In a wave of PR shows, heads of states and ministers together with military brass with a "Dr." title, accompanied by reporters, swarmed on Kosovo where UN scientists in nuclear protection apparel were carrying tests at sites contaminated with depleted uranium (DU). "No illness, no link to leukemia," exclaimed NATO clones.
When it no longer could be concealed that leukemia was not the only illness on a rise among Balkan peacekeepers and civilians, NATO changed the tune to "no link to any cancer" even though no serious medical testing started. At the same time, sick Balkan veterans were pushed around, humiliated, and, when some of them died, bodies were hidden from independent autopsies and public scrutiny, while the military medical authorities were doctoring death certificates.
Parallels of the present process to "investigations" of the Gulf War syndrome by the US government are obvious. The government and "scientific" contractors conduct studies on DU that are designed to be inconclusive or divert attention from the risks posed to health by DU. The results of all this doctoring, cover-up and forgery can be seen at NATO website, another evidence against the criminal North Atlantic Pact. UN and World Health Organization (WHO) "reports" figure in the gallery of lies and half-truths.
News agencies reported today that WHO was planning a privately sponsored four-year study of the health effects of DU weapons, because there was not enough information to reach firm conclusions. "Like sponsor, like results," goes a saying in research and academic circles. "Evidence on the incidence of cancers needs to be strengthened in communities within Iraq and the Balkans in order to draw any epidemiological conclusions," said Xavier Leus in charge of WHO emergency and humanitarian action department. "There is also very little information on other possible risk factors for civilians and the military that may be equally important. We need to examine possible connections between risk factors and health outcomes." The "other factor" is alive and well, only one year and a half after I predicted it.
Recent laboratory results from UN sampling of DU sites in Kosovo confirm the presence of uranium 236, plutonium and other highly radioactive elements, which come from reprocessed spent uranium. By the time the final UN report is published in March, the findings would be watered down and manipulated. A four-year, privately sponsored WHO study has even better odds of manipulation and cover-up.
Washington had been saying since 1991 there is no link between DU and illnesses of the troops. Since the scandal broke out over DU use in Bosnia and Kosovo combat with cases of "leukemia" as suspected consequence, Pentagon consistently denied "Balkans syndrome". Nevertheless, the alliance deemed it necessary to set up an ad hoc committee on January 10th to investigate the claims. The investigation was to involve epidemiological studies among troops of each country.
At a 26 January 26th, 2001, scientific conference organized by the Greek chapter of Doctors Without Borders, voices of experience and scientific authority insisted that we knew enough from physics to condemn DU munitions, and that more molecular biology more molecular biology was required instead of epidemiology.
NATO ad hoc committee was set up after several member countries reported a rash of cancer deaths among troops who served in the Balkans. Its mission: collect and exchange information on any possible health risks associated with use of DU rounds in Kosovo. No plans for molecular biology research were announced by the alliance that can by one push of a button release millions of dollars worth of bombs killing civilians and destroying civilian infrastructure. The ad hoc committee comprises civilian and military experts from 19 NATO countries and from non-NATO nations that contributed troops to multi-national forces in the Balkans.
''To date, no nation has found evidence of an increase in incidence of illness among peacekeepers in the Balkans compared with the incidence of illness among armed forces not serving in the Balkans,'' said Daniel Speckhard, the panel's chairman. ''None of the nations reported finding a health link between health complaints of personnel employed in the Balkans and depleted uranium munitions […] Over a dozen nations have been testing soldiers serving or having returned from the Balkans, and "none have found any traces of depleted uranium," said Speckhard.
The German and Dutch governments, whose KFOR troops served in the areas hardest hit by DU have ordered their soldiers not to eat anything from the surrounding countryside. Independent experts claimed that the dust has entered the food chain of the region. Dutch soldiers stationed last Fall around Prizren had to hand in all clothing and equipment, which was then shipped back to the Netherlands sealed in heavy-duty plastic. The government claimed asbestos contamination, but a Dutch military source points to DU. The vehicles, also sent back, ended up in a radiation decontamination plant.
NATO spokesman Mark Laity said the alliance itself was not conducting any investigation, though some member countries were. The ad hoc committee is compiling and sharing that information as it comes in, according to transcription of Laity's statement by Associated Press writer Jeffrey Ulbrich from Brussels on January 24th, 2001.
Does it mean that incoming information to the committee would be censored before it goes to the media and other NATO members?
Jeffrey Ulbrich's report contains a standard line in NATO-friendly dispatches: "Scientists say depleted uranium has about 40 percent of the radiation of natural uranium, which itself is not a health hazard." Apart from a slight mistake that should be corrected to read "about 40% less of the radiation of natural uranium," half-truth was said again. Natural uranium ore is not harmful, if it is left in the ground.
The residue uranium-238 left over after extraction of U-235 from the ore is very active with alpha radiation. In powder form it becomes "millions of times more dangerous than it was in the original uranium ore," because it can get into the cells of the body with breath, food or water, according to Hans-Peter Schnelbõgl, one of the nuclear researchers who are not on NATO paycheque.
A flavour of military investigations of own crimes can be gleaned from a press dispatch of January 25th, 2001. The Spanish defence ministry revealed "partial results" of tests carried out on soldiers who had served in the Balkans. In two soldiers, concentrations of lead in the blood were shown at levels considered a health "risk" according to World Health Organization charts. The ministry did not give a word of other elements found. It would be easier this way to "show" that soldiers got sick from Kosovo lead leaking from Trepca mines (Associated Press January 15th, 2001) or from leaded gasoline used in stolen cars on Kosovo roads, not because of DU.
How much faith we should put into this "investigation" farce can be judged from previous performance of NATO countries, starting with the US and UK "testing" and "care" for their veterans from nuclear-toxic battlefields of the Persian Gulf. Veteran associations in both countries and Canadian veterans complain about cover-ups and total neglect. Testimonies of Gulf War DU- contaminated veterans, such as DU specialist Dr. Doug Rokke and military nurse Denise Nichols, are enough to discredit any government investigations.
Portuguese government refused to hand over the body of a soldier who died from leukemia. The defense ministry camouflaged the cause of Hugo Paulino's death, citing "herpes of the brain". His family was denied to commission a post-mortem examination. These denials became standard in NATO handling of the "DU controversy".
If, as NATO claims, DU is not harmful, why did Pentagon warn their KFOR partners in Kosovo about DU? British peacekeepers were advised to wear protective suits, masks and gloves in DU-contaminated areas, or else stay 50 m away from objects shelled with DU ammunition. So were the Dutch troops. BBC News reported on August 18th, 1999, that humanitarian workers in Kosovo were warned about the DU danger, but not the local population. Between September 26 and 28, 1999, KFOR officers admitted to reporters that DU particles may have contaminated the soil around targets in Yugoslavia and may be hazardous if inhaled, particularly by children.
Why are American citizens demanding that their land and ground water be protected from the long-term effects of DU? Hysteria? If their fears are groundless, the US government should so educate both the Congress and the American public. Why would the US government be wasting billions of dollars to clean up DU sites in the United States that do not pose any risk?
Again, NATO mouthpieces announced the truth, but not the whole truth: It was too soon in 1999-2000 to diagnose blood cancer in KFOR soldiers after exposure in summer 1999 and later, but not too soon for SFOR soldiers who served earlier in Bosnia. The dead and dying of leukemia and other illness from Kosovo DU are the least resistant individuals who received the largest doses first in a row. The rest will follow, starting in earnest by Spring 2001, as specialists like Professor Günther predicted in an interview for Junge Welt a year in advance. And for sure DU is not reserved for peacekeepers and UN workers.
The managers of the present ad hoc medical inquiry make us wait, while many victims die in the meantime, for a proof that DU is as benign as baby powder. Hundreds of thousands of victims died of leukemia and other malignant disease since atom was dug up from the ground where aboriginals respectfully left it undisturbed in Mother Earth, and was used to produce energy and weapons. But this is off topic, hushed-up. There is supposedly no "proof" for health and environmental risks from a "controversial" contamination with made-in-the-USA DU ammunition that saves "soldiers lives" and restores "human rights" where they were denied by local Saddams or Slobos.
First were Hiroshima and Nagasaki, then 1950s and 1960s atmospheric tests with A-bombs. Maturing of the 20th century into nuclear age was highlighted with Three Mile Island and Chernobyl nuclear disasters, and, in the last decade, low-intensity nuclear wars in the Gulf and the Balkans. As if spreading low-level radioactivity around the globe from high-level nuclear accidents wasn't enough, mortality and cancerous disease, including leukemia, was all the time "clustered", as apologetic epidemiologists say, around uranium mines and processing plants.
Lawrence Morahan interviewed Glenn Bell, a nuclear industry worker sick of DU, for CNS News on February 1st, 2001. "A link eventually will be made between DU and the symptoms suffered by troops and civilians who were exposed to these materials," said Bell who distrusts studies that were conducted on DU, reflecting a suspicion of official agencies held by thousands of workers involved in the mining, processing and milling of uranium ore. "They sit on information a lot, and by 'they' I mean the government and the contractors. We as workers are saying there is no safe level of exposure," said Bell.
With a "much too soon" sweep, the documented Kosovo cases of leukemia and other illness caused by DU are brushed aside as fakes, soldiers and their private doctors are accused of forging medical tests and records, while Kosovo DU continues to pose to be as benign as the dirt in a flower pot in your living room. Go watch your football game on TV.
Sue Roff, a radiation researcher from the non-military Centre for Medical Education at the University of Dundee messed up the nicely arranged denials by NATO ad hoc medical experts. Roff dug up evidence that suggests the radiation-induced leukemia can develop surprisingly quickly. The first cases were discovered in Hiroshima and Nagasaki in 1947 and 1948 […] after the US destroyed the cities with atomic bombs.
"In studies of patients who have received radiation therapy, the period of greatest risk for developing leukemia has been reported as two to five years after exposure. I am aware of at least six men, most in their 20s, who were diagnosed with leukemia within five years of their participation in the UK nuclear weapons tests in the 1950s and 1960s," Roff told the same Sunday Herald obviously in a discord with NATO ad hoc committee on DU.
"In Japan, leukemia was the first malignancy that appeared among the survivors and this fact triggered a major research study which is still in operation today," explained Roff. "I would have thought that the appearance of leukemia among soldiers selected for their fitness for active duty would trigger similar studies as part of the government's duty of care." There we go again; over half a century after the first irradiation of humans, and hundreds of thousands of fatalities later – what is it that needs to be studied in connection with Kosovo DU? How much different is it from Basrah in Iraq or from Chernobyl? Radiation kills life. So do heavy metals. Period.
Dr. G. Rigatos, a cancer doctor, was more blunt. He said at the January 26th, 2001, conference in Athens that "no matter what the quantity, we know uranium may be carcinogenic." Studies in 1902, 1921, 1931 and 1934 showed the relationship between radiation and cancer. The minister of health in the Ukraine reported an increase in leukaemia after Chernobyl. There is an increase in malignant neoplasmas in Iraqi patients, and 100,000 US soldiers are also ill, reminded Dr. Rigatos. "We are now seeing localized nuclear war," he said.
For years, British Professors Malcolm Hooper and Dudley Goodhead, Canadian researcher of low-level radiation effects Dr. Rosalie Bertell, German expert on DU effects on health Professor Siegwart-Horst Günther, and many other scientists know that a local dose to lymph nodes and to other tissue from DU particles and other low-level radiation sources incorporated into the human body can cause genetic mutations and disease.
Dr. Theophilou, a nuclear physicist at the Democritus Institute, said at January 26th, 2001, scientific conference in Athens that alpha particles were extremely energetic and could damage nearby cells. Alpha particles have a charge of 4.5 million electron volts, but to change a molecule one needed only one-fourth of an electron volt. Erroneous copies of cells would be produced, which leads to cancers and leukaemias. If the alpha particle damaged the DNA, then erroneous copies would be produced forever in future offspring. With the addition of only one alpha particle, he said, the health of the individual was in a hostile environment.
The anti-DU scientific reports and papers do not figure, however, on NATO website about DU use in Kosovo. Pseudo-scientists in NATO service typically manipulate the calculation of DU dose to prove that it is below any risk level. There are ample examples of this at the NATO site in the articles of: numerous "science" editors; professors of public affairs (sic) Steve Fetter and Frank von Hippel; l. E. Schmidt and Ch. Wirz from NATO's Swiss procurement agency; and, Dr. Michael Repacholi from the World Health Organization.
Professor Zbigniew Jaworowski of the Central Laboratory for Radiological Protection in Poland and Dr. Roger Bate of Cambridge University made another apologetic contribution that does not hold water.
The NATO DU website does not mention, either, the multitude of government reports, many dating before the Gulf War, that clearly outline the risks of DU dust produced in combat and uranium mining and processing.
Credible and extensive data dating back to the development of the atomic bomb in 1943 contradict present statements by NATO about DU. The head of the Manhattan Project cautioned at the time that particles of uranium used in ammunition could cause permanent lung damage. In 1991, the UK Atomic Energy Authority warned that, if particles from merely 8 per cent of the DU used in the Gulf were inhaled, there could be half a million potential deaths.
If NATO Göbbelses believe in science by voting, why not count the voices at January 26th, 2001, scientific conference in Athens about DU health effects? Out of total 18 scientists and researchers, who addressed the DU issue, only four mimicked propaganda seen on NATO website. The rest were univocal about DU toxic and radioactive risks.
But if NATO website told the truth, then people would ask a question: "How is it that the Kosovo Albanians, whom NATO and KFOR supposedly rescued from "Milosevic" became the victims?


