remains of the crew were recovered later, along with the crew cockpit recorder, which revealed the conversation during the launch.
NASA said that the crew was totally unaware that anything was wrong, a conclusion reached by the Rogers commission which investigated the accident and, despite a mountain of evidence, decided that the only cause of the accident was failed О-rings, damaged by the low temperatures before launch. Analyses of the accident by several engineers were refuted by NASA, though many suggestions were later incorporated quietly into the programme, including strengthening the attach ring system and testing it thoroughly during the Shuttle recovery programme. Partly in respect to the crew, STS 51-L is categorised by NASA as a "space mission in progress" when it failed and is counted as a "mission" for the crew with a 1 minute 13 second "duration", the point when contact was lost with the crew, even though it did not reach the official recognised altitude to be called a true "space flight".
Several important redesigns were made to the whole system, including the O-rings and seals between the segments of the SRBs, the official cause of the disaster. The spectre of "Challenger" continued to haunt NASA and was brought back to the headlines in February 2003 when a second Shuttle and crew were lost, leading to the decision to finally retire the Shuttle when its obligation to the International Space Station programme had been completed.
25th Shuttle mission
10th and final flight of Challenger
2nd (intended) TDRS deployment mission
1st attempted manned space flight to launch and not reach space 1st loss of manned space vehicle during launch 1st US in-flight fatalities in space programme
KIZIM, Leonid Denisovich, 44, Soviet Air Force, commander, 3rd mission Previous missions: Soyuz T3 (1982); Soyuz T10 (1984)
SOLOVYOV, Vladimir Alekseyevich, 39, civilian, flight engineer, 2nd mission Previous mission: Soyuz T10 (1984)
As a result of the evacuation of Salyut 7 by the T14 crew, some of the experiment results had not been returned and some of the research programmes not completed. The sole remaining Soyuz T vehicle was ready to fly to the station (using the refurbished DM from the September 1983 T10-1 pad abort), and as the replacement Soyuz TM was not yet ready, this was the only vehicle available to the Soviets to continue their presence in space during 1986. In addition, the next space station was ready for launch, but its planned add-on modules were not. Therefore, it was decided to send the T15 crew to the core module of the new station first, then revisit Salyut 7 to complete the work there, and finally return to the new station to complete their programme in preparation for fully operational activities from 1987. On 20 February 1986,22 days after the American manned space programme's tragic Space Shuttle loss and the beginning of what was to be a lengthy period on the ground, the Soviets launched the new space station, called Mir (Peace) and not Salyut 8 as many Western observers had expected. The ballyhoo surrounding the launch seemed to indicate that this was the expected giant station, launched aboard the first heavy lift Saturn V-type booster. In fact, it soon became obvious that Mir (1986-017A/DOS-7) was merely a beefed up Salyut, with one major difference: a docking pod at the front which would take five separate spacecraft. With the rear docking port, a sixth could be added, making it possible to erect the first modular space station.
Mir was to be fully operational by 1990, said the Soviets, with four large add-on modules mounted radially on the front pod. Mir weighed 20.9 tonnes and measured
Solovyov (left) and Kizim (entering the rear door of an Orlan suit) during EVA training for their historic dual space station mission
13.13 m (43 ft), with a maximum diameter of 4.15 m (13.5 ft), and comprised a transfer compartment and two work compartments, with a service propulsion system at the rear. It had two solar panels with a total span of 29.73 m (97.5 ft). The first crew to visit in space were Leonid Kizim and Vladimir Solovyov, who were trained for a mission to Salyut. They were the first all-Soviet crew to fly an exclusively Soviet mission that was named before lift-off, the time of which was also given and seen live on TV, another first for an all-Soviet crew mission. Launch was at 18: 33 hrs local time from Baikonur on 13 March, with docking occurring two days later.
Their basic job was to ready Mir for occupation by Mir-trained crews, when addon modules had been attached. The crew also became the first to use a relay satellite, Cosmos 1700, to conduct real-time conversations with mission control at Kaliningrad. Two Progress tankers, Nos. 25 and 26, arrived in April and May to stock up the station, which the crew then surprisingly left on 5 May. But this was not to return home. Instead, they made a unique rendezvous and docking with Salyut 7. While the cosmonauts were aboard Salyut 7, an unmanned version of the new Soyuz TM spacecraft docked to Mir on 23 May, while Progress 26 was still attached. It returned home on 29 May.
During their stay aboard Salyut 7, the cosmonauts completed much of the work that had been intended for the Soyuz T14 crew, including two EVAs to erect a structure in space 50 m (164 ft) long that resembled the Shuttle 61-B EASE-ACCESS exercises. The walk on 28 May lasted 3 hours 50 minutes and the one on 31 May, 4 hours 40 minutes, making them the first spacemen to make seven and eight EVAs. Kizim and Solovyov ended their second stay aboard Salyut 7 on 25 June when they undocked and, again surprising some observers, returned to Mir rather than coming home, clocking up yet another first in a flight with so many such facts and feats for the statistician to record.
Salyut 7-Cosmos 1686 was placed into a 475 km (295 miles) storage orbit. Salyut 7 remained in space, unoccupied, for the next five years, finally re-entering in February 1991. The cosmonauts, with their spacecraft crammed with as much equipment from Salyut as possible, docked with Mir on 26 June. Work continued aboard Mir before it was announced – again another first – that they were returning home on 16 July and would be covered live on TV. Touchdown came at T + 125 days 0 hours 1 minute. During the mission, Kizim had become the first person to clock up a year's space experience, bringing his personal total at the end of the mission to 374 days. Maximum altitude achieved during the 51° mission was 349 km (217 miles).
