text:
\section{Introduction}

Photospheric emission is a leading model to explain the prompt
radiation of long-duration gamma-ray bursts
\citep{Rees05,Giannios06,Lazzati09,Lundman13,Peer15}.  In the
photospheric model the radiation is assumed to form deep in the
outflow, where the jet is highly optically thick, and to be advected
out, eventually being released when the jet becomes transparent. The
photospheric model does not specify the radiation mechanism involved,
since the spectrum is shaped by the interaction with matter, mostly
through Compton scattering, and not by the emission process itself.

The alternative model, the Synchrotron Shock Model (SSM,
\citealt{Rees94,Daigne98,Lloyd02,Daigne11,Zhang11}), assumes instead
that the jet crosses the photosphere virtually deprived of radiation,
coasts until the Thomson optical depth is well below unity, and is
reactivated when shells of different speed shock each other and
generate non-thermal particles and magnetic field \citep{Rees94}. SSM
predicts that the radiation spectrum is directly related to the
radiation mechanism and suffers little interaction with the baryons
and leptons of the jet once it is produced. Both models have been
successful in explaining some of the observed properties of long
duration GRBs but are in significant tension with other
properties. For example, SSM easily accounts for the non-thermal,
broadband nature of the prompt spectrum \citep{Piran99}, but faces
challenges for its intrinsic width \citep{Vurm16} and when compared to
ensemble correlations such as the Amati, Yonetoku, Golenetskii, or
E-$\Gamma$ correlations
\citep{Golenetskii83,Amati02,Yonetoku04,Liang10,Ghirlanda12}. On the
other hand, the photospheric emission has been shown to be able to
reproduce all the correlations (\citealt{Lazzati11,Lazzati13},
hereafter L13; \citealt{Lopez14}) but can hardly produce a spectrum
that has prominent non-thermal tails at both low- and
high-frequencies. While sub-photospheric dissipation can cure the
high-frequency problem producing prominent non-thermal tails
\citep{Peer06,Giannios06,Giannios07,Beloborodov10,Lazzati10,Vurm11,Ito13,Ito14,Chhotray15,Santana16},
it is still unclear whether the low-frequency tails can be reproduced
in photon-starved conditions without invoking an external radiation
mechanism such as synchrotron \citep{Peer11,Chhotray15}. Encouraging
results, however, have been obtained for photospheric emission with
contributions from an subdominant synchrotron component
\citep{Vurm16}.

In both cases, theoretical models only partially address the
complexity of the GRB phenomenon. With very few exceptions, models
either simplify the radiation physics or the geometry of the emitting
region.  For example, photospheric radiation computed from jet
simulations -- and therefore fully taking into account the complexity
of structured and turbulent outflows -- assume that the
radiation-matter coupling is infinite below the photosphere but
suddenly drops to zero as soon as the photosphere is crossed (e.g.,
\citealt{Lazzati09,Mizuta11,Nagakura11}; L13). On the other hand,
models that consider proper radiation transfer or radiation from
magnetized jets with dissipation and particle acceleration are applied
to simplified homogeneous plasma regions or to spherical jets with
analytic radial stratification and without any polar structure (e.g.,
\citealt{Peer06,Giannios07,Beloborodov10,Lazzati10,Vurm11,Chhotray15,Vurm16,Beloborodov16}).

In this paper we present the results of a first step towards merging
the two worlds and performing detailed radiation transfer calculations
on the complex dynamics of a relativistic jet from high-resolution
multi-dimensional numerical simulations (analogous to the recent work
by \citealt{Ito15}). In Section~\ref{sec:mcrat} we present the Monte
Carlo Radiation Transfer (MCRaT) code and the results of several
validation tests. In Section~\ref{sec:results} we present and discuss
the results of applying the code to a hydrodynamic (HD) simulation of
a GRB jet. Finally, in Section~\ref{sec:discussion} we discuss our
results by comparing them with observations and previous theoretical
work, and we discuss limitations and possible improvements of this
technique.

\section{The MCRaT code}
\label{sec:mcrat}

We developed a Monte Carlo Radiation Transfer (MCRaT code) to compute
time-resolved light curves and spectra from hydrodynamic simulations
of GRB jets. The approach to the single-photon scattering in the code
is to neglect the energy losses of the electron population, randomly
selecting at each scattering an electron from a thermal population at
a temperature that does not depend on previous scatterings. This is a
fairly standard approach that assumes the heat capacity of the fluid
to be large enough that radiation losses can be neglected
(e.g. \citealt{Giannios06,Ito13}). The novelty of the code is that of
performing the radiation transfer on the fast evolving background of a
relativistic outflow \citep{Ito15}.  The code injects photons in
thermal equilibrium with the fluid well inside the
photosphere\footnote{For the simulations shown in this work, the
  injection was performed at a Thomson optical depth $\tau_T\sim100$
  or more.} and performs repeated Compton and inverse Compton (IC)
scattering off electrons that are at the local comoving temperature of
the fluid. The present version of MCRaT takes two-dimensional
simulations as input, but the photon propagation is done in three
dimensions to properly take into account the photon propagation angle
with respect to the fluid. In other words the photon field includes
photons propagating in directions with non-zero azimuthal angle
$\phi$, even if the fluid velocity is constrained to be only in the
radial and polar direction. In more detail, the code performs the
following steps (see also Figure~\ref{fig:mcrat_blocks}):
\begin{itemize}
\item {\bf Photon injection --} Photons are injected at a user
  specified radius $R_\mathrm{inj}$ and within a user specified range
  of polar angles from the jet axis. The code determines the local
  temperature, density, and velocity vector at the photon's position
  by nearest-neighbor interpolation. This can be switched to linear
  interpolation at the cost of a longer computational time, but with
  no visible effect on the results. The photon 4-momentum
  ${\mathbf p_{\gamma}}$ is generated by randomly sampling a thermal
  photon distribution at the local fluid temperature. The distribution
  can be chosen between a black body and a Wien spectrum, the former
  being appropriate for fireballs in the acceleration stage, the
  latter for fireballs in the coasting phase. The photons' direction of
  propagation is assumed to be isotropic in the fluid's rest frame at
  injection. Since it is clearly impossible to simulate all the
  photons in a GRB fireball (their number amounting to $\sim10^{59}$
  for a typical burst), each photon is assigned a weight:
\begin{equation}
  w_{\gamma,i}=\frac{8\pi \, c}{3N_{\rm{inj}}} \xi \, T^{\prime 3}_i \, \Gamma_i \, R_i^2
  \, \delta t \,\delta\theta \,\sin(\theta_i)
\label{eq:weight}
\end{equation}
where $\xi$ is the coefficient for the photon number density
($n_\gamma$) in the equation $n_\gamma=\xi T^3$; $\xi=20.29$ for a
black body and $\xi=8.44$ for a Wien spectrum; $T^\prime$ is the
(comoving) fluid temperature at the photon location; $\Gamma_i$ is the
fluid's bulk Lorentz factor at the photon location; $R$ is the
injection radius (in the Lab frame); $\delta t$ is the time resolution
of the numerical simulation (time interval between two saved frames);
$\delta\theta$ is the polar angular range in which the photons are
injected (in the Lab frame); $\theta_i$ is the specific angle at which
the $i$-th photon is injected (in the Lab frame); and $N_{\rm{inj}}$
is the number of photons injected in each frame of the simulation. The
subscript $i$ is used for all quantities that are computed
independently individually for each photon. The weights are chosen so
that the sum of the energies of the injected photons times their
weight gives the correct jet luminosity (see the Appendix for a
derivation of the photons weight).

\item {\bf Photon mean free path --} The first step in the photons
  propagation is the calculation of their mean free path in the
  expanding fluid. This is computed as \citep{Abramowicz91}:
\begin{equation}
\lambda_i=\frac{dr}{d\tau_T}=\frac{1}{\sigma_T \, n_i^\prime \,
  \Gamma_i \, \left(1-\beta_i \cos\theta_{\mathrm{fl},i}\right)}
\end{equation}
where $\sigma_T$ is the Thomson cross-section, $n_i^\prime$ is the
comoving lepton number density of the fluid at each photon position,
$\beta_i$ is the fluid's velocity at the photon position in units of
the speed of light $c$, and $\theta_{\mathrm{fl},i}$ is the angle
between the fluid and photon's velocities. Note that the mean free
path should in principle be integrated over the evolving fluid density
and velocity. However, photons very rarely move out of their original
hydrodynamic resolution element within the time span $\delta t$
between a scattering and the subsequent one, and therefore our
approximation that the underlying hydrodynamic does not change between
the times at which the mean free path is calculated is accurate. We
also notice that we are assuming that the photon energies are well
below the electron's rest mass energy (511 keV) and we can ignore
Klein-Nishina effects. In most cases, this is a good approximation for
a GRB jet in the comoving frame.