text:
This is a List of ships built in Alameda, California, commercial and military vessels built in the shipyards of Alameda, an historically important island naval base in the San Francisco Bay area of California.

A
USS Admiral C. F. Hughes (AP-124)
USS Admiral E. W. Eberle (AP-123)
USS Admiral Hugh Rodman (AP-126)
USS Admiral W. L. Capps (AP-121)
USS Admiral W. S. Sims (AP-127)
USS ARD-9
USS ARD-10
USS ARD-17
USS ARD-19
USS Arco (ARD-29)
USS Ardent (AM-340)

B
USS Bauer (DE-1025)
USS Buckthorn (AN-14)

C
USS Champion (AM-314)
USS Chickasaw (AT-83)
USS Chief (AM-315)
USS Chinquapin (AN-17)
USS Competent (AM-316)

D
USS Defense (AM-317)
USS Devastator (AM-318)

E
USS Ebony (AN-15)
USS Eucalyptus (AN-16)

F
USS Fuller (APA-7)

G
USS George F. Elliott (AP-13)
USS Gladiator (AM-319)

H
USS Heed (AM-100)
USS Herald (AM-101)
USS Heywood (APA-6)

I
USS Impeccable (AM-320)
USS Independence (ID-3676)
USCGC Itasca (1929)

M
USS Motive (AM-102)
USS Munsee (ATF-107)

N
USS Nausett (IX-190)
USS Neville (APA-9)

O
USS Oak Ridge (ARDM-1)
USS Oracle (AM-103)

P
USS Pakana (ATF-108)
USS Pawnee (ATF-74)

Q
USS Quapaw (AT-110)

R
USS Rebel (AM-284)
USS Recruit (AM-285)
USS Reform (AM-286)
USS Refresh (AM-287)
USS Reign (AM-288)
USAS Report (AGP-289)
USS Rescuer (ARS-18)

S
Ferryboat Santa Rosa
USS Sarsi (ATF-111)
USS Sentinel (SP-180)
USS Sheldrake (AM-62)
USS Skylark (AM-63)
USS Starling (AM-64)
USS Swallow (AM-65)

V
USS Volunteer (ID-3242)

W
USS Wateree (ATF-117)
USS White Sands (ARD-20)
USS William P. Biddle (APA-8)

Alameda

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


text:
Vieux Moulin candle holder
Vieux Moulin candle holder with an hourglass shape and a ribbon effect motif.
Robert Perot (1931-2003) was a French painter, sculptor and ceramicist. In 1954 he moved to Vallauris in the south of France and set up the Vieux Moulin pottery studio which continued until the 1970s. After that period he moved away and focused on sculpture. Vallauris became famous as a pottery town after Picasso moved there to take up ceramic design in 1948. Perot exhibited his work alongside Picasso and these other artists during the 1950s.
DESIGNER: Robert Perot
CONDITION: In excellent condition. No defects and no restorations
DIMENSIONS: H 12 cm x Dm 9,5 cm
WEIGHT: 250 grs

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


Feeling not safe when stepping on carpet as it may easily slide on a smooth floor? This Non-slip Carpet Gripper is can tightly stick to the ground to prevent sliding with strong viscous force.
Just take off tape and stick it to edges of your rug. You can easily keep your rugs neat and tidy without curling.


text:
Ørskog is a former municipality in Møre og Romsdal county, Norway. It was part of the Sunnmøre region. The administrative centre was the village of Sjøholt. The other main village was Vaksvika, about  south of Sjøholt. The European Route E39/E136 highway runs through the municipality, connecting the towns of Ålesund and Molde. Rauma Group is the largest company in Ørskog in terms of turnover.

At the time if its dissolution in 2020, the  municipality was the 363rd largest by area out of the 422 municipalities in Norway. Ørskog is the 309th most populous municipality in Norway with a population of 2,267. The municipality's population density is  and its population has increased by 7% over the last decade.

General information
Ørskog was established as a municipality on 1 January 1838 (see formannskapsdistrikt law). On 1 August 1883, the southwestern district of Ørskog (most of Ørskog on the southwestern side of the Storfjorden except for the Søvik and Ramstaddalen areas) was separated to form the new Søkelven Municipality. This left Ørskog with 1,735 inhabitants. On 1 June 1955, the Søvik and Ramstaddalen areas of Ørskog (south of the Storfjorden) were administratively transferred to Sykkylven Municipality. On 1 January 1965, Skodje Municipality (to the west) and Stordal Municipality (to the south) were merged into Ørskog to form a new, larger Ørskog Municipality. This merger was not long-lived. On 1 January 1977, the three municipalities were separated again.

On 1 January 2020, the municipality of Ørskog was merged with Haram Municipality, Skodje Municipality, Sandøy Municipality, and Ålesund Municipality to form one large municipality of Ålesund.

