text:
British Navy and Army of the Napoleonic Wars
Against Great Britain there was no broder just to be marched across.
In comparison the European countries were exposed to repeated and
very destructive invasions by the enemy. The geography matters.
Isolation gave Britain the opportunity to enter wars selectively. When
Tsar of Russia asked Britain to send its army to Germany, where was
the bloodiest fighting, the British government refused. Instead they
sent their troops to Spain and southern Italy.
Great Britain had relatively small field army and powerful navy.
The navy guarded the English channel, made Britain's trade boom,
it sustained its colonies and reshaped its politics.
"Rule, Britannia! rule the waves:
"Britons never will be slaves."
Great Britain during the Napoleonic Wars.
- - - - - Napoleon's planned invasion of Britain.
- - - - - Britain's military expenditure.
- - - - - Britain and the coalitions against France.
The British Navy
Victories and defeats.
Royal Navy's contribution to
Wellington's victory in Peninsula.
- - - - - Comparison of naval strength
- - - - - Spanish Navy
- - - - - French Navy
- - - - - Russian Navy
- - - - - American Navy
The British Army.
Strength, organization and deployment.
"... the clumsiness of their movements."
Officers and privates.
Duke of York.
Wellington raised the reputation of
the British army to a level unknown
since Marlborough.
Trade was Britain's lifeblood. "They (the Brirish) are
a nation of shopkeepers, their glory is in their wealth".
- Napoleon
Picture: Officer of 9th Foot on Martinique in 1793.
from Haythorntwaite's "Wellington's Infantry (1)"
The 18th century was the period in which Great Britain rose to a dominant position among European trading empires. To what extent were the colonies a case of trade stimulating empire, or of empire stimulating trade? The answer is that trade and empire went hand in hand, with a symbiotic relationship to each other. Growing overseas commerce with colonies stimulated merchants to provide ships, as well as goods for expanding settler societies. Great Britain became the dominant financial and maritime power of the 19th century. The industrial revolution and the trade with colonies made the British very wealthy people. Trade was Britain's lifeblood and for this reason Napoleon used to say "They are a nation of shopkeepers, their glory is in their wealth".
Britain's success was due not only to the trade but also to military conquest.
1751-1763 Conquest of India
1756-1763 War in West Indies
1767-1771 First Mysore War
1775-1783 American War of Independence
1778-1783 War with France and Spain
1776-1782 First Mahratta War
By 1800, Great Britain possessed a global empire that was hugely impressive in scale, and stronger in both the Atlantic and Indian Oceans, and around their shores, than that of any other European state.
History proves that although Britain declaimed so loudly against Napoleon's grasping spirit, she has since acquired more territory than she ever charged him with conquering.
Between 1790s and the end of the Napoleonic Wars, British forces invaded Cape Cod in 1795 and 1806, Ceylon in 1795-1796 and 1814-1818, Argentine in 1806-1807, Arabia in 1809 and 1819-21, and Nepal in 1814.
Plans were drafted to capture the Spanish province of Chile and link up with Argentine, and Sir Arthur Wellesey "was to be asked to invade Spanish held Mexico". There was a plethora of schemes for attacks on various countries, with the possibility of a seizure of the Philippines thrown in for good measure.
While the armies of Europe were exhausting themselves in direct bloody actions,
small detachments from Britain were turning this situation to advantage by
acquiring the British Empire all around the world.
The conflict between France and Great Britain, tends often towards stalemate. The two nations were evenly matched but have very different strengths.
Britain had a smaller population but this disadvantage was offset by her wealth and her superiority at sea. While the armies of Europe were exhausting themselves in direct bloody actions, small detachments from Britain were turning this situation to advantage by acquiring the British Empire all around the world.
British contribution to any war against France in Europe was limited to sea war and providing funds for allied field armies. From time to time Britain sent small force on the continent to support her allies, most often on secondary theaters of war (Portugal, southern Italy, Holland etc.)
Because Great Britain was an important force in encouraging and financing resistance to France, and Napoleon lacked the resources to defeat the Royal Navy at sea, he resorted instead to economic warfare. The Emperor imposed a large-scale embargo (called the Continental System) against British trade, inaugurated by issuing the Berlin Decree in 1806.
Napoleon's planned invasion of Britain.
"If only more English mothers could
feel the horrors of war !" (- Napoleon)
Picture: Cartoon of Prime Minister of Great Britain,
William Pitt, and the warships of the Royal Navy
expecting the French invasion.
Although Britain had the largest navy in the world and was separated from the French by water the threat of French invasion was greeted in England with horror. Several times during the Revolution France had tried to invade Great Britain, once in Ireland and once in Wales. When the Irish foray coincided with local rebellion, it created great anxiety.
Napoleon's capture of Belgium and the sea port of Antwerp represented even more serious danger than the Irish invasion. The British goverment built an alternative capital at Weedon , complete with army barracks and a pavilon for the royal family.
The English newspapers were full of articles and caricatures about "Buonaparte", to cheer up their readers. It has been the greatest alarm ever known in the city of London and an intense invasion panic in the entire country. Major-General William Napier writes, "The uninterrupted success that, for so many years, attended the arms of Napoleon, gave him a moral influence doubling his actual force. Exciting at once terror, admiration, and hatred, he absorbed the whole attention of an astonished world, and, openly or secretly, all men acknowledged the power of his genius; the continent bowed before him, and in England an increasing number of absurd and virulent libels on his person and character indicated the growth of secret fear." (Napier - "History of the War in Peninsula 1807-1814" p 101)
Picture: Napoleon at Boulogne camp on the coast.
Napoleon was demonised and British mothers would tell their children at night, 'If you don't say your prayers, Boney will come and get you.' There was considerable relief, then, when Admiral Nelson defeated the Spanish and French navy at Trafalgar.
The threat of invasion however still existed and the British government ordered the Royal Navy to attack fleets of third countries (Dutch fleet in the Texel in 1805, and the Danish fleet in Copenhagen in 1807) against the possibility that the Emperor with his swiftness, might gain control of them.
Britain's military expenditure.
Despite smaller populace Britain outspent France
by a ratio of 3 : 1 in military expenditure (!)
Britain was the biggest military spender in the world.
The struggle between Great Britain and France was not David versus Goliath as some English authors suggest. Britain was economically strong country. It experienced an accelerated process of economic change that transformed a largely agrarian economy into the world's first industrial economy.
Furthermore, Great Britain was a very populous country. In 1811 the total population of Great Britain was 18.5 million. In comparison Prussia had 9,7 millions, and USA only 6 mln. Despite smaller populace Great Britain outspent France by a ratio of 3 : 1 in military expenditure. Great Britain was the biggest military spender in the world.
Denmark - 1 million
Wurttemberg - 1,2 millions
Westphalia - 1,9 millions
Saxony - 1,95 millions
Lombardy - 2 millions
Papal State - 2,3 millions
Sweden - 2,3 millions
Portugal - 3 millions
Bavaria - 3,3 millions
Poland Duché de Varsovie - 4,3 millions
Naples - 5 millions
Holland & Belgium - 6,2 millions
USA - 6,5 millions
Prussia - 9,7 millions (in 1806 reduced to 4,9 millions)
Spain - 11 millions
Great Britain - 18,5 millions
Austria - 21 millions
France - 30 millions
Russia - 40 (with annexed territories)
If Prussia was the poorest and smallest 'Great Power' of the era, Great Britain was, without doubt, the richest and economically the most advanced. The Industrial Revolution, the British Empire, and the Royal Navy's command of the sea, meant that Britain could spend vast sums on the war against Napoleon. (- Robert Mantle)
[Sources: European State Finance Data Base,
"Report of the House of Commons - Inflation: 1750-1998"]
Britain (subsidies to allies + the Royal Navy + army,
artillery, militia in pounds sterlings (millions)
{* - an average for each 5-year increment}
1805 3.3+15.0+22.6=40.9
1806 2.7+18.9+24.9*=46.5
1811 14.2+19.8+41.1*=75.1
TOTAL = 535.5 millions
France total for army and navy in pounds (millions)
Britain and the coalitions against France.
In Europe was born saying:
"England will fight against Napoleon
to the last drop of Prussian, Austrian
and Russian blood".
British prime minister Pitt announced on 31 January 1793 that Britain was involved in a 'war of extermination' with France. Already in the beginning of the conflict Britain supported the uprisings in Vendee (in western France), led the rebellion in Toulon, etc. Furthermore, Britain had been sending aid to France's enemies in the form of money, subsidies, arms and uniforms. Britain would shelter French emigrants who were opposed to Napoleon, helped plots to assassinate him (Artois and Cadoudal,) and supplied the terrorists with arms.
Many coalition members were suspicious of British motives in fanning the flames of conflict on the continent to distract France while refusing to commit own forces in large numbers. The flow of money was such that in July 1800 Mr. Nicholls said in speech in British Parliament "...even our allies had said that the English covered Germany with blood and gold."
The coalitions however were not deeply rooted. Britain's Foreign Secretary had envoys at the Russian, Austrian, and Prussian headquarters. Their reports showed that Britain's allies had its own aims. Castlereagh was taken aback to find that Russia, Austria and Prussia had little interest in Britain and her part in the conflict, save for her huge financial backing. (In 1813 Austria had offered Napoleon a negotiation peace about which Castlereagh had not been consulted.)
Coalition Allied states
First Coalition Austria,
Sardinia,
Prussia,
and Britain The French won.
Second Coalition
(formed in 1798) Austria,
Ottoman Empire,
Papal States,
Third Coalition
Sicily,
and Britain. The French won.
(The French navy however
was defeated at Trafalgar.)
Fourth Coalition
(formed in 1806) Prussia,
Saxony,
Sweden,
Fifth Coalition
Sixth Coalition
(formed in 1812) Russia,
Austria,
German states,
and Britain The French were defeated.
Of the 500,000 men that Napoleon had
organized for his invasion of Russia,
barely 100,000 remained.
"I have no army anymore !" - Napoleon
His new army was crushed in 1813-14
(defeats at Dennewitz, Katzbach,
Kulm, Leipzig, Laon and Paris.)
