text:
From Mickopedia, the feckin' free encyclopedia
"Orca" redirects here. For other uses, see Orca (disambiguation).
For The Avengers episode, see Killer Whale (The Avengers).
Largest livin' species of dolphin
Killer whale[1]
Temporal range: Pliocene to recent[2]
PreꞒ
Ꞓ
Transient killer whales near Unimak Island, eastern Aleutian Islands, Alaska
Size compared to a holy 1.80-metre (5 ft 11 in) human
Data Deficient (IUCN 3.1)[3]
Order: Artiodactyla
Infraorder: Cetacea
Family: Delphinidae
Genus: Orcinus
Fitzinger, 1860[5]
O. orca
Orcinus orca
(Linnaeus, 1758)[4]
Orcinus orca range
Delphinus orca Linnaeus, 1758
Delphinus gladiator Bonnaterre, 1789
Orca gladiator (Bonnaterre, 1789)
The killer whale, also known as an orca (Orcinus orca), is a feckin' toothed whale belongin' to the feckin' oceanic dolphin family, of which it is the feckin' largest member, would ye swally that? Killer whales have a diverse diet, although individual populations often specialize in particular types of prey. Sufferin' Jaysus. Some feed exclusively on fish, while others hunt marine mammals such as seals and other species of dolphin. They have been known to attack baleen whale calves, and even adult whales. Jaykers! Killer whales are apex predators, as no animal preys on them. A cosmopolitan species, they can be found in each of the world's oceans in a variety of marine environments, from Arctic and Antarctic regions to tropical seas, absent only from the feckin' Baltic and Black seas, and some areas of the feckin' Arctic Ocean.
Killer whales are highly social; some populations are composed of matrilineal family groups (pods) which are the oul' most stable of any animal species. Soft oul' day. Their sophisticated huntin' techniques and vocal behaviours, which are often specific to a holy particular group and passed across generations, have been described as manifestations of animal culture.
The International Union for Conservation of Nature assesses the feckin' orca's conservation status as data deficient because of the oul' likelihood that two or more killer whale types are separate species, begorrah. Some local populations are considered threatened or endangered due to prey depletion, habitat loss, pollution (by PCBs), capture for marine mammal parks, and conflicts with human fisheries, the hoor. In late 2005, the oul' southern resident killer whales, which swim in British Columbia and Washington state waters, were placed on the oul' U.S. Endangered Species list.
Wild killer whales are not considered a holy threat to humans and no fatal attack on humans has ever been documented, but there have been cases of captive orcas killin' or injurin' their handlers at marine theme parks, the hoor. Killer whales feature strongly in the feckin' mythologies of indigenous cultures, and their reputation in different cultures ranges from bein' the souls of humans to merciless killers.
1 Taxonomy and evolution
1.1 Common names
1.2 Types
2 Appearance and morphology
3 Range and habitat
4 Feedin'
4.1 Fish
4.2 Mammals and birds
5 Behaviour
5.1 Social structure
5.2 Vocalizations
5.3 Intelligence
6 Life cycle
7 Conservation
8 Relationship with humans
8.1 Indigenous cultures
8.2 "Killer" stereotype
8.3 Modern Western attitudes
8.4 Whalin'
8.4.1 Cooperation with humans
8.5 Whale watchin'
8.6 Captivity
10 Footnotes
12 Further readin'
Taxonomy and evolution
Modern orca skeleton, Naturalis, Leiden
Orcinus orca is the feckin' only recognized extant species in the feckin' genus Orcinus, and one of many animal species originally described by Carl Linnaeus in his landmark 1758 10th edition of Systema Naturae.[6] Konrad Gessner wrote the bleedin' first scientific description of a bleedin' killer whale in his Piscium & aquatilium animantium natura of 1558, part of the larger Historia animalium, based on examination of a dead stranded animal in the feckin' Bay of Greifswald that had attracted a bleedin' great deal of local interest.[7]
The killer whale is one of 35 species in the feckin' oceanic dolphin family, which first appeared about 11 million years ago. Story? The killer whale lineage probably branched off shortly thereafter.[8] Although it has morphological similarities with the false killer whale, the pygmy killer whale and the pilot whales, an oul' study of cytochrome b gene sequences by Richard LeDuc indicated that its closest extant relatives are the snubfin dolphins of the feckin' genus Orcaella.[9] However, an oul' more recent (2018) study places the feckin' orca as a bleedin' sister taxon to the Lissodelphininae, a holy clade that includes Lagenorhynchus and Cephalorhynchus.[10]
Although the term "orca" is increasingly used, English-speakin' scientists most often use the bleedin' traditional name "killer whale".[11] The genus name Orcinus means "of the kingdom of the dead",[12] or "belongin' to Orcus".[13] Ancient Romans originally used orca (pl. orcae) for these animals, possibly borrowin' Ancient Greek ὄρυξ (óryx), which referred (among other things) to a bleedin' whale species. C'mere til I tell ya now. Since the bleedin' 1960s, "orca" has steadily grown in common use.[11] As part of the oul' family Delphinidae, the feckin' species is more closely related to other oceanic dolphins than to other whales.[14]
They are sometimes referred to as "blackfish", a feckin' name also used for other whale species, bedad. "Grampus" is a former name for the feckin' species, but is now seldom used, would ye believe it? This meanin' of "grampus" should not be confused with the oul' genus Grampus, whose only member is Risso's dolphin.[15]
The three to five types of killer whales may be distinct enough to be considered different races,[16] subspecies, or possibly even species[17] (see Species problem), like. The IUCN reported in 2008, "The taxonomy of this genus is clearly in need of review, and it is likely that O, Lord bless us and save us. orca will be split into a feckin' number of different species or at least subspecies over the oul' next few years."[3] Although large variation in the bleedin' ecological distinctiveness of different killer whale groups complicate simple differentiation into types,[18] research off the west coast of Canada and the United States in the feckin' 1970s and 1980s identified the feckin' followin' three types:
Resident: These are the bleedin' most commonly sighted of the oul' three populations in the bleedin' coastal waters of the northeast Pacific. C'mere til I tell ya now. Residents' diets consist primarily of fish[19] and sometimes squid, and they live in complex and cohesive family groups called pods.[20] Female residents characteristically have rounded dorsal fin tips that terminate in a sharp corner.[21] They visit the feckin' same areas consistently. Sure this is it. British Columbia and Washington resident populations are amongst the most intensively studied marine mammals anywhere in the feckin' world. Here's another quare one. Researchers have identified and named over 300 killer whales over the oul' past 30 years.[22]
Transient: The diets of these whales consist almost exclusively of marine mammals.[19][21] Transients generally travel in small groups, usually of two to six animals, and have less persistent family bonds than residents.[23] Transients vocalize in less variable and less complex dialects.[24] Female transients are characterized by more triangular and pointed dorsal fins than those of residents.[21] The grey or white area around the dorsal fin, known as the bleedin' "saddle patch", often contains some black colourin' in residents. However, the bleedin' saddle patches of transients are solid and uniformly grey.[21] Transients roam widely along the bleedin' coast; some individuals have been sighted in both southern Alaska and California.[25] Transients are also referred to as Bigg's killer whale in honour of cetologist Michael Bigg, you know yerself. The term has become increasingly common and may eventually replace the transient label.[26]
Offshore: A third population of killer whales in the northeast Pacific was discovered in 1988, when a holy humpback whale researcher observed them in open water, enda story. As their name suggests, they travel far from shore and feed primarily on schoolin' fish.[27] However, because they have large, scarred and nicked dorsal fins resemblin' those of mammal-huntin' transients, it may be that they also eat mammals and sharks.[28][29] They have mostly been encountered off the feckin' west coast of Vancouver Island and near Haida Gwaii. Offshores typically congregate in groups of 20–75, with occasional sightings of larger groups of up to 200.[30] Little is known about their habits, but they are genetically distinct from residents and transients. Here's a quare one. Offshores appear to be smaller than the others, and females are characterized by dorsal fin tips that are continuously rounded.[21]
Type C killer whales in the oul' Ross Sea in the Southern Ocean: The eye patch shlants forward.