Name
The municipality (originally the parish) is named after the old Ørskog farm (), since the first Ørskog Church was built there. The first element is the plural genitive case of øyrr which means "shoal" and the last element is skógr which means "wood" or "forest".

Coat of arms
The coat of arms was granted on 11 November 1983. The arms show a gold-colored wooden pole in the center with black and white ermine on each side of the pole. This was chosen as a symbol for forestry and fur farming. In the 17th century, the municipality exported many tall trees to the Dutch Republic, where they were used for shipbuilding. The ermine is a canting for the many animals in the forests.

Churches
The Church of Norway had one parish () within the municipality of Ørskog. It is part of the Austre Sunnmøre prosti (deanery) in the Diocese of Møre.

Geography
The municipality lies on the north shore of the Storfjorden, and it is bordered by Skodje Municipality to the west, Vestnes Municipality to the north and east, and Stordal Municipality to the south. Most of the population lives along the shore or in the small valleys that stretch inland from the fjord. The eastern part of the municipality is mountainous.

At 10:00 p.m. on 8 January 1731, a landslide with a volume of possibly  fell from the mountain Skafjell from a height of  into the Storfjorden opposite Stranda. The slide generated a megatsunami  in height that struck Stranda, and damaging waves of lesser size traveled as far as Ørskog. It was the first natural disaster to be reported and documented in Norway in historic time.

Government
All municipalities in Norway, including Ørskog, are responsible for primary education (through 10th grade), outpatient health services, senior citizen services, unemployment and other social services, zoning, economic development, and municipal roads. The municipality is governed by a municipal council of elected representatives, which in turn elect a mayor.  The municipality falls under the Sunnmøre District Court and the Frostating Court of Appeal.

Municipal council
The municipal council () of Ørskog is made up of 17 representatives that are elected to four year terms. The party breakdown for the final municipal council was as follows:

See also
List of former municipalities of Norway

References

External links

Municipal fact sheet from Statistics Norway

Ålesund
Former municipalities of Norway
1838 establishments in Norway
2020 disestablishments in Norway
Populated places established in 1838
Populated places disestablished in 2020


Spicy sauce. Its sauce intensifies the taste of all dishes, in detail for fried and grilled.
Sauce lightly spicy, with oriental flavor. Perfect for chicken kebab.
White, soft sauce with added of garlic, grinded parsley and chives. Perfect to each type of kebab.
The sauce has a distinct sauce of cheese. Perfect to combine the calf and turkey kebab.
Soft and much creamy sauce. Perfect to combine each type of meat, but also for chips and salads.
Spicy sauce made of red chili pepper, garlic and oil. Being like a mixture, it could be used both as ingredient and as condiment.
Sauce of mayonnaise with added of grilled onions, peppers and hot spices. Perfect for intensify any type of meat.
Smoked lightly sauce, from brown color. Perfect for each type of grilled meat.
Very hot sauces, for the daring.
Sauce made of eggs, from classic and everlasting taste.


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Fancy a change in membership? Awesome, just fill out the form below and let us know what membership you would like to change to.
If you have been part of our community and shared vision for a while, firstly thank you. You may be on an old grandfathered membership. As you know, we don't often put a community wide increase on the pricing, instead we have tried to lock in a rate we think we can offer for the lifetime of your membership. As new pricing comes out, your old rate becomes more and more discounted.
Just a note, if you move memberships, you will loose the grandfathered rate. So for example, moving from and 'old' unlimited coaching to 2x a week coaching you will change in pricing. But if you ever wanted to move back in a years time, we couldn't match the rate you are paying today.
We think that's the fairest way to structure memberships for the whole community.
I understand I'm switching my membership contract to another. This will immediately cancel my current contract and open a new one with new terms.


ELLE QUE QUELQUES MOIS, LE TEMPS DE PRENDRE UN APPARTEMENT.
SOMMES DONC RESTÉS CHEZ SA MÈRE.
APPARTEMENT ET M'A QUITTÉ SANS EXPLICATIONS.
HÉBERGER DURANT DEUX OU TROIS MOIS, LE TEMPS DE TROUVER UN TRAVAIL ET UN APPARTEMENT.
NIVEAU DE MES CAMARADES D'ÉCOLE, QUE MA SANTÉ COMMENÇAIS À DÉFAILLIR, ET QUE J'AI COMMENCÉ À NE PLUS SUPPORTER D'ÊTRE LA.
CASSÉES À CAUSE DE TOUT CE QUI S'ÉTAIT PASSÉ.


text:
Keystone/Alamy
A Beautiful Place for an Ashram
By Win McCormack
Sarah T., a body therapist who had been practicing in California, went to the Shree Rajneesh Ashram in Pune in June 1978, after reading some of Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh's books and attending workshops at the Pragit Rajneesh Meditation Center in Berkeley. A robust, good-humored woman, she thought she saw in Rajneesh's message the way to fulfill ideals of intimacy and community that had long seemed to elude her.
The ashram was situated on a lush, four-acre piece of property in the center of Pune called Koregaon Park, where maharajas used to live. Sarah found the scene entrancing. "To see 7,000–8,000 people all dressed in red," she remembers, "was amazing." It was also exotic. "There were wild birds in the air, and all the sounds and smells of India. There was this one tree on the property, and these green parrots, and every night, when the sun was going down, all the parrots would go to the tree. There would be 20,000 birds in that tree, all squawking. And then, just as the sun disappeared, all the birds would get absolutely quiet.
"It was really something. Just the effects of India. You'd go through an amazing experience just getting off the plane there."
The Shree Rajneesh Ashram, once styled by Time magazine as the "Esalen East," offered a full range of the Eastern meditations and Western humanistic psychotherapies that the human potential movement growth center at the Esalen Institute in Big Sur had popularized. A typical day at the ashram began with "Dynamic Meditation," an "active" meditation supposedly specially developed by Bhagwan Shree Rajneesh for Westerners. Dynamic meditation is described by Rajneesh follower Ma Satya Bharti in the 1980 book Drunk on the Divine: "A technique developed by Bhagwan that begins with 10 minutes of deep fast breathing, followed by 10 minutes of catharsis, then 10 minutes of the vigorous repetition of the HOO, 15 minutes of silence and stillness and, finally, 15 minutes of celebration [singing and dancing]."
Says Sarah: "People would get real spacey from doing these meditations. They would also get very emotional. They'd cry all the time. They'd become real obsessed with the process that was happening to them as a result of this meditation. And also feel more and more connected with Bhagwan while they were doing it.
"It would open you up more to your feelings, your deep, hidden feelings—because these meditations are very powerful, and are designed to open you up, especially your pelvis, which is where the body stores emotions, not just sexual energy. The pelvis is where the emotional body is held. So with dynamic [meditation], you're jumping up and down, and you're yelling 'Hoo Hoo Hoo,' and pounding that energy into the sex center. So you start feeling, really feeling. 'How many times did you cry?' If you say that you're doing meditations that made you cry every day, weep, and really get in touch with your feelings—only a sannyasin would understand the process that you started going through; only someone who's been through the process would understand. So then there's a bond, an attachment to the group. Because I couldn't very well say to very many people, 'As a result of this group where I got beat up, I really experienced something.' Most people would be just absolutely horrified!
"I spent five days in bed in a state of total bliss. I couldn't eat, I couldn't drink. I was in a totally altered state to the point where people would come into the room and just sit down and go off into meditation. You're not connected with the earth anymore. You're up in the sky and there's that space where you just kind of even out and you're in an altered state. These meditations took you into an altered state."
A new initiate's first group experience at the ashram was usually the "Enlightenment Intensive," described by Ma Satya Bharti as follows: "A combination of the Zen technique of concentrating or meditating on a koan—in this case, the question 'Who am I'—and Western communication techniques. A strictly structured, three-day group at the ashram."
Says Sarah about the Enlightenment Intensive: "It really pushed you past all limits. It was the first group that people were usually given to do and it was meant to be a beginning group, but it wasn't like a beginning group at all; it was a real difficult group. A sannyasin killed himself once in that group. They kept it quiet, but he jumped off a balcony he got so freaked out.
"It was a Zen technique, actually. But they would take like two hundred people at a shot—a huge, huge group. And it was a residential group. You didn't leave the place for three days. It began very early in the morning, and they rang a bell and you found a partner and sat down across from this person and you would say, 'Tell me who you are.' And for five minutes you would stay totally receptive, just listen to what the person was saying, not make any facial expressions whatsoever. Then another bell would be rung, and the person would say to you, 'Tell me who you are.' And this went on from sunrise till eleven o'clock at night. At eleven o'clock you did dancing meditation. You ran an hour and then you passed out. If you could sleep. I didn't sleep for three days, except for a couple of hours. And after the group was over I didn't sleep for another couple of days, I got so wired from it.
"It does something very deep to you inside, telling who you are to all these people; and you get to feeling lighter, emptier and emptier. And there are also moments of madness when you feel like you're going to go crazy."
Sarah's first actual therapy group at the ashram was a "Tao Group." It was supposed to be led by Swami Prem Amitabh, aka Robert Birnbaum, but he was in America at the time; Swami Prem Siddha, aka Dr. Leonard Zunin, a California psychiatrist and author of a book called Contact who was later active in the Rajneesh Medical Corporation at Rajneeshpuram, was substituting for him. Ma Satya Bharti describes the Tao Group in these words: "An unstructured group which focuses on what one is doing to prevent the free expression of one's being. Participants are thrown into spontaneous situations and encouraged to allow themselves to express freely their emotions, fears, expectations, disappointments, joys and to stay with the flow of events that follows as a consequence of this expression."
Says Sarah: "It was a five-day encounter group, and there was a lot of violence throughout the whole group. But it was on the fifth morning, the morning session of the last day that I got involved in it. The group leader told the men in the group to beat this woman up because she hadn't been participating. And they started to beat her up—eight guys and one girl. And I just couldn't stand it. So I went over and I grabbed this guy and pulled him away from her. And he backhanded me, and I went flying. And we had been friends in the group, you know. I just couldn't stand to see it happening, so I went back again and I pulled him away from the woman again, and he turned on me and just really beat me. I had never been in a fight before, didn't know how to fight. Especially with this really strong man. He was real strong." Sarah says she emerged from the Tao Group with two cracked ribs, a concussion, and a subconjunctival hemorrhage in each eye.
Sarah also did a group with Swami Anand Rajen, an English psychologist who was another of the top Rajneesh therapists in Pune. The group was called "Samarpan." Ma Satya Bharti says: "Samarpan means surrender: to surrender to one's own being. By following one's impulses, by letting go, one grows in trust, awareness, sensitivity, vulnerability, receptivity, innocence, love. The purpose of the group is to create the space where this can happen."
Sarah says: "There were twenty people in the group. It was another residential group; you couldn't leave. They brought food to you. No one wore any clothes. Rajen walked in and sat down on a pillow and just stared out into space. That went on for two or three days. We just sat there absolutely paralyzed with fear. Finally he came out of his meditative state and said, 'I'm going to tell each of you what your trip is.' And he went around the room, and I can remember the terror, you know. Because it wasn't coming from a kind, loving kind of place. It was like we were going to be unmasked in front of all these strangers. That was the feeling. And he went around in the circle and told everybody what they were sitting on, emotionally, what was going on with them, and then the group absolutely exploded. Just exploded. Fights in every corner. I remember Rajen telling this one swami to rape a woman, and he did. And he had such control over this woman that she allowed it to happen.
"You'd been sitting in a confined room for three days, and somebody would just glance at you. Or you'd watch somebody and how they were behaving, and they'd remind you of your father or, you know, something that had happened to you at some time in your life. And you'd just flip into a place where whatever was going on inside of you would start coming out. No matter what it was, things would come out of you.
"On the third day I can remember standing out on the balcony, and I wanted to jump. I felt so bad I wanted to jump off the balcony. Somebody came up to me and said, 'What are you thinking?' And I said, 'I'm thinking that I'd really like to jump.' And there were a whole bunch of people who agreed that suicide looked really comfortable at that point, compared to the way it felt in the group room.
"These groups would break you down. A friend of mine came up and got me one night because her roommate had just come out of an encounter group. The girl was terrified. She was like in a catatonic state, hysterical, I mean—I didn't know what to do with her. I worked with her, got her calmed down, but I mean, I had never experienced—I still have never experienced—anything like the state I saw that girl in. I mean, you just would—it would tear everything out of you. Open you up so wide and make you so vulnerable that you could be told anything and you would believe it. Whatever that group leader said to you, it was like God was talking through him.
"Not all of the groups were violent. A lot of them were meditative or energy groups. But those that were encounter groups—you didn't do those and not come out changed. It would be impossible to go through that experience and come out the same way you had gone in."
This article was adapted from The Rajneesh Chronicles, published by Tin House Books.
Read more from The Rise and Fall of the Rajneesh Cult
Win McCormack is the editor in chief of The New Republic and the author of The Rajneesh Chronicles: The True Story of the Cult that Unleashed the First Act of Bioterrorism on U.S. Soil.
The Rajneesh Chronicles, Brainwashing, Rajneesh, Culture, Politics, Oregon, Cults, Mind Control, India, Wild Wild Country