115th manned space flight
60th Soviet manned space flight
53rd Soyuz manned space flight
14th Soyuz T manned space flight
14th and last Soyuz T mission
1st flight by crew making seventh and eighth EVAs
1st manned docking with two separate vehicles
1st manned visit to two space stations
1st manned re-visit to space station
1st crewman to amass one year of space experience
1st Soviet use of a data relay satellite on manned space flight
11th Soviet and 34th flight with EVA operations
ROMANENKO, Yuri Viktorovich, 42, Soviet Air Force, commander, 3rd mission
Previous missions: Soyuz 26 (1977); Soyuz 38 (1980)
LAVEIKIN, Aleksandr Ivanovich, 36, civilian, flight engineer
The first crew to be fully operational aboard Mir was due to be Vladimir Titov and Aleksandr Serebrov, but their places aboard Soyuz TM2 were taken by the veteran Yuri Romanenko and rookie Aleksandr Laveikin, apparently days before the launch and possibly due to illness. The spectacular night launch was shown live on TV from Baikonur, at 01: 38 hrs local time. The new spacecraft, Soyuz TM2 (Soyuz TM, the first of the series, was an unmanned test flight that docked to Mir in May 1986) took two days to reach Mir. The crew docked safely at the front and their first job was to unload Progress 27 from the rear port, which had docked on 18 January in preparation for their mission.
Laveikin became one of the few space explorers whose adaptation to weightlessness is "painful", as it was described by officials. Another Progress, No.28, arrived on 5 March, armed to the hilt with an array of scientific instruments to make the crew as busy and productive as possible. The equipment included the Korund crystal growth machine which was ultimately used to make useful electronic crystals, and the KATE 140 remote-sensing camera. Another device already aboard Mir, called Pion M, was used for extensive materials processing experiments.
The first add-on module was expected to be launched, and to prepare for it, Progress 28 undocked. Kvant, a module armed with an array of astrophysics experiments and with an externally mounted electrophoresis device attached, was launched by a Proton on 1 April, at 05 : 06 hrs local time. It weighed as much as Mir but after its planned docking it was to shed its propulsion module and would weigh 11 tonnes. Its
Romanenko and Laveikin review training plans for their residency on the Mir station
docking was a dramatic affair to say the least. On 5 April, Kvant failed to brake at a distance of200 m (656 ft) and, according to Romanenko, sped dangerously by Mir at a distance of just 30 m (98 ft). Another docking attempt was made on 9 April, with Mir aiding the manoeuvres, but Kvant's probe got stuck and a hard-dock was not achieved. Something was blocking the docking port.
What that something was would be discovered during an unscheduled EVA by Romanenko and Laveikin on 11 April, during which they had to crawl through a tightly fitting hatch at the front of Mir and then scramble over the station to get to the rear. The cosmonauts saw that a white sheet of plastic was blocking the port, having been left there by Progress 28 which had inadvertently been launched with it attached after a technician failed to remove it. It was removed from the docking port and the hard docking was completed. The cosmonauts ended a highly successful 3 hour 40 minute EVA. They later entered Kvant to place it in operational status while its propulsion module was jettisoned – but not de-orbited due to lack of fuel – to expose a docking port for new Progress tankers, the next of which arrived on 21 April.
Progress 29, the third craft attached to the Mir core, was primarily used to load propellant into Mir's propulsion system, ingeniously through lines in Kvant. Another Progress was to arrive on 21 May, while Kvant was being used to make the first of its extremely useful observations of the Universe using telescopes, one of which was provided by the UK. A second EVA, lasting 1 hour 53 minutes, was made on 12 June, to begin the erection outside Mir of a two-part array of solar panels, 10 m (33 ft) high, which would increase Mir's electrical power. The second EVA, on June 16, lasted 3 hours 5 minutes.
The first international and visiting mission to Mir, Soyuz TM3, docked on 24 July, carrying a rookie commander, a Syrian pilot and a veteran, Aleksandr Aleksandrov, who was told a month before his scheduled eight-day trip that he was to replace Laveikin, whose heart was giving doctors cause for concern. Soyuz TM2 returned with Laveikin, having clocked up 174 days, leaving Aleksandrov with Romanenko, who exceeded the Soyuz T10 endurance record on 30 September. During their residency, Progress 31 (5 August) and 32 (26 September) were used to replenish the station with fuel, propellant and supplies, while on 31 August the crew were ordered to don their suits and get into the fresh TM3 for an emergency return to Earth. This exercise was not completed since it was, unbeknown to the crew at that time, a safety test.
During another unique test on 10 November, Progress 32 was undocked and redocked to the rear of Kvant, perhaps to prepare for the introduction in later Mir operations of free-flying materials processing labs, conducting experiments autonomously of the type that Romanenko and Aleksandrov were in Mir. Yet another Progress, No. 33, replaced No. 32 on 23 November, with more esoteric processing equipment to test. Maximum altitude achieved during the 51° mission was 370 km (230 miles). On 23 December, Soyuz TM4 arrived, with the next long duration duo, Vladimir Titov and rookie Musa Manarov, as well as a Shuttle test pilot whom Romanenko had never met, called Anatoly Levchenko.
TM3 returned to Earth, with Romanenko, Aleksandrov and Levchenko all having clocked up different flight times and all of whom had been launched separately in the first landing of its kind in space history. Romanenko's condition after the 326 day 11 hour 37 minute mission originally launched in TM2 was remarkably good, although for precautionary reasons he was stretchered from the spacecraft. Ridiculous rumours persisted in some popular western newspapers that he was a "wreck''.
61st Soviet manned space flight
54th Soyuz manned space flight
1st Soyuz TM manned space flight
1st manned space flight over 300 days
1st landing with three crewmen launched separately
1st flight with crew members meeting for the first time
Romanenko sets new space endurance record 326 days 11 hours
Laveikin celebrates his 36th birthday in space (21 Apr)
Romanenko celebrates his 43rd birthday in space (1 Aug)
VIKTORENKO, Aleksandr Stepanovich, 40, Soviet Air Force, commander ALEKSANDROV, Aleksandr Pavlovich, 44, civilian, flight engineer,
2nd mission
Previous mission: Soyuz T9 (1983)
FARIS, Mohammed, 36, Syrian Air Force, cosmonaut researcher
Accompanied by the now customary live television coverage, Soyuz TM3 blasted of from Baikonur at 07: 59 hrs local time into clear blue skies en route for the Mir space station, carrying the first visiting crew to see the new complex in which Yuri Romanenko and Aleksandr Laveikin had been residing since the previous February. TM3 carried a cosmonaut from Syria, the nineteenth nation to have a man in space, plus commander Aleksandr Viktorenko and flight engineer Aleksandr Aleksandrov. The latter was told a month before lift-off that he was to remain aboard Mir until the end of the year, replacing Laveikin whose electrocardiograph readings were causing some concern.