Transients and residents live in the feckin' same areas, but avoid each other.[31][32][33]
Other populations have not been as well studied, although specialized fish and mammal eatin' killer whales have been distinguished elsewhere.[34] In addition, separate populations of "generalist" (fish- and mammal-eatin') and "specialist" (mammal-eatin') killer whales have been identified off northwestern Europe.[35][36] As with residents and transients, the bleedin' lifestyle of these whales appears to reflect their diet; fish-eatin' killer whales in Alaska[37] and Norway[38] have resident-like social structures, while mammal-eatin' killer whales in Argentina and the bleedin' Crozet Islands behave more like transients.[39]
Three types have been documented in the bleedin' Antarctic, fair play. Two dwarf species, named Orcinus nanus and Orcinus glacialis, were described durin' the bleedin' 1980s by Soviet researchers, but most cetacean researchers are sceptical about their status, and linkin' these directly to the oul' types described below is difficult.[17]
Some examples of variations in killer whales
Type A looks like an oul' "typical" killer whale, a holy large, black-and-white form with a holy medium-sized white eye patch, livin' in open water and feedin' mostly on minke whales.[17]
Type B is smaller than type A, would ye swally that? It has a large white eye patch. Would ye swally this in a minute now?Most of the bleedin' dark parts of its body are medium grey instead of black, although it has a dark grey patch called a "dorsal cape"[40] stretchin' back from its forehead to just behind its dorsal fin. The white areas are stained shlightly yellow. Stop the lights! It feeds mostly on seals.[17]
Type C is the smallest and lives in larger groups than the others. Be the holy feck, this is a quare wan. Its eye patch is distinctively shlanted forwards, rather than parallel to the bleedin' body axis, you know yourself like. Like type B, it is primarily white and medium grey, with a bleedin' dark grey dorsal cape and yellow-tinged patches. Its only observed prey is the feckin' Antarctic cod.[17]
Type D was identified based on photographs of a 1955 mass strandin' in New Zealand and six at-sea sightings since 2004, Lord bless us and save us. The first video record of this type was made in 2014 between the oul' Kerguelen and Crozet Islands,[41] and again in 2017 off the oul' coast of Cape Horn, Chile.[42] It is recognizable by its small white eye patch, narrower and shorter than usual dorsal fin, bulbous head (similar to a feckin' pilot whale), and smaller teeth.[43] Its geographic range appears to be circumglobal in sub-Antarctic waters between latitudes 40°S and 60°S. Stop the lights! Although its diet is not determined, it likely includes fish, as determined by photographs around longline vessels, where Type D orcas appeared to be preyin' on Patagonian toothfish (Dissostichus eleginoides).[44][45]
Types B and C live close to the ice pack, and diatoms in these waters may be responsible for the feckin' yellowish colourin' of both types.[17][46] Mitochondrial DNA sequences support the bleedin' theory that these are recently diverged separate species.[47] More recently, complete mitochondrial sequencin' indicates the two Antarctic groups that eat seals and fish should be recognized as distinct species, as should the feckin' North Pacific transients, leavin' the bleedin' others as subspecies pendin' additional data.[48] Advanced methods that sequenced the oul' entire mitochondrial genome revealed systematic differences in DNA between different populations.[49] A 2019 study of Type D orcas also found them to be distinct from other populations and possibly even a bleedin' unique species.[44]
Mammal-eatin' killer whales in different regions were long thought likely to be closely related, but genetic testin' has refuted this hypothesis.[50]
There are seven identified ecotypes inhabitin' isolated ecological niches. Of three orca ecotypes in the oul' Antarctic, one preys on minke whales, the second on seals and penguins, and the oul' third on fish. Another ecotype lives in the eastern North Atlantic, while the bleedin' three Northeast Pacific ecotypes are labelled the feckin' transient, resident and offshore populations described above. Bejaysus this is a quare tale altogether. Research has supported a proposal to reclassify the oul' Antarctic seal- and fish-eatin' populations and the bleedin' North Pacific transients as an oul' distinct species, leavin' the remainin' ecotypes as subspecies. Soft oul' day. The first split in the oul' orca population, between the oul' North Pacific transients and the rest, occurred an estimated 700,000 years ago. Such a feckin' designation would mean that each new species becomes subject to separate conservation assessments.[49]
Appearance and morphology
Differences of dorsal fins between males (front) and females (background)
Internal anatomy of a female
A typical killer whale distinctively bears a black back, white chest and sides, and a bleedin' white patch above and behind the feckin' eye. Story? Calves are born with a holy yellowish or orange tint, which fades to white. C'mere til I tell ya now. It has a feckin' heavy and robust body[51] with a holy large dorsal fin up to 1.8 m (5 ft 11 in) tall.[52] Behind the oul' fin, it has a feckin' dark grey "saddle patch" across the bleedin' back. Antarctic killer whales may have pale grey to nearly white backs. Adult killer whales are very distinctive, seldom confused with any other sea creature.[53] When seen from a feckin' distance, juveniles can be confused with other cetacean species, such as the false killer whale or Risso's dolphin.[54]
The killer whale's teeth are very strong, and its jaws exert a bleedin' powerful grip; the bleedin' upper teeth fall into the oul' gaps between the bleedin' lower teeth when the bleedin' mouth is closed. The firm middle and back teeth hold prey in place, while the bleedin' front teeth are inclined shlightly forward and outward to protect them from powerful jerkin' movements.[55]
Killer whales are the oul' largest extant members of the bleedin' dolphin family. Would ye believe this shite?Males typically range from 6 to 8 metres (20 to 26 ft) long and weigh in excess of 6 tonnes (5.9 long tons; 6.6 short tons). Females are smaller, generally rangin' from 5 to 7 m (16 to 23 ft) and weighin' about 3 to 4 tonnes (3.0 to 3.9 long tons; 3.3 to 4.4 short tons).[56] Calves at birth weigh about 180 kg (400 lb) and are about 2.4 m (7.9 ft) long.[57][58] The skeleton of the killer whale is of the bleedin' typical delphinid structure, but more robust.[59] Its integument, unlike that of most other dolphin species, is characterized by a bleedin' well-developed dermal layer with a dense network of fascicles of collagen fibres.[60]
Killer whale pectoral fins, analogous to forelimbs, are large and rounded, resemblin' paddles, with those of males significantly larger than those of females. Dorsal fins also exhibit sexual dimorphism, with those of males about 1.8 m (5.9 ft) high, more than twice the size of the feckin' female's, with the oul' male's fin more like a tall, elongated isosceles triangle, whereas the female's is shorter and more curved.[61] Males and females also have different patterns of black and white skin in their genital areas.[62] In the skull, adult males have longer lower jaws than females, as well as larger occipital crests.[60]
An individual killer whale can often be identified from its dorsal fin and saddle patch. Variations such as nicks, scratches, and tears on the oul' dorsal fin and the feckin' pattern of white or grey in the oul' saddle patch are unique. Published directories contain identifyin' photographs and names for hundreds of North Pacific animals, enda story. Photographic identification has enabled the feckin' local population of killer whales to be counted each year rather than estimated, and has enabled great insight into life cycles and social structures.[63]
Occasionally a killer whale is white; they have been spotted in the northern Berin' Sea and around St. Here's a quare one. Lawrence Island, and near the bleedin' Russian coast.[64][65] In February 2008, a bleedin' white killer whale was photographed 3.2 km (2.0 mi) off Kanaga Volcano in the bleedin' Aleutian Islands.[64][65] In 2010, the oul' Far East Russia Orca Project (FEROP), co-founded and co-directed by Alexander M. Stop the lights! Burdin and Erich Hoyt, filmed an adult male nicknamed Iceberg.[66][67]
Killer whales have good eyesight above and below the feckin' water, excellent hearin', and a good sense of touch, grand so. They have exceptionally sophisticated echolocation abilities, detectin' the location and characteristics of prey and other objects in the oul' water by emittin' clicks and listenin' for echoes,[68] as do other members of the bleedin' dolphin family. The mean body temperature of the feckin' orca is 36 to 38 °C (97 to 100 °F).[69][70] Like most marine mammals, orcas have a holy layer of insulatin' blubber rangin' from 7.6 to 10 cm (3.0 to 3.9 in) thick[69] beneath the oul' skin, to be sure. The pulse is about 60 heartbeats per minute when the feckin' orca is at the oul' surface, droppin' to 30 beats/min when submerged.[71]
Range and habitat
A killer whale leaps out of the water when swimmin'—a behaviour known as porpoisin', in Hood Canal.