\item {\bf Selection of the interacting photon --} Once all the mean
  free paths have been calculated, a random scattering time for each
  photon is drawn from the distributions:
\begin{equation}
p_i(t)=\frac{c}{\lambda_i}\, e^{-\frac{c}{\lambda_i}t}
\end{equation}
The shortest of the obtained times is used as the next scattering time.

\begin{figure}
\includegraphics[width=\columnwidth]{MCRaT_Blocks}
\caption{{Block diagram of the main loop of the MCRaT code.}
\label{fig:mcrat_blocks}}
\end{figure}

\item {\bf Update of photon positions --} At this point the code
  checks whether the selected collision time is within the time range
  of the current HD simulation frame. If so, all photons positions
  three-vectors $\mathbf{R_i}$ are updated by propagating the photons
  at the speed of light for the selected time interval. If not, a new
  time interval equal to the time remaining for the current HD
  simulation frame is selected, and all photons positions are
  updated. No scattering takes place in this case, a new HD frame is
  loaded, and the code returns to the mean free path step, computing a
  new mean free path for the photons in the updated HD and then
  selecting a new scattering time. Note that, when a new simulation
  frame is loaded, a new batch of photons is added at the injection
  radius following the rules of photon injection as described above in
  bullet ``photon injection''.

\begin{figure}
\includegraphics[width=\columnwidth]{cyl_gamma0_HT}
\caption{{Spectra from a test simulation with a cylindrical outflow of
  constant velocity and temperature. Two simulations are shown, each
  at three different stages, for increasing number of scatterings per photon.}
\label{fig:cyl}}
\end{figure}

\item {\bf Photon scattering --} When the time and location of a
  photon scattering is identified, the code performs several
  steps. First, the photon four momentum $\mathbf{P_i}$ is transformed to
  the local fluid comoving frame. Second, an electron is randomly
  drawn from a Maxwell-Boltzmann or Maxwell-J\"uttner distribution at
  the local fluid temperature $T_i$. The electron is assigned a
  direction of motion with a probability distribution
  $p(\psi)\propto\sin\psi(1-\beta\cos\psi)$, where $\psi$ is the angle
  between the photon and electron velocity vectors.  Third, the
  electron and photon four momenta are transformed to the electron's
  comoving frame, and the reference frame rotated so that the photon's
  propagation is along the z-axis. A scattering angle is generated
  according to the Thomson probability distribution
  $p(\theta_\mathrm{scatt})\propto\sin
  \theta_\mathrm{scatt}(1+\cos^2\theta_\mathrm{scatt})$
  and the post-scattering four momenta are computed according to
  momentum and energy conservation. Finally, the photon's four
  momentum is rotated and doubly boosted back to the lab frame.
\end{itemize}

The loop described above is performed iteratively until the photons
reach the edge of the simulation, or the last simulation frame is
reached (see also Figure~\ref{fig:mcrat_blocks}). Each time a new
simulation frame is loaded, the code saves the photon position vectors
and momenta four-vectors. In post processing, a script is used to
generate a photon event table that contains the photons detected by a
virtual detector placed at a certain distance from the burst and along
a selected orientation. The event table contains photon detection time
and energy and the photon weight $w_{\gamma,i}$.

\begin{figure}
\includegraphics[width=\columnwidth]{lc}
\caption{{Comparison between the expected luminosity and the one
    computed with MCRaT for a spherical relativistic outflow. For
    the line of sight very close to the singular polar axis we find a
    $\sim20$ per cent deviation between the expected and obtained
    results. All the other lines of sight are fully consistent with
    the predicted luminosity.}
\label{fig:lcsph}}
\end{figure}

\subsection{Code Validation}
\label{sec:validation}

In order to validate the MCRaT code we ran a suite of tests for which
the expected result is known. All tests were run by imposing an
analytic outflow solution on the same simulation frames that will be
used in Section~\ref{sec:results} to study the light curves and
spectra of a long GRB simulation. This means that the grid setup (cell
centers and sizes) was read from the simulation files, but the values
of density, pressure, and velocity were substituted with an analytical
solution as a function of the cell position.  This way, the same
spatial resolution of the tests is used for the scientific simulation
and we can evaluate the influence of the grid size and resolution on
the accuracy of the results.

\begin{figure}
\includegraphics[width=\columnwidth]{sph_spex}
\caption{{MCRaT spectrum from a spherical outflow compared with a black
    body spectrum at the same temperature and with the prediction of
    \cite{Goodman86} for a spherical relativistic fireball.}
\label{fig:sph_spex}}
\end{figure}

First we run a test in which the outflow is cylindrical. The velocity
is constant and directed along the y axis, the temperature and the
density are constant. We run several of these simulations with
different outflow velocity and/or different temperatures.  Photons
were injected with an initial Wien spectrum. Figure~\ref{fig:cyl}
shows the spectra for two outflow temperatures at various stages
during the simulation, i.e., after increasing number of
scatterings. As expected, the resulting spectra are very well fit by a
Wien spectrum (e.g. \citealt{Chhotray15} and references therein), both
at low temperature (leftmost spectra, non-relativistic electrons) and
at high temperature (rightmost spectra, trans-relativistic
electrons). The figure shows the result from a static configuration
with $v=0$. Analogous results were obtained for outflows with
relativistic outward velocities ($\Gamma=10$, 100, and 300 were
tested).

\begin{figure}
\includegraphics[width=\columnwidth]{radialSPH.pdf}
\caption{{Radial profile of the average photon energy from a test
    MCRaT simulation with a spherical flow. Red marks and colored
    solid lines show the radial evolution of the photon mean energy at
    the observing angles $\theta_o=1$, 2, and 3 degrees. A dashed
    line shows the average energy of photons in equilibrium with the
    plasma. The location of the photosphere and of the radius at which
    the radiation and plasma decouple according to Giannios (2012) are
    shown with vertical arrows.}
\label{fig:sph}}
\end{figure}

As a second test we run a suite of simulations of spherical outflows,
i.e., outflows with only outward radial velocity component. In this
case, the Lorentz factor increases proportionally to the radius until
all the internal energy is converted into bulk motion, saturation is
reached, and the fireball transitions from accelerating to coasting at
constant Lorentz factor.  In the acceleration stage the electrons'
temperature decreases proportionally to $r^{-1}$; as the asymptotic
Lorentz factor is reached, the fireball coasts at constant $\Gamma$
and the electrons' temperature decreases as $r^{-2/3}$. We stress that
this analytical solution was imposed, we did not run a hydrodynamic
simulation of a spherical outflow, we simply replaced the output of
the simulation with the analytical prescription.

We first compare the photon luminosity of the spherical fireball
calculated from the simulations with the analytical expectation. The
result is shown in Figure~\ref{fig:lcsph}, where the MCRaT luminosity
for four different observers is compared to the analytical
expectation. While for observers away from the singular polar axis we
find good agreement, a deviation of $\sim20$ per cent is observed at
$\theta_0=0.5^\circ$. We ascribe this to the artifact of the polar
axis. Since the polar axis is singular in the coordinate system, the
weight of photons close to the axis can be very small
(cfr. Eq.~\ref{eq:weight}). For infinite number of photons, all small
angles are sampled and there is no systematic deviation in the
results. For a finite number of photons, however, significant
non-Poissonian deviations can result from under- or oversampling the
smallest polar angles. An analogous effect can be seen in Figure 8 of
Morsony et al. 2007 (dashed line) where an unphysical drop of the
luminosity is observed at small polar angles from the jet axis. In the
remainder of this manuscript we will compute light curves and spectra
only for photons propagating with a polar angle of at least
$0.5^\circ$ to avoid this problematic region.

In Figure~\ref{fig:sph_spex} we show the time-integrated spectrum
accumulated between angles $\theta_o=1$ and 2 degrees from the polar
axis\footnote{Note that since each photon propagates along a unique
  direction, light curves and spectra cannot be calculated at a
  precise viewing angle. Rather, photons within a small but non-zero
  range of angles need to be added. In the manuscript, we accumulate
  spectra and light curves from photons within an acceptance of 1
  degree, and use the average of these angles to indicate the
  direction of observation.}. The spectrum is broader than a Planck
function, and agrees very well with the prediction of
\cite{Goodman86}. Finally, we show in Figure~\ref{fig:sph} the radial
dependence of the average photon energy for various off-axis angles
compared to the average frequency of photons in equilibrium with the
fluid.  As described in great detail in Beloborodov (2011; see
e.g. their Figure~3), the photon temperature follows the electron
temperature at large optical depth $\tau>10$. As the photosphere is
approached, the electrons and photons decouple and the photons start
to cool at a slower rate until, at the photosphere, the decoupling of
the radiation is complete and the photon temperature remains
constant. The MCRaT result is shown in Figure~\ref{fig:sph}. Red
symbols and colored lines show the average photon energy for viewing
angles $\theta_o=1$, 2, and 3$^\circ$. A dashed line shows instead the
average energy of photons strongly coupled to the electrons. Two
vertical arrows show the location of the photosphere and the location
at which the \cite{Giannios12} condition is attained (the Wien radius,
\citealt{Beloborodov13}). The MCRaT result reproduces all the features
of the analytical solution \citep{Beloborodov11} and confirms that the
approximations adopted so far for computing the peak energy of the
prompt GRB spectrum from simulations are inaccurate. While it is true
that electrons and photons start decoupling at or around the Wien
radius, the decoupling is incomplete and the spectrum keeps cooling by
interaction with the electrons.  This approximation was adopted in L13
and as a consequence their results overestimate both the light curve
luminosity and the peak frequency of the spectrum. On the other hand,
the assumption that the electrons and photons are coupled until the
photosphere is reached is also incorrect. This approximation, adopted
by \citep{Lazzati09,Lazzati11,Mizuta11,Nagakura11} underestimates the
radiation peak frequency and the light curve luminosity. A correct
implementation of the radiation transfer in numerical simulations of
the photospheric model is therefore necessary not only to obtain the
spectral properties beyond the peak frequency (the low- and high-
frequency spectral indices), but also to correctly estimate the peak
frequency itself. Before showing the MCRaT results for a GRB
simulation, we stress that within the viewing angles presented in this
paper the code is quite accurate, the photon average energies
differing only by a few per cent for different lines of sight
(Figure~\ref{fig:sph}).