Two days later, TM3 docked at the rear of Mir at the Kvant port, and soon five people were floating around inside. The Syrian, Mohammed Faris, had the usual complement of national experiments to conduct, including electrophoresis, crystal growth, remote sensing – during rare passes over Syria – and an ionospheric monitoring programme. The first international mission to return with a replacement crewman, Faris and Viktorenko entered the old TM2 with Laveikin and landed at T + 7 days 23 hours 4 minutes 5 seconds, 140 km (87 miles) northeast of Arkalyk, just 2 km (1 mile) from some settlement buildings, much to the relief of observers.
The prime and back-up crews of Soyuz TM3. At rear (1 to r) Viktorenko and A. Solovyov. At front (1 to r) Faris, Habib, Aleksandrov and Savinykh
Laveikin seemed pale but cheerful after his 174-day flight and doctors later declared him fit for another flight, while Syria celebrated. Maximum altitude during the 51° mission was 359 km (223 miles).
117th manned space flight 62nd Soviet manned space flight 55th Soyuz manned space flight 2nd Soyuz TM manned space flight 3rd Soyuz international mission 1st flight by a Syrian
TITOV, Vladimir Georgyevich, 41, Soviet Air Force, commander, 3rd mission Previous missions: Soyuz T8 (1983); Soyuz T10-1 (1983)
MANAROV, Musa Khriramovich, 36, civilian, flight engineer LEVCHENKO, Anatoly Semenovich, 46, civilian, cosmonaut researcher
In September 1985, the initial Mir resident crews were formed. The first crew would be Vladimir Titov and Alexander Serebrov; the second, Romanenko and Manarov; and the third, Alexander Volkov and Sergei Yemelyonov. When the Soyuz T15 crew were launched to Mir, the training of these crews was extended, and delays in the construction of modules also delayed their missions into 1987/1988. Then Manarov became ill and was replaced by Laveikin. Serebrov also fell ill and so Crew 2 replaced Crew 1 for the Soyuz TM2 mission flown in 1987. Manarov was restored to flight status and replaced Serebrov, joining Titov to form a new Crew 3. Yemelyanov was also removed from flight status during 1987 for medical reasons and was replaced first by Alexander Kaleri, then Sergei Krikalev, who was paired with Volkov as crew 4.
The Soyuz TM4/EO-3 crew would remain in space for a year, and would be joined for the ascent to Mir by one of the Buran shuttle pilots, who would return with the EO-2 crew after about a week in space. Like Igor Volk, a crewman on Soyuz T12 in 1984, another of this band of future shuttle pilots, Anatoly Levchenko, was to be given eight days space experience, at the end of which he would immediately get aboard a shuttle training aircraft to make simulated landings, to ensure that weightlessness did not impair his faculties. The first flight of the Soviet shuttle was clearly quite close, observers thought.
The new TM4 trio were launched from Baikonur at 17: 18 hrs local time on 21 December and within two days were aboard Mir, with Romanenko and
The Soyuz TM4 crew of Titov, Levchenko (standing) and Manarov (front)
Aleksandrov, who were meeting Levchenko for the first time. Five days later, Romanenko, Aleksandrov and Levchenko were landing aboard Soyuz TM3, a unique crew indeed, having each been launched separately and each having clocked up different flight times. With the changeover complete, Titov and the rookie flight engineer Manarov began their long, historic, but quietly received mission by placing Soyuz TM4 at the front of Mir to prepare for the arrival of their first Progress support ship, No.34. This duly arrived on 23 January 1988 with two tonnes of scientific and other equipment. Progress also transferred propellant into Mir's depleting tanks.
Titov and Manarov took 4 hours 25 minutes exercise outside Mir on 26 February, when they replaced a faulty part of the new solar panel that had been erected by Romanenko and Laveikin. Progress 34 was replaced by No.35 on 25 March and then No.36 on 15 May, as the mission proceeded routinely, unheralded and unwatched by most of the world.
The cosmonauts were due to make an EVA in late May to repair faulty instruments on the Kvant astrophysics laboratory, but their work was delayed until after the departure of a new visiting crew aboard Soyuz TM5. Bulgaria's second cosmonaut (confusingly also called Aleksandr Aleksandrov) arrived with commander Anatoly Solovyov and flight engineer Viktor Savinykh on 9 June and remained for eight days, rather than the usual six for a Mir visiting mission. When they had left, Titov and Manarov moved the fresh TM5 craft to the front of Mir, making room for another Progress, and prepared for their next spacewalk which they made on 30 June.
During the 5 hour EVA, the cosmonauts struggled to replace a detector unit on Kvant because of a faulty tool, and had to be recalled while new tools were prepared
and launched on the next Progress, No.37, which arrived on 20 July. The EVA, however, was delayed until after the departure of the next visiting crew aboard Soyuz TM6, which replaced Progress 37. This arrived at Mir on 31 August, carrying Vladimir Lyakhov, an Afghan cosmonaut researcher and, getting a taste of space at last, Doctor Valery Polyakov, who was to stay with Titov and Manarov throughout the remainder of their stay to monitor the medical condition of the core crew as they approached the end of their long pioneering mission, and then remain himself with the next resident crew. Lyakhov and the Afghan, Abdul Mohmand, left in Soyuz TM5 on 5 September, straight into a one-day drama which could have ended with them being stranded in orbit. Progress 38 duly arrived at Mir on 12 September.