"Type B" orcas off South Georgia Island
Killer whales are found in all oceans and most seas, for the craic. Due to their enormous range, numbers, and density, relative distribution is difficult to estimate,[72] but they clearly prefer higher latitudes and coastal areas over pelagic environments.[73] Areas which serve as major study sites for the species include the oul' coasts of Iceland, Norway, the oul' Valdes Peninsula of Argentina, the Crozet Islands, New Zealand and parts of the feckin' west coast of North America, from California to Alaska.[74]
Systematic surveys indicate the bleedin' highest densities of killer whales (>0.40 individuals per 100 km2) in the bleedin' northeast Atlantic around the oul' Norwegian coast, in the bleedin' north Pacific along the oul' Aleutian Islands, the feckin' Gulf of Alaska and in the oul' Southern Ocean off much of the feckin' coast of Antarctica.[72] They are considered "common" (0.20–0.40 individuals per 100 km2) in the eastern Pacific along the coasts of British Columbia, Washington and Oregon, in the feckin' North Atlantic Ocean around Iceland and the bleedin' Faroe Islands. Sufferin' Jaysus listen to this. High densities have also been reported but not quantified in the western North Pacific around the Sea of Japan, Sea of Okhotsk, Kuril Islands, Kamchatka and the Commander Islands and in the bleedin' Southern Hemisphere off southern Brazil and the feckin' tip of southern Africa. They are reported as seasonally common in the feckin' Canadian Arctic, includin' Baffin Bay between Greenland and Nunavut, as well as Tasmania and Macquarie Island.[72] Regularly occurrin' or distinct populations exist off Northwest Europe, California, Patagonia, the Crozet Islands, Marion Island, southern Australia and New Zealand.[36][72][75] The northwest Atlantic population of at least 67 individuals ranges from Labrador and Newfoundland to New England with sightings to Cape Cod and Long Island.[76]
Information for offshore regions and warmer waters is more scarce, but widespread sightings indicate that the killer whale can survive in most water temperatures, so it is. They have been sighted, though more infrequently, in the Mediterranean, the feckin' Arabian Sea, the oul' Gulf of Mexico, Banderas Bay on Mexico's west coast and the Caribbean.[72] Over 50 individual whales have been documented in the bleedin' northern Indian Ocean, includin' two individuals that were sighted in the Persian Gulf in 2008 and off Sri Lanka in 2015.[77] Those orcas may occasionally enter the oul' Red Sea through the oul' Gulf of Aden.[78] The modern status of the species along coastal mainland China and its vicinity is unknown. Arra' would ye listen to this shite? Recorded sightings have been made from almost the feckin' entire shoreline.[79] A wide-rangin' population is likely to exist in the central Pacific, with some sightings off Hawaii.[80][81] Distinct populations may also exist off the west coast of tropical Africa,[82] and Papua New Guinea.[83] In the Mediterranean, killer whales are considered "visitors", likely from the feckin' North Atlantic, and sightings become less frequent further east, be the hokey! However, a small year-round population is known to exist in the feckin' Strait of Gibraltar, mostly on the bleedin' Atlantic side.[84][85] Killer whales also appear to regularly occur off the Galápagos Islands.[86]
In the Antarctic, killer whales range up to the bleedin' edge of the pack ice and are believed to venture into the denser pack ice, findin' open leads much like beluga whales in the oul' Arctic. G'wan now. However, killer whales are merely seasonal visitors to Arctic waters, and do not approach the feckin' pack ice in the summer. Be the holy feck, this is a quare wan. With the rapid Arctic sea ice decline in the Hudson Strait, their range now extends deep into the oul' northwest Atlantic.[87] Occasionally, killer whales swim into freshwater rivers, bejaysus. They have been documented 100 mi (160 km) up the bleedin' Columbia River in the oul' United States.[88][89] They have also been found in the bleedin' Fraser River in Canada and the Horikawa River in Japan.[88]
Migration patterns are poorly understood. Jesus, Mary and holy Saint Joseph. Each summer, the feckin' same individuals appear off the coasts of British Columbia and Washington. Arra' would ye listen to this. Despite decades of research, where these animals go for the feckin' rest of the feckin' year remains unknown. Transient pods have been sighted from southern Alaska to central California.[90]
Worldwide population estimates are uncertain, but recent consensus suggests a bleedin' minimum of 50,000 (2006).[91][3][30] Local estimates include roughly 25,000 in the bleedin' Antarctic, 8,500 in the feckin' tropical Pacific, 2,250–2,700 off the oul' cooler northeast Pacific and 500–1,500 off Norway.[92] Japan's Fisheries Agency estimated in the 2000s that 2,321 killer whales were in the oul' seas around Japan.[93][94]
Feedin'
A killer whale skeleton
Killer whales are apex predators, meanin' that they themselves have no natural predators. They are sometimes called the oul' wolves of the bleedin' sea, because they hunt in groups like wolf packs.[95] Killer whales hunt varied prey includin' fish, cephalopods, mammals, seabirds, and sea turtles.[96] Different populations or ecotypes may specialize, and some can have a bleedin' dramatic impact on prey species.[97] However, whales in tropical areas appear to have more generalized diets due to lower food productivity.[81][82] Killer whales spend most of their time at shallow depths,[98] but occasionally dive several hundred metres dependin' on their prey.[99][100]
Tail-shlappin' in Vestfjorden, Norway
Resident (fish-eatin') killer whales: The curved dorsal fins are typical of resident females.
Comparison of the size of an average orca and an average great white shark
Fish-eatin' killer whales prey on around 30 species of fish. Whisht now and eist liom. Some populations in the feckin' Norwegian and Greenland sea specialize in herrin' and follow that fish's autumnal migration to the feckin' Norwegian coast, that's fierce now what? Salmon account for 96% of northeast Pacific residents' diet, includin' 65% of large, fatty Chinook.[101] Chum salmon are also eaten, but smaller sockeye and pink salmon are not a holy significant food item. Here's another quare one. Depletion of specific prey species in an area is, therefore, cause for concern for local populations, despite the feckin' high diversity of prey.[91] On average, a killer whale eats 227 kilograms (500 lb) each day.[102] While salmon are usually hunted by an individual whale or a bleedin' small group, herrin' are often caught usin' carousel feedin': the feckin' killer whales force the oul' herrin' into a feckin' tight ball by releasin' bursts of bubbles or flashin' their white undersides. G'wan now. They then shlap the ball with their tail flukes, stunnin' or killin' up to 15 fish at a time, then eatin' them one by one, would ye believe it? Carousel feedin' has only been documented in the bleedin' Norwegian killer whale population, as well as some oceanic dolphin species.[103]
In New Zealand, sharks and rays appear to be important prey, includin' eagle rays, long-tail and short-tail stingrays, common threshers, smooth hammerheads, blue sharks, baskin' sharks, and shortfin makos.[104][105] With sharks, orcas may herd them to the feckin' surface and strike them with their tail flukes,[104] while bottom-dwellin' rays are cornered, pinned to the oul' ground and taken to the oul' surface.[106] In other parts of the feckin' world, killer whales have preyed on broadnose sevengill sharks,[107] tiger sharks[108] and even small whale sharks.[109] Killer whales have also been recorded attackin' and feedin' on great white sharks,[28][110][111][112] and appear to target the liver.[28][111] Competition between killer whales and white sharks is probable in regions where their diets overlap.[113] The arrival of orcas in an area can cause white sharks to flee and forage elsewhere.[114]
Mammals and birds
Feedin' on a northern fur seal, Bogoslof Island, Alaska
Killer whales are sophisticated and effective predators of marine mammals. Thirty-two cetacean species have been recorded as prey, from observin' orca feedin' activity, examinin' the stomach contents of dead orcas, and seein' scars on the feckin' bodies of survivin' prey animals. G'wan now. Groups even attack larger cetaceans such as minke whales, grey whales,[115][116] and, rarely, sperm whales or blue whales.[34][117][118][119] Predation by orcas on whale calves in high-productivity, high-latitude areas may account for great whale migrations durin' breedin' season to low-productivity tropical waters where orcas are scarcer.[115][120]
Huntin' a large whale usually takes several hours. Killer whales generally attack young or weak animals.[115] When huntin' an oul' young whale, an oul' group chases it and its mammy to exhaustion. Eventually, they separate the oul' pair and surround the feckin' calf, drownin' it by keepin' it from surfacin', and may consume only its jaw and tongue.[115] Pods of female sperm whales sometimes protect themselves by formin' a protective circle around their calves with their flukes facin' outwards, usin' them to repel the bleedin' attackers.[121] Rarely, large killer whale pods can overwhelm even adult female sperm whales. Adult bull sperm whales, which are large, powerful and aggressive when threatened, and fully grown adult blue whales, which are possibly too large to overwhelm, are not believed to be prey for killer whales.[122]
Prior to the advent of industrial whalin', great whales may have been the feckin' major food source for killer whales, what? The introduction of modern whalin' techniques may have aided killer whales by the oul' sound of explodin' harpoons indicatin' availability of prey to scavenge, and compressed air inflation of whale carcasses causin' them to float, thus exposin' them to scavengin'. Stop the lights! However, the devastation of great whale populations by unfettered whalin' has possibly reduced their availability for killer whales, and caused them to expand their consumption of smaller marine mammals, thus contributin' to the oul' decline of these as well.[120]
Killer whale "spyhoppin'" before an attack on a Weddell seal
Other marine mammal prey species include nearly 20 species of seal, sea lion and fur seal, you know yerself. Walruses and sea otters are less frequently taken. Chrisht Almighty. Often, to avoid injury, killer whales disable their prey before killin' and eatin' it. This may involve throwin' it in the air, shlappin' it with their tails, rammin' it, or breachin' and landin' on it.[123] In the oul' Aleutian Islands, a bleedin' decline in sea otter populations in the oul' 1990s was controversially attributed by some scientists to killer whale predation, although with no direct evidence.[124] The decline of sea otters followed an oul' decline in harbour seal and Steller sea lion populations, the feckin' killer whale's preferred prey,[a][126] which in turn may be substitutes for their original prey, now decimated by industrial whalin'.[127][128][129]
In steeply banked beaches off Península Valdés, Argentina, and the bleedin' Crozet Islands, killer whales feed on South American sea lions and southern elephant seals in shallow water, even beachin' temporarily to grab prey before wrigglin' back to the bleedin' sea. Beachin', usually fatal to cetaceans, is not an instinctive behaviour, and can require years of practice for the oul' young.[130] Killer whales can then release the animal near juvenile whales, allowin' the feckin' younger whales to practice the difficult capture technique on the bleedin' now-weakened prey.[123][131] "Wave-huntin'" killer whales "spy-hop" to locate Weddell seals, crabeater seals, leopard seals, and penguins restin' on ice floes, and then swim in groups to create waves that wash over the oul' floe. This washes the bleedin' prey into the water, where other killer whales lie in wait.[49][132][133]
Killer whales have also been observed preyin' on terrestrial mammals, such as deer swimmin' between islands off the northwest coast of North America.[125] Killer whale cannibalism has also been reported based on analysis of stomach contents, but this is likely to be the feckin' result of scavengin' remains dumped by whalers.[134] One killer whale was also attacked by its companions after bein' shot.[34] Although resident killer whales have never been observed to eat other marine mammals, they occasionally harass and kill porpoises and seals for no apparent reason.[135]
Killer whales in many areas may prey on cormorants and gulls.[136] A captive killer whale at Marineland of Canada discovered it could regurgitate fish onto the bleedin' surface, attractin' sea gulls, and then eat the birds. Jaysis. Four others then learned to copy the behaviour.[137]
Association of killer whales and black-browed albatrosses
Day-to-day killer whale behaviour generally consists of foragin', travellin', restin' and socializin', grand so. Killer whales frequently engage in surface behaviour such as breachin' (jumpin' completely out of the water) and tail-shlappin', would ye swally that? These activities may have a feckin' variety of purposes, such as courtship, communication, dislodgin' parasites, or play. Holy blatherin' Joseph, listen to this. Spyhoppin' is a bleedin' behaviour in which a holy whale holds its head above water to view its surroundings.[138] Resident killer whales swim alongside porpoises and other dolphins.[139]
A pair of killer whales in a bleedin' transient population in Northwest Pacific
Killer whales are notable for their complex societies, the cute hoor. Only elephants and higher primates live in comparably complex social structures.[140] Due to orcas' complex social bonds, many marine experts have concerns about how humane it is to keep them in captivity.[141]
Resident killer whales in the eastern North Pacific live in particularly complex and stable social groups. Unlike any other known mammal social structure, resident whales live with their mammies for their entire lives. Jesus, Mary and Joseph. These family groups are based on matrilines consistin' of the feckin' eldest female (matriarch) and her sons and daughters, and the feckin' descendants of her daughters, etc. Stop the lights! The average size of an oul' matriline is 5.5 animals.[142] Because females can reach age 90, as many as four generations travel together, that's fierce now what? These matrilineal groups are highly stable. Here's another quare one. Individuals separate for only a bleedin' few hours at a holy time, to mate or forage. With one exception, a bleedin' killer whale named Luna, no permanent separation of an individual from a resident matriline has been recorded.[142]
Killer whales, like this one near Alaska, commonly breach, often liftin' their entire bodies out of the feckin' water.