Paris captured by allied troops.
Napoleon's first abdication.
Seventh Coalition
(formed in 1815) Britain,
Netherlands,
German states The French were defeated.
Napoleon's second abdication.
The Royal Navy.
The Royal Navy made Britain's trade boom and prosper,
The sailor enjoyed greater popular respect than the soldier.
The Royal Navy made Britain's trade boom and prosper, it sustained its colonies and reshaped its politics. The sailor enjoyed greater popular respect than the infantryman, artillerist or the cavalryman. King George III in Speech From the Throne addressed the assembled Houses of Parliament and said: "... my Navy is the principle article of our natural strength, it gives me much satisfaction ..."
The navy enabled England to avoid prolonged land wars on the European Continent. The English Channel has often enough proved to be British army's salvation. After failed expedition the troops would retreat on the island and lick their wounds. In comparison the European territories, populaces and armies were exposed to repeated and unabated invasions by the enemy. Against England there was no broder just to be marched across. Isolation gave the opportunity to enter wars and intrigues selectively. The geography matters, it makes people who they are.
The British fleet greatly increased in size, from about 500 in 1793 to approx. 950 vessels in 1805. The principal royal dockyards were in Woolwich, Plymouth and Portsmouth and they worked on all cylinders. Portsmouth had been the embarkation point for some of the Royal Navy's greatest victories but also its worst defeats.
The British navy empolyed leading shipwrights from other countries, particularly after the French Revolution caused many royalists to flee from France. For example Marc Brunel carried out many improvements in the British dockyards, Barrallier designed several warships for the Royal Navy. The Royal Navy had paid particular attention to French prizes and many improvements in hull design had come from them. The French warship Courageaux was directly copied many times.
Danish ships were occasionally influential, like the captured Christian VII.
The largest British ships-of-the-line:
- Caledonia - 120 guns
- Ville de Paris - 110-114 guns
- Hibernia - 110 guns
- Victory - 100-104 guns
On Victory : on forecastle 2 very heavy 68pdr (Carronades) and 2 12 pdrs
on Quarter Deck 12 12pdr, on Upper Deck 30 12pdr, on Middle Deck 28 24pdr
and on the Lower Deck 30 32pdr
Victories and defeats of the Royal Navy 1680-1815.
From the beginning of the 19th century until well into the
20th century it was the most powerful navy in the world.
France and Britain were in war for several centuries. France had to divide its military and financial power between land and sea, while Britain could direct its main strength onto the world's oceans. A series of victories over the French marked the naval wars: Russell's at Barfleur and La Hogue in 1692, Anson's off Cape Finisterre in 1747, Hawke's at Quiberon Bay in 1759, and Howe's on the Glorious First of June in 1794.
The wars of the 18th century produced a series of tactically indecisive naval battles between evenly matched fleets (British and French) in line ahead, such as Malaga (1704), Rügen Island (1715), Toulon (1744), Minorca (1756), Negapatam (1758), Cuddalore (1758), Pondicherry (1759), Ushant (1778), Dogger Bank (1781), the Chesapeake (1781), Hogland (1788) and Öland (1789). Although a few of these battles had important strategic consequences, like the Chesapeake which the British needed to win, all were tactically indecisive.
Many admirals began to believe that a contest between the two fleets could not produce a decisive result. The tactically decisive actions of the 18th century were all chase actions, where one fleet was clearly superior to the other, such as the two battles of Finisterre (1747), Lagos (1759), Quiberon Bay (1759) and Cape St. Vincent (1780).
In 1793 at French Royalists invitation, British and Spanish forces occupied Toulon, the main French naval base on the Mediterranean. Bonaparte first made his name here as a young officer of artillery, by spotting an ideal place for his guns to be set up in such a way that they dominated the city's harbour. Once this was done (by means of a sharp assault on an enemy position), the British Navy ships under Admiral Hood and the Spaniards under Juan de Langara were compelled to withdraw, and the resistance crumbled.
British naval innovation was retarded by an unseemly dispute between two admirals in the aftermath of the Battle of Toulon. The British fleet under Admiral Mathews had been unable to draw level with the French fleet, and Mathews ordered an attack anyway, intending all the British ships to attack the French rear. He had no signals by which he could communicate his intentions, and the rear squadron under Vice Admiral Lestock, his rival and second-in-command, obtusely remained at the prescribed intervals in line ahead, far to the rear of the action.
A subsequent series of courts martial, in which political influence was brought to bear by Lestock's friends in Parliament, punished Mathews and those captains who had supported him in the battle, and vindicated Lestock. In several future actions, Admirals who were tempted to deviate from the Admiralty's fighting instructions were reminded of Mathews's fate.
Nelson made his name with his contribution to Jervis's victory over the Spanish at Cape St.Vincent in 1797. It was one of the opening battles of the Anglo-Spanish War (1796–1808), as part of the French Revolutionary Wars. The British fleet (15 ships-of-the-line and 5 frigates) defeated the Spanish (27 ships-of-the-line and 7 frigates) under Admiral Don José de Córdoba y Ramos. Admiral Jervis sent a squadron under Nelson into the Mediterranean the following year. That squadron e-established British command of the Mediterranean at the Battle of the Nile.
In 1797 however the Spanish fleet heavily defeated Nelson at the Battle of Tenerife. Nelson's expedition counted 400 guns and 4,000 men. The Spaniards were led by Antonio Gutierrez, a two-time victor over the British. They had hastened to prepare a defence following the British raid in April. In the battle the Spanish suffered only 70 dead and wounded. Nelson withdrew with the loss of several hundred casualties and his arm. The British never again tried to capture Santa Cruz de Tenerife.
The French Revolution of 1793 halted the French naval revival and the professional skills of French naval personnel declined. This created an opportunity for the remarkable successes of the Royal Navy in the French Revolutionary and Napoleonic Wars. In 1798 Rear Admiral Horatio Nelson (14 ships-of-the-line) defeated the French (13 ships-of-the-line and 4 frigates) at Aboukir Bay. French casualties have been estimated to have been as high as 2,300 dead and wounded, and 3,000 captured. British losses were 895 dead and wounded. News of the victory was delayed reaching Britain as Leander, returning home with Nelson's dispatches, was captured after a fierce battle by the surviving 74-gun Le Généreux. The battle of Aboukir Bay established British naval superiority during the remainder of the French Revolutionary Wars.
In 1801 the French troops in Egypt comfortably returned in British ships to France,
free to serve again, in accordance with the terms of an earlier convention.
In August 1805 the best French admiral, La Touche-Treville suddenly died and Napoleon replaced him with Pierre Villeneuve. The tensions between the French and Spanish admirals were high - the French commander Villeneuve accusing the Spanish commander Gravina of cowardice the night before the fleet sailed from Trafalgar. Villeneuve did indeed predict Admiral Nelson's attack quite accurately, yet he was at a loss to respond.
The British gunners were better trained than their Spanish and French counterparts, and
the use of new signaling methods by the British played a significant role in the combat.
The Battle of Trafalgar, which began at midday, was terminated about five. The Royal Navy lost 1.690 men killed and wounded incl. Admiral Nelson who was killed by a French sharpshooter. Hastily carried below so as not to be seen by Victory's crew as they fought on, Nelson was taken down to the cockpit where he died 3 hours later. Before he died he said: "They have done for me at last" said Nelson "my backbone is shot through !" The Bellerophon's captain also received a fatal shot from a French sniper.
The casualties of the French and Spanish fleets were very heavy, they lost 4.500-7.000 men and many ships-of-the-line. The decisive British victory at Trafalgar ended Napoleon's power on the sea and made any French invasion of Britain virtually impossible. Following the battle, the British navy was never again seriously challenged by the French fleet in a large-scale engagement.
Although the British navy dominated the high seas after Trafalgar, the "coast war" was far from being over. It was the permanent concern of the British, to harm France by preventing any merchant ships other than those of Britain from reaching continental ports. And it is the permanent concern of the French, commanding the land, to prevent British vessels entering those same ports.
Furthermore, although Napoleon's invasion of England never materialized, he could freely campaign "deep into Spain, Austria, and Russia, leaving his coasts lightly garrisoned by second-line troops, without much worry over a British invasion." ( - Esposito & John Elting, USA )
In March 16th 1807 the Royal Navy and 5,000 troops invaded and occupied Alexandria in Egypt to cause "a very great degree distress to the Constantinopole". Whatever was the motivation, "the attack on Alexandria could be viewed diplomatically only in the worst possible light." It backfired as this action ended in failure as the native forces crushed British infantry inflicting "almost 1,400 casualties". It forced the British troops to abandon the idea of expanding the conquered territory, and they were confined only to the city.
In September 1807, British ambassador from Constantinopole, Arbuthnot, had already pressed for warships to be sent to bully the Turks. Admiral Collingwood sent number of ships to the Dardanelles and shortly after this the British Cabinet decided to send Vice-Admiral Duckworth with more ships to the Turkish capital "to demand the immediate surrender of the Turkish Fleet , together with that of supply of naval stores from the arsenal ..."
The Turks however showed no signs of being intimidated. They cannonaded the British forcing them to a hastily retreat on March 3rd. The British barely escaped being battered by 300 cannons. This action ended up in humiliation for the Royal Navy.
Despite the loss of many ships in the Battle of Copenhagen in 1801, Denmark-Norway still maintained a considerable navy. In 1806 the majority of the Danish army was at this time defending the southern border against possible attack from the French. There was concern in Britain that Napoleon might try to force Denmark to close the Baltic Sea to British ships. The British believed that access to the Baltic was important to Britain for trade and that it gave the Royal Navy access to help Britain's allies Sweden and (before Tilsit) Russia against France. Britain's Foreign Secretary, Lord Howick, had tried unsuccessfully to persuade Denmark into a secret alliance with Britain and Sweden. British troops under General Wellesley defeated a Danish force of militia at Køge, south of Copenhagen.
The Danes rejected British demands to surrender, so the British fleet under Admiral Gambier bombarded the city from 2 to 5 September 1807, killing 2,000 civilians and destroying 30 % of the buildings. Then during armistice they carried off the Danish fleet and "all the naval stores in the arsenal."