On 20 October, the cosmonauts made their much-delayed EVA, after as much preparation and discussion from the ground as possible. The 4 hour 20 minute effort was a success, with Kvant's TTM telescope fully operational again. Titov and Manarov broke Romanenko's duration record on 11 November. By this time it had been announced that French cosmonaut Jean-Loup Chretien would be launched on 21 November with two Soviets, on a longer than usual visiting mission, returning with Titov and Manarov on their 365th day in space. This launch of Soyuz TM7 was delayed to 26 November and reached Mir two days later.
With Chretien were Aleksandr Volkov, with whom he made an EVA, and flight engineer Sergei Krikalev. He and Volkov were to be Polyakov's new companions until the following April, said the Soviets. The comings and goings from Mir were by now getting rather complicated to follow.
The long awaited return of the new space record holders, Titov and Manarov, with Chretien, took place aboard Soyuz TM6 on 21 December after a one-orbit delay before retro-fire because of a computer software problem. The Orbital Module remained with the craft until after retro-fire to avoid problems that were experienced with TM5. The crew flew straight to Star City rather than to Baikonur because of an outbreak of hepatitis at the launch facility. Both cosmonauts recovered well after their 365 day 22 hour 39 minute mission, the longest manned space flight to that point. Chretien clocked up 25 days. The Soviets then announced that, for the time being, long duration flights would be restricted to about five months.
118th manned space flight 63rd Soviet manned space flight 56th Soyuz manned space flight 3rd Soyuz TM manned space flight 1st manned space flight to last one year
Titov and Manarov set new endurance record of 365 days 22 hours 13th Soviet and 36th flight with EVA operations Titov celebrates his 41st birthday in space (1 Jan)
Manarov celebrates his 37th birthday in space (22 Mar)
SOLOVYOV, Anatoly Yakovlovich, 40, Soviet Air Force, commander SAVINYKH, Viktor Petrovich, 48, civilian, flight engineer, 3rd mission Previous missions: Soyuz T4 (1981); Soyuz T13 (1985)
ALEKSANDROV, Aleksandr Panayatov, 37, Bulgarian Air Force, cosmonaut researcher
Bulgaria's first cosmonaut, Georgy Ivanov, became the only international space traveller not to reach a Soviet space station when Soyuz 33 malfunctioned in 1979. To make amends, the Soviets offered Bulgaria another try, even flying Ivanov's back-up, Aleksandr Aleksandrov. This caused confusion among the non-specialist press covering the mission because the other, Soviet, Aleksandr Aleksandrov had recently returned from Mir himself. The Soviets also provided a flight of ten days to make up for the five days that Ivanov lost when he had to come home early.
The Bulgarian flight was well prepared and packed with 40 science experiments, many of which were left on Mir for further use. Of all the international missions thus far, this seemed to be the most fruitful nationally. Launch in Soyuz TM5, with rookie commander Anatoly Solovyov and veteran flight engineer Viktor Savinykh, came at 20:03 hrs local time, and the docking followed smoothly on 9 June. Aleksandrov's array of experiments included eight for Earth remote sensing and manufacturing units to produce composite alloys in weightlessness. The mission ended inside Soyuz TM4 at T + 9 days 20 hours 10 minutes in a lake bed – fortunately bone dry – in 42° temperatures.
119th manned space flight 64th Soviet manned space flight
57th Soyuz manned space flight 4th Soyuz TM manned space flight 4th Soyuz international space flight
1st Soviet flight carrying second foreign crewman from the same country (Bulgaria)
LYAKHOV, Vladimir Afanasyevich, 47, Soviet Air Force, commander, 3rd mission
Previous missions: Soyuz 32 (1979); Soyuz T9 (1983)
POLYAKOV, Valery, 46, civilian, flight engineer
MOHMAND, Abdul Ahad, 29, Afghan Air Force, cosmonaut researcher
Soyuz TM6 was launched routinely from Baikonur at 07: 23 hrs local time, watched live on television. Inside the spacecraft were commander Vladimir Lyakhov, Doctor Valery Polyakov and Afghan pilot, Abdul Mohmand who, considering the Soviet – Afghan war at the time, featured in the most incongruous and unabashed political Soviet international mission, the last "free" ride for a foreigner. After Mohmand's statutory six-day stay aboard Mir, he left the space station aboard TM5, with his commander, leaving Polyakov to ride out Titov and Manarov's marathon stay.
The Orbital Module was jettisoned and TM5's computer began the retro-fire sequence. The prime infra horizon sensors attempted to orientate the spacecraft correctly, but because the Sun had just set, became confused. The retro-engine was primed and ready to ignite when, just 30 seconds before ignition, the confused computer vetoed the firing. The puzzled Lyakhov was reporting the incident and musing over what to do next when the sensors suddenly indicated that orientation was indeed correct and fired the engines, seven minutes later than planned. This would have resulted in a landing far off course, possibly in Manchuria. Lyakhov routinely shut the engine down after six seconds.
Reasonably unconcerned, Soviet officials decided to attempt the retro-fire two orbits later using the back-up flight computer, thus plunging the mission into dangerous chaos. TM5 was the back-up spacecraft for the Bulgarian mission and the back-up computer still held the software for it. TM5's inertial measurement unit was being
Portrait of the Soyuz TM6 crew. L to r: Mohmand, Lyakhov and Polyakov
used to orbit the spacecraft this time when suddenly the computer, programmed to perform a rendezvous manoeuvre burn instead, lit the engine for six seconds and shut it down, as programmed. Lyakhov, anxious to get home and unaware of the cause of the problem, manually re-ignited the engine and it fired for sixty seconds before the navigation computer sensed an attitude error and shut it down again.
In a normal retro-burn, the engine should have fired for 230 seconds and the crew was extremely fortunate that the engine shut down when it did and not later because it would have placed TM5 into an extremely low orbit. Had they been unable to orientate TM5 and get the confused computer to fire the engine, the cosmonauts would have been forced to separate the descent craft in preparation for a natural reentry which would have imposed abnormal loads on it. The crew would have burned up. Officials delayed the retro-fire for 24 hours and there was a danger that the crew could be stranded in space, to die when the limited environmental control system of the descent capsule ceased to work. There were emergency rations, but Lyakhov was more concerned about the rather basic lavatorial facilities. The toilet had been discarded with the OM, so they had to rely on plastic sleeves of the sleeping bag Mohmand had brought from Mir.