Closely related matrilines form loose aggregations called pods, usually consistin' of one to four matrilines. Would ye believe this shite?Unlike matrilines, pods may separate for weeks or months at a holy time.[142] DNA testin' indicates resident males nearly always mate with females from other pods.[143] Clans, the oul' next level of resident social structure, are composed of pods with similar dialects, and common but older maternal heritage. Sufferin' Jaysus. Clan ranges overlap, minglin' pods from different clans.[142] The final association layer, perhaps more arbitrarily defined than the familial groupings, is called the feckin' community, and is defined as a set of clans that regularly commingle, begorrah. Clans within a community do not share vocal patterns.[b]
Transient pods are smaller than resident pods, typically consistin' of an adult female and one or two of her offsprin', you know yourself like. Males typically maintain stronger relationships with their mammies than other females. C'mere til I tell ya. These bonds can extend well into adulthood. Unlike residents, extended or permanent separation of transient offsprin' from natal matrilines is common, with juveniles and adults of both sexes participatin'. Some males become "rovers" and do not form long-term associations, occasionally joinin' groups that contain reproductive females.[144] As in resident clans, transient community members share an acoustic repertoire, although regional differences in vocalizations have been noted.[145]
Vocalizations
Multimedia relatin' to the oul' orca
Killer whale calls
Killer whale calls at a holy distance
Vocalizations of a killer whale
Problems playin' these files? See media help.
See also: Whale sound
Like all cetaceans, killer whales depend heavily on underwater sound for orientation, feedin', and communication. G'wan now and listen to this wan. They produce three categories of sounds: clicks, whistles, and pulsed calls. Chrisht Almighty. Clicks are believed to be used primarily for navigation and discriminatin' prey and other objects in the bleedin' surroundin' environment, but are also commonly heard durin' social interactions.[30]
Northeast Pacific resident groups tend to be much more vocal than transient groups in the same waters.[146] Residents feed primarily on Chinook and chum, which are insensitive to killer whale calls (inferred from the feckin' audiogram of Atlantic salmon). Jesus, Mary and Joseph. In contrast, the bleedin' marine mammal prey of transients hear whale calls well. Would ye believe this shite?Transients are typically silent.[146] They sometimes use an oul' single click (called an oul' cryptic click) rather than the oul' long train of clicks observed in other populations, bejaysus. Residents are silent only when restin'.
All members of a feckin' resident pod use similar calls, known collectively as a dialect. Dialects are composed of specific numbers and types of discrete, repetitive calls, Lord bless us and save us. They are complex and stable over time.[147] Call patterns and structure are distinctive within matrilines.[148] Newborns produce calls similar to their mammies, but have an oul' more limited repertoire.[145] Individuals likely learn their dialect through contact with pod members.[149] Family-specific calls have been observed more frequently in the days followin' a bleedin' calf's birth, which may help the calf learn them.[150] Dialects are probably an important means of maintainin' group identity and cohesiveness. Similarity in dialects likely reflects the degree of relatedness between pods, with variation growin' over time.[151] When pods meet, dominant call types decrease and subset call types increase. Sure this is it. The use of both call types is called biphonation, to be sure. The increased subset call types may be the distinguishin' factor between pods and inter-pod relations.[148]
Dialects also distinguish types. Resident dialects contain seven to 17 (mean = 11) distinctive call types. Chrisht Almighty. All members of the oul' North American west coast transient community express the oul' same basic dialect, although minor regional variation in call types is evident, grand so. Preliminary research indicates offshore killer whales have group-specific dialects unlike those of residents and transients.[151]
Norwegian and Icelandic herrin'-eatin' orcas appear to have different vocalizations for activities like huntin'.[152] A population that live in McMurdo Sound, Antarctica have 28 complex burst-pulse and whistle calls.[153]
Main article: Cetacean intelligence
Killer whales have the second-heaviest brains among marine mammals[154] (after sperm whales, which have the oul' largest brain of any animal).[155] They can be trained in captivity and are often described as intelligent,[156][157] although definin' and measurin' "intelligence" is difficult in a holy species whose environment and behavioural strategies are very different from those of humans.[157]
A killer whale plays with a feckin' ball of ice, soon after a holy researcher threw an oul' snowball at the feckin' whale.
Killer whales imitate others, and seem to deliberately teach skills to their kin, bejaysus. Off the bleedin' Crozet Islands, mammies push their calves onto the beach, waitin' to pull the oul' youngster back if needed.[123][131]
People who have interacted closely with killer whales offer numerous anecdotes demonstratin' the bleedin' whales' curiosity, playfulness, and ability to solve problems. Sufferin' Jaysus listen to this. Alaskan killer whales have not only learned how to steal fish from longlines, but have also overcome a variety of techniques designed to stop them, such as the oul' use of unbaited lines as decoys.[158] Once, fishermen placed their boats several miles apart, takin' turns retrievin' small amounts of their catch, in the feckin' hope that the oul' whales would not have enough time to move between boats to steal the bleedin' catch as it was bein' retrieved. Jaysis. A researcher described what happened next:
It worked really well for a while. Jaykers! Then the bleedin' whales split into two groups. It didn't even take them an hour to figure it out. Sufferin' Jaysus. They were so thrilled when they figured out what was goin' on, that we were playin' games. They were breachin' by the oul' boats.
—  Craig Matkin[158]
In other anecdotes, researchers describe incidents in which wild killer whales playfully tease humans by repeatedly movin' objects the bleedin' humans are tryin' to reach,[159] or suddenly start to toss around an oul' chunk of ice after a human throws a snowball.[160]
The killer whale's use of dialects and the passin' of other learned behaviours from generation to generation have been described as a holy form of animal culture.[161]
The complex and stable vocal and behavioural cultures of sympatric groups of killer whales (Orcinus orca) appear to have no parallel outside humans and represent an independent evolution of cultural faculties.[162]
(Two species or populations are considered sympatric when they live in the feckin' same geographic area and thus regularly encounter one another.)
Mammy orca with calf near South Georgia
Female killer whales begin to mature at around the oul' age of 10 and reach peak fertility around 20,[163] experiencin' periods of polyestrous cyclin' separated by non-cyclin' periods of three to 16 months. Females can often breed until age 40, followed by a rapid decrease in fertility.[163] Orcas are among the few animals that undergo menopause and live for decades after they have finished breedin'.[164][165] The lifespans of wild females average 50 to 80 years.[166] Some are claimed to have lived substantially longer: Granny (J2) was estimated by some researchers to have been as old as 105 years at the bleedin' time of her death, though a holy biopsy sample indicated her age as 65 to 80 years.[167][168][169] It is thought that orcas held in captivity tend to have shorter lives than those in the oul' wild, although this is subject to scientific debate.[166][170][171]
Males mate with females from other pods, which prevents inbreedin', the cute hoor. Gestation varies from 15 to 18 months, to be sure. [172] Mothers usually calve a holy single offsprin' about once every five years, would ye swally that? In resident pods, births occur at any time of year, although winter is the most common. Mortality is extremely high durin' the first seven months of life, when 37–50% of all calves die.[173] Weanin' begins at about 12 months of age, and is complete by two years. Accordin' to observations in several regions, all male and female pod members participate in the oul' care of the bleedin' young.[140]
Males sexually mature at the bleedin' age of 15, but do not typically reproduce until age 21. Sure this is it. Wild males live around 29 years on average, with a bleedin' maximum of about 60 years.[167] One male, known as Old Tom, was reportedly spotted every winter between the oul' 1840s and 1930 off New South Wales, Australia, which would have made yer man up to 90 years old. Examination of his teeth indicated he died around age 35,[174] but this method of age determination is now believed to be inaccurate for older animals.[175] One male known to researchers in the feckin' Pacific Northwest (identified as J1) was estimated to have been 59 years old when he died in 2010.[176] Killer whales are unique among cetaceans, as their caudal sections elongate with age, makin' their heads relatively shorter.[60]
Infanticide, once thought to occur only in captive killer whales, was observed in wild populations by researchers off British Columbia on December 2, 2016. In this incident, an adult male killed the bleedin' calf of a holy female within the oul' same pod, with the feckin' adult male's mammy also joinin' in the bleedin' assault. G'wan now. It is theorized that the oul' male killed the bleedin' young calf in order to mate with its mammy (somethin' that occurs in other carnivore species), while the bleedin' male's mammy supported the breedin' opportunity for her son. Stop the lights! The attack ended when the oul' calf's mammy struck and injured the attackin' male, bejaysus. Such behaviour matches that of many smaller dolphin species, such as the feckin' bottlenose dolphin.[177]
The type C killer whale has two-toned grey colourin', includin' a bleedin' dark "dorsal cape", in body areas where most killer whales have solid black colourin', the cute hoor. Research is ongoin' into whether one or more killer whale types are distinct species in need of protection.