\section{Results}
\label{sec:results}

\begin{figure}
\includegraphics[width=\columnwidth]{radial16TI}
\caption{{Radial profile of the average photon density for radiation
    propagating at different off-axis angles.  Analogous to
    Figure~\ref{fig:sph} but for the GRB jet simulation. Guidelines
    are plotted for off-axes 1, 2, and 3 degrees, to show the
    deviation from the self-similar behaviour as the photosphere is
    approached (or lack thereof).}
\label{fig:radial16TI}}
\end{figure}

We have applied the MCRaT code to our fiducial simulation of a long
duration gamma-ray burst jet that was previously studied in the
approximation of a sharp photosphere (\citealt{Lazzati09,Lazzati11};
L13). The simulation runs for $\sim600$~s, at which time the jet head
has reached a distrance of $\sim1.3\times10^{13}$ cm from where it was
launched, the center of the progenitor star. The progenitor is modeled
as a 16 solar mass Wolf Rayet star, model 16TI from
\cite{Woosley06}. The jet is injected as a boundary condition at
$r_0=10^9$~cm, with luminosity $L=5.33\times10^{50}$~erg~s$^{-1}$,
half-opening angle $\theta_0=10^\circ$, Lorentz factor $\Gamma_0=5$,
and internal energy to allow for an asymptotic jet acceleration to a
terminal Lorentz factor $\Gamma_\infty=400$. After $t=100$~s, the
engine luminosity is decreased by a factor 1000 to simulate the turn
off of the engine. The radial resolution at $R=10^{13}$~cm, where the
photosphere is expected to lay, is $\delta y=10^{9}$~cm, giving
$\delta y/y=10^{-4}$, comparable to $1/\Gamma^2$. Resolution in the
orthogonal $x$ coordinate is identical since we use square resolution
elements. Shocks at the photospheric radius are therefore poorly
resolved. Still, this resolution is about an order of magnitude better
than in the simulations of \cite{Ito15}. As we discuss below, limited
resolution is a serious concern for these results and an increase by
at least an order of magnitude is required to ensure that shocks are
resolved and that the simulations capture the temperature variations
that they produce. 300,000 photons were injected in the simulation at
off-axis angles $\theta_i\le6^\circ$.

\begin{figure}[!t]
\includegraphics[width=\columnwidth]{spectral_theta_1}
\caption{{Light curve and spectral evolution for photons traveling
    within the acceptance range $0.5\le\theta_{\rm{ph}}\le1.5$ (for an
    observer laying at $\theta_o=1^\circ$) from the polar axis. In the
    upper panel, the thick solid line shows the MCRaT result, the thin
    line shows the result from L13 (rescaled by a factor 10) and the
    symbols show the peak energy in 1 second temporal bins (energy
    y-axis to the right). In the bottom panel, the Band parameters
    $\alpha$ and $\beta$ are shown with red and blue symbols,
    respectively. The $\alpha$ scale is to the left, while the $\beta$
  scale is to the right.}
\label{fig:theta1}}
\end{figure}

Under conical expansion, the jet we input in the simulations would
become optically thin (and therefore have its photosphere) at
$R=6.4\times10^{11}$~cm (e.g., \citealt{Meszaros00}). However, the
progenitor-jet interaction induces a non-conical expansion and
prevents the saturation of the acceleration at $\Gamma=400$, resulting
in a much larger photospheric radius. \cite{Lazzati11} found a
photospheric radius of the order of $R=10^{13}$~cm in the same
simulation, increasing for larger off-axis angles. With MCRaT we do
not compute the photospheric radius by integrating the optical depth
(as is done in all previous numerical simulations of photospheric
emission in GRBS); we follow instead the photon propagation. Whether
the photons have crossed the photospheric radius or not can be
understood by looking at the radial dependence of their average
energy. The average photon energy decreases at radii smaller than the
photosphere and attains an asymptotic value beyond it
(\citealt{Beloborodov11}; see also Section~\ref{sec:validation}). In
Figure~\ref{fig:radial16TI} we show the time-averaged MCRaT results
for off-axis angles of 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 degrees, each with an
acceptance of $\pm0.5$ degrees. Analogously to Figure~\ref{fig:sph},
dashed lines are overlaid to show the average frequency of photons
coupled to the electrons. The colored lines detach from the dashed
ones at the Wien radius and become constant beyond the photospheric
radius. In agreement with results obtained from integration over the
optical depth (\citealt{Lazzati11}, see their Figure 2), we find that
the photosphere lies at $R_{\rm{ph}}\sim1.5\times10^{13}$~cm for small
off-axis angles but is located beyond the outer edge of the simulation
box (which is located at $2.5\times10^{13}$~cm) for relatively large
off axis angles $\theta_o>3^\circ$. In mode detail, the photosphere is
clearly reached for $\theta_o=1^\circ$, is almost reached for
$\theta_o=2^\circ$, and it is approached for $\theta_o=3^\circ$. In
the following we show results for these three off-axis angles, keeping
in mind that the result for $\theta_o=3^\circ$ might be approximate
since the simulations do not appear to be extended enough to
completely reach the photosphere. It should be remembered, however,
that the photosphere is not at a constant distance throughout the
simulation, starting at a large radius and progressively closing in
(see, e.g., the blue lines in Figure 4 of L13). Even for the larger
off-axis angles, the photosphere is likely reached at some time after
the initial high-density plug at the jet's head is overcome.

\subsection{Light Curves and Spectra}

Light curves and spectra are computed by binning the photons within
the acceptance angle in time and/or frequency, each multiplied times
its weight (Eq.~\ref{eq:weight}). Light curves for
$0.5\le\theta_{\rm{ph}}\le1.5$, $1.5\le\theta_{\rm{ph}}\le2.5$, and
$2.5\le\theta_{\rm{ph}}\le3.5$ degrees are shown as thick lines in
Figures~\ref{fig:theta1}, \ref{fig:theta2}, and~\ref{fig:theta3},
respectively. The bin time is one second in all cases. In
Figures~\ref{fig:theta1} and~\ref{fig:theta3} a thin line shows the
light curves computed with the sharp last energy surface approximation
by L13 (see also \citealt{Giannios12}). Normalization factors of 10
and 4 were applied to the two curves, respectively, to facilitate the
comparison. The MCRaT curves have similar temporal evolution compared
to the old sharp approximation. This is not surprising since the light
curve shape is mainly due to the hydrodynamic effect of recollimation
that the progenitor star imprints on the jet.  Such effect is purely
hydrodynamic in nature and is therefore independent of how the photon
propagation is treated in post-processing. The difference in
normalization is due to the fact that, as seen in
Figures~\ref{fig:sph} and~\ref{fig:radial16TI}, the average photon
frequency decreases after the last energy exchange radius assumed in
L13.

\begin{figure}[!t]
\includegraphics[width=\columnwidth]{spectral_theta_2}
\caption{{Same as Figure~\ref{fig:theta1} but for an acceptance angle
    $1.5\le\theta_{\rm{ph}}\le2.5$. L13 results at this angle are not
    available for comparison.}
\label{fig:theta2}}
\end{figure}

A few example spectra for the $1.5\le\theta_{\rm{ph}}\le2.5$ case are
shown in Figure~\ref{fig:spex}. We have chosen this case because it is
far enough from the jet axis to avoid spurious effects from the
reflective symmetry along the y-axis. In addition, as shown in
Figure~\ref{fig:radial16TI}, the photospheric radius is contained in
our simulations at this off-axis angle. The three panels show the
photon count spectra for the whole burst (left panel), a fairly
non-thermal time interval (central panel), and the most luminous time
bin of the light curve (left panel). In all cases we notice some
features in agreement with observed gamma-ray bursts and others in
significant tension with the observations. All spectra are fit with a
Band model \citep{Band93} and the best values for the parameters
$\alpha$, $\beta$, and $h\nu_{\rm{pk}}$ are reported.  In the Band
model, a smoothly joined broken power-law function, $\alpha$ is the
asymptotic photon index at low frequency, $\beta$ is the asymptotic
photon index at high frequency, and $h\nu_{\rm{pk}}$ is the photon
energy at which the $\nu F(\nu)$ spectrum peaks.

Going from low- to high-frequencies, we first notice that the
low-energy spectral index $\alpha$ is found to be significantly larger
than in observations. Average observed values of $\alpha$ range
between -1 and -0.5 \citep{Preece00,Goldstein13,Gruber14,Yu16} while
we consistently find $\alpha>1$. This is not surprising since the
difficulty of the photospheric model to reproduce the observations in
the low-frequency range is well known. Our synthetic spectra have
power-law indices even steeper than a black body, due to the fact that
the spectrum was injected with a Wien distribution of
frequencies\footnote{The low-frequency photons require more scattering
  to reach equilibrium and our vary soft tail may also be affected by
  an insufficient number of scattrings \citep{Chhotray15}.}. Injecting
a black body spectrum would have made the low-frequency spectrum
harder, however the steepening of the spectrum would not have bee
substantial enough to reproduce the typical spectra of GRB
observations. We also notice that our simulations do not test any of
the solutions proposed to solve the discrepancy. For example, models
based on sub photospheric dissipation (e.g. \citealt{Chhotray15}) can
be tested only with simulations of higher resolution than the one
presented here, since shocks need to be fully resolved to affect the
radiation spectrum. Models based on the addition of soft photons from
synchrotron \citep{Vurm11,Vurm16} require instead a radiation transfer
code that allows for photon emission and absorption, beyond the
current capabilities of MCRaT.

\begin{figure}[!t]
\includegraphics[width=\columnwidth]{spectral_theta_3}
\caption{{Same as Figure~\ref{fig:theta1} but for an acceptance angle
    $2.5\le\theta_{\rm{ph}}\le3.5$.}
\label{fig:theta3}}
\end{figure}

The peak energy of the light curves is found in the $\sim100$~keV
range. This is a fairly common value for a burst of intermediate
luminosity like the one simulated here. Yet, it is on the low tail of
the distribution and we will see in Section~\ref{sec:correls} that
there is some strain between our results and the Amati and Yonetoku
correlations.