text:
\section{Introduction}

The character of the emission line spectra of powerful
radio galaxies is strongly determined
by the ionization mechanism of the gas. For most
low redshift ($z<$0.1) radio galaxies photoionization by a
central AGN describes rather well the general
properties of the optical emission line spectra ({\em e.g.} Robinson et al. 1987).
However, when the first high redshift radio galaxies (HZRG, $z>1.7$)
were discovered
the situation was not so clear. These objects showed very blue
colours and strong Ly$\alpha$ emission --- properties expected
for galaxies in the process of formation ({\em e.g.} Spinrad {\em et al.} 1985, McCarthy {\em et al.} 1987). It was proposed that some of these  HZRG, like
3C326.1, were
very young galaxies in which the strong Ly$\alpha$ emission was powered
by the young blue stars (McCarthy {\em et al.} 1987).

However,  detailed analysis of the spectra  showed that  young stars
could not explain the general properties of the UV emission lines of HZRG;
in particular,
the large emission line
equivalent widths and the existence of highly ionized species, like CIV and
HeII ({\em e.g.} McCarthy {\em et al.} 1990).

In the context of the unified schemes for powerful radio galaxies
({\em e.g.} Barthel 1989), we would expect these galaxies
to harbour  powerful AGN. This,
together with the fact that AGN photoionization  succeeded in
explai\-ning the optical emission line ratios of
low redshift radio gala\-xies, suggested that the same mechanism dominates
the ionization processes in HZRG (McCarthy 1993). In consequence,
most attempts to explain  the UV emission line spectra of HZRG have
invoked
pure AGN photoionization.

	However, both imaging and spectroscopy of HZRG show that  strong interactions are taking place between the advancing radio
jet  and the ISM of the host galaxy (section 2). Such interactions
will generate powerful shocks which  will disturb the morphology, kinematics
and physical conditions (density, temperature, pressure)
 of the gas and potentially modify its ionization state.
Currently a key issue in the study of
these objects is the relative importance of jet-induced shocks
and AGN illumination:
do shocks dominate the emission line processes? Or is  AGN photoionization dominant
with the influence of
the shocks
mainly manifested  in kinematic and morphological disturbances?

	We have addressed this problem by studying the UV emission line spectrum
of a sample of very HZRG ($z>$1.7), comparing their line ratios with both shock and AGN photoionization models. We base our study on the UV lines because
most of the information we have about HZRG  is derived from
studies of the UV emission
line spectra.  At such high redshifts the main optical diagnostic
emission lines are shifted into the infrared, and most
of the exis\-ting IR spectra for the HZRG are of poor quality.

In contrast, at low redshifts we have the opposite pro\-blem: the
optical diagnostic line ratios are well measured, but the UV spectra
are of low quality. For the low redshift objects the optical
line ratios have proved inefficient at distinguishing the
ionization mechanism unambiguously, although it has been
suggested  that the UV line
ratios might provide a stronger discriminant (Sutherland {\em et al.} 1993).
Therefore, the interest in
understanding the emission of the UV lines can be extended to low redshift
objects. We propose to develop a diagnostic method to discriminate
between shock and AGN ionization in radio galaxies at all redshifts.

	We review in section 2 the observational evidence for AGN illumination
and shocks in powerful radio galaxies. The data sample is described in section
3 and the diagnostic diagrams in section 4. Sections 5 and 6 present the models
and the comparison  with the data: section 5 concentrates
on the effects of a) varying   the shape
of the AGN  continuum and b) changing the excitation and ionization mechanism (shocks); section 6 analyzes the effects that different physical
conditions in the extended gas can produce in the observed UV spectra.
In section 7 we extend our diagnostic method to low redshift radio galaxies.
Section 8 includes summary and  conclusions.

\section{Shock {\it vs.} AGN photoionization in HZRG ($z>$1)}

\subsection{Evidence of AGN illumination in HZRG.}

 In the popular anisotropic illumination model ({\em e.g.} Fosbury 1989), it is
postulated that quasars hidden in the cores of powerful radio galaxies
illuminate the ambient ISM with intense cones of UV/X-ray radiation, with the
radiation photoionizing the extended gas within the cones, leading to
line emission. This model appears to be consistent with the observed properties
of the majority of {\em low-redshift} radio galaxies. Most importantly, the
line ratios measured in the nuclear regions and EELR
of radio galaxies, and the
trends in these line ratios, generally agree well with photoionization models
(Robinson {\em et al.} 1987; Binette {\em et al.} 1996). The (weak) alignment
of the EELR with the radio axes (Baum \& Heckman 1989) and
rela\-tively undisturbed kinematics (Tadhunter et al. 1989) are also consistent
with anisotropic illumination by the  broad radiation cones predicted
by the unified schemes. Although there are no radio galaxy EELR which
show the clear cone-like morphologies seen in some Seyfert galaxies, this
is likely to be due to relatively sparse and inhomogeneous  distribution
in the early-type host galaxies (Tadhunter 1990).