In 2008, the bleedin' IUCN (International Union for Conservation of Nature) changed its assessment of the feckin' killer whale's conservation status from conservation dependent to data deficient, recognizin' that one or more killer whale types may actually be separate, endangered species.[3] Depletion of prey species, pollution, large-scale oil spills, and habitat disturbance caused by noise and conflicts with boats are the feckin' most significant worldwide threats.[3] In January 2020, the bleedin' first killer whale in England and Wales since 2001 was found dead with a large fragment of plastic in its stomach.[178]
Like other animals at the feckin' highest trophic levels, the oul' killer whale is particularly at risk of poisonin' from bioaccumulation of toxins, includin' Polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs).[179] European harbour seals have problems in reproductive and immune functions associated with high levels of PCBs and related contaminants, and a holy survey off the oul' Washington coast found PCB levels in killer whales were higher than levels that had caused health problems in harbour seals.[179] Blubber samples in the feckin' Norwegian Arctic show higher levels of PCBs, pesticides and brominated flame-retardants than in polar bears. Here's a quare one for ye. When food is scarce, killer whales metabolize blubber for energy, which increases pollutant concentrations in their blood.
In the oul' Pacific Northwest, wild salmon stocks, a bleedin' main resident food source, have declined dramatically in recent years.[3] In the feckin' Puget Sound region only 75 whales remain with few births over the feckin' last few years.[180] On the west coast of Alaska and the bleedin' Aleutian Islands, seal and sea lion populations have also substantially declined.[181]
An adult female and her calf
In 2005, the feckin' United States government listed the southern resident community as an endangered population under the feckin' Endangered Species Act.[30] This community comprises three pods which live mostly in the Georgia and Haro Straits and Puget Sound in British Columbia and Washington. Here's a quare one for ye. They do not breed outside of their community, which was once estimated at around 200 animals and later shrank to around 90.[182] In October 2008, the annual survey revealed seven were missin' and presumed dead, reducin' the bleedin' count to 83.[183] This is potentially the feckin' largest decline in the oul' population in the bleedin' past 10 years. These deaths can be attributed to declines in Chinook salmon.[183]
Scientist Ken Balcomb has extensively studied killer whales since 1976; he is the oul' research biologist responsible for discoverin' U.S, the cute hoor. Navy sonar may harm killer whales. He studied killer whales from the bleedin' Center for Whale Research, located in Friday Harbor, Washington.[184] He was also able to study killer whales from "his home porch perched above Puget Sound, where the feckin' animals hunt and play in summer months".[184] In May 2003, Balcomb (along with other whale watchers near the bleedin' Puget Sound coastline) noticed uncharacteristic behaviour displayed by the oul' killer whales. Right so. The whales seemed "agitated and were movin' haphazardly, attemptin' to lift their heads free of the oul' water" to escape the oul' sound of the oul' sonars.[184] "Balcomb confirmed at the feckin' time that strange underwater pingin' noises detected with underwater microphones were sonar. Jasus. The sound originated from a holy U.S. Navy frigate 12 miles (19 kilometres) distant, Balcomb said."[184] The impact of sonar waves on killer whales is potentially life-threatenin'. Jesus, Mary and Joseph. Three years prior to Balcomb's discovery, research in the bleedin' Bahamas showed 14 beaked whales washed up on the feckin' shore, the hoor. These whales were beached on the feckin' day U.S. Jesus Mother of Chrisht almighty. Navy destroyers were activated into sonar exercise.[184] Of the feckin' 14 whales beached, six of them died. These six dead whales were studied, and CAT scans of two of the oul' whale heads showed hemorrhagin' around the oul' brain and the oul' ears, which is consistent with decompression sickness.[184]
Another conservation concern was made public in September 2008 when the feckin' Canadian government decided it was not necessary to enforce further protections (includin' the bleedin' Species at Risk Act in place to protect endangered animals along their habitats) for killer whales aside from the bleedin' laws already in place. In response to this decision, six environmental groups sued the bleedin' federal government, claimin' killer whales were facin' many threats on the British Columbia Coast and the federal government did nothin' to protect them from these threats.[185] A legal and scientific nonprofit organization, Ecojustice, led the bleedin' lawsuit and represented the oul' David Suzuki Foundation, Environmental Defence, Greenpeace Canada, International Fund for Animal Welfare, the bleedin' Raincoast Conservation Foundation, and the Wilderness Committee.[185] Many scientists involved in this lawsuit, includin' Bill Wareham, an oul' marine scientist with the oul' David Suzuki Foundation, noted increased boat traffic, water toxic wastes, and low salmon population as major threats, puttin' approximately 87 killer whales[185] on the feckin' British Columbia Coast in danger.
The last known AT1 pod offsprin', AT3, swimmin' in Resurrection Bay
Underwater noise from shippin', drillin', and other human activities is a feckin' significant concern in some key killer whale habitats, includin' Johnstone Strait and Haro Strait.[186] In the oul' mid-1990s, loud underwater noises from salmon farms were used to deter seals. Sure this is it. Killer whales also avoided the bleedin' surroundin' waters.[187] High-intensity sonar used by the feckin' Navy disturbs killer whales along with other marine mammals.[188] Killer whales are popular with whale watchers, which may stress the oul' whales and alter their behaviour, particularly if boats approach too closely or block their lines of travel.[189]
The Exxon Valdez oil spill adversely affected killer whales in Prince William Sound and Alaska's Kenai Fjords region. Jesus Mother of Chrisht almighty. Eleven members (about half) of one resident pod disappeared in the followin' year. The spill damaged salmon and other prey populations, which in turn damaged local killer whales. Story? By 2009, scientists estimated the oul' AT1 transient population (considered part of a larger population of 346 transients), numbered only seven individuals and had not reproduced since the bleedin' spill. This population is expected to die out.[190][191]
A 2018 study published in Science found that global killer whale populations are poised to dramatically decline due to exposure to toxic chemical and PCB pollution.[192]
Relationship with humans
See also: Animal worship
Haida sculpture by Bill Reid
The indigenous peoples of the feckin' Pacific Northwest Coast feature killer whales throughout their art, history, spirituality and religion. The Haida regarded killer whales as the most powerful animals in the oul' ocean, and their mythology tells of killer whales livin' in houses and towns under the sea. Bejaysus. Accordin' to these myths, they took on human form when submerged, and humans who drowned went to live with them.[193] For the Kwakwaka'wakw, the bleedin' killer whale was regarded as the ruler of the oul' undersea world, with sea lions for shlaves and dolphins for warriors.[193] In Nuu-chah-nulth and Kwakwaka'wakw mythology, killer whales may embody the feckin' souls of deceased chiefs.[193] The Tlingit of southeastern Alaska regarded the feckin' killer whale as custodian of the feckin' sea and a holy benefactor of humans.[194]
The Maritime Archaic people of Newfoundland also had great respect for killer whales, as evidenced by stone carvings found in a holy 4,000-year-old burial at the bleedin' Port au Choix Archaeological Site.[195][196]
In the oul' tales and beliefs of the Siberian Yupik people, killer whales are said to appear as wolves in winter, and wolves as killer whales in summer.[197][198][199][200] Killer whales are believed to assist their hunters in drivin' walrus.[201] Reverence is expressed in several forms: the feckin' boat represents the animal, and a holy wooden carvin' hung from the feckin' hunter's belt.[199] Small sacrifices such as tobacco or meat are strewn into the feckin' sea for them.[201][200]
Indigenous Ainu tribe often referred killer whales in their folklore and myth as Repun Kamuy (God of Sea/Offshore) to brin' fortunes (whales) to the feckin' coasts, and there had been traditional funerals for stranded or deceased orcas akin to funerals for other animals such as brown bears.[202]
"Killer" stereotype
Main article: Killer whale attacks on humans
In Western cultures, killer whales were historically feared as dangerous, savage predators.[203] The first written description of a holy killer whale was given by Pliny the feckin' Elder circa AD 70, who wrote, "Orcas (the appearance of which no image can express, other than an enormous mass of savage flesh with teeth) are the bleedin' enemy of [other kinds of whale]... they charge and pierce them like warships rammin'."[204]
Male killer whale depicted in St Mary's in Greifswald, Germany, 1545[7]
Of the very few confirmed attacks on humans by wild killer whales, none have been fatal.[205] In one instance, killer whales tried to tip ice floes on which a dog team and photographer of the oul' Terra Nova Expedition were standin'.[206] The shled dogs' barkin' is speculated to have sounded enough like seal calls to trigger the bleedin' killer whale's huntin' curiosity. Whisht now and listen to this wan. In the bleedin' 1970s, a feckin' surfer in California was bitten, and in 2005, a boy in Alaska who was splashin' in a feckin' region frequented by harbour seals was bumped by a killer whale that apparently misidentified yer man as prey.[207] Unlike wild killer whales, captive killer whales have made nearly two dozen attacks on humans since the 1970s, some of which have been fatal.[208][209]
Competition with fishermen also led to killer whales bein' regarded as pests. In the waters of the oul' Pacific Northwest and Iceland, the feckin' shootin' of killer whales was accepted and even encouraged by governments.[203] As an indication of the oul' intensity of shootin' that occurred until fairly recently, about 25% of the feckin' killer whales captured in Puget Sound for aquarium through 1970 bore bullet scars.[210] The U.S. Whisht now and listen to this wan. Navy claimed to have deliberately killed hundreds of killer whales in Icelandic waters in 1956 with machine guns, rockets, and depth charges.[211][212]
From July to October 2020 there were at least forty reliable reports of orcas attackin' boats off the bleedin' Atlantic coast of Portugal and Spain, unusual and unprecedented behaviour, Lord bless us and save us. The nudgin', bitin' and rammin' attacks, on medium-size sailin' boats sailin' at moderate speed, concentrated on the oul' rudder, with some impacts on the oul' hull. C'mere til I tell ya. A small group of orcas are believed to be responsible, with three juveniles which have been named black Gladis, white Gladis and grey Gladis, identified as present in most attacks. While the bleedin' incidents were terrifyin', no people were injured, be the hokey! The Portuguese coastguard banned small sailin' vessels from an oul' region where several incidents had been reported, so it is. It is thought that the behaviour is playful, rather than aggressive or vengeful.[213]
Modern Western attitudes
See also: Killer whales in popular culture
Ingrid Visser's research team filmin' orcas in New Zealand
Western attitudes towards killer whales have changed dramatically in recent decades. C'mere til I tell yiz. In the mid-1960s and early 1970s, killer whales came to much greater public and scientific awareness, startin' with the bleedin' first live-capture and display of a killer whale known as Moby Doll, a resident harpooned off Saturna Island in 1964.[203] So little was known at the feckin' time, it was nearly two months before the whale's keepers discovered what food (fish) it was willin' to eat. Right so. To the surprise of those who saw yer man, Moby Doll was an oul' docile, non-aggressive whale who made no attempts to attack humans.[214]
In 2002, the orphan Springer was successfully returned to her family.