In 1808 according to the Convention of Cintra the French troops with all its equipment and plunder (!) were again transfered safely on British ships. This time from Portugal to France. (In 1801 the French troops in Egypt returned in British ships to France.)
In 1808, the British fleet and expeditionary force sent to help Sweden against Russian aggression proved powerless to prevent the Russian conquest of Finland. The British navy gained control of the Baltic Sea, but - as in 1715-1721 - could only parade impotently without seriously hindering Russian operations. Sweden capitulated in September 1809.
In 1809 a Portuguese-British naval squadron took French Guiana for the Portuguese Empire.
With the signing of the Treaty of Paris in 1814 the region was handed back to the French.
In 1812 war broke out with USA after disputes made worse by the blockade. Despite having their coastline blocked by the British warships, the American raiders who eluded the Royal Navy net caused considerable damage to Britain's trade. By mid-1814, more than 800 British vessels had been taken, forcing the Royal Navy to escort trade convoys. Furthermore, in several small naval battles the American warships defeated the schooners, sloops and other smaller vessels of the fearsome Royal Navy.
For example in October 1812 the 44-gun United States, took on the British 38-gunner Macedonian off Madeira. Bombarding from long range, the United States pulverised the enemy ship and forced it to surrender. To add insult to British injury, the Macedonian was repaired, reflagged and fought again - this time for America.
In December a duel between two frigates (American Constitution and British Java) took place off Brazil and, once again, ended in an American victory. It took two hours, but the Java was left a wreck and its captain forced to surrender. However, the Americans had no ships-of-the-line, thus by the end of the Napoleonic Wars the Royal Navy was still unchallenged mistress of the oceans.
In the second British-Dutch War several major battles took place, nearly all of them on English territory. It was during this period that the battle of Chatham (1667) took place, arguably the worst naval defeat in English history until this very day.
Without the Royal Navy, Britain's campaign in Spain
and Portugal could never have been waged.
Without the Royal Navy, Great Britain's campaign in Spain and Portugal could never have been waged and certainly not with the success that was eventually achieved. Gates writes, "As well as ferrying troops to and from the war zone, the fleet transported virtually all the gold, equipment, food and munitions used by the Allied armies and guerillas. ... Moreover, whereas the lack of any naval support of their own confined the French to moving via the appalling Peninsular roads, the Allied forces could frequently transport men and material by sea; a method that was invariably safer, cheaper and quicker.
This provided them with enormous advantages in the fields of logistics and strategy. ... Eternally threatened with landings on the sea-shore, their [French] army had to detach thousands of badly needed troops to patrol beaches, garrison ports and man coastal batteries. In 1810, for example, two Allied squadrons - based on Ferrol and Corunna - tied down some 20,000 Imperial soldiers along the Biscay coast. A further 20,000 soldiers were needed to invest the naval base at Cadiz, and several thousands more spent their time fruitlessly chasing Allied detachments that constantly embarked and disembarked along the Andalusian coast. Very few of these men ever saw an enemy ship or soldier, but they had to be deployed to counter the possible threat of attack. Furthermore, the sea-shore guards frequently became targets in themselves. Required to patrol enormous lengths of coastline, they were invariably thin on the ground and easy prey for amphibious forces composed of thousands of men." (Gates - "The Spanish Ulcer" p 29)
During 1811 the British-Portuguese army did not share the fate of that of Massena, was almost entirely the responsibility of the Royal Navy. In sharp contrast to the Allied army, the French supply network was constantly disrupted by guerilla bands and the rebellious population.
Consequently, the operations of the French army were repeatedly undermined or delayed by shortages of such basic equipment as munitions, horses, weapons and money. Unable to rely on their forces being adequately supplied by convoy, French marhsals had to resort to extracting provisions locally - much to the annoyance of the populace.
The total British naval dominance lasted until 1812, when the USA interfered, albeit indirectly, on the side of the French. In 1812 the war with USA broke out and American privateers arrived on European and African coast. The Royal Navy was forced to devote hundreds of warships to a blockade of the American coast. "Then the American privateers, being unmolested, ran down the coast of Africa, intercepted the provision trade from the Brazils, one of the principal resources of the army, and emboldened by impunity infested the coast of Portugal, captured 14 ships loaded with flour off the Duoro, and a large vessel in the very mouth of the Tagus." (Napier - Vol IV, p 185)
The French naval vessels, backed by a powerful force of privateers and American ships, instigated a relentless campaign againt British vessels, and by summer 1814, about 800 merchantmen had been sunk, damaged or captured, many of them in home waters. Gates writes, "With ships like USS 'Argus' rampaging up and down the English Channel, Wellington's formerly smooth supply system was appreciably disrupted."
(Royal Navy's rivals and allies.)
Comparison of naval strength in 1808-1809:
- Great Britain: 113 ships-of-the-line
- France: 45
- Spain: 45
- Russia: 34
- Denmark: 21
Spanish Navy (Armada Española).
In 19th century the Spanish navy was in decline.
At Trafalgar many of the Spanish crews were land soldiers,
recently press-ganged beggars and peasants, with some not
even having fired a cannon on board of a rolling warship.
The Spanish navy is responsible for notable achievements in history such as the discovery of America, the first world circumnavigation, and the discovery of a maritime path from the Far East to America across the Pacific Ocean (Urdaneta's route). The Spanish navy reached its zenith in the 16th Century. Since then until the Seven Years War it was one of the most powerful navies in the World. Although the Seven Years War was not a positive experience for the Spaniards, their navy did a good job in the 18th century given the fact that they were outgunned and outmanned by the British. The results speak for themselves.
Spain was able to successfully maintain her vast American empire vitually intact despite frequent British Navy attacks. It was only when revolutionary movements in her American empire that Spain lost most of her territories and not because of British actions.
In 1588 the Spanish Armada (22 galleons and 108 armed merchant vessels) sailed against England under the command of the Duke of Medina Sidonia. The English navy had 34 warships and 163 armed merchant vessels. The Spanish fleet reached and anchored outside Gravelines, but, while awaiting communications from Parma's army, it was driven out by an English fire ship attack. In the ensuing battle, the Spanish fleet was forced to abandon its rendezvous. The Armada managed to regroup and withdraw north, with the English fleet harrying it for some distance up the east coast of England. The commander decided that the fleet should return to Spain; it sailed around Scotland and Ireland, but severe storms disrupted it. More than 24 vessels were wrecked on the western coasts of Ireland. Of the fleet's initial 130 ships, about 50 never returned to Spain.
The following year Elizabeth I launched the English Armada, or Counter Armada, under Sir Francis Drake, but it was unsuccessful in its goals, resulting in Phillip II retaining some naval superiority. Spain's navy quickly recovered and shipped a greatly increased amount of precious metals from the Americas.
For a very long time the Spanish Empire remained a major target of British navy. In 1704 Admiral Rooke captured Gibraltar which became the major British base in the western Mediterranean. When war broke out in 1739, Admiral Anson took a squadron to prey on Spanish trade.
In 19th century the Spanish navy was in decline and suffered several defeats. In 1805 forced to the battle by Napoleon, the Franco-Spanish fleet was defeated at Trafalgar. The battle exposed the futility of using inexperienced crews against the veteran British sailors. Many of the Spanish crews were land soldiers, recently press-ganged beggars and peasants, with some not even having fired a cannon on board of a rolling ship, in contrast to the heavily drilled British crews who had seen many actions by this time. This had come about by the loss of many experienced sailors to an epidemic of the yellow fever in 1802–04, as well as being a traditional cost saving measure. The French admiral ignored the pleas of the Spanish captains - who had long experience in breaking blockades (and held no illusions about the state of their fleet) to wait for better conditions in which to leave the port.
The largest ship of the Spanish fleet during the Napoleonic Wars was the Santissima Trinidad with 130 guns (!) Actually it was the largest ship-of-the-line in the world. The second largest was British Caledonia with 120 guns. Santissima Trinidad in fact repressented a very old fashioned idea of ship design and it sailed very badly. Even the Spanish admiral recommeded that she be used only for the defence of Cadiz harbor.
Three spectacular Spanish victories over the British navy.
The defeat of English Armada, 1589.
The English Armada, or Counter Armada, was led by Sir Francis Drake as admiral and Sir John Norreys as general, and failed to drive home the advantage England had won upon the dispersal of the Spanish Armada in the previous year. Like its Spanish predecessor, the English Armada suffered from overly optimistic planning.
The British forces consisted of: 6 galleons, 60 armed merchant vessels, and 23,375 men.
The Spanish forces: 4 galleons, unknown number of armed vessels, and 15,000 men.
The campaign resulted in the defeat of the English fleet and eventually to a withdrawal with heavy losses both in lives and ships (11,000–15,000 killed, wounded or died of disease, and 40 ships sunk or captured). The Spanish victory marked a revival of King Philip II's naval power through the next decade. Spanish losses were only 900 killed and wounded.
Battle of Cartagena, 1741.
In 1741 the Spaniards scored a massive victory over the British at Cartagena. The Battle of Cartagena was a huge amphibious engagement between British forces under Vice-Admiral Vernon and those of Spain under Admiral de Lezo. The battle, although it is now largely forgotten in Great Britain, was one of the largest naval campaigns in British history.
- - - - - - - - - - - British forces: 27,400 military personnel and 29 ships-of-the-line
- - - - - - - - - - - Spanish forces: 4,000 military personnel and 6 ships-of-the-line
During the early stage of the battle, when the Spanish forces had retreated from different defense points to regroup in San Lazaro, feeling victory in his hands Vernon dispatched a messenger, to inform King George of their victory. Up to 11 different commemorative medals were minted in London to celebrate this "victory". In one of these medals Admiral Vernon was shown looking down upon the "defeated" Spanish admiral who appeared kneeling down. After the news of defeat of the British Armada reached London all the medals were ordered to be removed from circulation, and king George II forbade to talk or write about the defeat.
The battle however ended with a major defeat and heavy losses for the British. When the embarrassing news of the outcome reached London, the British government prohibited the news from being disclosed and published. Following the news of the disaster the government soon collapsed. News of Britain's defeat reached Europe at the end of June, 1741 and had immense repercussions.
Battle of Tenerife, 1797.
In 1797 the Spanish fleet soundly defeated Nelson at Tenerife. Nelson's expedition counted 400 guns and 4,000 men. The Spaniards were led by Antonio Gutierrez, a two-time victor over the British. They had hastened to prepare a defence following the British raid in April. In the battle the Spanish suffered only 70 dead and wounded. Nelson withdrew with the loss of several hundred casualties and his arm. The British never again tried to capture Santa Cruz de Tenerife.
The French Navy (Marine nationale, La Royale).
France was not a maritime nation in the same as Britain, Portugal
or Spain, and her navy always took second place to the army.
Pre-revolutionary officers had been aristocratic, professional and
well trained. The Revolution however caused them to flee the country.
Anglo-French rivalry was fuelled by the two nations' desire to control colonial trade. The French government condemned the "oceanocrats" and claimed to be the defender of maritime freedom and the protector of neutral nations. French ships typically fired their cannons on the upward roll of the ship, disabling their opponents but doing little damage to the enemy ships or their crews. British and Dutch ships, by contrast, tended to use the opposite tactic of firing on the downward roll into the enemy hulls, causing a storm of flying splinters that killed and maimed the enemy gun crews. The French frigates were excellent, while their ships-of-the-line not so. It was however the French navy that made possible the American victory in the American Revolution.
Pre-revolutionary officers had been aristocratic, professional and well trained. The Revolution however caused them to flee the country. Many ended up in Britain. During the Napoleonic Wars the French warships were blocked in port by the Royal Navy. Frequent gun practice while under sail gave the British navy's gunners an advantage over the blocked French. Another advantage was the new flintlock firing mechanisms that allowed for more accurate sighting on the cannon. In battle the French aimed at the rigging rather than the hulls of their opponents. It resulted that British casualties were often remarkably light compared with those of the French.
"Trafalgar permanently crippled the Spanish navy, but the French soon recovered.
Even as the English maneuvered to intercept Villeneuve, the Rochefort squadron put to sea in a long, destructive raid. Napoleon strengthened his Brest and Rochefort fleets, rebuilt the Toulon fleet, and began constructing a new one at Antwerp. Antwerp - a "pistol pointed at the heart of England" - was an ideal base for a cross-channel attack. The Boulogne flotilla was kept until 1811; Napoleon also made considerable efforts to develop an effective Italian navy, but without success. ... (Esposito & Elting - "A Military History and Atlas of the Napoleonic Wars.") This is interesting that already in 1813 the French navy was back at its pre-war strength.
"Although Napoleon 'lost' the war at sea effectively from 1805, his naval strategy against Great Britain remained surprisingly effective. ... By keeping his surviving squadrons ready for sea (or capable of being rapidly made so) at Brest, Rochfort, or Toulon, he kept the Royal Navy at full stretch on blockade duties, and the task of hunting down a small French break-out force was incommensurately expensive in terms of vessels and effort." (Chandler - "Dictionary of the Napoleonic Wars" p 177)
The French corsairs of the Napoleonic Wars enjoyed numerous successes against the British ships. Many captains made names for themselves - L'Hermitte, Leduc and Troude, for example. St.Malo, Nantes and Marseille were one of the premier corsair ports. Their activities caused a considerable panic in British commercial circles.
The Russian Navy.
Although Britain was Russia's ally against Napoleon,
the British were concerned about the Russian fleet's
growing strength in the Mediterranean.
Britain was especially troubled by Russia's newly-
attained strategic position in the Ionian Islands.
The Russian navy was one of the youngest of European navies. In 1696 Tsar Peter the Great issued order about forming the Navy on Azov Sea. The next year was opened Naval School in Moscow, afterwards it has been moved to Azov.
In 1798, the Russian fleet was officially divided into two formations:
- on Baltic Sea were: 45 ships-of-the-line and 19 frigates
- on Black Sea were: 15 ships-of-the-line and 10 frigates
That same year new navigation schools were established to replace the "navigator's companies." In St. Petersburg and Nikolayev maritime academies were opened for shipbuilding.
In 1798, Russia and Turkey became unlikely allies after the French seized Malta and Napoleon began his Egyptian campaign. Vice-Admiral Ushakov's squadron passed through the Dardanelles and, after joining Turkish Admiral Kadyr Bey, headed for the French-occupied Ionian Islands. The allied fleet numbered 11 Russian and 4 Turkish ships-of-the-line, 6 Russian and 4 Turkish frigates, and 3 Russian and 8 Turkish gunboats.
From September to November, detachments of Ushakov's fleet seized French fortifications on the islands of Cerigo, Zante, Cephalonia, and Saint Mauro. In addition, Ushakov made a landing on Corfu and delivered the first blow to Vido Island. The Russian fleet now possessed a strategically located base in the Mediterranean. Russian warships were dispatched from Corfu to attack French supply routes and assist Allied forces in Italy. In 9 days Sorokin's detachment took the towns of Brindisi, Mola and Bari, and Vice-Admiral Pavel Pustoshkin's squadron blockaded Ancona. On 3 June 1799, the Russians joined the Naples troops in the liberation of Naples.
Now the Russian goal was Malta which was under siege by the British without any noticeable success. Although Great Britain was Russia's ally against Napoleon, the English were concerned about the Russian fleet's growing strength in the Mediterranean. England was especially troubled by Russia's newly-attained strategic position in the Ionian Islands. The British began to delay operations on Malta, not accepting Russia's offer of assistance.
During this time a detachment of 4 Russian frigates and 10 gunboats, joined the British fleet off the coast of Egypt. Although Russia had no plans for involvement in the Egyptian campaign, Nelson attempted to dispatch Ushakov and his Russian forces to Egypt. A compromise was reached, and it was decided to send only the squadron of Kartsov. Ushakov was senior to Nelson in rank, and in the anticipated operations on Malta the British would have to follow the Russian officer's orders, an arrangement that further rankled the British. In any event, the Malta campaign did not materialize. In late December 1799, Ushakov received an order to cease action in the Mediterranean and return with his fleet to the Black Sea. Only a few Russian vessels remained on Corfu, while the Ionian Islands became a republic under Russian control. (Source: "The History of Russian Navy")
In 1803 Russian fleet consisted of:
- 27 ships-of-the-line and 26 frigates on Baltic Sea
- 21 ships-of-the-line and 8 frigates on Black Sea
In early 1806 Vice-Admiral Senyavin entered the Ionian Sea with a large squadron. Within a year Senyavin had under his command 16 ships-of-the-line and 7 frigates as well as numerous small transports. The port of Corfu served as an operational base while the admiral commanded an infantry division for land operations against the French. In May at the request of the French, the Austrians, detained several Russian merchant vessels at Trieste. Senyavin rushed without delay to rescue his compatriots, taking 3 ships-of-the-line and 1 frigate. He demanded the release of the vessels within one hour, and, indeed, they were set free.
In February of 1807, after being informed of the outbreak of war with Turkey, Senyavin departed from Corfu for the Aegean Sea with the main body of his fleet and a number of ground troops. According to the Tilsit Treaty, Russia made its departure from the Mediterranean Sea to the relief of the French and the English.
The American Navy.
The Americans were very frustrated with Great Britain.
In August 1807 USA president Jefferson wrote to T Leiper:
"I never expected to be under the necessity of wishing
success to Bonaparte. But the English being equally
tyrannical at sea as he is on land, ... I say, down with England."
The American Navy traces its origins to the Continental Navy, which was established during the American Revolutionary War (1775–1783) and was essentially disbanded as a separate entity shortly thereafter. In the beginning of the American Revolutionary War, the establishment of a navy was an issue of debate in Congress. Supporters argued that a navy would protect shipping and defend the coast. Detractors countered that challenging the British Navy was a foolish idea. George Washington commissioned 7 cruisers to interdict British supply ships, and reported the captures to the Congress. This effectively ended the debate as to whether or not to "provoke" the British navy by establishing a Navy as Washington's ships had already captured British ships, somewhat a provocation. The american navy achieved mixed results; it was successful in a number of engagements and raided many British merchant vessels, but it lost 24 of its vessels.
Depredations against American shipping by Barbary Coast pirates in the Mediterranean Sea (today Tunis, Morocco, and Algiers) spurred US Congress to pass the Naval Act of 1794 ordering the construction and manning of six frigates. It included three frigates with 44 guns and based on the most advanced designs: the Constitution, the President and the United States. They were 20 feet longer than their British opponents and 3 feet wider in the beam. They also had one continuous upper deck, instead of the usual forecastle and quarterdeck joined by two gangways, which allowed the Americans to mount 20 or so carronades in addition to the 30 24pdrs in the deck below. They were fast and outclassed the British frigates.
In 1812 war broke out with USA after disputes made worse by the blockade. Despite having their coastline blocked by the British warships, the American raiders who eluded the Royal Navy net caused considerable damage to Britain's trade. By mid-1814, more than 800 British vessels had been taken, forcing the Royal Navy to escort trade convoys. Furthermore, the Americans were victorious in numerous single-ship duels with the fearsome Royal Navy.
For example in October 1812 the 44-gun United States, took on the British 38-gunner Macedonian off Madeira. Bombarding from long range, the United States pulverised the enemy ship and forced it to surrender. To add insult to British injury, the Macedonian was repaired, reflagged and fought again - this time for America. In December a duel between two frigates (American Constitution and British Java) took place off Brazil and, once again, ended in an American victory. It took two hours, but the Java was left a wreck and its captain forced to surrender.
US Navy drove all British forces off the Great Lakes and Lake Champlain. Despite this, the U.S. Navy was unable to prevent the British from blockading American ports and landing troops on American soil. After the war, the U.S. Navy again focused its attention on protecting American shipping assets, sending squadrons to the Caribbean, the Mediterranean, South America, Africa, and the Pacific.
"We ought to begin a naval power ..."
—Thomas Jefferson, US President
"... the English army was absurdly under-rated in foreign countries and
absolutely despised in its own ... the ill-success of the expeditions in
1794 and 1799 appeared to justify the general prejudice. "
England, both at home and abroad, was in 1808 scorned as a military power ..."
(Napier - "History of the War in Peninsula 1807-1814" p 21)
The British army came into being with the merger of the Scottish Army and the English Army, following the unification of the two countries' parliaments and the creation of the United Kingdom of Great Britain in 1707. Under Oliver Cromwell, the army had been active in the re-conquest, settlement and suppressing revolts in Ireland.
John Churchill, 1st Duke of Marlborough's leadership of the allied armies during the Nine Years' War and the War of the Spanish Succession consolidated Britain's emergence as a front-rank power. Throughout ten consecutive campaigns during the Spanish Succession war Marlborough held together a discordant coalition through his sheer force of personality and raised the standing of British army to a level not known since the Middle Ages. Although in the end he could not compel total capitulation from his enemies, his victories allowed Britain to rise from a minor to a major power, ensuring the country's growing prosperity throughout the 18th century.
The British army and navy, in building the Empire, fought numerous wars with Netherlands, Spain, and France for supremacy in the world. The regular and colonial troops also battled many native tribes in Africa and in North America. In 1790s and early 1800s the bulk of the British field army was engaged in Europe against France.
The most successful British campaigns of the Napoleonic Wars were the Peninsular Campaign 1808-14 and Waterloo Campaign in 1815. The British troops under Wellington won several battles, including Rolica, Vimeiro, Salamanca and Vitoria. Hailed as the conquering hero by the British, Wellington was created "Duke of Wellington", a title still held by his descendants. Although Wellesley spent nearly six years driving the French Army from Spain and removing Joseph Bonaparte from the Spanish throne, he has received little recognition in Spain. In the Spanish-speaking world the war is known as the Guerra de la Independencia Española, or the Spanish War of Independence.
At Waterloo in 1815 the French army under Napoleon was defeated by Wellington's British, German and Netherland troops combined with a Prussian army under the command of Blücher. It was the culminating battle of the campaign and Napoleon's last.
Several other British operations were a failure: British troops invaded Saint-Domingue (now Haiti) to suppress a slave rebellion but are forced to withdraw; Flanders in 1793-94; Holland in 1799; Buenos Aires twice; Holland in 1809; the Dardenelles in 1807; Egypt in 1806; Spain in 1808-1809 (Sir John Moore); Sweden in 1808; Naples and Hanover in 1805; and Spain and Italy in 1800. During the Peninsular War, General "Suchet defeated two British amphibious expeditions launched from Sicily against Spain's east cost ... " (J Elting - "Swords Around a Throne" p 152)
In 1793-1794 the British troops in Holland received "scathing criticism from foreign military observers and Allied commanders. There were damning comments on the appalling behaviour of officers, their lack of care for their men and their generally drunken demeanour. The Army as a whole showed up badly in the field. The drill manuals were out of date, the battalions were of poor quality ..." (Haythornthwaite - "Wellington's Infantry (1)" p 6)
At Tourcoing in 1794 French Generals Souham and Moreau with 70,000 men defeated British-Austrian force of 75,000 men. The French suffered 3,000 killed and wounded, while the British and Austrians lost 5,500 killed, wounded and prisoners. The Duke of York, separated from his command, narrowly avoided capture and was obliged to wade a deep brook to escape. This ended the battle.
Then came the defeat at Buenos Aires. After a relentless 2-day fight with the Buenos Aires and Montevideo militias in August 1806, the British infantry were defeated and forced to capitulate. Beresford had to surrender, remaining prisoner for 6 months; in the end, he managed to escape and arrived in England in 1807.
In March 16th 1807 the Royal Navy and 5.000 redcoats under General A. Mackenzie Fraser invaded and occupied Alexandria in Egypt. The aim was to secure the port as a base for Mediterranean operations and to prevent the French from taking advantage of it. The action however not only alienated Russian allies but was also a military catastrophe, with Fraser losing two battles at Rosetta (modern Rashid) on 29 March and 21 April. The crushed battalions suffered "almost 1.400 casualties". It forced the British to abandon the idea of expanding the conquered territory, and they were confined only to the city. Agreement to leave Egypt was signed in September, 1807.
In 1809 the British corps under General Sir John Moore fled before the French to the coast. The track was littered for mile after mile with discarded equipment and knapsacks, and the forlorn dead and dying." (Haythorntwaite - "Wellington's Infantry (1)" p 36) Moore's force was defeated by Soult's corps at Corunna, General Moore was killed, and the Britsh were forced to embark and leave Europe. "
In 1815 at New Orleans approx. 11,000 British troops (incl. many veterans of Napoleonic Wars) were soundly defeated by 4,500 American regulars and militia. The outcome of New Orleans is good evidence of a good army being led badly.
French and British military activities in Europe in 1807.
Strength, organization and
deployment of the British army.
France was not separated by water from her enemies and was forced to field massive land armies. In contrast, the British could simply disengage from the conflict on the continent, embark their troops and leave. And this is what they did so many times. For the hit-and-run strategy one doesn't need a huge field army, a small force of volunteers will do even better. The volunteers enjoyed several advantages over the recruits, with higher morale being one of them.
The British Army was not large enough to operate on its own against the French, and without strong allies, Britain had been forced to withdraw from Europe. Anyway, it played only secondary and/or supportive role and usually campaigned on the fringes of Europe (Portugal, Holland, Denmark, southern Italy). The popular uprising in Spain encouraged the British to commit substantial forces once again.
The British played an important role in Peninsula. But lets keep on mind that, for example, in 1810, of the 325,000 French forces in the Peninsula, only about 1/4 of them were involved in the actioons against Wellington - the rest [3/4] were required to contain the Spanish insurgents and regulars. The British played a major role during the Waterloo Campaign in 1815. However of Wellington's 26 infantry brigades at Waterloo only 9 were British.
Picture: British Soldiers Embarking for the Napoleonic Wars. Picture by Charles Green.
One of the barriers to recruitment was the British army's fearsome reputation for loss of life. For example, the failing campaigns in Caribbean in 1790s caused thousands of redcoats to perish through disease.
The British people distrusted and disliked the armed forces, considering them to be the weapons in the hand of the King. This led to the Bill of Rights 1689, which reserves authority over a standing army to Parliament. (No standing army may be maintained during a time of peace without the consent of parliament.)
In 1790s the British army consisted of :
- 88 infantry battalions (7 guard and 81 line)
- 30 cavalry regiments (3+7 guard, 6 dragoons and 14 light dragoons)
- 4 foot artillery battalions and 1 Invalid Battalion (all 10 companies each),
- 2 artillery companies in India, 6 field and 1 invalid companies of the Royal Irish Artillery
- 2 troops of the Royal Horse Artillery were in the process of organizing
In January 1805 the British field army consisted of 160,500 regulars:
- 124,500 infantry
- 20,000 cavalry
- 16,000 artillery
and engineers
These forces were deployed in many places around the world:
- 70,000 stationed in England
- 35,000 in Ireland
- 22,500 in East Indies and Ceylon
- 15,500 in West Indies and Jamaica
- 6,500 on Malta
- 4,500 in Gibraltar
- 4,500 in Canada
- 2.000 other
The threat of invasion of Great Britain was high, after the rise of Napoleon. In order to improve the country's defences, volunteer regiments were raised in many counties from yeomen.
The word "yeoman" refers to small farmers who owned the land they cultivated as opposed to peasants, but the officers were drawn from the nobility and many of the men were their tenants. These regiments became known collectively as the Yeomanry (ext.link). Members of the yeomanry were not obliged to serve overseas without their individual consent.
In 1808 the British army consisted of :
- 170,000 infantry and 6,000 Foot Guards
According to William Napier, of these, approx. 55,000 were employed in India,
the reminder were disposable, "because from 80 to 100,000 militia, differing from
the regular troops in nothing but the name, were sufficient for the home duties."
In early 1800s several excellent British regiments was send to Canada and used against the Americans. In June 1812 began war between USA (population 6 millions) and Great Britain (18 millions). Napoleon said: "If this rupture had occurred earlier it might perhaps have contributed to keep Tsar Alexander inside the Continental System !" And in fact an American army will shortly - if not very successfully - be invading British Canada. The British extensively used the Indian tribes (Shawnees, Creeks, Delawares, Chippewa, Fox, Sauk, Miami, Ottawa, Kickapoo) led by chief Tecumseh with great effect against the American regulars and militia. The Indians knew the land and were excellent scouts. The warriors even took part in several pitched battles between the British and American troops.
During this war British troops set fire to many public buildings in Washington (incl. the White House.) This attack was in retaliation for the American burning and looting of York (now Toronto) in 1813, and the burning down of the buildings of the Legislative Assembly there. The last battle of this war took place in 1815 near New Orleans. Approx. 4,500 American regulars and militia under Andrew Jackson defeated 11,000 British troops, including many veterans of the Napoleonic Wars. The battle boosted the reputation of Andrew Jackson and helped to propel him to the White House. "The 8th of January" became a traditional American fiddle tune the melody of which was used by Jimmie Driftwood to write the song "The Battle of New Orleans" (ext.link). It also misrepresents the British forces as being cowards.
Quality of the British army
Because the French couldn't disengage from a conflict on the continent as easily as the British, they were forced to fight one war after another, and often had no time to properly train their recruits. "Unlike the British trooper who received a minimum of 6 months' training most French troopers received after 1805 a bare 2 to 3 weeks, being lucky if they were taught basic horsemanship and drill." (- P.J.C. Elliot-Wright)
French General Foy described the British troops campaigning in Peninsula in great detail. He wrote, "The English were looked upon by the French as sea-wolves, unskilful, perplexed, and powerless, the moment they set their foot on land. ... (However) "The French soldiers, who had returned from Egypt, talked to their comrades of the indomitable valour of the English; moreover, it was easy to suppose that enterprise, capacity, and courage render the possessors fit for other purposes than the duties of the sea service.
Their skill and intrepidity in braving the dangers of the ocean have always been unrivalled. Their restless disposition, and fondness for travelling fit them for the wandering life of the soldier; and they possess that most valuable of all qualities in the field of battle – coolness in their strife."
"The glory of the British army is based principally upon its excellent discipline, and upon the cool and sturdy courage of the people. Indeed we know of no other troops as well disciplined. The principal cause of their pre-eminence in this respect, would, if applied to the French army, most likely produce an effect diametrically opposite. Varieties of character and condition, require the employment of different means to obtain the same end."
"The English NCOs are excellent; but their courage and their talent are not encouraged by promotion to higher grades. They are nominated by the commander of the regiment, and cannot be broke but by the sentence of a court-martial. Their authority is extensive, comprehending the minute details of inspection, of discipline, and of daily instruction - duties which, in other armies, would not be committed to them."
"In the British army will not be found either the strong sympathy between the leaders and the soldiers, the paternal care of the captains, the simple manners of the subalterns, nor the affectionate fellow-feeling in danger and suffering which constituted the strength of the revolutionary armies of France; but unshaken patriotism, and tried and steady bravery, are to be met with everywhere amongst them."
The British Baker rifle was probably the most accurate of all firearms during the Napoleonic Wars. On the training ground and under perfect conditions 100 % (!) hits were recorded at 100 paces. Furthermore, the British could afford high ratio of practice rounds per soldier in life fire training:
1. British 'Rifles' - 60 rounds and 60 blanks per man
2. Prussian jägers and Schützen - 60 rounds per man (in 1811-1812)
3. British light infantry - 50 rounds and 60 blanks
4. Prussian fusiliers (light infantry in line regiments) - 30 rounds
5. British line infantry - 30 rounds
6. Austrian line infantry - 10 rounds (in 1809)
7. Austrian line infantry - 6 rounds (in 1805)
8. Russian infantry - 6 and less rounds
Due to very high ratio of volunteers, good training, talented commander, the right tactics, and good weapons, the British army of the Napoleonic Wars was one of the best armies of all times. Before the Peninsular War, however, British military operations on mainland Europe had been marked by bungling half-measures and a series of failures. The British army was not regarded as equal to some continental armies. William Napier writes, "... the English army was absurdly under-rated in foreign countries and absolutely despised in its own ... the ill-success of the expeditions in 1794 and 1799 appeared to justify the general prejudice."
"England, both at home and abroad, was in 1808 scorned as a military power ..." (Napier - "History of the War in Peninsula 1807-1814" p 21)
Discipline in the British Army.
"... an unflogged soldier was a
monstrously misplaced being ..."
For the British soldier himself discipline was invariably harsh and enlistement was for long time. Some French deserters who joined the British Army in the Peninsula promptly deserted from it because they found discipline too severe. Some punishments included 'riding the wooded horse' a sharp-backed frame on which the offender sat astride, sometimes with weights attached to his feet to increase discomfort.
Generally offenders were flogged on the bare back for a variety of offences, and shot or hanged for more serious ones. According to Wellington flogging was absolutely essential to control "the scum of the earth." He defended the harsh discipline, arguing that the army contained a proportion of blackguards who could not be kept in line in any other way, while reformers maintained that it dishonoured both the victim and the army in which he served. Britain was not alone in this aspect. Discipline in the Prussian army (until 1806), and the punishment in the Russian army were also severe.
During march the discipline in the British troops was strict, the soldiers were only allowed to quit the ranks if they were ill or if they needed to relieve themselves. Before doing so they had to obtain a ticket, or certificate, from the sergeant on approval of their company commander.
Costello described the punishment of the popular Tom Plunket. "He was brought to a regimental court-martial, found guilty, and sentenced to be reduced to the ranks, and to receive 300 lashes. Poor Plunket, when he had recovered his reason, after the commission of his crime, had experienced and expressed the most unfeigned contrition, so that when sentence became known, there was a general sorrow felt for him throughout the regiment, particularly on account of the corporal punishment...
The sentence was read by the adjutant in a loud voice. Poor Tom, who had the commiseration of the whole regiment, looked deadly pale... Happily this wretched scene was destined to a brief termination: at the 35th lash, the Colonel ordered punishment to cease, and the prisoner taken down." (- Costello, pp 12-14)
After the Napoleonic Wars was published an article about the punishment in the British army. "Corporal punishment does not exist in the French, the Prussian, and several of the minor armies. Even in Austria, where the greater part of the recruits consist of semi-barbarians, there is an evident desire to do away with it; thus the punishment of running the gauntlet has recently been struck out from the Austrian military code. In England, on the contrary, the cat-o'-nine-tails is maintained in its full efficiency - an instrument of torture fully equal to the Russian knout in its most palmy time.
Strange to say, whenever a reform of the military code has been mooted in Parliament, the old martinets have stuck up for the cat, and nobody more zealously than old Wellington himself. To them, an unflogged soldier was a monstrously misplaced being ..." ("The Armies of Europe" in Putnam's Monthly, No. XXXII, published in 1855)
Picture: Lieutenant-General Sir John Moore
Sir John Moore discarded the then existing disciplinary system,
largely maintained through fear and brutality which, in his view,
also stifled individual initiative, and replaced it with a system
based more upon self-discipline, mutual respect and trust.
During the headlong retreat to Corunna in 1809, many British units' discipline cracked. Everywhere, French advance guard encountered evidence of the enemy's mounting demoralization; the roads were littered with wagons, supplies, equipment, weapons and scores of stragglers who were captured at every turn.
Sullen, the British treated Spain like a hostile country. Moore writes, "The people run away, the villages are deserted ..." Almost every village which the British infantry passed, a cavalry officer of the rearguard reported, 'exhibited melancholy proofs of the shameful devastation committed by the infantry which had preceded us; we observed in flames whilst we were at a considerable distance, and it was still burning when we passed through it. The inhabitants shouted Viva los Francesces ! and we overtook some stragglers who had been stripped and maltreated by the Spaniards.
The officers were quite unable to control their men. Except of the rearguard and a few of the more ordely regiments such as the Guards, the discipline no longer existed. One officer wrote: "In the end Vilafranca was literally plundered, and the drunkenness that prevailed among the troops led to the most shameful incidents. Down by the river the artillery destroyed all their stores, and lighting big fires burnt all their ammunition wagons, which they broke up for the purpose. They also threw all their ammunition into the river."
Bembibre exhibited all the appearance of a place lately stormed and pillaged. Every door and window was broken. Wagon after wagon was abandoned and even the headquarters' supply of ready cash had to be thrown into a ravine. At Bembibre, the French dragoons rounded up hundreds of drunken British soldiers, and at Villafranca, British deserters were found to have looted their own army's depots !
Captain Gordon wrote: "They [British stragglers] were soon overtaken by the French horse chasseurs who treated them most unmercifully, cutting to their right and left, and sparing none who came within reach of their swords." A few maimed and lacerated survivors made the safety of the British column, their injuries arousing howls of horror, pity, and outrage. Moore made public exhibits of them, in the hope that their shocking wounds might deter others from quitting the colours. The retreat remains a dark chapter in the history of the British army.
"If you knew the composition of the British Army and its
habits better, then you would not talk to me about that."
With the exception of the Light Division the British army was considered as one of the slower armies in Europe. (In summer 1812 the Light Division started in full marching order, and arrived at the front on the day after the Battle of Talavera having covered 62 miles in 26 hours !) The British carried not only tents. During the years of 1808-1809 inexperienced officers, unaware of the hardships to come, had permitted a very large number of women to accompany the army. Their plight was one of the most tragic aspects of the whole retreat to Corunna. (Approx. 50 years before Napoleon the French army was also considered as being slow on the march. The French carried lackeys, courtesans, chaplains, and valets, chests full of perfumes and umbrellas.)
John Mills of British Regiment of Coldstream Guards writes, "Their (French) movements compared with ours are as mail coaches to dung carts. In all weathers and at all times the French are accustomed to march, when our men would fall sick by hundreds ..."
In the very end of the battle of Waterloo, Wellington and Blucher decided together that the Prussians alone would continue the pursuit. This decision is usually explained by citing the exhausted condition of Wellington's infantry, but Blucher's were surely no less tired. More likely the choice reflected the plodding management and slowness of movement that characterized British troops. [Professor A. Barbero]
In the beginning of the 1815-Campaign the Prussians got 3/4 of their men to the right place at the right time, Wellington only 1/3 of his total forces. Prussian officer Müffling asked Wellington why the British advance so slowly and Wellington explained: "Do not press me on this, for I tell you, it cannot be done. If you knew the composition of the British Army and its habits better, then you would not talk to me about that. I cannot leave my tents and supplies behind. I have to keep my men together in their camp and supply them well to keep order and discipline." [Peter Hofscshroer]
During the Peninsular War the Spaniards reproached the British for the tardiness of their marches. French General Thiebault wrote that the scattered state of the French army in Spain rendered its situation desperate, and that the slowness of Sir Arthur Wellesley saved it several times.
Wellington once made comment on the supply issue: "It is certainly astonishing that the enemy [French] have been able to remain in this country so long; and it is extraordinary instance of what a French army can do. ... With all our money and having in our favour the good inclinations of the country, I assure you that I could not maintain one division in the district in which they have maintained not less than 60,000 men and 20,000 animals for more than two months."
The French troops were known for their skills of extracting provisions locally - much to the annoyance of local population. David Gates writes, "In contrast, the Allies, particularly the British, seem to have been peculiarly inept at surviving without plenty of supplies. Even in times of minor food shortages, indiscipline erupted on a vast scale. The British divisions went to pieces in the lean days after Talavera for example - and as late as the Waterloo campaign of 1815, we find Wellington commenting to his Prussian friends that 'I cannot separate from my tents and supplies. My troops must be well kept and well supplied in camp ..." (Gates - "The Spanish Ulcer")
The Russian soldiers were the extreme opposite to the British. "They subsist well on black bread: few cattle are seen following the army. Their commissaries have little to do; and the great burden of managing the commissariat, which is so irksome to a British commander on service, seems perfectly light to a Russian chief." (- British General Sir Charles Stewart)
"Clumsy, unintelligent, and helpless as the British soldier is when thrown upon his own resources, or when called upon to do the duty of light troops, nobody surpasses him in a pitched battle where he acts in masses. ... This solidity and tenacity in attack and defense, form the great redeeming quality of the British army, and have alone saved it from many a defeat, well-merited and all but intentionally prepared by the incapacity of its officers, the absurdity of its administration, and the clumsiness of its movements." ("The Armies of Europe" in Putnam's Monthly, No. XXXII, published in 1855)
"Historians will say that the British army ... carried on war
in Spain and Portugal until they had eaten all the beef and
mutton in the country, and then compelled to withdraw."