The back-up computer was reprogrammed with the correct retro-fire data to attempt a re-entry towards the prime recovery zone, and everything worked perfectly. Mission time was 8 days 20 hours 27 minutes. The extremely relieved Lyakhov suggested that in future the OM should not be jettisoned until after retro-fire, even though this would be costly in propellant, while the extremely unruffled Mohmand took it all in his stride, stating the crew were more tense than afraid. The Soviets admitted a lack of vigilance which had resulted from a sequence of successes. Lyakhov and Mohmand got away with it and the relatively good safety record for manned space flight remained.
5th Soyuz TM manned space flight
5th Soyuz international space flight
1st flight of an Afghan
1st failure of retro-rocket during burn
SOYUZ TM12
Pad 1, Site 5, Baikonur Cosmodrome, Kazakhstan
10 October 1991 (Artsebarsky on TM12);
25 March 1992 (Krikalev on TM13);
26 May 1991 (Sharman on TM11)
67 km southeast of Arkalyk
R7 (11A511U2); spacecraft serial number (7K-M) 062
144 days 15hrs 21 min 50 sec (Artsebarsky); 311 days 20 hrs 1 min 54 sec (Krikalev);
7 days 21 hrs 14min 20 sec (Sharman)
Ozon (Ozone)
Delivery of the 9th main crew to Mir and operation of UK Juno programme by Sharman
ARTSEBARSKY, Anatoly Pavolich, 34, Soviet Air Force, commander KRIKALEV, Sergei Konstantinovich. 32, civilian, flight engineer, 2nd mission Previous mission: Soyuz TM7 (1988)
SHARMAN, Helen Patricia, 27, civilian, UK cosmonaut researcher
The agreement to fly a UK citizen to a Soviet space station originated in 1986, but was not signed until 1989. Financial problems dogged the project but in November 1989, four finalists were named. Sharman was named as primary candidate in February 1991, with Major Tim Mace of the British Army as her back-up. During the docking with the Mir complex, erroneous readings were produced by the rendezvous equipment. Artsebarsky had to dock manually, while Sharman operated cameras from the Descent Module and Krikalev observed the docking from the forward window in the Orbital Module. After performing a week of experiments focusing on medical tests, physical and chemical research, as well as contacting nine British schools by radio, Sharman returned to Earth with the Mir EO-8 crew on TM11. The landing on TM11 was very hard, with the capsule rolling several times and resulting in disorientation and bruising to the crew inside.
The primary objective of the ninth main Mir crew (EO-9) involved a construction programme, with up to eight EVAs planned for their five-month tour aboard the station. Their first task, however, was to relocate TM12 from the front to the aft port to permit the arrival of Progress M8. This was followed by the release of a small minisatellite, MAK-1, from the experiment airlock in the base block. MAK-1 was designed
The Soyuz TM12 prime crew of Artsebarsky (left), Sharman and Krikalev
to study Earth's ionosphere, but a system failure rendered the satellite inoperable. The first of what turned out to be six EVAs by this crew (24 June, 4 hours 53 minutes) involved the removal and replacement of the failed Kurs approach system. EVA 2 (28 June, 3 hours 24 minutes) involved the deployment of the US-developed TREK device for studying cosmic rays. The other four EVAs (15 July, 5 hours 56 minutes; 19 July, 5 hours 28 minutes; 23 July, 5 hours 34 minutes and 27 July, 6 hours 49 minutes) focused on the construction of the Sofora girder structure. The crew deployed the Hammer and Sickle national flag of the USSR atop the girder during the sixth EVA, but Artsebarsky's visor fogged up from his excursions during this EVA, requiring Krikalev to help him back to the hatch. The crew also continued space physics investigations, astrophysical observations, a range of technological experiments and observations of the Earth and its weather phenomena.
This five-month mission was flown at the time of the failed Soviet coup of August 1991 and the demise of the Soviet Union in the following months. Despite media reports suggesting he would be stranded alone in space, Krikalev was never "alone". He was asked to remain on board the station when funding difficulties affected the flights of TM13 and TM14 later in the year. When the original crews of these two missions were merged into one new crew, only Alexander Volkov was qualified to remain on the station. Krikalev was asked to extend his mission until March when the next scheduled Russian resident crew would arrive. He agreed, and completed an unplanned nine-month stay in space as part of the EO-10 crew.
141st manned space flight 71st Soviet manned space flight 64th Soyuz manned space flight 11th Soyuz TM flight 12th manned Mir mission 9th main crew
19th Soviet and 43rd flight with EVA operations 1st UK citizen (Sharman) in space 1st woman to visit Mir (Sharman)
Krikalev celebrates his 33rd birthday in space (27 Aug) Artsebarsky celebrates his 35th birthday in space (9 Sep)


The theme of this work is race and racism in othello. He is the series editor of the shakespeare criticism series. Including twenty-one groundbreaking chapters that examine one of shakespeares most complex tragedies.
Philip kolin is professor of english at the university of southern mississippi. Othello critical essays explores issues of friendship and fealty, love and betrayal, race and gender issues, and much more. The perspectives, approaches, and conclusions of the essays are diverse.
The critical question raised is whether othello is a racist play, written by a racist playwright, for a racist audience, or whether it is a play about racism, with iago as the embodiment of racist attitudes. Shakespearean criticism excerpts from the criticism of william shakespeare. В нашем крупнейшем в мире магазине представлены электронные книги, которые можно читать в браузере, на планшетном пк, телефоне или специальном устройстве. .