The best agreement between our results and observations is found at
high frequencies. We first notice that we can exclude both a cutoff
power-law and a Black Body fit withs high confidence. A $\chi^2$-based
F-test yields probabilities $P<10^{-5}$ for the two simpler functions
mentioned above to give a comparable fit with respect to a Band
Function. A high-frequency power-law is therefore required by the
data, as in observed bursts. In addition, we find that MCRaT's $\beta$
values, between 2 and 3, are fairly typical for long-duration GRBs
\citep{Preece00,Goldstein13,Gruber14,Yu16}. We note that the spectra
shown only extend to $\sim1 MeV$ due to poor statistics, but there is
no indication of a cutoff. In the left panel -- the one with the best
statistics -- we show with smaller symbols and in grey color the data
in the spectral bins that have too little photons to be included in
the fit. We notice that these data points are consistent with the
extrapolation of the high-frequency power-law and no break or cutoff
is required. Very high frequency photons in the GeV band detected by
Fermi \citep{Abdo09} are however better explained as forward shock
emission in the photospheric model \citep{Kumar09,Ghisellini10}.

\begin{figure*}[!t]
\includegraphics[width=\textwidth]{ex_spex}
\caption{{Sample MCRaT photon-count spectra for the
    $1.5\le\theta_{\rm{ph}}\le2.5$ observer. The left panel shows the
    spectrum accumulated over the entire light curve and fit with a
    Band model. The central panel shows one of the most non-thermal
    spectrum, accumulated over a 1 s time bin at $t=13$~s. Finally,
    the left panel shows the spectrum at the light curve peak. Each
    panel shows the best fit Band parameters in an inset and the best
    fit Band spectrum as a thin solid line. In the left panel bins
    with some photon counts but not enough statistics to be included
    in te fit are shown in gray and with a smaller size.}
\label{fig:spex}}
\end{figure*}

Figures~\ref{fig:theta1}, \ref{fig:theta2}, and~\ref{fig:theta3} show,
besides the light curves, the results of time-resolved
spectroscopy. Photons were accumulated in 1 s bins and a Band spectrum
was fit to each temporal bin and for each of the three off-axis
observers. The top panel of each figure reports the peak energy in keV
(right hand vertical scale), while the bottom panel reports the best
fit $\alpha$ and $\beta$ values. The low-frequency index $\alpha$
refers to the left hand vertical scale, while the high-frequency index
$\beta$ refers to the right hand vertical scale. We first notice that
there is quite some diversity in the kind of spectral evolution
observed in the three figures. At small off-axis $\theta_o=1^\circ$,
the peak frequency follows a general hard-to-soft trend, while the
low-frequency index $\alpha$ has a small growing trend.  Eventually,
both trends are broken. At times larger than $t\sim40$~s the peak
energy rises above 100~keV while the spectral index $\alpha$
fluctuates with no stable trend. This transition is due to the
emergence of the unshocked jet, as already seen in previous
simulations (\citealt{Morsony07,Lazzati09}; L13). The hard-to-soft
trend has been observed in some bursts. The $\alpha$ increase, on the
other hand is not observed but seem irrelevant since, as already noted
above, our spectra have $\alpha$ indices in significant disagreement
with observations.

Moving away form the axis, at $\theta_o=2^\circ$ we find a light curve
with very little spectral evolution, except for an initial hardening
and a small softening around the peak. This is quite unusual in
observations. Finally, at $\theta_o=3^\circ$ we find an example of
tracking behavior, the peak energy increasing at high luminosity and
decreasing at low luminosity. Again, towards the end of the burst a
global hardening is observed, possibly due to the emergence of the
unshocked jet or to the fact that photons at the end of the burst
haven't yet reached the photosphere. In all three cases, non-thermal
high-energy tails are measured throughout the burst, with the
exception of a few intervals in which the high-frequency index was
fixed to $\beta=-5$.

We stress that the jet input in the simulation has constant luminosity
and any variation in the light curve luminosity is brought about by
the jet-progenitor interaction. There is evidence that variability is
injected at the base of the jet \citep{Morsony10}. More pronounced
spectral evolution is expected for burst with variable central engines
\citep{Lopez14}. In addition, the simulations we present here might
have engines that are active for too long a time, as pointed out in
\cite{Lazzati13b}.

\subsection{Correlations}
\label{sec:correls}

One of the reasons for the success of the photospheric model was its
ability to reproduce the Amati, Yonetoku, Golenetskii,
$E_{\rm{iso}}-\Gamma$, and energy-efficiency correlations
\citep{Golenetskii83,Amati02,Yonetoku04,Liang10,Ghirlanda12}. This was
demonstrated with the results of numerical simulations, and the
scaling was ascribed principally to a line of sight effect (L13). With
MCRaT we can re-analyze the success of the photospheric model in
reproducing the observational ensemble correlations. We show in
Figure~\ref{fig:yone} the result for the Yonetoku correlation between
the 1-s binned peak luminosity and the peak frequency measured at the
time of the peak (again, integrated over 1~s). Given the results shown
above, it does not come as a surprise that the MCRaT result are not a
perfect match to the observations. The assumption of a complete
decoupling at the Wien radius adopted by L13 (see also
\citealt{Giannios12}) is indeed fairly crude. While it is true that
the radiation decouples from the leptons at that optical depth, the
radiation continues to cool, even though remaining at a temperature
that is higher than that of the matter (\citealt{Beloborodov11}; see
also Figure~\ref{fig:sph}). As a consequence, the MCRaT spectra peak
at a frequency that is too low by a factor $\sim3$ with respect to
observations. Such an offset is not large enough to reject the model,
since the dispersion of the data is comparable, yet it puts the
simulation results at some strain with the data. Analogous results
hold for all the aforementioned correlations, with the exception of
the $E_{\rm{iso}}-\Gamma$ and energy-efficiency correlations, for
which no significant discrepancy is found. The agreement, however, is
most likely due to the poor definition of the correlations in the data
rather than to a true success of the model.

\section{Summary and discussion}
\label{sec:discussion}

We have presented a novel numerical code to perform Monte Carlo
radiation transfer in relativistic jets under the assumption that the
radiation-matter interaction is dominated by Compton scattering off
the leptons in the fluid. Our code is analogous to the one recently
developed by Ito et al. (2013, 2015)\footnote{The difference between
  the two codes is technical (language, dimensionality) but the
  physics is the same.} and we find similar results, even though they
applied it to a different set of simulations. Neither MCRaT nor the
Ito et al. (2013, 2015) code cannot take into account the radiation
feedback on the hydrodynamics. However, the hydrodynamic simulations
to which the Monte Carlo codes are applied assume infinite coupling
(the equation of state for both photons and plasma are the same) and
therefore the dynamics from the HD simulations should be accurate in
the optically thick part of the outflow, where most of the Compton
scatterings take place and the spectrum takes its shape. Despite these
limitations, both MCRaT and the Ito et al. code constitute a
significant advance over previous studies, in which the coupling
between matter and radiation was assumed to be complete at optical
depths larger than a critical value and null at smaller optical
depths. Said critical optical depth was assumed to be either unity
\citep{Lazzati09,Lazzati11,Mizuta11,Nagakura11}, or of several tens
(\citealt{Giannios12}; L13). As analytically predicted for spherical
outflows by \cite{Beloborodov11}, proper radiation transfer shows that
the radiation and matter indeed start to decouple at an opacity of
several tens. However, the radiation keeps cooling significantly until
the photosphere is reached, at which point the radiation propagates
with constant average properties\footnote{It is envisageable that in
  the presence of a significant dissipation event, such as an external
  shock, the radiation properties can be changed well after the
  photosphere is crossed. Such events are, however, not present in our
  simulations.}. In addition, MC radiation transfer allows for a full
calculation of the emitted spectrum, while only its peak frequency
could be estimated under the approximations previously employed.

We have applied MCRaT to our fiducial GRB jet simulation, used in
previous photospheric work. We find that the MCRaT results predict
light curves that are dimmer and characterized by lower frequency
photons with respect to the results from L13. Spectral and temporal
analysis was performed on the resulting light curves and spectra. We
find that, as predicted by many analytical and semi-analytical
previous publications, photospheric radiation is characterized by a
significant non-thermal high-frequency tail. Fitting the time-resolved
spectra with a Band function we find values of the index $\beta$ in
good agreement with the observations and a significant evolution of
the slope over the burst light curve. Because of the continued
radiation cooling in the sub-photospheric region, we find that the
MCRaT spectra are characterized by photons of lower frequency with
respect to the L13 results. This deteriorates the agreement of the
simulation results with the Amati and Yonetoku ensemble
correlations. While the MCRaT results are still within the observed
dispersion, they do not follow the correlation closely and more work
is necessary to better understand the role of photospheric emission in
the establishment of such correlations. In addition, we find that our
simulations do not reach the photospheric radius for off-axis angles
$\theta_o>2^\circ$, preventing the analysis of the off-axis light
curves that were deemed to be responsible for the correlations
(L13). We also find that the low-frequency spectral index is much
steeper than observed. This is a well known problem of photospheric
emission in the absence of an efficient emission mechanism or of
strong sub-photospheric dissipation and the discrepancy found is not
surprising.

\begin{figure}
\includegraphics[width=\columnwidth]{yone}
\caption{{Comparison between the observational Yonetoku correlation
    (black symbols with error bars and best fit solid line) with the
    MCRaT results (red symbols). }
\label{fig:yone}}
\end{figure}

One possible shortcoming of this work that could be at the basis of
the discrepancies discussed above is the resolution of the
simulations. In order to study the effect of shock-heating on the
spectrum we need to be able to resolve the shocks so that their true
temperature can be taken into account. Unfortunately, the resolution
of the simulations presented here is sufficient only to moderately
resolve the shocks. As a consequence, continuous heating from
recombination, or the kind of shock heating envisaged in, e.g.,
Chhotray and Lazzati (2015), could not be studied. We plan to perform
higher-resolution simulations for both long and short GRB jets in the
near future to test the impact of resolution on the results. Some hope
comes from the comparison of our results with those of
\cite{Ito15}. Their resolution is lower than ours, but they consider
precessing jets that substantially increase dissipation. Even though
they do not perform a detailed time-resolved analysis of their
spectra, it is clear from their Figures~3 and~4 that significant
non-thermal features at both ends of the spectrum can be obtained.  In
addition, we stress that the simulation presented here injects a
constant luminosity from the inner engine and does not have, therefore,
internal shocks. Realistic engines are likely characterized by
intrinsic variability, and a better agreement with the Amati and
Yonetoku ensemble correlations could be obtained from a light curve
with the same peak frequency and peak luminosity but with periods of
very weak emission.

Additional physics might also be required to obtain a better match of
the synthetic spectra with observations. Shocks likely inject
non-thermal particles that are neglected by MCRaT and by the
\cite{Ito15} code alike. Magnetic fields and the possibility of
injection of soft photons from synchrotron are also ignored
\citep{Vurm11,Vurm16}.  Additional dissipation is also provided by
magnetic reconnection \citep{Giannios07,McKinney02}. While adding such
effects would not be trivial, breaking the embarrassingly parallel
structure of the code and making the whole calculation longer, it is
not impossible and we are currently developing a version of the MCRaT
code that takes into account non-thermal particles and synchrotron
emission.  Since all the missing effects are likely to increase the
non-thermal aspect of the spectrum, our the results presented here can
be seen as a lower limit on the non-thermal features of the
photospheric spectrum from GRB jets.

Finally, we would like to comment on the fact that in no case we found
the need to add a low-temperature thermal component to  the
  spectral model used to fit our spectra. Yet, such a component has
been detected in several bursts and is considered one of the proofs of
the existence of a photospheric contribution to the GRB prompt
spectrum
\citep{Guiriec11,Ghirlanda13,Guiriec13,Burgess14,Nappo16}. Our
results, as well as Ito's results seem to show that the appearance of
the photospheric component is always non-thermal and at significantly
higher frequencies than those at which the thermal components are
detected (typically a few keV to a few tens of keV). The thermal peaks
detected in BATSE and Fermi observations are therefore either arising
from a different component of the outflow that is not present in the
simulations or are a signature of a weak photosphere in a jet
dominated by non-thermal and/or non-baryonic energy, such as in a
Poynting dominated outflow.

\acknowledgments I would like to thank the anonymous referee for
constructive comments that improved the clarity of this paper. I would
like to thank Hirotaka Ito and Hiro Nagataki for useful discussions
and for sharing the results of their code with me prior to
publication. I also would like to thank Andrei Beloborodov, Riccardo
Ciolfi, Bruno Giacomazzo, Dimitrios Giannios, Diego L\'opez-C\'amara,
and Brian Morsony, for useful comments and suggestions. This work was
supported in part by NASA Swift GI grant NNX15AG96G.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaArXiv


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text:
Гимназия № 35 — муниципальное общеобразовательное учреждение Кировского района города Екатеринбурга.

История
Восьмилетняя школа № 35 открылась в 1933 году в Пионерском посёлке Свердловска на улице Советской. В прежнем здании школы позже расположился Дом детского творчества, а сама школа была переведена в новое помещение на улице Июльской. С 1985 года школа № 35 стала средней общеобразовательной школой. В 1995 году по результатам государственной аттестации и аккредитации ей был присвоен статус «Гимназия высшей категории», с тех пор четырежды (в 1998, 2003, 2008 и 2012 году) подтверждавшийся.

В 1989 году школа получила статус пилотной по внедрению информатики как учебной дисциплины. С середины 1990-х годов в ней создаются классы профильной и предпрофильной подготовки.

Зал боевой и трудовой славы Урала
В январе 2004 года, в ходе подготовки к 60-летию Победы советского народа в Великой Отечественной войне, в гимназии был создан штаб героико-патриотической акции «К подвигу сердцем прикоснись». Целью акции стало создание в гимназии Знаменного зала боевой и трудовой славы Урала. Авторами проекта и создания музея «Знаменный зал боевой и трудовой славы Урала» стала творческая группа в следующем составе: Коровин А. Б., Румянцев А. С., Румянцева В. И. и Кравченко К. А..

Идею создания Знаменного зала поддержал заместитель председателя комитета по обороне Государственной Думы генерал-майор авиации Безбородов Н. М., который в своем письме писал:

В течение двух лет вёлся сбор материала и оформление документов и экспонатов, разрабатывался общий дизайн экспозиции. В администрацию регионов, где сражались воины-уральцы, были направлены письма с просьбами выслать знамёна, боевые реликвии и документы.

Среди откликнувшихся на просьбы о шефской помощи был главнокомандующий ВМФ России, адмирал флота В. И. Куроедов, передавший в дар гимназии Андреевский флаг. В сопроводительном письме адмирал писал:

Инициативу гимназии 35 поддержали также губернатор Белгородской области Савченко и губернатор Свердловской области Россель. В Знаменный зал в память о подвиге воинов-уральцев были переданы флаги Карелии и Волгоградской области.

В итоге для интерьера открывшегося в конце 2005 года Знаменного зала было выбрано планшетное решение: в верхнем ряду планшетов чередуются чёрно-белые фотографии, иллюстрирующие боевые эпизоды Великой Отечественной войны, и цветные кадры, рассказывающие о дальнейшей работе её участников-ветеранов по патриотическому воспитанию учащихся. Основу экспозиции составляет большая витрина со знамёнами регионов России, присланными их руководством.

Ученики
За десять лет окончили гимназию с медалями 199 (с золотыми медалями — 32, с серебряными медалями — 167) человек. Всего с момента придания школе статуса средней из её стен вышли около 250 золотых и серебряных медалистов. Семь выпускников были удостоены премии губернатора Свердловской области, а пятеро — премии мэра Екатеринбурга.

Достижения
 В 2003 году гимназия была включена ЮНЕСКО в число ста лучших школ России
 Дважды (в 2003 и 2006 годах) гимназия удостаивалась награды Управления образования администрации Екатеринбурга — приза «Педагогический триумф»
 Победитель регионального этапа конкурса «Лучшие школы России — 2006»; гимназия также была признана лучшей школой Екатеринбурга в 2004 году
 Двукратный (2006, 2008) лауреат конкурса инновационных школ в рамках Приоритетного национального проекта «Образование»
 Первое место на областной выставке «Образование от А до Я» (2004, 2007)
 Гимназия получила сертификат Всероссийского форума «Образование 2006»
 Девять учителей гимназии удостоены награды в конкурсе лучших учителей общеобразовательных учреждений за высокое педагогическое мастерство (2006, 2007, 2008).

Примечания

Ссылки
 Сайт гимназии

Школы, основанные в 1933 году
Гимназии Екатеринбурга
Кировский район Екатеринбурга

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


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he mission of Archbishop Shaw High School is to provide a program that furthers the college preparatory education of its students in a manner consistent with the doctrines of Catholic education and in the context of the Salesian philosophy and teachings of St. John Bosco as manifested in his Preventive System of Education: Reason, Religion, Kindness, and Active Presence.
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Online Mensa Test - Take this Mensa Workout no and test yourself.
Take this online Mensa test to see how you do. Build your confidence!
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text:
Arts Health and Wellbeing
What is Arts in Health?
National Alliance for Arts, Health and Wellbeing
Charter for Arts, Health & Wellbeing
2016/17 APPG Inquiry Submissions
Creative Health Next Steps
MUSEUMS AND HEALTH
Arts and Post-traumatic Stress
Arts and Palliative Care, Dying and Bereavement
Vitality – Movement to Music for the Over Sixties
VITALITY provides movement to music classes for the over sixties and those younger with medical conditions that cannot exercise or take part in similar activities in any other way. We are part of artsNK which deliver visual and performing arts projects, initiatives and events in Lincolnshire.
Armchair Gallery – Nottingham, part of the Imagine Programme (Consortium Project)
The programme Imagine is one of only four nationally to be awarded money from Arts Council England and The Baring Foundation's Arts and Older People in Care fund. The 3-year project will use the arts to enrich the lives of older residents, better involve them in the wider community and support them to connect with people of all ages. The Armchair Gallery strand of work (AG) enables digital access for older people whose circumstances do not allow for physical visits to world class cultural collections.
Geffrye Museum projects and programmes
For over a decade the Geffrye Museum has worked with older adults (55+) from the local community through a variety of projects and programmes grounded in strong relationships with local older peoples services. At the start of 2015, the Geffrye was awarded three years funding from the City Bridge Trust (2015-2017) in order to build on the museum's successes and deepen engagement with more vulnerable older adults through the Feeling at Home project.
Museum of Oxford Memory Lane and Movers & Shakers reminiscence group
The Memory Lane reminiscence session is a regular group that meet at the Museum of Oxford to encourage older people to attend the Museum and share reminiscences around a theme. Some sessions are held at local heritage sites to tie in with a particular topic. The project aims to engage older audiences in Museum activities and use the material collected to inform Museum exhibitions and projects. The project began in 2010 and is now an established part of the Museums programme.
Museum of Oxford Recipes and Reminiscence intergenerational Project
Two well attended reminiscence events took place, each looking at different aspects of Oxford's food history. The second session took place at Taste of the Tropics pop up Caribbean Café in East Oxford. This gave participants the opportunity to try Caribbean cuisine and to experience Caribbean culture. For some this was a new experience.
Plymouth Music Zone
Plymouth Music Zone is a highly regarded multi-award winning community music charity that uses the power of music to reach out to some of the most vulnerable or marginalised individuals supported within health, social care, education and community settings. The organisation engages up to 1000 people every week with over 60 weekly music activities. It also brings people together through special projects, events and specialised training. It aims to reduce loneliness and isolation and improve people's skills, emotional wellbeing and social connectedness.
Museum of Oxford Morris Motors Centenary Reminiscence Project
To mark the Morris Motors Centenary (100 years of car making in Oxford) the Reminiscence Officer at the Museum of Oxford teamed up with the Learning and Access Manager from Hands On Oxfordshire's Heritage (part of Oxfordshire's County Museum Service) to deliver a series of 7 Morris Motors themed reminiscence events across Oxford and Oxfordshire. The location of each event had a link to the car industry.
Hear My Voice, Share My Song
'Hear My Voice, Share my Song' was a unique pilot intergenerational music project, taking place in Northumberland Heath, Bexley. It involved children aged five and under and their parents, a local pre-school nursery, and older people living in the area. The project was designed to share and exchange the cultural and musical understanding of participants, whilst developing a shared musical experience between the generations.
Creative Gymnasium
Aim: To examine the benefits of drama and arts activities for improving and maintaining the health and wellbeing of people living in Coventry aged 50+
Funding: Esmée Fairbairn Foundation
Timescale: 12 months
Description of the arts activity
A drama intervention was delivered in stages over 12 months, by The Belgrade Theatre.
Stage I – Recruitment and convening of the groups of 50+ participants
Stage II – 10 week developmental workshops
Stage III – Public Performances at the Theatre and on location around the city
The Staying Well project
The Staying Well project was set up across Calderdale Metropolitan Borough Council area in November 2014, initially as a 12 month pilot project funded by the Calderdale Clinical Commissioning Group. Subsequently the project has been extended three times, currently until March 2017 with ongoing discussion about further extension, financially supported through Calderdale Clinical Commissioning Group's Care Closer to Home, NHS Vanguard programme and Calderdale MBC.
Not sure what it's all about? Check out the What is arts in health? section and be inspired by some of the examples. Read the newly published charter for the National Alliance for Arts Health and Wellbeing here.
Does it really work? Take a look at the evidence.
Find out what's happening near you by searching our Directory, get advice about setting up a project with our selection of Practical Advice, or get in touch with our Contacts.
© LAHF, unless otherwise stated. LAHF is not responsible for the content of external websites.
Please see our statement of terms and conditions for further details.
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redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


Living with a Suzuki Swift | I'm Almost There.
I've made good progress with 4 months until my car buying deadline.
As you can see I'm making good progress on my car savings, with €1500 saved in my account. This means I have enough to apply for a loan for €3500 (to make a total of €5000 altogether) however I will keep saving for another month.
This is because I want to have enough money for a year's worth of car insurance (somewhere around €400) so that I don't have to worry about insurance payments for 12 months.
I'm still not sure how much a car dealer will take off the price for my Daewoo as a trade-in vehicle. I think the car could be sold for €900, so I would like to be offered somewhere around €500. Car dealers aren't known for their generosity however, so we'll see.
I still have 4 months from my April deadline to buy a Suzuki Swift so I can relax a little bit – providing no unexpected bills come up. The good news is that there are currently a lot of Swifts to choose from Slovak car sales sites such as this one.
So at this rate, I'll apply for a car loan in late January or early February.
You can only see 3.142 of my fingers in that shot.
Additionally, my Raspberry Pi computer arrived, so my dreams of having a fully computerised car are getting closer.
Your site is just great, i recently bought a 2007 Swift GL, and your site was really helpful to have an idea about what to do with my new car.


Tropical Depression #4 formed in the tropical Atlantic on 5 July 2017 (Click here for National Hurricane Center advisories on the system). The Depression is not forecast to strengthen, and two GOES-16 products give evidence to its weakened state. The animation of GOES-16 Band 4 (1.38 µm "Cirrus Channel"), above, shows a general decrease in the high clouds associated with this system (located north of 10º North Latitude and between 40º and 50º West Longitude), meaning convection is not strong. A closer view reveals intricate cirrus transverse banding around the periphery of the system during the early part of the day. In addition, the 10.3 µm "Clean Window" image, below, overlain on top of the GOES-16 Baseline Total Precipitable Water (TPW) Product, shows dry air west of the circulation. A Saharan Air Layer (SAL) analysis from here that uses Meteosat data, shows dry air moving towards the system from the east as well (Link). A toggle between GOES-13 Infrared Window, Meteosat-10 SAL product, and MIMIC TPW imagery can be seen here.
Refer to the National Hurricane Center website, or the CIMSS Tropical Weather website, for more information on this sytem.


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Home / Exhibitions / The great temporary exhibitions / Lanfeust
Arithmetics of Troy
One day, Lanfeust, a blacksmith's apprentice living in the magical world of Troy, began a quest of initiation after discovering that he had extraordinary powers. "Lanfeuse de Troy" hit the bookstores like a UFO in 1994.
Since that time, this heroic fantasy series full of fun and invention, has convinced several million readers.
One day, Lanfeust, a blacksmith's apprentice living in the magical world of Troy, began a quest of initiation after discovering that he had extraordinary powers. "Lanfeust de Troy" hit the bookstores like a UFO in 1994. Since that time, this heroic fantasy series full of fun and invention, has convinced several million readers.
With the help of the author and creator, Christophe Arleston, the exhibit proposes a playful, original discovery of the various worlds that make up this star series published by Soleil publishers.
Is Christophe Arleston an author, an explorer or a magician? Everything he touches seems to turn to gold. Since the beginning of Lanfeust of Troy, some 15 years ago, the series has put out several offshoots. And each of them has been among the best-selling comic strips for the year. In all, 6 million albums have been sold. What hides behind this phenomenal success? Arleston has managed to use the codes of the medium for his own purposes and to add just the right touch of comedy, burlesque, adventure, suspense, and imaginary worlds.
Troy, the planet where the Lanfeust adventure started, is a land of huge potential, continually re-invented by the author and his drawers. Arleston has made this first world his home base. Sometimes he takes a closer look at the people living there, sometimes he focuses on the trolls. Then again, he may explore uncharted lands on the planet. Or he may stay in the same place but go back two centuries ago – or four millennia. And each drawer taking possession of a part of this world has the possibility to reinterpret his own vision of Troy.
For the first time, the Belgian Comic Strip Center is organizing an exhibit that is not based on a single graphic work, but on a coherent group of several comic strip artists with their own personalities built up around a single creator. By doing so, this exhibit corresponds perfectly to the Center's policy this year, as it celebrates its 20th anniversary. The worlds of Troy are a perfect answer to the question: "What has changed in comic strips in the last 20 years?" Arleston has invented one thing among others: the success of a writing style orientated first and foremost towards young teenagers. And he has built a basic universe like a spiderweb. Soon, the children of Lanfeust's first fans will be caught up in it too …
Thierry Bellefroid
Exhibit commissioner: Thierry Bellefroid
In a partnership with Brussels BD 2009
With the support of the Brussels-Capital Region


European power markets have become more integrated and renewables have a significant effect on power prices and cross-border exchanges. This paper investigates empirically how the effects of renewables are affected by market expansion across two adjacent countries (France and Germany), based on market data and proprietary data on book orders. We find that wind production lowers power prices on average and increases volatility, not only domestically but also across borders. Using multiple counterfactuals, we examine how our results depend on the level of interconnection and find that further interconnection capacity would decrease price volatility in both countries since the benefits of a larger market would outweigh the contagion effects of volatility. Our findings have important policy implications as they demonstrate the need to coordinate support policies for renewables and policies to support transmission capacity expansion in order to mitigate the impact of volatility on power prices in neighboring power markets.
This paper studies the effect of oil price shocks on U.S. state-level unemployment rates. First, using a test of symmetry, I evaluate whether the relationship between oil prices and state unemployment rates is symmetric. I find no evidence against the null of symmetry after accounting for data mining. Second, I use a symmetric structural VAR model to analyze the effect of oil supply shocks, aggregate demand shocks and oil-specific demand shocks on state unemployment. I find that an adverse supply shock triggers increases in unemployment, whereas a positive aggregate demand shock reduces the unemployment rate across most U.S. states. I also show that oil-specific demand shocks have little effect on state unemployment. Finally, I dig into the historical contribution of the various oil shocks to the changes in state unemployment rates during the shale boom period. I find that aggregate demand shocks contributed the most to the change of unemployment.
Some restructured power systems rely on audited cost information instead of competitive bids for the dispatch and pricing of electricity in real time, particularly in hydro systems in Latin America. Audited costs are also substituted for bids in U.S. markets when local market power is demonstrated to be present. Regulators that favor a cost-based design argue that this is more appropriate for systems with a small number of generation firms because it eliminates the possibilities for generators to behave strategically in the spot market, which is a main concern in bid-based markets. We discuss existing results on market power issues in cost- and bid-based designs and present a counterintuitive example, in which forcing spot prices to be equal to marginal costs in a concentrated market can actually yield lower social welfare than under a bid-based market design due to perverse investment incentives. Additionally, we discuss the difficulty of auditing the true opportunity costs of generators in cost-based markets and how this can lead to distorted dispatch schedules and prices, ultimately affecting the long-term economic efficiency of a system. An important example is opportunity costs that diverge from direct fuel costs due to energy or start limits, or other generator constraints. Most of these arise because of physical and financial inflexibilities that become more relevant with increasing shares of variable and unpredictable generation from renewables.
An important methodological issue in efficiency analysis for incentive regulation of utilities is how to account for the effect of unobserved cost drivers such as environmental factors. We combine a spatial econometric approach with stochastic frontier analysis to control for unobserved environmental conditions when measuring efficiency of electricity distribution utilities. Our empirical strategy relies on the geographic location of firms as a source of information that has previously not been explored in the literature. The underlying idea is to utilise data from neighbouring firms that can be spatially correlated as proxies for unobserved cost drivers. We illustrate this approach using a dataset of Norwegian distribution utilities for the 2004-2011 period. We show that the lack of information on weather and geographic conditions can be compensated with data from surrounding firms. The methodology can be used in efficiency analysis and regulation of other utilities sectors where unobservable cost drivers are important, e.g. gas, water, agriculture, fishing.
Interconnections for cross-border electricity trade improve price convergence and welfare. Increased production from variable renewables however implies higher levels of optimal interconnection capacity than in the past. Rather than using scenario building to determine new optimal levels of interconnection capacity, this paper presents a new methodology for Cost-Benefit Analysis (CBA) based on empirical market data, using the French-German electricity trade as an example. Employing a very fine dataset of hourly supply and demand curves (aggregated auction curves) from the EPEX Spot market, it constructs net export (NEC) and net import demand curves (NIDC) for both countries. This allows assessing hourly welfare impacts for incremental capacity and, summed over the year, the annual welfare benefits for each discrete increase in interconnection capacity. Confronting benefits with the annualised costs of increasing interconnection capacity determines the socially optimal increase in interconnection capacity between France and Germany on the basis of empirical market micro-data.
Efficient operation of power systems increasingly requires accurate forecasting of load and variable energy resources (VER) production, along with flexible resources and markets, capable of adapting to changing conditions in the intraday horizon. It is of utmost importance to reflect these needs in price signals, to align the incentives of market agents with the new challenges. The two-settlement system used by U.S. ISOs falls short to provide efficient intraday economic signals and a cost reflective allocation of intraday rescheduling costs. This paper advocates for a multi-settlement system, which entails calculating intraday prices as forecasts are updated and re-schedules are executed. This approach incorporates more granular prices, as in European intraday markets, while keeping the efficient centralized dispatch logic of the ISO model. A stylized case example illustrates the virtues of a multi-settlement system, which sends cost reflective signals, and consequently facilitates VER integration.
There are possible synergies between the decision to invest in energy efficiency measures and to adopt renewable energy, in the sense that the former reduces energy demand so that the latter can further cut future greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, and which has great potential in the residential sector. Much work has been done in the residential sector on demand for clean energy and on investment in energy efficiency, but to our knowledge there is no specific study that investigates the relationship between the two. This paper fills a gap in the literature, and first shows theoretically that there are relationships of substitution or complementarity between the two decisions depending on the threshold of the cross effect related to the environmental motivation of the consumer. Second, the paper empirically shows that the two decisions are positively interrelated due to unobserved characteristics that determine both decisions. Third, the paper provides differential impact of energy poverty, split incentive problem, dwelling characteristics, commitment and trust on the two decisions. Finally, the paper investigates household characteristics that significantly affect the joint adoption of energy efficient and renewable energy technologies. This contribution can serve to define incentive policies to advance the energy transition.
The introduction of renewable energy paid off-market disrupts the demand-price relationship in wholesale electricity markets. Drawing on 2015 hourly data from France's electricity transmission network operator (RTE) and the French day-ahead spot market, this paper attempts to quantify the disturbance observed and the transfers of revenues among consumers, producers and providers. This study calculates, through a modeling of the day-ahead market, the impact on conventional electricity producers in France in terms of the loss of economic value owing to the introduction of renewable energies. In the same time consumers benefit from lower electricity prices but have to pay for feed-in tariffs. Renewable electricity producers and electricity providers are also the winners. An estimation of the cross-subsidies induced by the injection of renewable electricity is given.


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Marvel's Moon Knight, Cast, Plot, Release Date & Other Details
By: Bushra
Marvel's Moon Knight is going to have Oscar Isaac as the lead and his fans are very happy to know this. Disney plus is known to bring exciting and entertaining shows for everyone. It is going to be a unique show and a different plot will come into play. Audiences are anxiously waiting as the marvel series have always been their top favorite. All the characters are complex and they are going to showcase their talent in a different manner. There is a lot of buzz surrounding this special series so take a look at all the details below.
1 What can we expect from Moon Knight?
2 Who is in the cast of Moon Knight?
3 What is the plot of Moon Knight?
4 What is the release date of moon knight?
What can we expect from Moon Knight?
The team behind Moon Knight is excited to bring something innovative for all the viewers. The cinematographer of the series has confirmed one of the biggest news about the lead cast. If you have checked out the official Twitter page you will notice that they are giving official news to all the audiences. The cinematographer has also started an Instagram post and here is what it says.
"It's an honor to be a part of introducing a new character to the MCU Moon Knight. Who says cinematographers worry about white costumes! Not if they are complex characters played by an amazing performer like Oscar Isaac."
Who is in the cast of Moon Knight?
As we have already discussed that Oscar Isaac is going to play the lead role in the series. The directors of the movie are working very hard to bring something exciting for the viewers. Justin Benson, Aaron Moorhead along Egyptian filmmaker Mohamed Diab is going to be the directors. Jeremy Slater is going to write the script of the series and they have got very big plans to keep a lot of twists and turns. Moon Knight is going to be another big superhero series that will be coming in on Disney plus.
Read More: "Penguin Bloom" First Trailer Out: Everything We Know So Far
What is the plot of Moon Knight?
Moon Knight is going to feature a vigilante that has got a multiple personality disorder. There are multiple identities that reside within him that are all distinctive from one another. The backdrop of the series is Egyptian and you will get very different vibes when you watch it. There are a lot of things that you can expect from this superhero movie. According to the maker Feige, there will be a lot of things to explore mental health issues. The adaptation on Disney plus will play a big role in educating the audiences about it. The filming of the series will soon begin in Budapest and all the locations are going to be beautiful.
What is the release date of moon knight?
Moon knight is going to release sometime by the end of this year. The show was first announced in March 2019 and it seems that the filming will begin soon. Earlier the production plans were halted because of coronavirus. As the situation is getting better the filming will begin and it will soon release on Disney plus. You can enjoy it as soon as it comes out!
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Bushrahttps://www.ccdiscovery.com/
Hi There! My name is Bushra. I am a journalist and I love to gather interesting stories and write about them. I have been a journalist since my school days as I loved getting to know about people and their experiences in life. I have covered topics like entertainment, health, medicine, restaurant reviews and almost everything that a journalist can cover. I follow my profession religiously because I love to write opinionated pieces on drama, film, travel, theater and more. My favorite stories are those that can highlight an issue and which gives me the opportunity to dig into the roots. I realized that behind every story there is a human being like us who want to be presented to the world in a good light. I want to cover stories that promote positivity and peace in the world. I use social media to get real time updates about what's happening in the world and then by adding a pinch of some of my personal opinion. I create a story to share with the world. I began covering news stories and with time I fell in love with my profession to the point that I never want to let it go. I look forward to new beat of journalism and I am eager to share stories of people from different walks of life.
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La fenaksita és un mineral de la classe dels silicats, que pertany al grup de la litidionita. Rep el nom per la seva composició (Fe, Na, K, Si).

Característiques
La fenaksita és un silicat de fórmula química (K,Na)₄(Fe,Mn)₂(Si₄O10)₂(OH,F). Cristal·litza en el sistema triclínic. La seva duresa a l'escala de Mohs es troba entre 5 i 5,5.

Segons la classificació de Nickel-Strunz, la fenaksita pertany a "09.DG - Inosilicats amb 3 cadenes senzilles i múltiples periòdiques" juntament amb els següents minerals: bustamita, ferrobustamita, pectolita, serandita, wol·lastonita, wol·lastonita-1A, cascandita, plombierita, clinotobermorita, riversideïta, tobermorita, foshagita, jennita, paraumbita, umbita, sørensenita, xonotlita, hil·lebrandita, zorita, chivruaïta, haineaultita, epididimita, eudidimita, elpidita, litidionita, manaksita, tinaksita, tokkoïta, senkevichita, canasita, fluorcanasita, miserita, frankamenita, charoïta, yuksporita i eveslogita.

Formació i jaciments
Va ser descoberta a l'esvoranc Material'naya del mont Iukspor, dins el massís de Jibiny (Província de Múrmansk, Rússia). També ha estat descrita en altres muntanyes del massís de Jibiny, sent aquest l'únic indret a tot el planeta on ha estat descrita aquesta espècie mineral.

Referències

Inosilicats
Minerals de potassi
Minerals de sodi
Minerals de ferro
Minerals de manganès
Minerals de fluor
Minerals que contenen hidròxid
Minerals descoberts al mont Iukspor


text:
Living Dolls is an American sitcom featured on the fall 1989 schedule of ABC.  It was a spin-off created by a writer from Who's the Boss? and featuring characters introduced during an episode of that show. The show was the acting debut of Halle Berry. Both Who's the Boss? and Living Dolls were produced by ELP Communications through Columbia Pictures Television and ABC.

Synopsis
The show featured Charlie Briscoe (Leah Remini), a friend of Samantha Micelli (the Who's the Boss? character played by Alyssa Milano). Samantha is dabbling in a modeling career and Charlie, a friend from Samantha's old Brooklyn neighborhood, comes to visit. While doing some test shots for a dog food commercial, it is discovered that Charlie is very photogenic. Charlie is then befriended by the owner of a modeling agency for teenage girls, Trish Carlin (Michael Learned). Trish is also a friend of advertising executive Angela Bower, one of the main characters on Who's the Boss? Trish becomes a mother figure to Charlie and the other models.

Reception
Living Dolls was panned by critics and received mostly negative reviews. It was the only series to receive an "F" grade by People magazine in its 1989 fall preview issue. ABC canceled the series after 12 episodes in December 1989.

Production
The series began as a back-door pilot on Who's the Boss? In that episode, Vivica A. Fox played Emily instead of Halle Berry, and Jonathan Ward portrayed Rick, who came to be known as Eric when David Moscow took over the role for the series. Executives disliked the original cast and held auditions for recasting. The Who's the Boss pilot first aired in March, but it was rerun directly before the Living Dolls premiere, illustrating the reasons why Charlie moved in with Trish in the first place.

Cast
Michael Learned as Miss Patricia "Trish" Carlin
Leah Remini as Charlene "Charlie" Briscoe
Deborah Tucker as Caroline Weldon
Alison Elliott as Martha Lambert
Halle Berry as Emily Franklin
David Moscow as Eric "Rick" Carlin

Episodes

References

External links

1989 American television series debuts
1989 American television series endings
1980s American sitcoms
American Broadcasting Company original programming
English-language television shows
Modeling-themed television series
American television spin-offs
Television series by Sony Pictures Television
Television shows set in New York City


The Office of Equity, Social Justice and Multicultural Education is committed to moving our efforts beyond "diversity sensitivity" to a much deeper systemic approach to educational change and social transformation.
We accomplish this through a commitment to intentional practices, guided by the principles of equity, social justice and multicultural education. First, in order to create an institutional dialogue that shifts the discourse to one of equity, social justice and multicultural education, we must define our terms and create shared understanding of our conceptual framework.
Equality refers to quantity, whereas equity refers to quality. Our commitment is to creating a quality working and learning community for every student, faculty member, classified professional and administrator. Equity is not about fairness or the idea of sameness. Rather, it is much more complex, requiring more critical analysis and systems change in an effort to meet each person where they are in an effort to support the uniqueness that they bring to our institution.
The Center for Economic and Social Justice provides the following definition for social justice, which guides our work in the Equity Office. Social justice is the virtue that guides us in creating those organized human interactions we call institutions. In turn, social institutions, when justly organized, provide us with access to what is good for the person, both individually and in our associations with others. Social justice also imposes on each of us a personal responsibility to work with others to design and continually perfect our institutions as tools for personal and social development. Social justice encompasses economic justice.
Multicultural education has been broadly defined by various scholars and practitioners in the fields of early childhood through higher education. The following is a summary provided by National Association of Multicultural Education (NAME) to explain this critical approach and how it can be applied regardless of the institution of education. What's more, this explanation should serve as a starting place for deeper understanding as well as one that most closely informs the theoretical underpinnings of the De Anza College Equity Office.
"Multicultural education is a process that permeates all aspects of our campus practices, policies and organization as a means to ensure the highest levels of academic achievement for all students. It helps students develop a positive self-concept by providing knowledge about the histories, cultures, and contributions of diverse groups. It prepares all students to work actively toward structural equality in organizations and institutions by providing the knowledge, dispositions, and skills for the redistribution of power and income among diverse groups. Thus, school curriculum must directly address issues of racism, sexism, classism, linguicism, ablism, ageism, heterosexism, religious intolerance and xenophobia.


This book has been the best-selling DIY Manual for over 40 years. At 517 pages, the newly revised edition covers almost every imaginable home improvement project and includes new chapters on landscaping, outdoor projects, storage projects, updated code/materials and technology, plus more than 3,000 full color photos and step by step directions for each project.
Way back in the day when we first became homeowners we had a subscription to The Family Handyman magazine. It was awesome. We would tear over it every month wondering what project we could work on next. What we loved most were the colorful photos that broke it all down for you.
This book is just like that! It is a large hardcover book but you can also get a Kindle version for less but there is nothing like being able to just grab this book off the shelf and referencing whatever it is you are looking for.
Looking to change a faucet? It's in there.
Want to change your toilet, repair a gasket? It's in there!
Not sure how to use a saw the correct, safe way? It's in there!
Need to fix broken tiles? Run a cable, Repair a water heater? It's all there.
Never put up drywall? You can learn with this book!
There are colorful, step-by-step photos for everything you will ever need to do on your home.
Great book for newlyweds, new home owners, or anyone you know who likes to do it them self!
The leading manual for home improvements is getting an update to address current codes, latest materials, tools and technology.
The bestselling, most comprehensive guide to home improvements has been revised and updated once again since it's revision in 2005. Over 10 million copies of READER'S DIGEST COMPLETE DO-IT-YOURSELF MANUAL have been sold since it's original publication in 1973. In 2005, the manual got bigger and better than ever, when The Family Handyman and Reader's Digest joined forces and completely revised, updated, rewrote, and redesigned this home improvement classic. Now in 2014, The Family Handyman has once again updated and revised this do-it-yourself classic to make it relevant to today's homeowners and DIYers . . .
Twice as many storage projects that help home owners cut clutter.
New building materials that yield great-looking, long-lasting results -- and low maintenance!
New technology that lets homeowners save energy, add convenience or improve security.
New building codes that make homes safer, more energy-efficient and trouble-free.
The book's tried-and-true instructions provide do-it-yourself solutions to a ton of problems that could cost a fortune if you had to hire a professional. This manual is a "must-have" reference guide for every home-owning man or woman.
Disclaimer: We received a complimentary copy for our honest opinion. No monetary compensation was offered.


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"New year New me" people say. But is it really a "New me"? Or will it just be a repeat of last year hoping we meet our goals but ultimately failing? In our journalism class we interviewed a couple staff members about their resolutions for 2019.
Tanyah Ali and Madison Allen interviewed Ms. Maraghy and Ms. King. Ms. King did not have a resolution. Like most people, she said she didn't have one because she "Don't stick to them." She did have a simpler goal in mind which was to "become a better person." Simple, but admirable.
Mary Maraghy did in fact have a resolution. Her's were simple: to be nicer, calmer, and more laid back. We asked what had inspired her to have these goals and she said that looking through the year she's realized that "the kids aren't here very long," time flies. We asked her progress so far and she said "50 kids in a class is hard." We believe in her. We then asked her how long she thought it would take to complete her goal, to which she responded, "A lifetime." Hopefully everyone can agree that you can always improve little by little throughout life. The last question was if she thought she would achieve her goal. Her response was "Yes, with faith, with God, all things are possible." You can achieve anything if you put your mind to it!
Now here's a few tips to help complete your resolution! It's never too late to make a resolution even if it's March, summer, or even 2031, you can always make new goals/resolutions any time of the year! One of the first and most important things in wanting to achieve your goal is to just do it. When you put your mind to something that you want done, you have to put in the work to get it done. A lot of people wake up on January 1st and expect everything to change, but nothing will change until you change. The second tip is very important, which is to plan, plan, and PLAN. Many people don't have what they want done planned ahead, they just have a goal in mind. If you don't have the steps planned out to meet your goal, then you will fall up the stairs and have a much harder time reaching it! Set up mini goals that lead to one big goal to make your goal less alarming. The third step is to be calm and patient. You might have a couple setbacks but don't let that ruin all your progress! Repeat steps till you complete your goals.
We hope you found some useful information from our article! Happy New Years and the best of luck.


First of all because our bees collect nectar from Kythnos' self-sown plants and not from intensive farming lands that may have been sprayed with pesticides.
We only use pure essential oils and acids to treat bee diseases. We never ever treat our bees with antibiotics.
Last but not least, we always leave some honey in the hive for our bees. Just because we don't want to feed our bees sweet substitutes, such as sugar and glucose. And this is what gives us the right to say that "our honey contains nothing but honey".
Organic beekeeping is not an easy choice. It comes with many difficulties. And it requires a lot of time and energy, compared to conventional beekeeping.
However the end result is always rewarding. Not in terms of quantity, but in terms of quality. And that's the most important thing for us.