(- Larpent April 1813, in Longford's "Wellington")
Not only the British were considered being slow marchers. The old-fashioned attitudes of Austrian and Russian officers also contributed to the slowness with which their armies moved. "In the middle of the century the aristocratic officer had always maintained a lifestyle in the field that was consonant with his social position. This meant transporting large amounts of gear such as tents, and even porcelain, accompanied by the necessary servants to look after them.
The Duke of Cumberland, for example, travelled around with 145 tons of baggage. This was not looked on as showing off, but rather as necessary for a man of high position, and to do otherwise would have brought contempt rather than admiration. While everybody else did the same thing, it had little effect on the army's performance, but once the enemy started to do things differently, it had grave consequences, as an Austrian noted:
Almost every day our army loses half a march to the French. Their soldiers carry the same load as our men, but what an effort it takes us to get under way ! The French officer accompanies his troops on foot, and if necessary he carries his pack himself. In our army on the other hand, every company had a whole tail of carts just to transport the officers' baggage. If possible, these gentlemen would like to bring along warm stoves and arm-chairs as well.
The slowness with which the army moved was probably also a consequence of slow decision-making on the part of the commanders ... Bonaparte himself provides an illustration of their bewilderment with an anecdote concerning the early part of his 1796 campaign. It is taken from his memoirs, which were written in the third person:
Napoleon, in his nightly rounds, encountered a bivouac of prisoners, where there was a garrulous old Hungarian officer, whom he asked how matters went on with them. The old captain could not deny that they went on very badly. 'But' he added, 'there is no understanding it at all. We have to do with a young general who is in this moment before us, then again behind us, then again on our flanks - one does not know where to place oneself. This manner of making war is insufferable and violates all usage and custom'.
This was rather like the cry of a gentleman who had gone to fight a duel in the proper ritualised fashion, and found an opponent who insisted on firing before he was told to, and his behind trees to make a more difficult target. Unfortunately, in this case there was no umpire. This no doubt paints a rather negative picture of the Austrian officer class, but the better officers should not be forgotten. ... If they had still been fighting Frederick the Great they might well have done much better," (Boycott-Brown - "The Road to Rivoli")
In 1805, one Austrian general informed Marshal Murat, Napoleon's cavalry commander, that his troops desperately needed a rest, and therefore requested him not to advance on Vienna too rapidly. :-)
The noble men (officers) and
"the scum of the earth" (privates).
The French were surprised by the rigid class lines
that divided the British soldiers from their officers.
The soldiers of Moore's army were described as "They were all, however, volunteers … The average age of the soldiers was 23, and their average height 5'6". Most had been farm labourers, many from impoverished villages of Ireland and Scotland. They were paid 1 shilling per day, and led by an officer corps of aristocrats and gentlemen, many of whom had simply bought their commissions" (Summerville - "March of Death" p 26)
The soldierly profession, badly paid and subject to the harshest discipline, was not greatly appreciated in England - was, in fact, a decidedly proletarian vocation. It was no accident that a high percentage of those who enlidsted were Irish since Ireland, overpopulated as it was with a deeply impoverished peasantry, had always been one of the major providers of cannon fodder to His Majesty's army. Irishmen generally made up between 20 % and 40 % of the infantry that Wellington marshaled at Waterloo.
The French were surprised by the rigid class lines that divided the soldiers from their officers and generals. Majority of the officers were all upper-class, some were sons of clerks or shopkeepers, and the soldiers, who were from the working class, obeyed them without question. (Barbero - "The Battle" p 22)
According to Philip Haythorntwaite there is a record of Wellington coming upon aristocratic officers making their men carry them over a river. Wellington ordered the soldiers to drop them on the spot.
During campaign the emotions of British soldiers were divided between the hatred and contempt officially directed at the French and Buonaparte" by British newspapers and public opinion and the admiration they felt for the French emperor in their hearts, almost in spite of themselves. Captain Mercer of the Royal Artillery admitted that deep down he "had often longed to see Napoleon, that mighty man of war - that astonishing genius who had filled the world with his renown."
Historian David Chandler wrote on page 115 in Atlas of Military Strategy that the Duke described his soldiers as "the scum of the earth" when he recounted their looting spree after the battle of Vitoria.
The Prince Frederick, Duke of York and Albany
When he was sixteen the King sent him to Berlin
to study the art of war under the famous king and
military leader Frederick the Great.
The Duke of York was born in London in 1763. King George III decided that his second son (and favorite child) would pursue an army career. When he was sixteen the King sent him to Berlin to study the art of war under the famous Frederick the Great. In 1795 the Duke of York took command of the British Army.
As a commander, the Duke of York presided over the unsuccessful campaign against the French troops in the Low Countries, during the conflict which followed the French Revolution. Because of the failed campaign Flanders, the Duke was destined to be pilloried for all time in the rhyme "The Grand Old Duke of York", which goes:
"The grand old Duke of York,
He had ten thousand men.
He marched them up to the top of the hill
And he marched them down again.
And when they were up, they were up.
And when they were down, they were down.
And when they were only halfway up,
They were neither up nor down."
Later the Duke made amends for his military setbacks during the late 1790s by reorganising the army. Actually he was more administrator and reformer than commander in the field. For example he restored the discipline and morale in the British officer corps, manual exercises were revised, medical services were improved, he reduced the number of infantry regiments but made the battalions of uniform strength, formed depot companies etc.
In 1809 due to indiscretions by his mistress who had been corruptly selling commissions, the Duke of York was forced to resign. He was replaced with Sir David Dundas, who was old and much less effective in office than the Duke. The Duke of York was reinstated in 1811. The Duke also founded the renowned military college, Sandhurst, which promoted the professional, merit-based training of future commissioned officers.
Arthur Wellesley, Duke of Wellington
Wellington raised the reputation of the British
to a level unknown since Marlborough.
Until his early 20s, Arthur showed no signs of distinction. His mother placed him in the army, saying "What can I do with my Arthur?" He became a nobleman playboy, carousing and gambling. In 1787 his mother and his brother Richard purchased for Arthur a commission in the 73rd Regiment if Foot. After receiving military training in Britain, he attended the Military Academy of Angers in France. (ext. link) Arthur also learned fluent French there.
Wellesley then campaigned in India, Netherlands, Denmark, Spain, Portugal and France. He rose to prominence eventually reaching the rank of field marshal. He raised the reputation of the British to a level unknown since Marlborough. Wellington won over French marshals at Salamanca and Vittoria. Several times however he was forced to full retreat, and some of his sieges failed.
He was the almost perfect response to the aggressive French strategy and tactics. Some Frenchmen thought Wellington was the modern Fabius the Cunctator (ext. link). The Duke earned reputation among his enemies for being a very cautious general who only fought defensive actions from positions of overwhelming advantage. This is not really correct as Wellington fought also several ofensive actions (for example Oporto, Salamanca, Vitoria).
At Salamanca in 1812 Wellington defeated Marshal Marmont. French General Foy wrote in his diary, "This battle is the most cleverly fought, the largest in scale, the most important in results, of any that the English have won in recent times. It brings up Lord Wellington's reputation almost to the level of that of Marlborough. Up to this day we knew his prudence, his eye for choosing good positions, and the skill with which he used them. But at Salamanca he has shown himself a great and able master of manoeuvring. He kept his dispositions hidden nearly the whole day: he allowed us to develop our movement before he pronounced his own: he played a close game; he utilised the oblique order in the style of Frederick the Great.".
Jac Weller, an admirer of Wellington, describes in great detail his campaigns and battles. Weller however claims that "none of Wellington's battles in Spain can be called "great."
At Salamanca he failed to exploit his success and the enemy quickly recovered. The battle of Fuentes de Onoro and especially at Talavera were near disasters. According to Jac Weller the Battle of Busaco was "a technical defeat although claimed as victory" and the allignement of troops at Talavera was not very well thought. Weller wrote that "if Talavera was a victory because the French withdrew then Busaco was a defeat because the British were forced to withdraw." The siege of Burgos was a very costly defeat.
As strategist Wellington was one of the best. Striking north, he surpised Soult and drove him into the interior. With Portugal in revolt all around him, Soult seemed doomed, but escaped by a daring march through the mountains to Orense. Wellesley then turned on Victor and advanced up the Tagus River together with Cuesta. Victor retired to Talavera, where Joseph joined him with the French reserves. Wellesley repulsed Victor in a 2-day battle, but had to retreat hurriedly when Soult, Ney, and Mortier emerged from the mountains to his left rear.
Under Wellington the British army became one of the most successful armies of the Napoleonic Wars. It was especially efficient when fed and supplied sufficiently (to keep the discipline) and deployed on a strong defensive position. French General Foy writes, "Well posted, as Wellington knows how to post it, and attacked from the front, I consider the English infantry to be impregnable ..." On the importance of supplies for the British army click here.
Wellington was the most successful British general of the Napoleonic Wars. With one or two exceptions British commanders failed in independent command. Even General Sir John Moore lost his campaign. He was driven into the sea by the French, then killed at Corunna, and his troops fled to Britain. As a general Wellington is often compared to the Marlborough, with whom he shared many characteristics, chiefly a transition to politics after a highly successful military career. He served as the Tory Prime Minister on two separate occasions, and was one of the leading figures in the House of Lords until his retirement in 1846.
According to Andrew Roberts "Wellington was perhaps one of the worst prime ministers in the Great Britain." His opposition to reform caused his popularity to plummet to such an extent that crowds gathered to throw missiles at his London home. On Waterloo Day he survived an attempt to drag him from his horse, a hail of stones in Holborn, and tried to take shelter at Lincoln's Inn, only to be chased by the mob when he emerged again.
There was time when the Duke feared for his life. The ground floor windows of his Apsley House were protected by iron shutters, and, when travelling, he carried loaded firearms in his carriage. "The iron shutters may have originally given rise to the sobriquet 'the Iron Duke." (Christopher Hibbert - "Wellington")
In September 1852, the Great Man was seized with an epileptic fit, became speechless, and died.
Colledge - "Ships of the Royal Navy"
Lavery - "Nelson's Fleet at Trafalgar"
Arturo Perez Reverte - "Cabo Trafalgar"
Sugden - "Nelson : A Dream of Glory 1758 - 1797"
Herman - "To Rule the Waves." (rather anglocentric book)
The Royal Navy - Official Website.
David Mattingly - "An Imperial Possession: Britain in the Roman Empire, 54 BC - AD 409"
Lawrence James - "The Rise and Fall of the British Empire"
Niall Ferguson - "Empire: The Rise and Demise of the British World Order"
Nicholas Canny - "The Oxford History of the British Empire"
Peter N. Williams - "Narrative History of England"
Philip Haythorntwaite - "Wellington's Infantry (1)"
Mark Adkin - "The Waterloo Companion"
Costello - "The Peninsular and Waterloo Campaigns"
Rory Muir - "Salamanca, 1812"
Fortescue - "A History of the British Army"
Peter Hofschroer - "Waterloo - the German Victory"
Peter Hofschroer - "Wellington and His German Allies"
Chartrand - "British Army in North America 1793-1815"
Judd - "Someone Has Blundered: Calamities of the British Army"
Summerville - "March of Death"
Brent Nosworthy - "With Musket, Cannon, and Sword."
Letters on British Politics Captured by the French in January 1804. >>
Spanish Recruits in the British Army 1812 - 1813. >>
The British Army Museums.
Campaign in France in 1814.
Europe Against Napoleon.
French Army : Royal , Revolutionary , Imperial
"The attack was the natural way for Frenchmen to fight.
British beef and German sausage might create specialists
in the art of standing still under fire
but the mercurial Frenchman could not be so inhibited."
Polish Army: Strength, Organisation, Commanders
French Marshal Davout [The Iron Marshal]
supervised the creation of the Polish army.
"From ... the Peninsula to the depths of Russia,
Polish valour went on parade as never before."
Russian Army: Strength, Organization, Commanders
"The whole appearance of a Russian army denotes
hardihood and bravery, inured to any privations."
Austrian Army: Strength, Organization, Commanders
Austria was the most implacable of Napoleon's continental enemies:
Prussian Army: Strength, Organization, Commanders
a state of soldiers and bureaucracy, a state formed by and for war"


text:
Time,$,Location,etc
New to Contra?
Contra Schedule
Hey Fever!
Old Sod Band
Stolen Goods Band
All Comers Band
Folk at the Oak
Upcoming events ...
Ottawa Contra Dance
Welcome to the Ottawa Contra All Comers Band
Our goal is to have as much fun as possible while creating energetic and joyful music for dancers... and you are invited to join in the fun!
The All Comers band is fully open to musicians of ANY AGE and ABILITY LEVEL. We will be playing for the new community dances which are geared towards ALL ages, especially school-aged families.
Wondering what an open band and/or community dance look like? We don't have any video from Ottawa as our dances are starting February 2019. However, there are a few videos from other dances at bottom of this page in case you want to get a feel of what will be happening.
Emily Addison (piano) is the band leader --- she will guide the musicians. We will have one amplified melody player to carry the tune in addition to the piano being amplified. (The lead melody player will usually be Greg Brown on fiddle.) We rely on other strong players to support the energy and drive while players with less experience are definitely needed too --> the more musicians having fun on stage, the more fun it will be for the dancers!
A special invite to kids --- we want this band to be all ages. So if you have a little kiddo who wants to play, please bring them along. (They can even join in on an instrument like a ukulele or fiddle with NO musical experience.)
Also - a special invite to accompanists! This band is not only for people who play the melody. It's for anyone who wants to jam along on the chords. All of our music notation includes the chords. The only exception is that Emily has to be the piano player in order to hold the band together and it would be hard to have a second piano player... but accordions playing chords, guitars, double basses and the like are great.
A quick note for experienced musicians: Playing for dancers is different than playing at a jam session. Our job is to play energetic and lively tunes at a decent speed that give lots of lift to the dancers. Don't worry if you have never played for dancing ---> we can coach you on the tricks of making music fun for dancers. We would love to have you play with us!
The All Comers Band will play all of the upcoming community dances - February 2, March 2, April 6 and May 4 2019.
All musicians get in free; $5 for everyone else (ages 2 and under free) or $20 for a family (max 2 adults). The community dances are from 6:30-7:30pm - show up ready to play by 6:15pm. You are welcome to stay for free in order to participate in the contra beginner lesson (730-8pm) and the first two contra dances of the evening. (If you want to stay for more of the contra dance, you will need to pay the evening dance entry fee.) More information about the community dances here.
About the tunes we will play:
You don't need to know the tunes in order to join the band. You simply have to be willing to learn!
All of the music for the sets are listed below. The tunes are a carefully chosen to be as easy as possible while also being a mix of tunes that are familiar to local session musicians, tunes from across Canada, as well as dance tunes from the contra repertoire.
While it's totally acceptable to show up and sight read, it will be more fun for you (and definitely the dancers!) if you learn some of the tunes ahead of time. We have included both the notation (with CHORDS for the ACCOMPANISTS) and recordings of all the tunes below.
If you want to know what to practice first, we will definitely play Sets #1, #2 #9 and the Log Drivers Waltz at the first few dances. There will be other sets in an evening but Emily will pick those on the fly depending on the dance chosen by the alter.
Dance musicians are much stronger when they know the tune by heart --- that way they can focus on the dancers as well as playing with the other musicians around them. However, if you need sheet music, it is your responsibility to bring your copy and a stand.
Practices:
We won't have official practices. However, it you want to get a bit of practicing in, join us at the community potlucks which will start at 5:15pm before EVERY community dance. (Bring something yummy to share as well as your own cutlery, plate and water bottle.) As soon as we're done eating, Emily will lead an informal practice. This is a great way to become a bit more familiar with the tunes AND to get tips on how to play for dancing.
There will also be an informal practice on January 19th. There is an afternoon family dance that day (3:30-5pm) followed by a community potluck. Right after the potluck, Emily will lead a practice that will last until 7:30pm. (Then the contra dance lesson starts.)
A special thank you to the other open dance bands throughout North America that have inspired us to try this idea. And special thanks to David Kaynor and Chrissy Fowler for our name!
For more information, email Emily at booking@ottawacontra.ca
Hope to see you and your instrument soon!
Tune notation and recordings:
Below are links to the tune notation and the chord charts
Full set list
Tune notation for all sets in standard tuning
Tune notation for all sets in tuning for trumpets and Bflat clarinets
Chord charts for all sets in standard tuning
Chord charts for all sets in tuning for trumpets and Bflat clarinets
Below are links to YouTube audio recordings for almost all of the tunes. A few of the tunes could definitely use better recordings but they were sometimes hard to find!
A Nunavut Polka - no recording
Angeline the Baker (first tune in the clip)
Ballydesmond Polka #1
Buffalo Gals (a verrry old recording just to give a feel of the tune)
Gigue Des Capuchons
Haapavesi Waltz
Highland Laddie (last tune in the clip)
Jamie Allen
Jessica's Polka (third tune)
La Bastringue
Logdriver's Waltz
Maggie in the Woods (second tune)
Maple Sugar (this version in D, we're playing in G and A)
Mussels in the Corner
Nail that Catfish
Old Joe Clark
Ookpik Waltz
Out on the Ocean (second tune)
Over the Causeway (second tune)
Over the Waterfall (first tune)
Rambling Pitchfork (first tune)
Round the Horn
Running the Goat #1,2,3,4 - all four tunes
Shindigo Jig - no video
Stan Chapman's (first tune)
Waiting for Nancy
Examples of other Community Dances and All Comer Bands
Belfast Maine has an early evening community dance with an All Comers Band before their contra dance.
The SPUDS open band plays for contra dances in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania
BIDA (Boston) has open bands play for their family dances and occasionally for their contra dances. This is a contra dance

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


text:
Greatest Hits é um álbum de grandes sucessos da cantora canadense Shania Twain, lançado em 8 de novembro de 2004 pela Universal Music Group Nashville. O álbum contém 17 faixas (18 no álbum internacional) de seus três álbuns certificados Diamante anteriores, The Woman in Me, Come on Over e Up!. Também estão incluídas três novas músicas: "Party for Two", que atingiu o top 10 na parada country nos EUA, top 10 no Reino Unido e na Alemanha, a balada "Don't!" e "I Ain't No Quitter".

Greatest Hits terminou 2005 como o álbum Country mais vendido nos Estados Unidos com mais de 4 milhões de cópias vendidas, sendo certificado com 4x Platina.

Greatest Hits estreou no número dois na Billboard 200 e número um na Top Country Albums com 530.000 cópias vendidas. O álbum ficou em primeiro lugar na parada de álbuns da Billboard Top Country por 11 semanas consecutivas. Em novembro de 2017, o álbum já tinha vendido 4,45 milhões de cópias nos EUA. O álbum já vendeu mais de 10 milhões de cópias mundialmente e está entre as 10 coletâneas mais vendidas de todos os tempos por uma artista feminina.

Lista de faixas

Álbuns de Shania Twain
Álbuns de grandes êxitos de 2004
Álbuns lançados pela Mercury Records

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


We are a family run business and do this as a hobby. We have a long lineage in the Combat Sim area, and also have a keen interest in military history and want to provide the best and most realistic gaming experience to our users. Some of the games we have played are listed below.


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