Othello New Critical Essays Othello New Critical Essays" by Philip C. Volume 7 of Shakespearean criticism · Volume 884 of . Susan Snyder. Kolin and Francis X. He is the series editor of the shakespeare criticism series. Garland, 1988 - Drama. Philip C. Including twenty-one groundbreaking chapters that examine one of Shakespeare's most complex tragedies. In his general editor's introduction to Routledge's Shakespeare Criticism series, Philip C. Othello: Critical Essays explores issues of friendship . The critical question raised is whether Othello is a racist play, written by a racist playwright, for a racist . Edited by Philip C. Kuhn: "My cue to fight" : stage violence in Othello. Mindful Moments Day Challenge Blog Archive Othello chemical reactions essay. The theme of this work is race and racism in Othello. В нашем крупнейшем в мире магазине представлены электронные книги, которые можно читать в браузере, на планшетном пк, телефоне или специальном устройстве.
He is the series editor of the shakespeare criticism series. В нашем крупнейшем в мире магазине представлены электронные книги, которые можно читать в браузере, на планшетном пк, телефоне или специальном устройстве. Including twenty-one groundbreaking chapters that examine one of shakespeares most complex tragedies. The perspectives, approaches, and conclusions of the essays are diverse. The critical question raised is whether othello is a racist play, written by a racist playwright, for a racist audience, or whether it is a play about racism, with iago as the embodiment of racist attitudes. . Othello critical essays explores issues of friendship and fealty, love and betrayal, race and gender issues, and much more. Shakespearean criticism excerpts from the criticism of william shakespeare. The theme of this work is race and racism in othello. Philip kolin is professor of english at the university of southern mississippi.
Edited by Philip C. Kolin.Includes a chapter by College at Brockport faculty member Francis X. Kuhn: "My cue to fight" : stage violence in Othello.


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text:
"Walk On" Winter Wellness Challenge
HomePage / Parks, Rec & Culture / Parks & Trails / Find a Park / Deverill Square Gyro 2 Park
Deverill Square Gyro 2 Park
We always want to keep our information up to date. If you see any information we're missing, let us know at parksandrecreation@nanaimo.ca.
Search Map Search All Parks All Activities
Deverill Square (formerly Haliburton Park) is a neighbourhood park featuring a water park (seasonal), playground, basketball court and play field. Over the course of 2007 as a result of a partnership with the local neighbourhood association, upgrades were made to the park, including field lights, playground equipment and improved wheelchair accessibility.
Additional public art installed in 2013.
200 Irwin Street
View in Google Earth (KML)
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Information collected on this form is done so under the general authority of the Community Charter and Freedom of Information and Protection of Privacy Act (FOIPPA), and is protected in accordance with FOIPPA. Personal information will only be used by authorized staff to fulfill the purpose for which it was originally collected, or for a use consistent with that purpose. Questions about the collection of your personal information may be referred to the Legislative Services Department at (250) 755-4405, or via email at foi@nanaimo.ca.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


text:
Q: Creating dynamic, interactive map with QGIS? How can we create an interactive map with QGIS?
I would like to keep aerial photographs as a background layer. When the mouse moves over elements of a shp layer, I'd like them to be highlighted and that a windows shows the information contained in the attribute table of my layers. I would also like that the export is done in a good resolution to be able to zoom in and zoom out dynamically.

Comment peut-on créer une carte interactive avec Qgis ?
je souhaiterais conserver en fond des photos aériennes. Lorsque la
  souris passe sur des éléments d'une couche, je souhaiterais qu'ils
  apparaissent en surbrillance et qu'une fenêtre indique les
  informations contenues dans la table attributaire de mes couches shp.
  Que l'export permette se fasse dans une bonne résolution pour pouvoir
  zoomer et dé-zoomer de manière dynamique.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


text:
Bank of International Settlements Chief Reverses Stance On Crypto (#GotBitcoin)
The head of the Bank of International Settlements (BIS) has appeared to U-turn on issuing digital currencies after a fresh interview with the Financial Times on June 30. Bank of International Settlements Chief Reverses Stance On Crypto (#GotBitcoin)
Speaking to the publication, BIS chief Augustin Carstens actively endorsed the creation and issuance of digital versions of national fiat currencies.
"Many central banks are working on it; we are working on it, supporting them," he said.
"And it might be that it is sooner than we think that there is a market and we need to be able to provide central bank digital currencies."
The comments struck a curious note with many, coming just months after Carstens emphatically advised against issuing such digital currencies. In a speech in March, he listed various risks for banks considering doing so, arguing innovation should not come too fast.
In addition, both the BIS and Carstens himself are outspoken critics of decentralized cryptocurrencies such as bitcoin (BTC).
Last year, he described bitcoin as lacking the ability to ever function as money and directed young people to "stop trying to create money."
"…If you look at them closely, cryptocurrencies are, in a nutshell, a bubble, a Ponzi scheme and an environmental disaster – the latter because of the high energy consumption needed to run the infrastructure for these cryptocurrencies," he said in July.
More recently, the BIS has come out critical about Facebook's new Libra cryptocurrency protocol, similarly due to the fact it resembles money beyond the control of a government.
Bitcoin Could Break The Internet, Bank For International Settlements Says
The Bank for International Settlements just told the cryptocurrency world it's not ready for prime time — and as far as mainstream financial services go, may never be.
Banker Who Called Bitcoin 'Evil Spawn' Heads BIS Digital Currency Hub
A former European Central Bank board member will chair a new arm of the Bank of International Settlements (BIS) focusing on digital currencies and financial innovation.
In a press release on Nov. 11, the BIS confirmed Benoît Cœuré would begin chairing the Innovation Hub from January 15, 2020.
BIS Eyes Impact Of "Critical Trends"
"The Hub's mandate is to identify, and develop in-depth insights into critical trends in technology affecting central banking; develop public goods in the technology space geared towards improving the functioning of the global financial system; and serve as a focal point for a network of central bank experts on innovation," the release explains.
Cœuré has already presided over a dedicated working group studying stablecoins.
Both the BIS and its chairman Agustín Carstens, although publicly critical of cryptocurrencies such as Bitcoin (BTC), face a rapidly evolving financial environment. China's central bank, the People's Bank of China (PBoC) — one of its members — could soon become the world's first major economy to issue its own digital currency.