Between 1964 and 1976, 50 killer whales from the oul' Pacific Northwest were captured for display in aquaria, and public interest in the oul' animals grew. Sufferin' Jaysus. In the bleedin' 1970s, research pioneered by Michael Bigg led to the bleedin' discovery of the feckin' species' complex social structure, its use of vocal communication, and its extraordinarily stable mammy–offsprin' bonds. Through photo-identification techniques, individuals were named and tracked over decades.[215]
Bigg's techniques also revealed the feckin' Pacific Northwest population was in the bleedin' low hundreds rather than the oul' thousands that had been previously assumed.[203] The southern resident community alone had lost 48 of its members to captivity; by 1976, only 80 remained.[216] In the feckin' Pacific Northwest, the feckin' species that had unthinkingly been targeted became an oul' cultural icon within a few decades.[182]
The public's growin' appreciation also led to growin' opposition to whale–keepin' in aquarium. Here's a quare one. Only one whale has been taken in North American waters since 1976. Bejaysus. In recent years, the oul' extent of the bleedin' public's interest in killer whales has manifested itself in several high-profile efforts surroundin' individuals. Arra' would ye listen to this. Followin' the feckin' success of the bleedin' 1993 film Free Willy, the bleedin' movie's captive star Keiko was returned to the oul' coast of his native Iceland in 2002, for the craic. The director of the feckin' International Marine Mammal Project for the bleedin' Earth Island Institute, David Phillips, led the feckin' efforts to return Keiko to the Iceland waters.[217] Keiko however did not adapt to the feckin' harsh climate of the Arctic Ocean, and died a feckin' year into his release after contractin' pneumonia, at the bleedin' age of 27.[218] In 2002, the orphan Springer was discovered in Puget Sound, Washington. G'wan now. She became the oul' first whale to be successfully reintegrated into a feckin' wild pod after human intervention, crystallizin' decades of research into the feckin' vocal behaviour and social structure of the feckin' region's killer whales.[219] The savin' of Springer raised hopes that another young killer whale named Luna, which had become separated from his pod, could be returned to it. G'wan now and listen to this wan. However, his case was marked by controversy about whether and how to intervene, and in 2006, Luna was killed by an oul' boat propeller.[220]
Whalin'
Main article: Whalin'
The killer whale named Old Tom swims alongside a bleedin' whaleboat, flankin' an oul' whale calf, so it is. The boat is bein' towed by a bleedin' harpooned whale (not visible here), near Eden, Australia.
The earlier of known records of commercial huntin' of killer whales date to the oul' 18th century in Japan. Durin' the feckin' 19th and early 20th centuries, the oul' global whalin' industry caught immense numbers of baleen and sperm whales, but largely ignored killer whales because of their limited amounts of recoverable oil, their smaller populations, and the oul' difficulty of takin' them.[143] Once the stocks of larger species were depleted, killer whales were targeted by commercial whalers in the oul' mid-20th century. Between 1954 and 1997, Japan took 1,178 killer whales (although the Ministry of the Environment claims that there had been domestic catches of about 1,600 whales between late 1940s to 1960s[221]) and Norway took 987.[222] Extensive huntin' of killer whales, includin' an Antarctic catch of 916 in 1979–80 alone, prompted the bleedin' International Whalin' Commission to recommend a ban on commercial huntin' of the bleedin' species pendin' further research.[222] Today, no country carries out an oul' substantial hunt, although Indonesia and Greenland permit small subsistence hunts (see Aboriginal whalin'). I hope yiz are all ears now. Other than commercial hunts, killer whales were hunted along Japanese coasts out of public concern for potential conflicts with fisheries. Here's another quare one for ye. Such cases include a holy semi-resident male-female pair in Akashi Strait and Harimanada bein' killed in the Seto Inland Sea in 1957,[223][224] the feckin' killin' of five whales from a bleedin' pod of 11 members that swam into Tokyo Bay in 1970,[225] and an oul' catch record in southern Taiwan in the bleedin' 1990s.[79][226]
Cooperation with humans
Killer whales have helped humans huntin' other whales.[227] One well-known example was the killer whales of Eden, Australia, includin' the feckin' male known as Old Tom. Whalers more often considered them a nuisance, however, as orcas would gather to scavenge meat from the whalers' catch.[227] Some populations, such as in Alaska's Prince William Sound, may have been reduced significantly by whalers shootin' them in retaliation.[16]
Whale watchin'
Whale watchin' continues to increase in popularity, but may have some problematic impacts on killer whales. Exposure to exhaust gasses from large amounts of vessel traffic are causin' concern for the bleedin' overall health of the bleedin' 75 remainin' southern resident killer whales (SRKWs) left as of early 2019.[228] This population is followed by approximately 20 vessels for 12 hours a feckin' day durin' the feckin' months May–September.[229] Researchers discovered that these vessels are in the oul' line of sight for these whales for 98–99.5% of daylight hours.[229] With so many vessels, the bleedin' air quality around these whales deteriorates and impacts their health. In fairness now. Air pollutants that bind with exhaust fumes are responsible for the bleedin' activation of the oul' cytochrome P450 1A gene family.[229] Researchers have successfully identified this gene in skin biopsies of live whales and also the feckin' lungs of deceased whales. A direct correlation between activation of this gene and the feckin' air pollutants can not be made because there are other known factors that will induce the same gene. Chrisht Almighty. Vessels can have either wet or dry exhaust systems, with wet exhaust systems leavin' more pollutants in the water due to various gas solubility. A modellin' study determined that the feckin' lowest-observed-adverse-effect-level (LOAEL) of exhaust pollutants was about 12% of the bleedin' human dose.[229]
As an oul' response to this, in 2017 boats off the oul' British Columbia coast now have a bleedin' minimum approach distance of 200 metres compared to the feckin' previous 100 metres. Story? This new rule complements Washington State's minimum approach zone of 180 metres that has been in effect since 2011. If a whale approaches a bleedin' vessel it must be placed in neutral until the whale passes, like. The World Health Organization has set air quality standards in an effort to control the oul' emissions produced by these vessels.[230]
Main article: Captive killer whales
Lolita, at the oul' Miami Seaquarium, is one of the oul' oldest whales in captivity.
The killer whale's intelligence, trainability, strikin' appearance, playfulness in captivity and sheer size have made it a popular exhibit at aquaria and aquatic theme parks, to be sure. From 1976 to 1997, 55 whales were taken from the bleedin' wild in Iceland, 19 from Japan, and three from Argentina, be the hokey! These figures exclude animals that died durin' capture. Live captures fell dramatically in the oul' 1990s, and by 1999, about 40% of the 48 animals on display in the world were captive-born.[231]
Organizations such as World Animal Protection and the oul' Whale and Dolphin Conservation campaign against the bleedin' practice of keepin' them in captivity. Story? In captivity, they often develop pathologies, such as the feckin' dorsal fin collapse seen in 60–90% of captive males. Holy blatherin' Joseph, listen to this. Captives have vastly reduced life expectancies, on average only livin' into their 20s.[c] That said, a feckin' 2015 study coauthored by staff at SeaWorld and the bleedin' Minnesota Zoo suggested no significant difference in survivorship between free-rangin' and captive killer whales.[232] However, in the wild, females who survive infancy live 46 years on average, and up to 70–80 years in rare cases, would ye believe it? Wild males who survive infancy live 31 years on average, and up to 50–60 years.[233] Captivity usually bears little resemblance to wild habitat, and captive whales' social groups are foreign to those found in the bleedin' wild. Critics claim captive life is stressful due to these factors and the requirement to perform circus tricks that are not part of wild killer whale behaviour, see above.[234] Wild killer whales may travel up to 160 kilometres (100 mi) in a day, and critics say the animals are too big and intelligent to be suitable for captivity.[156] Captives occasionally act aggressively towards themselves, their tankmates, or humans, which critics say is a bleedin' result of stress.[208] Between 1991 and 2010, the bleedin' bull orca known as Tilikum was involved in the bleedin' death of three people, and was featured in the oul' critically acclaimed 2013 film Blackfish.[235] Tilikum lived at SeaWorld from 1992 until his death in 2017.[236][237][238][239][240]
In March 2016, SeaWorld announced that they would be endin' their orca breedin' program and their theatrical shows.[241] As of 2020, theatrical shows featurin' orcas are still ongoin'.[242]
Sinonyx
^ Accordin' to Baird,[125] killer whales prefer harbour seals to sea lions and porpoises in some areas.