Anisotropic AGN-photoionization of the ambient ISM is also a viable model for
 {\em high-redshift} radio galaxies.
The detection of  scattered light from a hidden quasar
(and also broad line components) in the polarized flux of seve\-ral HZRG is  strong evidence
for the existence of luminous quasars which illuminate the ISM ({\em e.g.} Cimatti {\em et al.} 1996, Dey {\em et al.} 1996). Moreover,
the presence of large diffuse halos of
ionized gas in some HZRG, which extend far beyond the radio structures
strongly suggests the existence of a quiescent ISM ionized by the central AGN
({\it eg.} van Ojik 1995).

	McCarthy (1993) constructed a composite radio galaxy spectrum from
observations of galaxies with 0.1$<z<$3. Photoionization calculations
reproduce the radio galaxy spectrum rather well and this was presented as
an argument in favour of the AGN photoionization as the main ionization
mechanism in radio galaxies. However, the composite was built from
the spectra of very different objects covering a wide range in redshift, and
it is dominated by one
or two of the most highly ionized objects.
Thus the comparison of this composite spectrum with the models does not
resolve the issue of the ionization mechanism for the general population
of HZRG.

	Villar-Mart\'\i n et al. (hereafter VMBF96) concluded that
photoionization by the AGN can explain the positions of a large sample
of HZRG in the  CIV$\lambda$1550/Ly$\alpha$ {\it vs.} CIV$\lambda$1550/CIII] $\lambda$1909 diagnostic diagram. The sequence defined by the data can
be parametrized in terms of the so-called ionization parameter, that is, the ratio of
the density of ionizing photons impinging on the slab to the density of the outermost
gas layer of the slab:

	$$ U = \frac{1}{cn_H} \int_{\nu_0}^{\infty} {\frac{\phi_{\nu}}{h\nu} d\nu} ~~~ [1]$$

where $c$ is the speed of light, $n_H$ is the density of the gas in the front layer and $\nu_0$ is the Lyman limit frequency.
$\phi_{\nu}$ is the monochromatic ionizing energy flux  impinging
on the slab. By varying the ionization parameter it is possible to produce the variety observed in the UV line ratios of HZRG. A similar result
is obtained at low $z$: the sequences defined by the optical line ratios
of powerful radio galaxies are  explained in terms of a sequence
defined by $U$ (Robinson et al. 1987).

\subsection{Evidence of shocks in HZRG.}

A possible alternative ionization
mechanism in these sources is the ionization by fast shocks produced by violent
interactions between the advancing radio jet and the ambient gas: there is
already clear evidence for such jet-cloud
interactions in HZRG. Firstly, whereas the gas
kinematics in most nearby radio galaxies are consistent with gravitational
motions (Tadhunter {\em et al.} 1989; Baum {\em et al.} 1992), extreme
non-gravitational motions are observed along the radio axes in the majority of
HZRG (van Ojik 1995; McCarthy {\em et al.} 1996). Secondly, the extended emission line regions (EELR) are often not only aligned with the radio axis, but closely correlated
in detail with the radio emission (Chambers {\em et al.} 1990; Miley {\em et
al.} 1992; Rigler {\em et al.} 1992; van Ojik 1995). Even when there are no
direct radio/optical associations, the degree of collimation seen in the narrow
jet-like EELR along the radio axes of sources like 3C~368 and 3C~324 (Longair {\em et al.} 1995) is
difficult to explain without invoking interactions between the line-emitting
gas and the radio jets. The radio-optical asymmetries (McCarthy {\em et al.}
1991), the relationship between optical structure and radio size (Best {\em et
al.} 1996), and the fact that the extent of the line-emitting gas is almost
always smaller than that of the associated radio source (van Ojik 1995), provide
further evidence for a close association between the radio plasma
and the warm emission line gas.

Recently, we have made a detailed study of the EELR in a sample of low--intermediate redshift
radio galaxies which show clear morphological evidence
for jet--cloud interactions (Tadhunter {\em et al.}
1994; Clark \& Tadhunter 1996; Clark 1996; Clark {\em et al.} 1996). This
study provides  clear evidence that jet-induced shocks determine the
distribution, kinematics and physical conditions
of the EELR along the radio
axes of the objects in the sample. There is also evidence that shocks have an ionizing
effect in these sources: in particular, the high  temperatures indicated by the
the [OIII]4363/(5007+4959) ratio, and the low
HeII(4686)/H$\beta$ ratio measured in the extended gas, are more consistent
with shock-ionization than AGN-photoionization. Even complex multi-phase
photoionization models such as those presented recently by Binette {\em et al.}
(1996) and Simpson \& Ward (1996) cannot  reproduce  the measured
values of these two line ratios.

With the above discussion in mind, it is imperative that the UV line ratios of
HZRG be compared in detail with the predictions of both shock-ionization and
AGN-photoionization models.

\section{The data}

We have constructed a sample which comprises  21 narrow line
radio galaxies at high~z (most of them have $z>$2) for
which the UV CIV$\lambda$1550, HeII$\lambda$1640
and CIII]$\lambda$1909 emission lines
have been measured.   We have excluded those objects which show evidence
of a BLR. In Table~1, we list the object names, the line ratios of
interest to us here, the redshift and the reference to the
observations. Most of the data are taken from the
recent thesis by van Ojik (1995) which includes objects selected on
the basis of a very steep radio spectrum.  The other objects have been
selected from the literature with the criteria of having high redshifts,
classified as  narrow line radio galaxies and with measured fluxes
for the three UV lines mentioned above.

The line
measurements refer to the integrated emission from the object
collected with a long slit aligned with the radio axis. We know that
at this redshift, the line luminosities are generally dominated by the
extranuclear emission and we can be confident that the general properties
of the emitting gas
inferred from the spectra describe the
extended emitting regions, rather than the emission line regions close
to the nuclei.

\begin{table*}
\centering
\caption{Observed UV line ratios for several high~z radio galaxies with no apparent broad component }
\begin{tabular}{llllll} \hline
\hline

Name  	 & 	CIV/CIII]  & 	CIV/HeII & CIII] /HeII &  redshift  & ref. \\ \hline \hline
Average HZRG &  2.05 &  1.14 &  0.56 &  & McCarthy 1993 \\ \hline
F10214+4724 &	3.68  & 1.43	&   0.39     &  2.29 & 	Elston {\em et al.} 1994	\\
3C294   &    0.83  &      1.00 &  1.20   &   1.79 &  McCarthy {\em et al.} 1990 \\
3C256-3C239 &	1.90   &	    1.94  &	1.05 &  1.96  & Spinrad {\em et al.} 1985	\\
0200+015 & 	1.05	 &      1.31 &   1.25  &  2.23	& van Ojik 1995 \\
0211-122 & 	2.55	 &      1.81    &    0.71 &  2.34	&  ~~~~~~ " \\
0214+183 & 	1.67	 &      1.67   &      1.00  &  2.13 	& ~~~~~~ " \\
0355-037  &	1.17	 &      0.73	  &  0.62 &  2.15 & ~~~~~~ " \\
0448+091 & 	0.44	  &     0.86	 &    0.86   &   2.04 & 	~~~~~~ " \\
0529-549 & 	0.22	 &      0.67 & 	   3.05   &  2.58 & 	~~~~~~ " \\
0748+134 & 	1.29	  &     1.20  &        0.93   &   2.42 & 	~~~~~~ " \\
0828+193 & 	0.95	 &      1.00       &     0.95 &  2.57 & 	~~~~~~ " \\
0943-242 & 	1.70	  &     1.44 &       0.85   & 2.92 & 	~~~~~~ " \\
1138-262 & 	0.62    &           0.62   &     1.00  &  2.16  & 	~~~~~~ " \\
1410-001 & 	1.58	 &      1.44  &      0.92  &   2.36 & 	~~~~~~ " \\
1558-003     &     2.25 &     1.59    &    0.71 & 2.53  & 	~~~~~~ " \\
2251-089 & 	2.20	 &     2.54     &   1.15 &  1.99 & 	~~~~~~ " \\
4C23.56	     &     3.40	 &     3.92   &     1.15 &   2.48 &	~~~~~~ " \\
4C26.38	 & 	3.71   &     	1.56     &   0.42 &  2.88  & 	~~~~~~ " \\
4C28.58	 & 	0.17	 &      0.19  &     0.89  &  2.89 & 	~~~~~~ " \\
4C40.36	 & 	1.05	 &    1.11  &      1.06   &  2.27 & 	~~~~~~ " \\
4C48.48  &      2.18 &     1.65  &      0.76  &  2.34 & 	~~~~~~ " \\
\hline
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table*}

\section{The UV line ratios: the diagnostic diagrams.}

	We have studied three diagnostic diagrams which involve the
CIV$\lambda$1950, CIII] $\lambda$1909 and HeII$\lambda$1640 lines which usually dominate
(together with Ly$\alpha$) the UV spectrum of HZRG.
 We compare the position in the diagrams of the data with the prediction of pure AGN  photoionization
 and shock models. Shock model calculations
for the Ly$\alpha$ line do not exist in the literature and we have
not included  this line in our diagrams (see VMBF96 for a detailed study of the  CIV$\lambda$1950/Ly$\alpha$ {\it vs.} CIV$\lambda$1950/CIII] $\lambda$1909 diagnostic diagram for the same sample of objects studied
here and AGN photoionization models).