Cœuré Commented:
"I look forward to bringing my expertise to the global central banking community at this time of rapid technological change. We must make the best use of innovation to support financial stability and promote financial inclusion."
No Mention Of "Evil Spawn" Bitcoin
The Hub will operate in Hong Kong and Singapore, in addition to the BIS' home of Switzerland.
As Cointelegraph reported, the BIS agreed to partner with the Swiss National Bank (SNB) at the Hub in early October.
"The SNB has for some time been closely following the digitalization of the financial sector and technological innovations in the areas covered by its mandate," Thomas J. Jordan, Chairman of the Governing Board of the SNB, said at the time.
Last year, Cœuré himself described Bitcoin as the "evil spawn of the financial crisis."
BIS Chief Blasts Bitcoin's Viability, Prompting Blowback From Advocates
Bitcoin maximalists cried foul at the central banker's prognostications.
The chief banker at the bank for central banks, Agustín Carstens, cast doubt on bitcoin's long-term viability Wednesday, saying it was only a matter of time before a 51% attack brings down the world's original cryptocurrency.
Carstens' comments, which he delivered to the Hoover Institute, underscored his belief that bitcoin fails as a currency, a medium of exchange and a value storage mechanism, working only as a "speculative asset" and seldom as money.
He Also Issued A Dire Warning To Would-Be Bitcoin Investors: The Center Cannot Hold:
"Above all, investors must be cognizant that Bitcoin may well break down altogether. Scarcity and cryptography alone do not suffice to guarantee exchange," he said.
Carstens then levied attacks against the attributes that have kept bitcoin running. He pointed out the "sad side effect" of bitcoin's monstrous electricity dependence, which he said is as high as Switzerland's where the Carsten's organization, the Bank for International Settlements, is based. Bitcoin's proof-of-work mechanism currently burns through reams of energy.
Carstens reserved particular bombast for what he framed as the inevitable systems failure hard-coded into bitcoin's 21 million issuance cap. Fewer coins getting minted means fewer miners processing transactions, he said, and confirmation wait times will go up. So too will bitcoin's vulnerability to a "majority attack."
"So, clearly, if digital money is to exist, the central bank must play a pivotal role, guaranteeing the stability of value, ensuring the elasticity of the aggregate supply of such money, and overseeing the overall security of the system," he said.
Bitcoiners were merciless in their rebuttal.
Jameson Lopp, chief technical officer at bitcoin storage startup Casa told CoinDesk Carstens' arguemnt fails to stand up to bitcoin's technical realities.
"Bitcoin becoming attackable like other networks is not likely, because it would still require a large upfront capital expense for someone to acquire the appropriate hardware. This would only make sense in a world where another SHA256 secured network came along and became far more valuable to mine than Bitcoin," he wrote in an email.
Castle Island Ventures partner Nic Carter issued CoinDesk a point-by-point takedown of Carstens arguments, asserting that volatility does not mean something cannot be money, and that it doesn't matter one way or another if bitcoin is money, because it is "a means to store value over time and space," a job that Carter said bitcoin does better than gold.
Carter also said Bitcoin network's energy dependence is a function of price and issuance, not security or necessity.
"Regardless, the energy cost is well worth paying, because the existence of a non-state monetary commodity is something that the world finds valuable," Carter said.
Bank of International Settlements Head Says Cryptos Require More Regulation
Agustín Carstens has called for cryptocurrencies to be subject to more regulations while arguing that virtual currencies have not made a significant dent in global finance.
Agustín Carstens, general manager of the Bank for International Settlements, has called for even more crypto regulations stating that virtual currencies are a tool for circumventing financial laws.
In an interview with CNBC on Wednesday, the BIS general manager identified money laundering and terrorism financing as areas that require more robust cryptocurrency regulations.
Carstens's comments, a common refrain among crypto critics, come despite the preponderance of established facts indicating that crypto criminality occupies a minute proportion of global cryptocurrency commerce.
According to Carstens, cryptocurrencies have a notoriety for being instruments of criminal activities due to the pseudonymous nature of virtual currency transactions.
However, blockchain intelligence firms continue to work with regulators and law enforcement agencies to provide robust crypto forensic capabilities. Indeed, the traceable nature of Bitcoin (BTC) transactions enabled U.S. law enforcement to locate and shut down a global child pornography ring back in October 2019.
Darknet narcotics vendors who adopt crypto payments are routinely apprehended and put on trial in many countries around the world.
Apart from espousing well-worn anti-crypto soundbites, the BIS general manager argued that cryptocurrencies are not a threat to the global financial establishment. Meanwhile, back in December 2019, Carstens expressed fears that private cryptos could disintermediate central banks in the global financial architecture.
Carstens added that he did not see the path forward for global crypto dominance, adding that virtual currencies are yet to make any significant progress in terms of being used as money.
The BIS executive also touched on stablecoins, stating that fiat-pegged tokens could have limited adoption cases and dismissing any overall threat to sovereign, central bank-backed fiat currencies.
Despite dismissing stablecoins, Carstens highlighted the regulatory issues associated with projects like Diem, saying that such tokens will require specialized laws to ensure that they are "fit for purpose."
The BIS general manager has previously called for central banks to be at the helm of the evolution of digital money.
Crypto Ownership Has Nothing To Do With Distrust In Fiat: BIS Study
Cryptocurrency owners are "generally more educated than the average," according to a new study by the Bank for International Settlements.
The Bank for International Settlements (BIS), a global financial institution owned by some of the world's biggest central banks, is trying to dispel the theory that cryptocurrency ownership is linked to distrust in traditional finance.
On Thursday, the BIS published a paper on the socioeconomic drivers of cryptocurrency investments in the United States. Employing representative data from the U.S. Survey of Consumer Payment Choice, BIS argued distrust in fiat currencies such as the U.S. dollar has nothing to do with investor motivation to hold cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin (BTC), stating:
"Demand for cryptocurrencies is not driven by distrust in cash or the financial industry, given that there are no differences in the perceived security of cash and offline and online banking. We can thus preliminarily disprove the hypothesis that cryptocurrencies are sought as an alternative to fiat currencies or regulated finance."
The authority stressed that cryptocurrencies are not sought as an alternative to fiat currencies or regulated finance but instead are a "niche digital speculation object." BIS noted that from a policy perspective, the overall takeaway of the analysis is that investors' objectives are the "same as those for other asset classes, so should be the regulation."
The BIS paper also outlines major correlations between crypto investment choices and the level of education and income, suggesting that cryptocurrency owners are "generally more educated than the average." Ether (ETH) and XRP investors showed the highest education level in the BIS' analysis, while those owning Litecoin (LTC) were the least educated, with Bitcoin owners ranking in the middle.
The new report brings significant relevance that cryptocurrencies like Bitcoin pose no threat to traditional finance tools, as crypto demand is not driven by distrust in cash. A number of global authorities and institutions previously expressed concerns about Bitcoin's ability to capitalize on global distrust in traditional finance.
In late December, Morgan Stanley Investment's Ruchir Sharma argued that the U.S. dollar's reign will likely end due to global distrust in traditional finance, while Bitcoin would capitalize on the lack of confidence.
Bank For International Settlements To Allow Banks To Keep 1% Of Reserves In Bitcoin
Despite its skeptical approach to digital currencies, exacerbated by the recent cryptocurrency market crash, it looks like the Bank for International Settlements (BIS) intends to extend its hand to the new asset class by allowing banks to hold up to 1% of reserves in cryptocurrencies such as Bitcoin (BTC).
Indeed, BIS's Basel Committee on Banking Supervision (BCBS) has made the proposal for limiting the banks' total exposures to "Group 2 cryptossets to 1% of Tier 1 capital" in its consultative document titled "Second consultation on the prudential treatment of cryptoassets," published on June 30.
Group 1 vs. Group 2 Assets
Specifically, Group 2 refers to the assets that do not meet classification conditions and includes specific tokenized traditional assets and stablecoins, as well as unbacked crypto assets. As opposed to Group 2, Group 1 includes tokenized traditional assets and stablecoins that meet classification conditions.
According To The Document:
"Banks' exposures to Group 2 cryptoassets will be subject to an exposure limit. Banks must apply the exposure limit to their aggregate exposures to Group 2 cryptoassets, including both direct holdings (cash and derivatives) and indirect holding (ie those via investment funds, ETF/ETN, special purpose vehicles)."
The document also specified that "a bank's total exposure to Group 2 crypto assets must not be higher than 1% of the bank's Tier capital at all times," in line with the Basel Framework which includes all the BCBS's standards. As it explained:
"The large exposure rules of the Basel Framework are not designed to capture large exposures to an asset type, but to individual counterparties or groups of connected counterparties. This would imply, for example, no large exposure limits on cryptoasset where there is no counterparty, such as Bitcoin."
With this in mind, "the Committee proposes, therefore, to introduce a new exposure limit for all Group 2 cryptoassets outside of the large exposure rules." Meanwhile, this provisional limit set at 1% of Tier 1 capital would be reviewed periodically.
Skeptical stance toward crypto
Notably, Finbold earlier reported on the BIS using the recent crypto market collapse to affirm its skeptical attitude towards the assets class and warn about the materialization of its predictions about the dangers of decentralized finance (DeFi).
On top of that, the global central bank body released in early June a bulletin in which it presented its view that "crypto cannot fulfill the social role of money," listing a number of problems it perceived in the crypto and blockchain industry, including high fees and network congestion that lead to the landscape fragmentation.


My goal is to tweet just often enough to remind people that I'm here, and that they should probably unfollow me.
Just told my wife that there are professional baseball players born after she graduated high school. Do not do that, kids. Do not do that.
Every time I see Madison Bumgarner, all I can think of is the @broshuis story about how they almost missed a bus trying to catch a possum.
@Minor_Leaguer I once chased Brock Holt through a dimly lit tunnel underneath the stands at the ballpark in Manchester.
Interviewed Eric Hosmer for Bus Leagues in 2009. Asked if there was anything he wished he could do on the field but couldn't. "Yeah, run."
'Tis I. Andrew. Among the living.


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Full Metal Jackie And Tony LaBrie Talk With Sixx:A.M., Like A Storm And More On Loudwire Nights
Yta von G
Friday is here and the weekend came along with it, love it when that happens. But before the weekend takes over, let's end the week with another great edition of Loudwire Nights with Full Metal Jackie and Tony LaBrie!
Tonight on the show, frontman for Like A Storm, Chris Brooks will be catching up with Jackie about their new album "Awaken the Fire", working with his brothers and more. Like A Storm is set to perform at tomorrow's event in Florida, 'Welcome to Rockville Festival' along with a ton of other great bands. Here's the video for their new tune 'Wish You Hell'. Thought I'd share, this song is pretty freaking good!
Later on Jackie and Tony will chat with Canadian rocker, Tyler Connolly of Theory of a Deadman. On Tuesday, April 28th the band is set to release to all digital retailers their Angel Acoustic EP. Last I checked, the song 'Angel' from the album "Savages" is at #15. Way to go guys!
Then, Scott Weiland joins Full Metal Jackie and Tony LaBrie on Loudwire Nights and talks about the 'Blaster' album. At ten, turn it up for Friday's edition of Mission Metallica with a few awesome tracks to fill our Metallica fix. Later in the ten o'clock hour, singer for Sixx:A.M., James Michael will talk to Tony and Jackie about the band'd evolution, along with their future plans and more. For more on the interview, check out Full Metal Jackie's blog.
It's going to be a good one and what better way to start the weekend than with Full Metal Jackie and Tony LaBrie on Loudwire Nights!
Filed Under: full metal jackie, interviews, loudwire nights, tony labrie
Categories: Audio / Videos / Photos, Concerts, Music