^ In the northeast Pacific, three communities of fish-eatin' killer whales have been identified: the southern community (one clan, three pods, 90 killer whales as of 2006), the northern community (three clans, 16 pods, 214 killer whales as of 2000), and the oul' south Alaskan community (two clans, 11 pods, 211 killer whales as of 2000).
^ Although there are examples of killer whales livin' longer, includin' several over 30 years old, and two captive orcas (Corky II and Lolita) are in their mid-40s.
^ (3rd ed.). Bejaysus. Johns Hopkins University Press. Here's a quare one. pp. 723–743. ISBN 978-0-8018-8221-0. Story? OCLC 62265494.
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^ "Strandin' Base (1901-2012) for Hyogo Prefecture", would ye swally that? The Whale Laboratory of Shimonoseki. Whisht now. 2014, be the hokey! Archived from the feckin' original on December 24, 2014. Bejaysus. Retrieved December 24, 2014.
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^ Kaiya Z.; Leatherwood S.; Jefferson A.T. Arra' would ye listen to this shite? (2002). Perrin F.W.; Reeves R.R.; Dolar L.L.M.; Jefferson A.T.; Marsh H.; Wang Y.J.; Estacion J. (eds.), the cute hoor. "Report of the feckin' Second Workshop on The Biology and Conservation of Small Cetaceans and Dugongs of South-East Asia" (PDF). CMS Technical Series Publication Nº 9 at Convention on Migratory Species, bedad. Archived from the original (PDF) on March 4, 2016, Lord bless us and save us. Retrieved December 24, 2014.
^ a b Reeves, Randall; Whitehead, Hal (2005), you know yourself like. "Killer whales and whalin': the scavengin' hypothesis". Biology Letters. 1 (4): 415–8. doi:10.1098/rsbl.2005.0348. Jaykers! PMC 1626385. PMID 17148221.
^ "Home". I hope yiz are all ears now. Be Whale Wise. Archived from the bleedin' original on October 31, 2019. Retrieved October 31, 2019.
^ a b c d Lachmuth, Cara L.; Barrett-Lennard, Lance G.; Steyn, D.Q.; Milsom, William K. Be the hokey here's a quare wan. (April 2011). Sufferin' Jaysus listen to this. "Estimation of southern resident killer whale exposure to exhaust emissions from whale-watchin' vessels and potential adverse health effects and toxicity thresholds", the shitehawk. Marine Pollution Bulletin. G'wan now and listen to this wan. 62 (4): 792–805. Jesus Mother of Chrisht almighty. doi:10.1016/j.marpolbul.2011.01.002. Chrisht Almighty. PMID 21276987.
^ "Boats to Maintain Greater Distance from Killer Whales | Whales online". Chrisht Almighty. November 8, 2017. Here's another quare one. Archived from the feckin' original on March 30, 2019. Retrieved March 14, 2019.
^ Todd R. Robeck; Kevin Willis; Michael R, bedad. Scarpuzzi; Justine K, Lord bless us and save us. O'Brien (2015). C'mere til I tell ya now. "Comparisons of life-history parameters between free-rangin' and captive killer whale (Orcinus orca) populations for application toward species management". I hope yiz are all ears now. Journal of Mammalogy, what? 96 (5): 1055–1070. Sure this is it. doi:10.1093/jmammal/gyv113. PMC 4668992. Chrisht Almighty. PMID 26937049.
^ Rose, N, game ball! A, would ye swally that? (2011). "Killer Controversy: Why Orcas Should No Longer Be Kept in Captivity" (PDF), would ye believe it? Humane Society International and the bleedin' Humane Society of the oul' United States. Bejaysus. Archived (PDF) from the oul' original on December 30, 2017. Retrieved December 21, 2014.
^ "Orcas in captivity" (PDF). Holy blatherin' Joseph, listen to this. Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society. G'wan now and listen to this wan. Archived from the original (PDF) on July 6, 2010. C'mere til I tell ya now. Retrieved January 26, 2010.
^ "Blackfish". Rotten Tomatoes, bedad. Archived from the feckin' original on November 21, 2013. Here's a quare one for ye. Retrieved November 23, 2013.
^ Hoyt, Eric (1992). Whisht now and listen to this wan. "The Performin' Orcas - why the show must stop". Whale and Dolphin Conservation Society. Archived from the bleedin' original on July 5, 2017, would ye swally that? Retrieved September 2, 2017.
^ Zimmerman, Tim (2011). Sure this is it. "The Killer in the oul' Pool". The Best American Sampler 2011. Arra' would ye listen to this shite? Houghton Mifflin Harcourt. p. 336.
^ "Corpse Is Found on Whale", Lord bless us and save us. The New York Times. Stop the lights! July 7, 1999, to be sure. Archived from the bleedin' original on June 13, 2012. Here's another quare one for ye. Retrieved September 11, 2011.
^ "SeaWorld trainer killed by killer whale". CNN. Sure this is it. February 25, 2010. Bejaysus here's a quare one right here now. Archived from the feckin' original on March 8, 2010. Retrieved March 11, 2010.
^ "Tilikum the feckin' SeaWorld orca's cause of death revealed - National | Globalnews.ca". Jesus Mother of Chrisht almighty. February 3, 2017. Chrisht Almighty. Archived from the feckin' original on August 31, 2017. G'wan now. Retrieved July 26, 2017.
^ "SeaWorld to End Controversial Orca Shows and Breedin'". National Geographic News, begorrah. March 17, 2016, grand so. Archived from the feckin' original on April 20, 2016, for the craic. Retrieved September 27, 2016.
^ Stevens, Blair (June 11, 2020). Whisht now and listen to this wan. "Even years after Blackfish, SeaWorld still has Orcas". Retrieved December 23, 2020.
Further readin'
Baird, Robin W, enda story. (2002). Killer Whales of the feckin' World, the cute hoor. Stillwater, MN.: Voyageur Press. Here's another quare one for ye. ISBN 978-0-7603-2654-1.
Carwardine, Mark (2001). Killer Whales. London: BBC Worldwide Ltd. ISBN 978-0-7894-8266-2.
Ford, John K, fair play. B. Soft oul' day. (2002). "Killer Whale", the cute hoor. Encyclopedia of Marine Mammals. Academic Press. Soft oul' day. pp. 669–675. Here's a quare one. ISBN 0-12-551340-2.
Ford, John K. Holy blatherin' Joseph, listen to this. B.; Ellis, Graeme M.; Balcomb, Kenneth C. Arra' would ye listen to this. (2000). G'wan now. Killer Whales (Second ed.). Be the holy feck, this is a quare wan. Vancouver, BC: UBC Press, the cute hoor. ISBN 978-0-7748-0800-2.
Ford, John K. Would ye believe this shite?B.; Ellis, Graeme M. (2006), for the craic. "Selective foragin' by fish-eatin' killer whales Orcinus orca in British Columbia". C'mere til I tell yiz. Marine Ecology Progress Series. 316: 185–199. Bibcode:2006MEPS..316..185F. Stop the lights! doi:10.3354/meps316185.
Francis, Daniel; Hewlett, Gil (2007), be the hokey! Operation Orca: Springer, Luna and the oul' Struggle to Save West Coast Killer Whales. Sufferin' Jaysus. Madeira Park, B.C.: Harbour Publishin', like. ISBN 978-1-55017-426-7.
Heimlich, Sara; Boran, James (2001). Arra' would ye listen to this shite? Killer Whales. Sufferin' Jaysus. Stillwater, MN: Voyageur Press. Arra' would ye listen to this shite? ISBN 978-0-89658-545-4.
Heptner, V. Story? G.; Nasimovich, A, you know yerself. A.; Bannikov, A. In fairness now. G.; Hoffmann, Robert S. (1996). Here's a quare one. Mammals of the bleedin' Soviet Union. II, part 3. Would ye believe this shite?Washington D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Libraries and National Science Foundation. C'mere til I tell yiz. ISBN 978-1-886106-81-9.
Hoyt, Erich (August 1984). Jaysis. "The Whales Called "Killer"". Stop the lights! National Geographic, be the hokey! Vol. 166 no. 2. pp. 220–237, would ye believe it? ISSN 0027-9358. OCLC 643483454.
NMFS (2005). Arra' would ye listen to this shite? "Conservation Plan for Southern Resident Killer Whales (Orcinus orca)" (PDF). Seattle, U.S.: National Marine Fisheries Service (NMFS) Northwest Regional Office. Archived from the original (PDF) on June 26, 2008, enda story. Retrieved January 2, 2009.
Obee, Bruce; Ellis, Graeme (1992). Elaine Jones (ed.). Be the holy feck, this is a quare wan. Guardians of the Whales: The Quest to Study Whales in the feckin' Wild. C'mere til I tell yiz. North Vancouver, British Columbia: Whitecap Books. Here's another quare one for ye. ISBN 978-1-55110-034-0.