The data  are represented in the diagrams with hollow circles (van Ojik's data)
and solid triangles (other objects). The different models are distinguished
by different line types in the diagrams (see Figure captions).

 Comparing data and model predictions we want to answer the questions: is it possible to
disentangle the main mechanism responsible for the ionization of the gas in HZRG using the UV line ratios? Which models agree better with the data: shocks or AGN photoionization?

\section{The influence  of the ionizing mechanism on the UV line ratios.}

\subsection{AGN photoionization models.}

 We have used the multi-purpose photoionization code MAPPINGS~I to build these
models. The version
des\-cribed in Binette et~al.  (1993a,b) is well suited for the conditions
studied here, since it includes a detailed treatment, not only of the transfer of optically thin lines (HeII$\lambda$1640  and CIII] $\lambda$1909) but also of the resonant lines, Ly$\alpha$ and CIV$\lambda$1550, which have strongly-geometry  dependent emission (VMBF96).

	The first step to predict the spectrum emitted by a gaseous region
is to define the
 physical conditions of the gas and the shape of the ionizing continuum. At very high redshift, there are large uncertainties
in this respect. The optical lines, which have provided a great deal of
information about the emitting gas  and the ionization
processes involved in low redshift radio galaxies, are redshifted
into the IR. As mentioned before, the optical (rest-frame) spectra obtained for very high redshift so
far  are rare. Therefore, it is not
possible to use optical line diagnostics to constrain the physical conditions
of the emitting gas in our objects.

	As a starting point, it is reasonable to assume
 that these regions are similar to the EELR in low redshift radio galaxies.
The discrepancies, if they exist, between the data and the standard models which
are successful for the low-$z$ objects will allow us to build more coherent models and therefore,
reveal information about the actual conditions of the emitting gas and the nature
of the ionizing source. Therefore, the question we will answer in this
section is: {\it can the  models which reproduce the optical line ratios
of low redshift radio galaxies also  explain the UV line ratios of very
high redshift radio galaxies?}

	Analysis of the optical emission lines has
 shown that typical densities in EELR
apparently photoionized by the central AGN at low
redshift are  lower than a few hundred. Indeed, if the line emitting gas
in the EELR is in pressure equilibrium with the hot phase of the ISM,
the EELR densities implied from X-ray observations
are of the order or a few particles per cm$^{-3}$ (Clark 1996).
 McCarthy (1993) reached a similar conclusion using a different approach
based on the Ly$\alpha$ luminosity.
Shocks, however, can raise the density
 up to a few hundred (Clark {\em et al.} 1996). This increase in the density is not large
enough that we need to worry about the suppression of the emission lines due
to collisional deexcitation effects.
In our ``pure AGN'' photoionization
model,  such an increase in the  density will have equivalent effects
to a decrease in the flux of the AGN ionizing photons by the same factor. This
means that those objects where shocks have compressed the emitting gas
-- but not ionized it --can be interpreted  in terms of a lower
ionization parameter (see eq.~1).

 We have assumed a density of 10 cm$^{-3}$
at the illuminated face.  The behaviour of the gas is
isobaric. Therefore, the density at every position in the cloud is adjusted
with the temperature to keep the pressure equilibrium.
The abundances are assumed to be solar unless another value is specified. The clouds are considered to be radiation bounded (except in section 6.2) and with plane
para\-llel geometry (see VMBF96 for a more detailed description).

\subsubsection{Power Law models, $\alpha$=-1.5}

	We have first investigated  whether -1.5 power-law (PL) photoionization models,  which are so successful for low-$z$ radio galaxies,  are also able to explain
the  UV line ratios of our sample of high redshift objects.
  The results are presented in the  diagnostic diagrams in Fig.~1.
The -1.5 PL sequence is represented on the left diagrams by  solid circles  connected with a solid
line.

	A quick look to the left diagrams shows that the -1.5 sequence lies
far away from the data points. However, comparing
 the shape of the model sequence and the
trend defined by the data,  the similarity suggests that the data sequence can be explained  in terms of the variation in the ionization parameter, as is
 observed at low redshift.

\begin{figure*}[htb]
\special{psfile=5877fig1.ps hoffset=0. voffset=-840. hscale=120. vscale=120.}
\vspace{9in}
\caption[]{{\bf Left:} Comparison of the data sample of HZRG with  photoionization models
in which the ionizing continuum is: 1) a power law of index -1.5  (solid circles connected by a  solid line) 2) Hot black body, T$\sim$130000 K
(stars  connected by a long-dash line). The negative numbers indicate log$U$.
Hollow circles are van Ojik's (1995) HZRG and solid triangles other HZRG
with published UV line fluxes. The star corresponds to the average HZRG
spectrum of McCarthy (1993).
{\bf Right:} The two new sequences use a -1.5 power law as ionizing
continuum but with geometrical effects considered. The long-dash line
describes the spectrum of the clouds seen directly from the illuminated face.
The dotted line corresponds to the opposite case, the clouds are observed from
the ``dark'' face. (Model dots have been suppressed for simplicity).}

\end{figure*}

\vspace{0.2cm}

{\it The influence of geometrical effects}

\vspace{0.2cm}

VMBF96 showed that -1.5 PL models can explain the sequence defined by the
objects in the Ly$\alpha$/CIV {\it vs.} CIV/CIII]  diagnostic diagram when geometrical effects are taken into
account. The resonant character of the CIV$\lambda$1550 and Ly$\alpha$
lines makes the escape of the line photons
very asymmetric, so that their emission  is strongly dependent on the distribution
of material inside (and outside, for Ly$\alpha$) the ionized cones.
Provided that the axis of extended emission line
nebulosity is not in the plane of the sky, the spectrum we observe is emitted by a mixture of clouds observed
from different viewing angles: the clouds further from the observer are seen
preferentially
 from the illuminated face, while the clouds closer to the observer are
seen from the rear. In this situation resonant lines are
emitted very differently on the two sides of the nucleus; they appear stronger
 with respect to the other lines  on the side which lies
further from the observer, and fainter on the other side.

The previous
sequences (Fig.~1, left) did not consider the geometrical effects described
above:
they  represent a situation in which  geometrical effects due to different orien\-tation angles are cancelled.

	In Fig.1 (right)  we show the same diagnostic diagrams as before, but
geometry is considered. The single PL sequence in the left diagrams has been replaced by two new ones: the long dashed line represents models for clouds observed
directly from the illuminated face --- this des\-cribes the case in
which the spectrum of the gas on the far side of the source is dominant ---
while the  dotted line corresponds to the opposite case in which we observe
the clouds from the rear (i.e. the clouds on the near side domi\-nate).
Any intermediate case is described by a sequence
of models intermediate between these.

The back perspective does not help at all to
improve the fitting to the data because the resonant CIV line intensity
is decreased relative to the other lines. For the ``front'' sequence, the line
ratios involving CIV increase slightly, but not enough to explain
the relative faintness of HeII. Moreover,  CIII]/HeII is still a problem: geometrical
effects do not affect this line ratio and cannot explain its high observed values.

	The conclusion is that  {\it photoionization by a power law of index -1.5, which
reasonably reproduces the optical line ratios of low redshift radio galaxies
 cannot explain the observed UV line ratios of HZRG}.

\subsubsection{Hot Black Body models}

	A very hot black body (T$\sim$130,000 K) provides an even better fit to the optical line ratios of low redshift radio galaxies than the -1.5 power law  usually assumed (Robinson {\em et al.} 1987).
We have studied the predictions of these
models in the UV spectral range. The results are presented in Fig.~1 (left
pannels).
Contrary to the conclusion obtained in the optical range, such a continuum {\it cannot}
explain the position of the objects in the UV diagnostic diagrams. The
fit is worse than the one produced by the -1.5 PL models --- the
T$\sim$130,000 K black body model falling even further
from the data points. The dispersion
 produced by geometrical effects
is similar to the -1.5 PL models. We do not present these models here for simplicity.

Therefore, the models which are successful at explaining  the low redshift optical spectra do not work
in the UV spectral range for very high redshift objects.
An alternative possibility is that the  ionizing continuum
emitted by the central AGN has a different shape at low and high redshifts.
We investigate now the effects that a harder continuum have on the
UV line ratios.

\subsubsection{A hard ionizing continuum: Power law with index $\alpha$=-1.0}

The new models, with a power law of index $\alpha$=-1.0, are shown in the diagnostic diagrams in Fig.~2. As in Fig.~1, the diagrams on the left do not take into
account geometrical effects, which, on the contrary, are considered on the right
plots.
 The agreement
with the data is excellent. Most of the data points are
rather well described by the $\alpha$=-1.0 U-sequence.

\begin{figure*}
\special{psfile=5877fig2.ps hoffset=0.  voffset=-840. hscale=120. vscale=120.}
\vspace{9in}
\caption[]{ The ionizing continuum is in the new sequences a power law
of index $\alpha=$-1.0 (symbols as in Fig.~1). The improvement to fit the observed positions is remarkable.}

\end{figure*}

\vspace{0.2cm}

{\it The influence of geometrical effects}

\vspace{0.2cm}

When considering geometrical effects with the $\alpha$=-1.0 models (Fig.~2, right), most objects lie between the two sequences which represent the back and the front perspective, as expected. For a fixed $U$ we find that, while CIII] /HeII is the same for back and front, the dispersion
predicted by the models for different viewing angles is large  when line ratios
involving CIV are considered and the
ioni\-zation level of the gas is high. This trend is also suggested by the data: the
models seem to envelope a very similar area to the one occupied by the data.
Note that the -1.0 PL models can explain the
data points in the CIV/Ly$\alpha$ {\it vs} CIV/CIII] diagnostic diagram as well
as the 1.5PL mo\-dels.

 	In summary,  {\it a power law of index $\alpha$=-1.0, where the sequence is defined by the variation of
the ionization level of the gas, can explain the observed UV line ratios of
HZRG.}

If this result is confirmed,
it indicates an evolution of the spectral  shape of the ionizing
continuum emitted by the central AGN with redshift or  luminosity (we are biased to very powerful objects).

	 There are already some indications of a correlation between the hardness
of the AGN continuum  and redshift.
O'Brien {\em et al.} (1988) found that quasars of higher redshift show harder
UV continua. Francis (1993)  concluded that high redshift (z=2) AGNs have
intrinsically harder mean continuum slopes ($\Delta\alpha\sim$0.8) than low redshift AGNs. He
also concludes that this is  a correlation with redshift and not
with absolute magnitude. It is important to mention that these authors study a spectral range longward (in wavelength) of the Lyman
limit and, therefore, they do not include the UV ionizing continuum of
interest to us in this paper. However, extrapolating their results
to shorter wavelengths, the ionizing continuum should also get harder
with increasing redshifts.

\subsection{The shock models}

	Another strong possibility to explain the discrepancies  between
the -1.5 PL (and hot black body) models and the observed UV line ratios is shocks.
A high velocity radiative shock can influence the emission line processes
through two different mechanisms: a) the generation of a strong local
UV photon field in the hot post-shock zone,
which can ionize the surrounding medium both upstream and downstream; b)
line emission during
the radiative ~cooling of gas behind the hot post-shock zone.
We have used the new shock models by Dopita and Sutherland (1995) which
take into account both effects.
The two main parameters which
influence  the predicted spectrum  are the velocity of the shock and the magnetic
parameter defined as $B/n^{1/2}\mu$G.cm$^{-2}$, where $B$ is the pre-shock
magnetic transverse field and $n$ is the pre-shock density. Note that we
have assumed an ionized helium recombination ratio of
HeII$\lambda$1640/He$\lambda 4686\sim$7.7 in order to calculate
the HeII$\lambda$1640 strength from the HeII$\lambda$4686 strengths
published in Dopita \& Sutherland (1995). Our experience with
photoionization models shows that the
value of the HeII$\lambda$1640/He$\lambda 4686$ recombination ratio
is insensitive to the physical conditions and the ionization state
of the gas.

\begin{figure*}[htb]
\special{psfile=5877fig3.ps  hoffset=0.  voffset=-840. hscale=120. vscale=120. angle=0.}
\vspace{9in}
\caption[]{Comparison of the data sample of HZRG with the new
shock models by Dopita \& Sutherland (1995):
the diagrams on the left show the UV line ratios predicted for the
cooling radiation lines. The diagrams on the right present the models for
the precursor gas, ionized by the upstream photons emitted by the
shock. These shock models are unable to explain the observed
line ratios. For the cooling
radiation models, both velocity (150-500 km s$^{-1}$) and magnetic parameter (0-4 $\mu$G cm$^{-3/2}$) change, while for the precusor the velocity is varied (200-500 km s$^{-1}$) with a fixed magnetic parameter (1 $\mu$G cm$^{-3/2}$). }

\end{figure*}

	Shock model sequences are presented in the diagnostic diagrams in Fig.~3.
The diagrams on the left show the UV line ratios of the cooling region
(post-shock material). The velocity varies between 150 and 500 km s$^{-1}$
and the magnetic parameter between 0 and 4  $\mu$G cm$^{-3/2}$. The density
adopted is n(H)=1cm$^{-3}$.
The diagrams on the right co\-rrespond to the
precursor gas emission, that is, material which has not entered the shock but is
ionized by its UV photon flux. The velocity is varied (200-500 km s$^{-1}$) with a fixed magnetic parameter (1 $\mu$G cm$^{-3/2}$).

 The agreement between the shock and precursor mo\-dels with the data
is very poor. For the range of
models which reproduce the observed range of CIV/HeII values, CIII]  is too
faint, both with respect CIV and HeII, so that the sequences cannot cover
the area occupied by the objects.  This can be said both for the post-shock and
precursor models. Therefore, a mixture will still produce too faint CIII].

	Another problem evident from the diagrams is the di\-fficulty
of the  models at reproducing the sequences defined by the data. In
contrast, the trends on the diagnostic diagrams are
naturally explained in the AGN photoionization context by a sequence in
the ionization parameter $U$.

	The conclusion is that {\it the published shock models cannot explain the
observed UV line ratios}. However, shock models
are complex and we cannot rule out the possibi\-lity that a combination
of parameters will be found that reproduces the observed spectra.

\section{The influence of the physical properties of the gas.}

\subsection{The metallicity}

So far, we have considered that differences in the ioni\-zing mechanism
  determine
those in the emission line spectra. The  physical conditions of the gas can also influence strongly the emission line processes. An
interesting and reasonable possibility is that the metallicity of the gas at
high redshifts is lower than solar. We have calculated models in which
 the abundances
of the heavy elements are 0.4 times the solar values. The ionizing continuum
is the traditional -1.5 PL.

	The agreement with the data is excellent as the diagrams in Fig.~4
show. The models are represented by the solid line connected with solid
circles. Again, these mo\-dels can also explain the
data points in the CIV/Ly$\alpha$ {\it vs} CIV/CIII] diagnostic diagram.

\begin{figure*}
\special{psfile=5877fig4.ps hoffset=0.  voffset=-840. hscale=120. vscale=120.}
\vspace{9in}
\caption[]{ The ionizing continuum is in the new sequences a power law
of index $\alpha=$-1.5 (symbols as in Fig.~1). In this case the abundance
of the heavy elements are decreased by a factor of 0.4 with respect the
solar values. The agreement between the models and the data is excellent.
The thick short solid line corresponds to the sequence of models proposed
by Binette et al. (1996) with a mixture of matter bounded and radiation
bounded clouds.}

\end{figure*}

	Since the CIV/CIII]  line ratio is strongly dependent
on $U$ (and not so much on metallicity in 0.4 solar
to solar range of values considered) it is interesting to compare the $U$ values required to reproduce
the CIV/CIII]  line ratio with the values derived for low redshift EELR from the optical line ratios. Most high redshift objects lie in the log$U$ range [-2,-0.5].  The ionization level of the gas is similar to that observed
in highly ionized EELR at low redshift (Robinson {\em et al.} 1987).
However, this is not the
trend observed in low redshift jet---cloud interaction objects, where shocks are important (Clark 1996, Clark {\em et al.} 1996). In these cases the average
level of ionization of the gas is lower than that measured for the EELR of
radio galaxies where AGN photoionization dominates. If a -1.5 PL
is responsible for the ionization of
the gas, these results  suggest that we are biased towards
very powerful objects in which the gas is  highly ionized.

	If lower metallicities are confirmed at high redshift a
harder  AGN ionizing continuum is no longer necessary and
the classical -1.5 PL is still valid.
An interesting consequence is that this would be
the first clear evidence for {\it chemical evolution with
redshift} in the host galaxies of powerful radio galaxies.

	There is other  evidence for chemical evolution with
redshift, with decreasing metallicities for younger
objects: damped Ly$\alpha$ systems  (DLA) at large redshifts ($z\sim$2-3), which
are thought
to be produced by protogalactic disks, are measured to have
a metallicity $Z\sim$1/10
$Z_{\odot}$ (Pettini {\em et al.} 1994).  Although the metallicity evolution revealed
by the DLA might not be valid for all kind of objects,
it is suggestive and might
also happen in radio galaxies.

\subsection{Matter bounded clouds}

In spite of the good general agreement between -1.5 PL models and the observed optical
line ratios of {\it low} redshift radio galaxies, there are three problems which the classical photoionization models cannot
explain: a) too weak
high ionization lines; b) too low electronic temperatures; c) too small range in the ratio HeII$\lambda$4686/H$\beta$. Several authors have
proposed in the past that a contribution
of matter bounded clouds could help to solve some of the discre\-pancies ({\it e.g.} Viegas \& Gruenwald 1988).
In a recent paper Binette {\em et al.} (1996) develop a detailed study around this possibility. They
consider two distinct populations
of line emitting clouds: a matter bounded component and an ionization bounded component, with the ionization bounded clouds illuminated by the
ionizing spectrum escaping from the matter bounded component.
A variation in the ratio of the two components
can explain the  sequences in the optical
line ratios on the diagnostic diagrams, and they can
also solve the three problems
mentioned above.

We have  considered these models as a possible solution to the discrepancies
between the -1.5 PL models and the data.
The authors present the predictions  for the  CIV/CIII] , CIV/H$\beta$
and HeII$\lambda$4686/H$\beta$ ratios. Asu\-mming as before,
HeII$\lambda$1640/HeII$\lambda$4686$\sim$7.7 we can compute the UV line ratios of interest to us.

	The models are represented in Fig.4 (short thick solid line).
The authors adopt as continuum energy distribution a power law of index
-1.3  and select
a constant ionizing parameter 0.04.
The variable parameter is $A_{I/M}$, which re\-presents the collecting area
ratio of the ionization bounded clouds to radiation bounded clouds. The values
vary from 0.06 to $\sim$4.

These models are unable to explain the wide
range in UV line ratios observed for the high redshift sample. The reason is
that the UV line ratios are not so sensitive to $A_{I/M}$ as the optical
line ratios, which involve lines produced in
partially ionized  regions inside the clouds. The UV lines studied here are produced mainly near the illuminated face of
the emitting clouds.  Unlike at low $z$, where a simple variation
of $A_{I/M}$ can explain the observed trend in the optical line ratios,
the UV line ratios of the high redshift sample
suggest that  changes in $U$  play
a more important role.

	The harder continuum might be the reason
why the mo\-dels lie closer to the data than the -1.5 PL models (the -1.3 lies between the -1.0 and -1.5 sequences). Adding a matter bounded component
to the previous -1.5 PL mo\-dels will not help to fit the data: CIV/HeII will remain nearly constant and CIII] /HeII
will  decrease slightly  (although overlapping in part with the HeII region,
CIII]  is formed deeper inside the clouds).

 	Therefore, {\it a mixture of radiation and matter bounded clouds,
cannot explain the discrepancies between the -1.5 PL models and the observed data}.

\subsection{A diagnostic in the optical}

	Among the possibilities studied here to explain the UV data, low
 metallicities and a hard power law ionizing continuum produce a good
fit to the data.  As the models overlap in the UV, a way to discriminate between them is to compare the predicted {\it optical} (rest frame) line ratios with the observations.
 One of the few examples of objects with infrared (optical
rest-frame) spectroscopy is the radio galaxy 4C40.36  (Iwamuro {\em et al.} 1996). We have compared
the optical line ratios with the values derived from
a) the -1.0 power law models
and  b) the  -1.5 power law and  0.4 solar metallicity values, both of which
explain the UV line ratios (Table 2).  This object is also included in our sample. The UV line
ratios (CIV/CIII] =1.05, CIII]/HeII=1.05 and CIV/HeII=1.11) indicate that, for
a hard PL of index $\alpha$=-1, the ionizing parameter U $\sim$0.008 and for the
-1.5 PL and low metallicity models, U $\sim$0.002. The
ratios predicted in the optical are given in Tab.~2:

\begin{table*}
\centering
\caption{Predicted and observed optical line ratios for the radio galaxy 4C40.36 (the models presented are the ones which reproduce the UV line ratios).}
\begin{tabular}{lllllll} \hline

 & OIII$\lambda$5007/OII$\lambda$3727& OII/H$\beta$	& NeIII$\lambda$3869/H$\beta$ &  HeII$\lambda$4686/H$\beta$  & OIII/H$\beta$ \\ \hline
Observed & 3.3$\pm$1.1 &  5.3$\pm$5.1	&  4.6$\pm$5.6 & 1.0$\pm$1.5 & 17.5$\pm$14.4
\\ \hline
Models -1.0 PL ($U$=7$\times$10$^{-3}$) & 3.2 & 5.2 & 1.2 & 0.3  & 16.7 \\
Models low Z ($U\sim$2$\times$10$^{-3}$) & 13.0 & 1.0   &  0.9   & 0.2   & 13.0   & \\
\hline
\end{tabular}
\end{table*}

	The flux of some of the lines is poorly determined and the errors
in the line ratios are large. The most accurate ratio is OIII$\lambda$5007/OII$\lambda$3727 whose value is in very good agreement
with the -1.0 power law model while the low metallicity model can not
account for it. The high values of the ratios OII/H$\beta$ and OIII/H$\beta$, if confirmed, are also in better agreement with the hard continuum
model.

It is clear  that optical line ratios are able to  discriminate between
these two possibilities.
 The acquisition of good quality optical (rest-frame) spectra of the HZRG
will be crucial to test if the models valid for the UV lines can also fit
the optical line ratios.

\section{Low redshift radio galaxies}

In the above discussion we
used the UV emission lines as a  diagnostic to
distinguish between
shock and AGN photoionization in the EELR of powerful high redshift radio galaxies.

	At $\it low$ redshifts, most of the information we have comes from
the optical emission lines. The most recent shock models developed by Dopita and Sutherland (1995,1996) produce, in
general,
optical line ratios which overlap with the -1.5 PL predictions. Therefore, the {\it optical} emission lines do not provide a clear-cut
way to
distinguish between the mechanisms.

	However, the UV
 line ratios offer  a powerful diagnostic  for {\it low} redshift radio galaxies
with {\it low} $U$ values (log$U\leq$ -2.0). For {\it high} $U$ values, the distinction is difficult, due to the overlap
of the shock and -1.5 power law models (see above), and the diagnostics become inefficient at the high ionization end of the diagram.
A comparison of Fig.~ 1 and 3 reveals
that the -1.5 power law  with log$U\leq$ -2.0 lie far
from the shock models, due to the much fainter CIV emission. While these AGN
photoionization models produce $log(CIV/CIII] )\leq$0.5 and
$log(CIV/HeII)\leq$0.2, the
values for the shock models are $\geq$1.0 and $\geq$0.6 and respectively.

	As mentioned before, observations of low redshift radio galaxies with strong jet/cloud interactions
show that the emitting gas has a low ionization level (Clark \& Tadhunter 1996).  The spectrum is dominated by the lines
emitted by the	``cool'' high density (i.e. low ionization parameter) gas
behind the shock.  Therefore, they
are suitable for the diagnostics.
A good example is  the radio galaxy  PKS2250-41. Clark
et. al (1996) have presented clear evidence of the presence of
a jet/cloud interaction in the EELR of
this object both from imaging and optical spectroscopy.
The optical line ratios
indicate that  log$U\sim$~-3.  Thus the measured
UV line ratios have the potential to determine which mechanism  dominates
the emission line processes in the EELR
of this object.  The possibility of a -1.0 PL ionizing continuum
is rejected because it does not explain the optical line ratios: shock and/or
-1.5 PL (or hot black body) are the main possibilities.

\section{Summary and conclusions}

	We have studied the UV line ratios of a sample of {\it high} redshift
radio galaxies to understand which is the main mechanism responsible for the
line emission processes.

	The  models which reproduce the optical line ratios of low redshift
EELR (-1.5 power law or hot black body and
solar abundances of the gas)
cannot explain the UV line ratios of very high redshift radio galaxies.
We have investigated several possibilities to explain these discrepancies.
The most suggestive one, i.e. shocks produced in jet/cloud interactions, fails to
explain the data.

	On the contrary, a harder ionizing AGN continuum (power law of index $\alpha$=-1) and
the classical -1.5 power law with a low metallicity  produce an
excellent fit to the data. The first possibility is supported by the
existing evidence of an evolution towards harder continuum at higher redshifts
of the mean spectral shape of the AGN conti\-nuum. The second possibility is
supported by the evidence provided by studies of absorption line systems
in the line of sight of quasars, which demonstrate abundance of $\sim$0.1 solar
at very high redshifts.

The UV diagnostic diagrams do not distinguish unambiguously between
jet-induced shocks and AGN photoioni\-zation  for the HZRG with $high$ ionization state because the two sets of
models overlap in the diagrams.  We note, however,
that not only are the sequences on the diagnostic diagrams
better explained in terms
of photoionization, but the overall ionization state of the HZRG is conside\-rably
higher than is measured in well-studied jet---cloud interactions
at lower redshifts. Our result do not contradict the existence of shocks in these objects.
Rather it suggests that the continuum emitted by the central AGN is the main ionizing source, with the shocks  having an important effect on the kinematics and morphology of the gas.

For the lower ionization states,
the distinction between the shock and photoionization
models is more clear-cut, and the UV diagnostic diagrams are a
promising means of distinguishing the major ionization mechanism
in the low redshift jet---cloud interaction candidates.

Finally, we note that it is always dangerous to base
strong conclusions about the
ionization mechanisms on measurements of just a few emission lines in a
particular spectral range. Our results are suggestive but not conclusive.
It is now essential to check the consistency of the model results
by obtaining spectra which cover diagnostics
in {\it both} the optical and
UV for individual high and low redshift radio galaxies.

\begin{acknowledgements}
We thank  Luc Binette for his code MAPPINGS I. M.Villar-Mart\'\i n thanks
Jacco van Loon for useful discussions.  M.Villar-Mart\'\i n acknowledges
support from PPARC grant.
\end{acknowledgements}

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaArXiv


text:
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Thursday, July 9, 2020 | History
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Saunders, Edward
by Saunders, Edward
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Statement by Edward Saunders ; with a foreword by Sir Edward Carson.
LC Classifications HC256 S3, HC256 S3
Pagination x, 203 p.
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