Hoyt, Erich (1998), Orca: The Whale Called Killer Camden House Publishin', ISBN 978-0-920656-25-9
Kirkevold, B, that's fierce now what? C.; J, that's fierce now what? S, so it is. Lockard (1986). C'mere til I tell ya. Behavioral Biology of Killer Whales, you know yourself like. Alan R. Jaykers! Liss Inc. ISBN 978-0-8451-3100-8.
Look up killer whale in Wiktionary, the feckin' free dictionary.
Wikisource has the feckin' text of the oul' 1911 Encyclopædia Britannica article Grampus.
Wikimedia Commons has media related to Orcinus orca.
Wikispecies has information related to Orcinus orca
Orca-Live – Orcas in Johnstone Strait, British Columbia
Salish Sea Hydrophone Network – Listen live to orcas in Washington State, U.S.
Keep Whales Wild
Killer whale photos
Why are orca called killer whales?, HowStuffWorks.com, article by Jacob Silverman
Voices in the Sea - Sounds of the bleedin' Orca (Killer Whale)
Killer whale devours great white shark
Pod of orcas vs group of great whites near Seal Island, South Africa
Orcas Preyin' On Dolphins (Caught On Drone), off the bleedin' coast of San Clemente
Orcas vs Sperm Whales
Watch: Killer Whales Charge Blue Whale (Rare Drone Footage) | National Geographic
Extant Cetacea species
Infraclass Eutheria
Superorder Laurasiatheria
Order Artiodactyla
Suborder Whippomorpha
Parvorder Mysticeti (Baleen whales)
Balaenidae
Balaena
Bowhead whale (B. mysticetus)
Eubalaena
(Right whales)
Southern right whale (E. australis)
North Atlantic right whale (E. G'wan now. glacialis)
North Pacific right whale (E. japonica)
Balaenopteridae
(Rorquals)
Balaenoptera
Common minke whale (B. Right so. acutorostrata)
Antarctic minke whale (B. Jesus Mother of Chrisht almighty. bonaerensis)
Sei whale (B. borealis)
Bryde's whale (B, game ball! brydei)
Pygmy Bryde's whale (B. edeni)
Blue whale (B. musculus)
Omura's whale (B. omurai)
Fin whale (B. physalus)
Megaptera
Humpback whale (M, for the craic. novaeangliae)
Eschrichtiidae
Eschrichtius
Gray whale (E, bedad. robustus)
Neobalaenidae
Caperea
Pygmy right whale (C. marginata)
Parvorder Odontoceti (Toothed whales) (cont. In fairness now. below)
(Oceanic dolphins)
Cephalorhynchus
Commerson's dolphin (C. commersonii)
Chilean dolphin (C. Arra' would ye listen to this. eutropia)
Heaviside's dolphin (C. heavisidii)
Hector's dolphin (C, you know yourself like. hectori)
Long-beaked common dolphin (D, enda story. capensis)
Short-beaked common dolphin (D, the hoor. delphis)
Feresa
Pygmy killer whale (F, the hoor. attenuata)
Globicephala
(Pilot whales)
Short-finned pilot whale (G. I hope yiz are all ears now. macrorhynchus)
Long-finned pilot whale (G, begorrah. melas)
Risso's dolphin (G. G'wan now. griseus)
Lagenodelphis
Fraser's dolphin (L. hosei)
Lagenorhynchus
Atlantic white-sided dolphin (L, the hoor. acutus)
White-beaked dolphin (L. Arra' would ye listen to this shite? albirostris)
Peale's dolphin (L, the hoor. australis)
Hourglass dolphin (L. Holy blatherin' Joseph, listen to this. cruciger)
Pacific white-sided dolphin (L. Me head is hurtin' with all this raidin'. obliquidens)
Dusky dolphin (L. obscurus)
Lissodelphis
(Right whale dolphins)
Northern right whale dolphin (L. borealis)
Southern right whale dolphin (L. Would ye believe this shite?peronii)
Orcaella
Irrawaddy dolphin (O. brevirostris)
Australian snubfin dolphin (O. Whisht now and eist liom. heinsohni)
Killer whale (O, begorrah. orca)
Peponocephala
Melon-headed whale (P. electra)
Pseudorca
False killer whale (P. C'mere til I tell yiz. crassidens)
Sotalia
Tucuxi (S. fluviatilis)
Guiana dolphin (S. Jaysis. guianensis)
Indo-Pacific humpback dolphin (S. chinensis)
Atlantic humpback dolphin (S, like. teuszii)
Pantropical spotted dolphin (S. I hope yiz are all ears now. attenuata)
Clymene dolphin (S, the shitehawk. clymene)
Striped dolphin (S. Stop the lights! coeruleoalba)
Atlantic spotted dolphin (S. frontalis)
Spinner dolphin (S. longirostris)
Rough-toothed dolphin (S. bredanensis)
Indo-Pacific bottlenose dolphin (T. aduncus)
Burrunan dolphin (T, would ye believe it? australis)
Common bottlenose dolphin (T. G'wan now. truncatus)
Monodontidae
Delphinapterus
Beluga whale (D. leucas)
Monodon
Narwhal (M. monoceros)
Phocoenidae
Neophocoena
Finless porpoise (N, you know yerself. phocaeniodes)
Narrow-ridged finless porpoise (N. Would ye swally this in a minute now?asiaorientalis)
Phocoena
Spectacled porpoise (P. dioptrica)
Harbour porpoise (P. Jesus Mother of Chrisht almighty. phocoena)
Vaquita (P, grand so. sinus)
Burmeister's porpoise (P, what? spinipinnis)
Phocoenoides
Dall's porpoise (P. G'wan now and listen to this wan. dalli)
Physeteridae
Physeter
Sperm whale (P. macrocephalus)
Kogiidae
Kogia
Pygmy sperm whale (K. breviceps)
Dwarf sperm whale (K. simus)
Iniidae
Araguaian river dolphin (I, be the hokey! araguaiaensis)
Bolivian river dolphin (I. boliviensis)
Amazon river dolphin (I. Jesus, Mary and Joseph. geoffrensis)
Lipotidae
Lipotes
Baiji (L. Here's a quare one for ye. vexillifer)
Platanistidae
Platanista
South Asian river dolphin (P. gangetica)
Pontoporiidae
Pontoporia
La Plata dolphin (P. blainvillei)
Ziphiidae
(Beaked whales)
Berardius
Arnoux's beaked whale (B, begorrah. arnuxii)
Baird's beaked whale (B. bairdii)
Hyperoodon
Northern bottlenose whale (H. Arra' would ye listen to this shite? ampullatus)
Southern bottlenose whale (H, bejaysus. planifrons)
Indopacetus
Tropical bottlenose whale (I, would ye believe it? pacificus)
(Mesoplodont
whales)
Sowerby's beaked whale (M. bidens)
Andrews' beaked whale (M. bowdoini)
Hubbs' beaked whale (M. Jesus Mother of Chrisht almighty. carlhubbsi)
Blainville's beaked whale (M. Holy blatherin' Joseph, listen to this. densirostris)
Gervais' beaked whale (M. Listen up now to this fierce wan. europaeus)
Ginkgo-toothed beaked whale (M. Here's a quare one. ginkgodens)
Gray's beaked whale (M. grayi)
Hector's beaked whale (M. hectori)
Strap-toothed whale (M, like. layardii)
True's beaked whale (M, enda story. mirus)
Perrin's beaked whale (M. Be the hokey here's a quare wan. perrini)
Pygmy beaked whale (M. peruvianus)
Stejneger's beaked whale (M. Here's a quare one. stejnegeri)
Spade-toothed whale (M. C'mere til I tell ya. traversii)
Tasmacetus
Shepherd's beaked whale (T, so it is. sheperdi)
Ziphius
Cuvier's beaked whale (Z. Jaysis. cavirostris)
Taxon identifiers
Wikispecies: Orcinus orca
ADW: Orcinus_orca
ARKive: orcinus-orca
CMS: orcinus-orca
ECOS: 3380
EPPO: ORCIOR
EUNIS: 8374
Fossilworks: 64541
iNaturalist: 41521
ITIS: 180469
IUCN: 15421
MSW: 14300074
NBN: NBNSYS0000005173
NCBI: 9733
NOAA: killer-whale
NZOR: 8a4a806c-d997-4960-9e7a-82ac875054aa
SeaLifeBase: 69400
Species+: 6391
TSA: 12387
WoRMS: 137102
Delphinus orca
Wikidata: Q67206427
BNF: cb12350862r (data)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Killer_whale&oldid=998508230"
IUCN Red List data deficient species
Killer whales
Apex predators
Cosmopolitan mammals
Cetaceans of the Arctic Ocean
Cetaceans of the feckin' Atlantic Ocean
Fauna of the feckin' Crozet Islands
Cetaceans of the feckin' Pacific Ocean
Oceanic dolphins
Animals that use echolocation
Mammals described in 1758
ESA endangered species
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus
CS1 Latin-language sources (la)
CS1 Russian-language sources (ru)
CS1 uses Russian-language script (ru)
Mickopedia indefinitely move-protected pages
Mickopedia indefinitely semi-protected pages
Use Canadian English from April 2020
All Mickopedia articles written in Canadian English
Use mdy dates from April 2020
Articles containin' Ancient Greek (to 1453)-language text
Commons link is on Wikidata
Taxonbars with automatically added original combinations
Taxonbars with 20–24 taxon IDs
Mickopedia articles with BNF identifiers
Mickopedia articles with GND identifiers
Mickopedia articles with NDL identifiers
Articles containin' video clips

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl