text:
\section{Introduction}
There exists a strong demand for miniature, solid-state, room
temperature operating sources and detectors of THz radiation
($0.3$-$10$ THz). The need is caused by a rapid progress of THz
sciences and technologies ranging from the astronomy to the
biosecurity \cite{thz-reviews}. Semiconductor superlattices (SLs)
\cite{esaki70}, operating in the miniband transport regime, are
interesting electronic devices demonstrating properties of both
nonlinear and active media. Nonlinearity of voltage-current (UI)
characteristic of SL gives rise to a generation of harmonics of
microwave and THz radiation \cite{esaki71,ignatov76}. On the other
hand, Bloch oscillations of electrons within a miniband of SL
cause an appearance of negative differential conductance (NDC) for
dc fields (voltages) larger than the critical Esaki-Tsu $E_c$
\cite{esaki70}. Remarkably, the static NDC should be accompanied
by a small-signal gain for ac fields of very broad frequency range
from zero up to several THz \cite{kss}. The feasible device,
employing such active media properties of dc-biased SL at room
temperature, is known as THz Bloch oscillator.
However, an existence of static NDC causes space-charge
instabilities and a formation of high-field domains inside SL
\cite{buettiker77}. These domains are believed to be destructive
for the Bloch gain. Recent top class experiment demonstrates only
decrease in THz absorption, but still not gain, in an array of
short dc-biased SLs \cite{savvidis}. Therefore, it is important to
consider modifications of this canonic scheme of generation in
order to suppress electric domains but preserve the high-frequency
gain in SLs. Recently, the experimental realizations of SL
oscillators with ac bias have been reported
\cite{renk-apl,renk-prl}.
\par
In the present Letter, we analyze theoretically the scheme of
high-frequency superlattice oscillator where instead of dc bias a
quasistatic ac electric field is used. Because for typical SLs the
characteristic scattering time at room temperature is of the order
of $100$ fs, the quasistatic interaction of ac field with miniband
electrons is well defined for the microwave frequencies. SL is
placed into the resonator tuned to the frequency of generation.
Here the ac field plays a twofold role: It suppresses the
space-charge instability inside SL and simultaneously pumps an
energy for generation and amplification at higher frequency.
\par
The main idea of our scheme for suppression of space-charge
instability is very simple. Suppose that the frequency of the pump
field $\omega$ is larger than the inverse characteristic time of
domain formation $\tau_{dom}^{-1}$. This requirement,
$\omega\tau_{dom}\gg 1$, imposes the lower limit for the values of
pump frequency $\omega$ in our scheme, which, however, still
easily belongs to the microwave range. Then, we show that the
electric instability in the ac-driven superlattice arises if the
slope of dependence of the time-averaged current on the applied dc
bias is negative (NDC for the time-average current). We note that
the only possibility to have NDC for the time-average current in
the limit of small dc bias is related to the existence of absolute
negative conductance (ANC), when the direction of dc current is
opposite to its direction in a normal conductor
(fig.~\ref{fig_anc}). ANC is known in various systems
\cite{nature},  but this nonequilibrium phenomenon requires very
special conditions, which as rule are quite difficult to satisfy.
In particular, only a few combinations of quasistatic ac fields
can induce ANC in SL. Thus, a high electric stability of the
oscillator's scheme is based on a simplicity of ANC state
suppression in unbiased or weakly dc-biased SLs.
\par
We prove that within this stabilization scheme the only way to get
gain for both small- and large-signals, is to tune a resonator to
some particular harmonics of $\omega$ (fig.~\ref{fig_device}). The
physical processes in SL contributing the the net gain are the
parametric amplification of the field in resonator, seeded by the
the frequency multiplication of the pump field, as well as the
nonparametric absorption controlling the suppression of domains.

\section{Suppression of domains}
We consider a response of electrons, belonging to a single
miniband of SL, to the action of strong pump field
$E_{p}=E_{dc}+E_\omega\cos\omega t$, where dc bias $E_{dc}$ is
small and ac field is quasistatic $\omega\tau<1$ ($\tau$ is the
intraminiband relaxation time). This pump field creates the
voltage $U_{p}=E_{p}L$ across SL of the total length $L$.
We suppose also that due to a
nonlinear character of miniband transport, a signal
with amplitude $E_1<E_\omega$ and frequency $\omega_1>\omega$ is generated.
The total voltage across SL $U(t)$ is
\begin{equation}
\label{total_eq}
U=U_p(t)+U_s(t)=(U_{dc}+U_{\omega}\cos\omega t)+U_1\cos\omega_1 t .
\end{equation}
For $\omega\tau<1$, the dependence of the current through SL
$I(t)$ on the ac voltage $U(t)$ can be well described by the
Esaki-Tsu formula
\begin{equation}
\label{esaki-tsu_eq}
I=2 I_p(U/U_c)/[1+(U/U_c)^2],
\end{equation}
where $U_c=(\hbar L)/e a\tau$ is the critical voltage ($a$ is the SL period),
and $I_p\equiv I(U_c)$ is the peak current \cite{esaki70}.
\begin{figure}
\onefigure[scale=0.5]{epl_fig1.eps}
\caption{\label{fig_anc}[color online] Dependence of time-averaged current $\langle I\rangle$
 on dc voltage $U_{dc}$ for the pump $U_{\omega}/U_c=9$ and for different strengths of signal
$U_1$ at frequency $7\omega$: Positive slope for
$U_1/U_c=0.9$ (green online), negative slope and ANC for $U_1/U_c=6.3$ (red online).
Esaki-Tsu characteristic ($U_{\omega}=0$) is shown as dashed line.}
\end{figure}
Now we turn to the derivation of electric stability conditions of SL device.
For $\omega\tau<1$ a space-time evolution of the electron density
$\rho(x,t)$, the current density $j(x,t)$ and the field $E(x,t)$ inside SL, driven by the given voltage
$U(t)$, can be well described by  the drift-diffusion model
\cite{bonilla-grahn}.
Set of equations consists of the current
equation $j=e \rho V(E)-D(E)\partial \rho/\partial x$, the Poisson
equation $\partial E/\partial x=4\pi\epsilon^{-1}(\rho-N)$ with $N$ being the doping density,
the relation to the applied voltage $U(t)=\int_0^L E(x,t)dx$, and the
continuity equation $e\partial\rho/\partial t+\partial j/\partial
x=0$ \cite{dd_review}. Dependence of the electron velocity $V$ on the local field
$E(x,t)$ is determined by the Esaki-Tsu formula as $V(E)=2 V_p(E/E_c)/[1+(E/E_c)^2]$ with
$E_c=\hbar/e a\tau$ and $V_p\equiv V(E_c)$. Following the Einstein relation the
diffusion coefficient is $D=k_B T V(E)/E$.
If the amplitude of $U(t)>U_c$, space-charge instabilities
periodically arise during the part of
period of ac voltage $T=2\pi/\omega$ when the SL is switched to the state with NDC.
\par
We suppose that condition $\omega\tau_{dom}\gg 1$ is satisfied.
This inequality guarantees that a charge accumulated during $T$ is always limited.
In this situation, fluctuations of $j$ and $\rho$ are small and we can use linear analysis
investigating stability of the system. The characteristic time $\tau_{dom}$ is of the order of
the dielectric relaxation time $\sim(\omega_{pl}^2\tau)^{-1}$
($\omega_{pl}=(4\pi e^2 N/ \epsilon
m_0)^{1/2}$ is the miniband plasma frequency, $N$ is the doping
density, $m_0$ is the electron mass at the bottom of miniband, $\epsilon$ is
the averaged dielectric constant of SL) \cite{dd_review}.
In more accurate approach $\tau_{dom}$ depends on the amplitude of ac field.
Our numerical simulations demonstrate that for typical semiconductor SL
with $N\simeq 10^{16}$ cm$^{-3}$ accumulated charge is small ($\omega\tau_{dom}\gtrsim 1$)
if $\omega/2\pi\gtrsim 100$ GHz. Decreasing doping density $N$ one can satisfy the condition using
lower pump frequencies.
\par
Linearizing the drift-diffusion model equations, we find that
small fluctuations of space-charge with a long wavelength will not
grow, if the dependence of the time-averaged current $\langle
I\rangle$ on the dc voltage $U_{dc}$ has positive slope, i.e.
\begin{equation}
\label{lambda_eq}
\Lambda=\langle I^\prime[U(t)]\rangle>0,
\end{equation}
where averaging $\langle\ldots\rangle$ is performed over period
$T$, prime means first taking the derivative in respect to
$U_{dc}$ and then assuming $U_{dc}\rightarrow 0$. Here and in what
follows, we will consider the current $I$ and the voltage
amplitudes $U_{\omega}$ in units of $I_{p}$ and $U_c$,
correspondingly. Combining eqs. (\ref{lambda_eq}) and
(\ref{esaki-tsu_eq}) for the quasistatic pump $U=U_p(t)$, we get
$\Lambda_p\equiv \Lambda(U_p)=(1+U_{\omega}^2)^{-3/2}$, which is
\textit{always positive} for all $U_{\omega}$. Therefore, SL
driven by a monochromatic and quasistatic ac field is stable
against small fluctuations of charge or field.
\par
We also considered the influence of signal fields on the stability
of the system calculating numerically the increment $\Lambda$ for
$U(t)$ given by eq.~(\ref{total_eq}) with $\omega_1=n\omega t$.
For $n=3$ we found that $\Lambda>0$ for all $U_1\leq
10$. Nevertheless, the UI characteristics with ANC, and as a
consequence with $\Lambda<0$, can exist for some particular values
of $U_\omega$ and $U_1$ in the cases $n=5$ and $n=7$
(fig.~\ref{fig_anc}).  However, for the practically important
range $U_1<U_1^{st}$ (see next section), we still found no ANC.
\par
We should distinguish our scheme of electric stabilization based
on avoidance of ANC in unbiased SLs from the free of domains
Limited Space Accumulation (LSA) regime, which is well-known in
the Gunn diodes (see \cite{copeland} for the theory and
\cite{kagan} for the theory and experiment) and can be applied to
SLs as well \cite{rieder}. This LSA regime works only for a large
dc bias and for a large ac field in the resonator. In contrast,
within our scheme it is possible to avoid a formation of domains
even for small-amplitude fields in resonator.
\begin{figure}
\onefigure[scale=0.3]{epl_fig2.eps}
\caption{\label{fig_device}Schematic representation of the
domainless oscillator: Generation at $n=3,7\ldots$.}
\end{figure}
\section{Small-signal gain}
In the oscillator, SL is placed in a resonator providing a feedback only for the signal
with frequency $\omega_1$. Absorption of the signal field in SL is defined as
$A=\langle I[U(t)]\cos(\omega_1 t) \rangle_t$,
where $U(t)$ is given by (\ref{total_eq}) and averaging $\langle\ldots\rangle_t$
is performed over a period that is common for both $U_p(t)$ and $U_s(t)$. Gain corresponds to $A<0$.
\par
In our case the pump is always quasistatic ($\omega\tau<1$), but an interaction of the signal field with
miniband electrons can be both quasistatic for sub-THz frequencies or dynamic
for $\omega_1\tau\gtrsim 1$. Accordingly, to find $I(U)$ for $\omega\tau<1$ and $\omega_1\tau<1$
we can use the Esaki-Tsu eq.~(\ref{esaki-tsu_eq}), but have to use
the formal exact solution of Boltzmann transport equation \cite{chambers} if $\omega_1\tau\gtrsim 1$.
Surprisingly, in our situation both these approaches give quite similar physical results, therefore
we focus mainly on more simple quasistatic calculations and only briefly discuss a gain for
signal with $\omega_1\tau\gtrsim 1$.
\par
For a  small signal $U_1\ll U_{\omega}$, we expand $I(U)\approx
I(U_{p})+I^{\prime}(U_{p})\times U_s$ and substitute this
expression in the definition of absorption $A$. We see that
because of averaging over time the absorption $A$ is strongly
dependent on the ratio of frequencies $\omega_1$ and $\omega$.
First, if $\omega$ and $\omega_1$ are incommensurable, we have
$A=A_{inc}\equiv \langle I^{\prime}(U_{p})\rangle U_1/2$.
Obviously, for the Esaki-Tsu dependence $A_{inc}=\Lambda_p
U_1/2>0$. Moreover, $A>0$ also for the probe with
$\omega_1\tau\gtrsim 1$. Second, if $\omega_1=n\omega/2$ ($n$ is
an odd number), we found that always $A>0$ for $\Lambda_p>0$.
Thus, no gain at incommensurate or half-integer frequencies is
possible in the conditions of suppressed domains.
\par
Next, we consider the case when the probe frequency is
$\omega_1=n\omega$ (fig.~\ref{fig_device}). In this case, the
total absorption $A$ is the sum of three terms: Defined above
$A_{inc}$, as well as $A_{h}\equiv\langle I(U_{p})\cos(n\omega
t)\rangle$ and $A_{coh}\equiv\langle
I^{\prime}(U_{p})\cos(2n\omega t)\rangle U_1/2$, which can be
called the incoherent, the harmonic and  the coherent absorption
components, correspondingly \cite{cond-mat_this}.
\par
We see that while $A_{coh}$ and $A_{inc}$ are dependent on both
$U_{\omega}$ and $U_1$, the term $A_{h}$ is a function of only
pump strength $U_{\omega}$, and therefore $A_{h}$ gives the main
contribution to the absorption of a weak probe.
For the Esaki-Tsu dependence we find
$A_{h}=(-1)^k [2( b-1)^{2k+1}]/b U_{\omega}^{2k+1}$, where
$b=(1+U_{\omega}^2)^{1/2}$ and $2k+1=n$ ($k=1,2,3\ldots$). This equation
describes just odd harmonics of the current (cf. Eq. 17 in
\cite{ignatov76}); in the limit of weak pump $U_{\omega}\ll 1$ it takes familiar form
$\propto U_{\omega}^n$ \cite{esaki71}.
Importantly, $A_{h}$ is negative for the odd values of $k$ (fig.~\ref{fig_harm-coh}a).
Therefore, generated harmonics with $n=3,7,\ldots$ can provide \textit{seeding gain} for
an amplification of a probe field. In quasistatic picture, it has no threshold in the
amplitude of pump $U_{\omega}$. Thus, if the pump amplitude
is less than the critical Esaki-Tsu voltage, the gain at $3\omega$
will be not accompanied by the space-charge instabilities in SL.
\par
Nonparametric effects in absorption are described by the term
$A_{inc}\propto\Lambda_p$. It is always positive because of
space-charge stabilization. The term $A_{coh}$ describes a
parametric amplification of the probe field due to a coherent
interaction of the pump and the probe fields in SL. Numerical
calculation of the integral demonstrates that $A_{coh}$ is always
negative for odd $n=3,5,7$; its absolute value is larger than
$A_{inc}$ for a large enough pump strengths
(fig.~\ref{fig_harm-coh}b). In the limit of weak pump
$U_{\omega}\ll 1$, we find $A_{coh}\propto U_{\omega}^{2n} U_1$.
Now we can describe the amplification of a weak signal at
$3\omega$ under the action of a weak pump. Third harmonic of a
weak pump is generated at the cubic nonlinearity of SL
characteristic, then it can get a seeding gain at the same
nonlinearity ($A_{h}\propto U_{\omega}^3$), but the next step of
parametric gain, $A_{coh}$, uses already the seventh order
($\simeq U^7$) nonlinearity in the $I(U)$ dependence.
\par
We should underline that the sign of generated current at the
frequency of harmonic plays a very important role in the process
of amplification. Really, let us compare the action of SL
oscillator tuned either to $3\omega$ or to $5\omega$ modes
(fig.~\ref{fig_device}). Net gain at $3\omega$ is quite large,
what can provide an effective operation of the oscillator.  On the
other hand, a radiation at $5$th harmonic also can be generated in
SL. However, in contrast to the case of the $3$rd harmonic, it
cannot be further amplified (because $A_{h}>0$ and
$A_{h}>|A_{coh}|$) and field in the cavity, tuned to $5\omega$,
eventually evolves to zero.
\begin{figure}
\onefigure[scale=0.5]{epl_fig3.eps}
\caption{\label{fig_harm-coh}[Color online]
(a) Amplitudes of the $3$d (red online), $5$th (blue online) and $7$th (green online)
harmonics of the current, $A_{h}$, as functions of the pump amplitude $U_\omega$.
(b) Incoherent $A_{inc}$ (black) and absolute values of coherent $-A_{coh}$ components
of small-signal absorption at $3\omega$, $5\omega$ and $7\omega$,
as functions of pump $U_\omega$.}
\end{figure}
\section{Large-signal gain}
We calculate the large-signal absorption $A(U_{\omega},U_1)$ using
two methods: (i) simple 1D calculations with Esaki-Tsu
characteristic (eqs.~(\ref{esaki-tsu_eq}) and (\ref{total_eq}))
and (ii) 3D single-particle Monte Carlo computations with an
account of electron scattering at optical and acoustic phonons
\cite{demarina}. For the Monte Carlo computations we consider
GaAs/AlAs SL of the period $a=6.22$ nm and the miniband width
$\Delta=24.4$ meV. Static UI characteristic of this SL can be well
described by the Esaki-Tsu formula with $E_c=4.8$ kV/cm
and $\tau=220$ fs. We took $\omega/2\pi=100$ GHz. These are our
default parameters.
\par
The dependence $A(U_{\omega})$ for $3\omega$-generation and for
different values of the relative probe amplitude,
$\eta=U_1/U_{\omega}$, are shown in fig.~\ref{fig_large-signal}.
Results of simple 1D theory and 3D Monte Carlo simulations are in
a good agreement. For $\eta=0$ and for small $\eta\ll 1$, the
dependence of $A(U_{\omega})$ follows to the corresponding
dependencies for the seeding gain, $A_h(U_{\omega})$, and the
small-signal gain. With a further increase of $\eta$, the gain
decreases and finally the absorption becomes zero for some
$\eta=\eta_0$: $A(U_\omega,\eta_0)=0$. The value
$\eta_0^2=[U_1^{st}/U_\omega]^2$ determines the maximal device
efficiency for the given pump (here $U_1^{st}$ is the voltage
amplitude corresponding to the stationary amplitude of ac field in
the resonator). Inset in fig.~\ref{fig_large-signal} shows the
smooth dependence of $\eta_0$ on the pump amplitude. Generation
with low efficiency (less than 5\%) is possible even without
static NDC, for $U_{\omega}<1$. The efficiency reaches its maximal
value of $23$\% at $U_\omega\simeq 4$. For $7\omega$-oscillations
the maximum of $\eta_0^2$ is $4$\%.
\section{Numerical evidence}
We directly calculate the influence of inhomogeneous distributions
of space-charge on the gain in SL. We numerically solve the drift-diffusion model
for the time-dependent voltage $U(t)$ (eq.~(\ref{total_eq})) with
$U_{dc}=0$ and determine the absorption at the $n$th harmonic as
$A_d=\langle\langle(j(x,t)/j_0)\cos n\omega t\rangle\rangle$,
where $j_0=e V_p N$ and averaging
$\langle\langle\ldots\rangle\rangle$ is performed both over the
period $T$ and the length $L$. In the computations a spatial
fluctuation of charge distribution was caused by a local Gaussian-profiled deviation
of $E_c$ (or $\tau$). We observed a periodic spatial
accumulation of charges during a part of period $T$. We computed
the relative decrease in gain, $\delta=(A-A_d)/A$, for different
harmonics $n$ and pumps $U_\omega$. Dependence of $\delta$ on
$U_\omega$,  for SL of $130$ periods and for $\omega/\omega_d=0.1$
($\omega_d\equiv\omega_{pl}^2\tau$), is shown in
fig.~\ref{fig_dd-compare}. In fig.~\ref{fig_dd-compare} the
reduction of gain due to charge accumulation is $2$\% for optimal
$U_\omega=4$ and it is less than $8$\% overall. For our default
parameters, the value $\omega/\omega_d=0.1$ corresponds to the
doping $N=2\times 10^{16}$ cm$^{-3}$. In this situation
$\omega\tau_{dom}\simeq 1$.
We found that with an increase of $\omega/\omega_d\propto \omega\tau_{dom}$ , the value
of $\delta$ quickly decreases (see Inset in Fig.~\ref{fig_dd-compare}).
Therefore, for higher frequencies or lower doping
($\omega_d\propto N$) providing $\omega/\omega_d>0.1$, the
influence of charge accumulation on the gain is practically negligible.
\begin{figure}
\twofigures[scale=0.3]{epl_fig4.eps}{epl_fig5.eps}
\caption{\label{fig_large-signal} The dependence of absorption at
$3\omega$ on the pump amplitude $U_{\omega}$ for different
relative probes, $\eta$. Inset: Maximal relative amplitude of the
signal allowing gain, $\eta_0$, as a function of the pump.
Calculation with Esaki-Tsu characteristic (solid) and Monte Carlo
technique (symbols).}
\caption{\label{fig_dd-compare}
Regime of suppressed domains in SL
oscillator. Relative reduction of gain at $3$d harmonic $\delta$
vs voltage amplitude $U_\omega$ for $\omega/\omega_d=0.1$ and
$\eta=U_1/U_\omega=0.1$. Inset: $\delta$ as a function of the
ratio $\omega/\omega_d$ for $U_\omega/U_c=2$, $\eta=0$ (squares)
and $\eta=0.4$ (triangles).}
\end{figure}
\par
Additionally, we also have performed the ensemble Monte Carlo simulations \cite{ensemb_mc}
to modell the oscillator with account of space-charge dynamics in SL.
In general, these 3D simulations do confirm  our main conclusions
on the suppression of domains made in the framework of 1D drift-diffusion model.
\section{Conclusion}
In summary, we derived the necessary and sufficient conditions for
the suppression of space-charge instabilities in the
high-frequency SL oscillators with a microwave pump. Our findings
can provide simple tests to distinguish domainless and
domain-mediated regimes of generation in these oscillators, such
as a measurement of the dependence of the time-average current on
the dc voltage or a comparison of operation at $3\omega$ and
$5\omega$.
\par
The domainless oscillator can operate at THz frequencies. Probably
the most easily realizable case is to use a pump with $\omega$
near 100 GHz to obtain an output in the important frequency band
of hundreds of GHz. In order to suppress electrical domains and to
use resonator with a reasonable $Q$ (e.g., $Q\lesssim 100$ for
generation at $3\omega$), the doping of SL should be $\simeq
10^{16}$ cm$^{-3}$.
\par
In the recent experiments \cite{renk-apl,renk-prl}, a generation
at the third harmonic of a strong microwave pump of $100$ GHz have
been reported in SL device. This generation has been first
attributed \cite{renk-apl} to the process of periodic formation of
electric domains, but later it has been re-attributed to a
parametric generation in \cite{renk-prl}. In
\cite{renk-apl,renk-prl} a heavy doped ($N=10^{18}$ cm$^{-3}$) SL
was used, and therefore this device certainly operated in the
regime with $\omega\tau_{dom}\ll 1$, which is opposite to the
condition of limited charge accumulation. In this situation, a
sufficient charge accumulation during every cycle of pump field
arises, and therefore SL can switch to ANC state, as has been
shown for the case of microwave-driven Gunn diode in \cite{banis}.
We also saw such kind of ANC states in our simulations of SL
oscillator within the drift-diffusion model. This ANC induced by
the accumulated charge completely alters electric stability of SL
device and results in an operational mode that is quite different
from the mode based on an avoidance of ANC. Detailed theoretical
analysis of the experiments \cite{renk-apl,renk-prl} goes beyond
the scope of present paper.
\acknowledgments
This research was supported by Academy of Finland (grants 202697
and 109758), Emil Aaltonen Foundation, Programme of RFAE (grant
4629) and AQDJJ Programme of ESF.
\section{Erratum}
Additional modelling of a high-frequency generation with
consideration  of a resonator tuned to $n\omega$ showed that the
phase difference $\phi_n$ between the pump field ($\omega$) and
the signal field in resonator ($n\omega$) can be either $0$ for
$n=3,7$ or $\pi$ for $n=5,9$ within the quasistatic approximation.
Condition $A_h>0$ determines the phase shift $\phi_5=\pi$ between
the pump field ($\omega$) and the signal field in resonator
($5\omega$), but it does not prevent a growth of this mode, in
contrast to our previous statement. Therefore, the amplitude of
field $E_1$ in an ideal resonator tuned to $5\omega$ in fact can
grow until it reaches a stationary value $E_1^{st}$ corresponding
to zero value of the total absorption $A(E_\omega, E_1^{st})=0$,
which is now defined as $A=\langle I[E(t)]\cos(n\omega t+\phi_n)
\rangle_t$ for the total field $E(t)=E_\omega \cos(\omega
t)+E_1\cos(n\omega t+\phi_n)$. The maximal efficiency
$\eta_0^2=[E_1^{st}/E_\omega]^2$ is $10\%$. Next, following the
necessary condition for suppression of domains [eq. (3)] the
generation at $5\omega$ is still possible in domainless mode.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaArXiv


Nice is a French city located on the French Riviera in the department of Alpes-Maritimes. In Nice there is the 7-kilometer boulevard with the palm alley is located right on the Mediterranean coastline. In the city there are ruins of a Roman amphitheater and the thermae from the 3rd century. Nevertheless, the majority of architectural monuments located in the Old Town are churches and palaces. The panorama of the city is best admired from the Castle Hill, where a defensive fortress used to protect the city. However, only the remains of the walls have been preserved to this day and the surrounding area was transformed into a city park.


text:
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The Kids Will Be Fine EP
After a self-titled EP release in 2014, Young Rising Sons are back with a new EP in 2015. The five song set titled "The Kids Will Be Fine" has the fan-favorite YRS track, "Fucked Up" and four new songs from the Jersey-based band.
"The Kids Will Be Fine EP" isn't as good as their debut was, but it's still a solid effort. These five songs share a similar vein as the last four songs. Young Rising Sons doesn't quite fit in with the synth-heavy buzz bands that are peaking right now. They use synths, but they don't do it primarily. The band separates themselves with their rhythm section and their song writing. The way they incorporate some primitive drum work and how that usually leads into addictive gang vocals in a big chunk of their music. It's a great way to grab attention and it translates extremely well to a live environment. They did that on "King of the World" and "High" on the last EP and they certainly do it on this EP. "Coming Home" has the band's unique style to it but it's written and produced more similar to some of the great softer alternative acts that ran in the early part of the last decade. "Fucked Up" sounds like a party song, but with a depressing twist. The music is cool and upbeat, but the vocals paint a depressing picture. The EP finishes off better than it starts with "Flesh and Bone" being a huge highlight, "Ghost of Me" having some standout production, and "Somebody" finishing off the EP on an uplifting note.
Young Rising Sons didn't release an EP that's as good as their last release, but it's pretty close. They win points for putting out five songs that are more varied than the last set. This EP is a release to check out if you were a fan of the band's last outing or if you're a fan of pop-rock in general. There's some good music to be had here.
Cold War Kids - New Age Norms 1
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MisterWives - mini bloom EP
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Barenaked Ladies announce 'Last Summer On Earth' tour w. Gin Blossoms & Toad the Wet Sprocket
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AA Indie Song of the Day - Reptile Room - "Lights (Stripped)"
Grouplove Announce New Album, "Healer" and North American Headline Tour
Pearl Jam Announce New Album 'Gigaton,' North American Tour
AA Indie Song of the Day - Cliffhanger - "Hollowed Out"
Of Monsters and Men Cover Post Malone's "Circles"
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The Association between Depressive Symptoms and Self-Rated Health among University Students: A Cross-Sectional Study in France and Japan
Mami Ishida, Ilaria Montagni, Keiichi Matsuzaki, Tomonari Shimamoto, and 4 more
published 23 Nov, 2020
Read the published version in BMC Psychiatry →
posted 04 Nov, 2020
Background: Depressive disorders in University students have risen dramatically in the past few decades to the extent that students' mental health has become a current global public health priority. Obtaining information from University students about their mental health is challenging because of potential embarrassment of disclosing one's concerns and fear of stigmatization. Self-rated health might be a good solution to evaluate mental health state by a simple and neutral indicator. The aim of the study is to investigate the association between depressive symptoms and self-rated health by sex among University students in France and Japan. Methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted by using two large cohorts of students aged ≥18 years (n=5,655 in Bordeaux, France and n=17,148 in Kyoto, Japan). Depressive symptoms (PHQ-2 scale), Likert scale of self-rated health, socio-demographic characteristics and health habits were collected through self-administered questionnaires. Multivariate logistic regression models were performed to describe the association between depressive symptoms and other variables including self-rated health, stratified by sex. Results: A high score of PHQ-2 (high depressive symptoms) was associated with poor self-rated health in both cohorts independently of all other variables (OR 2.82, 95%CI 1.99-4.01 in France, OR 7.10, 95%CI 5.76-8.74 in Japan). Although the prevalence of depressive symptoms between sexes was different in French students (males 15.4%, females 25.0%, p<0.001), it was similar in Japanese students (males 3.5%, females 3.3%, p=0.466), who reported less depressive symptoms than French students. The association between depressive symptoms and poor self-rated health was greater in Japanese females (OR 12.40, 95%CI 7.74-20.00) than in males (OR 6.30, 95%CI 4.99-7.95), whereas the strength of the association was almost similar in French students (OR 2.17, 95%CI 0.86-5.47 in males, OR 2.98, 95%CI 2.03-4.38 in females). Conclusions: Depressive symptoms were associated with self-rated health among University students in both countries with slightly differences in sex. Self-rated health would be a simple, reliable and universal indicator for healthcare professionals and University staff to identify students at risk of depression.
self-rated health
cross-country comparison
Depressive disorders among University students have risen dramatically in the past few decades to the extent that students' mental health has become a current global public health priority [1,2]. University is a time of transition from adolescence to adulthood with drastic lifestyle changes. Students face a new, competitive and challenging environment, and experience stress due to various factors, including pressure to perform academically [3], financial problems, and the burden of autonomy [4]. Suicide is the first cause of death among young adults in Japan [5] and the second in France [6]. A lot of attention has been devoted by policy-makers, mental health professionals, University staff and the media to mental health on University campuses across Europe [7], Northern America [8,9], Oceania [10] and Asia [11].
Recently, the WHO World Mental Health Survey (WMH) Initiative [12] has collected data of students aged 18-22 years in 21 high-income countries (e.g. France, Northern Ireland) excluding Japan, upper-middle-income countries (e.g. Mexico, Romania) and low- and lower-middle-income countries (e.g. Colombia, Nigeria, People's Republic of China) [13]. According to this survey, major depressive disorders affect 4.5-7.7% of undergraduates. Differences (~10%) in the prevalence of depressive symptoms were observed across participating countries, but overall findings indicated that they were widely diffused among students worldwide. It has become increasingly important for Universities to collect these data in order to investigate what mental health problems affect students, consequently determine which preventive interventions should be implemented, and finally offer appropriate care. Despite this global survey, data on students' health and wellbeing are still sparsely available and not systematically collected, and comparative studies investigating specific associations of mental health problems are rare especially between Europe and Asia [14]. Both France and Japan are high-income countries, but they have very different cultures and environmental conditions concerning University students, such as university curriculum, legal drinking age, proportion of smoking students, and living environment (living with partner/family members/alone). Similar frequency of distress among students of these two countries might reinforce the idea that students' mental health deserves global attention, independently from the nation and the culture.
Obtaining information from University students about their mental health is challenging because of potential embarrassment in disclosing one's concerns and fear of stigmatization [15]. Therefore, it is important to evaluate if simple and more neutral questions could be used as a proxy for mental health state. Self-rated health is a good candidate since it is usually measured with a unique subjective question on a Likert scale, i.e. "How would you rate your health in general?" with the answer options "very good," "good," "fair", "bad" and "very bad" [16]. This measure has been widely used in public health studies [17,18], including among young adults and students [4,19]. Through a single subjective question, self-rated health provides a convenient and quick method of assessing reliably an individual's health status where health, as officially defined by the World Health Organization, is a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being, not merely the absence of disease or infirmity. Low self-rated health has been closely linked with mortality, even when adjusted for other predictive factors (e.g. health-related behavior, socio-demographic characteristics and objective health status) [16]. Specifically for young adults, self-rated health might be a valid indicator of an individual's mental health status, independently associated with physical health status (e.g., body weight) and health behaviors including smoking, drinking and sleep [4,19].
Mental health problems are twice as common in women as in men across most socio-economic contexts and regions [20,21]. However, some recent cohort studies have shown that differences in reporting depressive symptoms between sexes were not very large, probably because of the new changed role of the woman in the society who is less submitted than in the past [21]. Specifically for University students, results are controversial [22-24], but it was suggested that female students are more inclined towards a more negative view of their health than male students [22]. Therefore, sex is a potentially major confounder in analyses related to mental health.
The purposes of the current comparative study were (1) to investigate the association between depressive symptoms and self-rated health by sex in two large cohorts of University students from two different countries, France and Japan, and (2) to assess whether self-rated health could be used as a simple indicator for screening University students with potential depressive symptoms across countries. We hypothesized that lower levels of self-rated health would be significantly associated with higher depressive symptoms. As a result, making a simple question on self-rated health would allow detecting students in distress, without using larger and more intrusive psychological assessment scales.
This is a cross sectional study using data from two independent cohorts of University students: i-Share in France and the Kyoto University students' cohort in Japan.
The i-Share cohort study
The i-Share project (Internet-based Students Health Research Enterprise, www.i-share.fr) is an ongoing prospective population-based cohort study on the health and wellbeing of French University students. The Universities of Bordeaux and Versailles Saint-Quentin were the first higher education institutes to recruit voluntary participants from February 2013; other French Universities have further joined the project. Inclusion criteria are: being ≥18 years and able to read and understand French. Recruitment strategies comprise the use of flyers, information stands at University campuses, classroom-based interventions, e-mailing and social media. The i-Share project is based on an online questionnaire containing items on physical and mental health (including self-rated health), socio-demographic characteristics and healthy habits. Three months after the completion of this questionnaire, a supplementary online questionnaire focused on mental health status is addressed to students. This questionnaire, which is still completed on a voluntary basis, asks specific information on depressive symptoms. For this comparative study, we used data available as of September 3rd, 2018. The i-Share project is carried out in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and has been approved by the National Commission of Informatics and Liberty (Commission Nationale de l'Informatique et des Libertés - CNIL), number DR-2013-019. Every student is requested to sign an online informed consent form before completion of the baseline questionnaire, according to the Committee of Protection of Persons (Comités de Protection des Personnes, CPP). No further local ethical approval was needed [25].
The Kyoto University students' cohort
Kyoto University Health Service carries out an annual health checkup addressed to all students in April. This checkup consists of anthropometric measures including height, weight, blood pressure, urinalysis, and a self-administrated web-based questionnaire including items about lifestyle, physical and mental health status, past and present medical history, sleep satisfaction and self-rated health. Concerned students come from 10 undergraduate school departments and 20 graduate school departments covering all fields of study such as humanities, sciences, health studies, law and economy. Data for this comparative study refer to the year 2017. We excluded all students who answered the web-based questionnaire, but did not participate in the annual health checkup. All analyses and procedures were anonymous and in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the Institutional Review Board of the Kyoto University Ethical Committee (Ethics Code No: R1732). Individual informed consent was waived for the use of de-identified clinical data according to the national ethical guidelines of Japan.
Outcome, Exposure and Confounding variables
Depressive symptoms
Depressive symptoms were assessed using the first two items of the 9-item Patient Health Questionnaire (PHQ-9) [26], also known as the PHQ-2 [27]. These two items enquiry about the frequency of the symptoms of depressed mood (feeling down, depressed or hopeless) and anhedonia (little interest or pleasure in doing things), scoring each as 0 (not at all), 1 (several days), 2 (more than half the days) and 3 (nearly every day). Thus, the total score of the PHQ-2 can range from 0 to 6. As previously recommended [28], we used the cutoff score of 3, by dichotomizing this variable into two categories: "low depressive symptoms" (0-2) and "high depressive symptoms" (3-6). PHQ-2 has demonstrated good reliability and validity to assess major depression among primary care patients [27].
To assess health status, we used a five-point Likert scale of self-rated health corresponding to the question "How would you rate your health in general?". Answers were "very good," "good," "fair", "bad" or "very bad" [16]. This variable was further dichotomized into two categories: "poor" (including "bad" or "very bad") and "good" (including "fair", "good" or "very good") self-rated health.
Socio-demographic characteristics
We collected the following variables: sex (male, female), age (quantitative variable), and year of study (the first year of undergraduate versus other years).
In the i-Share cohort, sleep quality was assessed through a single item from the Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index [29]. Students were asked to categorize their sleep quality during the three previous months preceding the survey as "good", "somewhat good", "neither good nor bad", "somewhat bad" or "bad". In the Kyoto cohort, sleep quality was assessed by categorizing sleep satisfaction as "very satisfied", "satisfied", "dissatisfied", or "very dissatisfied". In order to compare the results from these two different questions, we further dichotomized the answer options from the two questionnaires into two categories: "bad" (including "somewhat bad" or "bad" for i-Share, and "dissatisfied" or "very dissatisfied" for Kyoto) and "good" (including "good", "somewhat good" or "neither good nor bad" for i-Share, and "very satisfied" or "satisfied" for Kyoto) sleep.
In the i-Share cohort, height and weight were self-reported in the web-based baseline questionnaire. In the Kyoto cohort, when having health checkup, students' height and weight were measured. In both cohorts, we calculated body mass index (BMI) as weight in kg divided by height in m squared (kg/m²) and categorized it in four groups: underweight (<18.5), normal weight (≥18.5, <25), overweight (≥25.0, <30), and obesity (≥30).
In the i-Share cohort, students were asked whether they were regularly practicing one or more sport activities ("yes" or "no"). In the Kyoto cohort, students were asked how often they usually exercised in the last month ("everyday", "sometimes, or "rarely"). The physical activity categories were dichotomized into "regular" (corresponding to "yes" in i-Share, "everyday" or "sometimes" in Kyoto), and "occasional or less" (corresponding to "no" in i-Share and "rarely" in Kyoto). For smoking status, in both studies the categories were dichotomized into "yes" (corresponding to "daily or occasionally smoking") and "no" (corresponding to "never smoking"). Alcohol consumption was assessed as current frequency of consumption of alcoholic beverages (i.e. beer, wine, whisky, vodka, tequila, cocktails). More precisely, in the i-Share questionnaire the categories were divided into "never", "from once a year to once per month", "from several times per month to once per week", and "several times per week". In the Kyoto questionnaire, the categories were divided into "never", "sometimes", "20 g/day" and "with trouble". Finally, to compare data from the two studies, the categories for alcohol consumption were dichotomized into "never" and "at least sometimes" drinking.
We performed general descriptive statistics for each cohort and calculated comparative p values between the two cohorts. Chi-square test for categorical variables and t test for continuous variables were used respectively. Then, we performed the same description by the two categories of depressive symptoms (0-2 and 3-6 scores) in order to obtain the univariate associations with all covariates, including self-rated health. Multivariate logistic regression models were performed for each cohort to further explore the association between depressive symptoms and all covariates, including self-rated health. For each multivariate logistic regression model, we tested potential cofounding factors (interactions) and/or effect modifiers (relative variation of the ORs).
Main analyses were performed in male and female students separately. Missing values were included in the model as a separate category. All tests were 2-tailed, and p values of <0.05 were considered as statistically significant. SAS version 9.4 (SAS Institute Inc, Cary, NC USA) and R version 3.5.1 for Windows were used for all analyses.
The French cohort included 5,655 students, and the Japanese cohort included 17,148 students.
Table 1 provides descriptive statistics of all variables used in this study per cohort. Descriptive statistics of these variables stratified by sex are presented as a supplementary material in Table S1.
High depressive symptoms (PHQ-2 (3-6)) were reported by 23.0% of French students (15.4% for males and 25.0% for females), and by 3.5% of Japanese students (3.5% for males and 3.3% for females). Poor self-rated health was reported by 2.8% of French students (2.3% for males and 2.9% for females), and by 4.5% of Japanese students (5.0% for males and 2.9% for females). Other major differences between countries concerned regular physical activity (87.5% of French students versus 66.7% of Japanese students), smoking (24.9% of French students versus 2.7% of Japanese students), and alcohol consumption (92.3% of French students versus 57.5% of Japanese students).
Table 2 presents the univariate associations between PHQ-2 score and all other variables including self-rated health. Results stratified by sex are presented as a supplementary material in Table S2.
There was a similar pattern of association between PHQ-2 and self-rated health in both cohorts. Poor self-rated health was significantly and positively associated with high depressive symptoms in both French and Japanese students (p<0.001). 6.2% of French students with high depressive symptoms (PHQ-2 score (3-6)) and 1.7% of students with low depressive symptoms (PHQ-2 score (0-2)) reported poor self-rated health. On the other hand, 31.7% of Japanese students with high depressive symptoms (PHQ-2 score (3-6)) and 3.5% of students with low depressive symptoms (PHQ-2 score (0-2)) reported poor self-rated health. Concerning the detection of depressive symptoms by self-rated health, sensitivity was 6.2% and 31.7% in French and Japanese students, and specificity was 98.3% and 96.5% in French and Japanese students, respectively. Similarly, bad sleep quality, BMI<18.5, BMI≥30 and smoking habit were associated with high depressive symptoms in both cohorts with p values comprised between 0.049 and <0.001. Never drinking alcohol was associated with high depressive symptoms only among French students (p<0.001).
On the other hand, the two cohorts reported different patterns of association between PHQ-2 and sex, age, year of study, and physical activity. Female sex was associated with high depressive symptoms in the French cohort (p<0.001), whereas there was no sex difference in the Japanese cohort (p=0.466). French students with high depressive symptoms were younger than those with low depressive symptoms (p<0.001), whereas Japanese students with high depressive symptoms were older although the association was not significant (p=0.064). Moreover, the 1st undergraduate year was associated with high depressive symptoms in French students (p<0.001), whereas the 1st undergraduate year was associated with low depressive symptoms in Japanese students (p<0.001). Less physical activity was associated with high depressive symptoms in Japanese students (p<0.001), whereas this association was not significant in French students (p=0.448).
Finally, Table 3 illustrates the results of the multivariate logistic regression analyses. Results stratified by sex are presented in Table S3.
Poor self-rated health was significantly associated with high depressive symptoms in both cohorts although the level of the point estimate was higher in Japanese students (i-Share: OR 2.82, 95%CI 1.99-4.01, p<0.001, Kyoto: OR 7.10, 95%CI 5.76-8.74, p<0.001). In addition, bad sleep quality (i-Share: OR 2.30, 95%CI 1.98-2.67, p<0.001, Kyoto: OR 2.94, 95%CI 2.44-3.53, p<0.001), BMI≥30 (i-Share: OR 1.48, 95%CI 0.99-2.21, p=0.075, Kyoto: OR 2.21, 95%CI 1.34-3.64, p=0.015) and never drinking alcohol (i-Share: OR 1.42, 95% CI 1.12-1.80, p=0.003, Kyoto: OR 1.44, 95%CI 1.20-1.73, p<0.001) were also associated with high depressive symptoms in both cohorts. Smoking was not significantly associated with PHQ-2 in both cohorts.
Female sex was associated with high depressive symptoms in French students (OR 0.61, 95%CI 0.51-0.73, p<0.001), but not in Japanese students (OR 0.96, 95%CI 0.78-1.18, p=0.681). French students with high depressive symptoms were younger (OR 0.95, 95%CI 0.92-0.98, p=0.001), whereas there was no association between age and PHQ-2 in Japanese students (OR 1.00, 95%CI 0.97-1.02, p=0.645). In addition, years other than the 1st undergraduate year were associated with high depressive symptoms in Japanese students (OR 2.40, 95%CI 1.65-3.48, p<0.001), whereas 1st undergraduate year was associated with high depressive symptoms in French students (OR 0.85, 95%CI 0.73-1.00, p=0.056) although the association was not significant. BMI<18.5 was associated with high depressive symptoms in French students (OR 1.20, 95%CI 1.00-1.45, p=0.075), whereas not in Japanese students (OR 1.03, 95%CI 0.80-1.32, p=0.015). Less physical activity was associated with high depressive symptoms in Japanese students (OR 1.35, 95%CI 1.13-1.61, p=0.001), but not in French students (OR 1.06, 95%CI 0.87-1.29, p=0.592).
As shown in Table S3, there were some different results depending on sex. Among French males, no significant association between PHQ-2 and self-reported health was identified (OR 2.17, 95%CI 0.86-5.47, p=0.100). The correlation between self-rated health and depressive symptoms, as well as the score of PHQ-2 and the numbers and percentages of students with elevated depressive symptoms in each five categories of self-rated health are reported as Supplemental Material.
Finally, since age and year of study were correlated, we performed a sensitive analysis in both cohorts by running models with either age or year of study, and we observed that results were the same across all models. Moreover, since we found different interactions in each cohort, we performed another sensitive analysis to take interactions into models respectively and confirmed that the final results did not change.
In the two large cohorts of French and Japanese University students, we found that high depressive symptoms and poor self-rated health were strongly associated, independently from all measured sociodemographic conditions and health habits. There were major differences between cohorts including prevalence of depressive symptoms (23.0% in French students and 3.5% in Japanese students) and other cultural and socio-demographic characteristics as well as health habits. Despite these differences, the association between depressive symptoms and poor self-rated health was persistent after adjustment on several potential confounders. We interpreted self-rated health as an important common component factor of depressive symptoms in University students by these robust results of the association in two large cohorts with completely different characteristics.
We could interpret the marked difference of depressive symptoms in the two cohorts as follows. Cultural and social differences between the two countries may be part of the explanation as well as specific characteristics of the participants of each sample. Disclosure of mental health problems could be easier in Western countries compared to Japan [30] where stigma toward mental health is still relatively strong [31]. French students were included on a voluntary basis while Japanese students were included in a compulsory manner, and unmeasured potential participation bias could lead to an over-representation of mental health issues in French students. However, other studies among students in Western countries found a higher prevalence of mental health problems than among Japanese students [3,24].
We took into particular consideration the role of sex in reporting depression and self-rated health. Our results showed that sex difference in the depression prevalence was inconsistent in the two cohorts (15.4% for males and 25.0% for females in French students, 3.5% for males and 3.3% for females in Japanese students). Likewise, as far as self-rated health is concerned, there was no sex difference in French students (2.3% for males and 2.9% for females), whereas slightly more Japanese male students reported poor self-rated health compared to female students (5.0% for males and 2.9% for females). This finding was in line with previous studies showing that self-rated health had yielded mixed findings on the role of sex. [4,22-24]. In view of these controversial results and the opposite distribution of females in our study (78.8% in the French cohort versus 24.5% in the Japanese cohort), we considered it important to explore how sex could influence the association between depressive symptoms and self-reported health. Female sex more strongly affected the association between poor self-rated health and high depressive symptoms in Japanese students as shown in a previous study [4]. This indicated that self-rated health could be a more sensitive marker of mental disease in females, although this finding was not identified in French students. Regarding under-enrollment of female students in Japan, it might represent a socio-political issue linked to gender discrimination [32], as gender ratio of University enrollment is still great. We can hypothesize that Japanese female students reported less poor self-rated health and less high depressive symptoms compared to French students partially because females of the Japanese sample might be more resilient and more supported by their family and surroundings than average females.
Besides self-rated health, sleep and alcohol consumption were the sole factors remaining significantly associated with the PHQ-2 in France and Japan. Because self-rated health is a simple subjective question, self-rated health could partially reflect health behavior. Sleep and alcohol consumption, for instance, might consist self-rated health as components of health behavior, but they are also considered to be independent high-risk factors of depressive symptoms. These two factors also need particular attention when designing intervention to promote students' mental health as proved by previous studies [33-36]. Moreover, lifestyle habits such as body weight control [37], exercise [38,39] and stopping smoking [40,41] might improve mental health among some students.
Our study has some limitations. First, some questions (sleep quality, physical activity and alcohol consumption) were slightly different between the two cohorts and recategorizing variables might slightly impact on final results. However, sleep quality and alcohol consumptions reported similar effects on depressive symptoms. Second, France and Japan are two very different countries in terms of culture, politics, living conditions, etc. Therefore, there were probably still unmeasured confounders we could not adjust on in our analysis. Third, results might not be generalized to other young adult populations because of representativeness of the participants. The i-Share cohort consists of students who are included on a voluntary basis, whereas the Kyoto cohort consists of all students of a single University which consists of highly educated young people in Japan. However, these issues of representativeness and participation are unlikely to have a strong impact on our main finding. Indeed, the association between depression and self-rated health was not influenced by the measured characteristics of the samples. Regardless of these limitations, our study has the strength of being based on two large ongoing cohorts of students coming from two different countries, in Europe and in Asia, collecting similar information.
Depressive symptoms were significantly associated with self-rated health among University students of both cohorts despite substantial social, cultural and educational differences between France and Japan. This association was confirmed in students of both male and female students, but it was stronger in female students. Self-rated health would be a simple and universal indicator to be used across countries as a component factor for mental health in University students, especially for female students.
Ethics approval andConsent to participate
The i-Share project is carried out in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and has been approved by the National Commission of Informatics and Liberty (Commission Nationale de l'Informatique et des Libertés - CNIL), number DR-2013-019. Every student is requested to sign an online informed consent form before completion of the baseline questionnaire, according to the Committee of Protection of Persons (Comités de Protection des Personnes, CPP). No further local ethical approval was needed [25].
In Kyoto University cohort, all analyses and procedures are anonymous and in accordance with the Declaration of Helsinki and approved by the Institutional Review Board of the Kyoto University Ethical Committee (Ethics Code No: R1732). Individual informed consent is waived for the use of de-identified clinical data according to the national ethical guidelines of Japan.
The i-Share cohort was funded by the French National Research Agency via the program 'Investissements d'Avenir' (reference ANR-10-COHO-05) and the Regional Counsel of Nouvelle-Aquitaine (reference 4370420). These two entities were not involved in the design of the study, collection, analysis and interpretation of data, nor in writing the manuscript.
The Kyoto cohort was funded by the Incubation Program by Kyoto University. The funder was not involved in the design of the study, collection, analysis and interpretation of data, nor in writing the manuscript.
MI and IM contributed equally to this work. MI, IM, KM, TS, TC, TK, CT and TI contributed to the study conception and design. Material preparation, data collection and analysis were performed by MI, IM, KM, TS, TC, TK, CT and TI. The first draft of the manuscript was written by MI and IM, and all authors commented on previous versions of the manuscript. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
The authors are indebted to the participants of the i-Share project and the Kyoto cohorts for their commitment and co-operation. We also thank the entire i-Share team and Department of Preventive Services at Kyoto University for their expert contribution and assistance.
PHQ-2, the 2-item Patient Health Questionnaire
BMI, body mass index
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Auerbach RP, Alonso J, Axinn WG, et al. (2016) Mental disorders among college students in the World Health Organization World Mental Health Surveys. Psychol Med. 46(14):2955-2970.
Auerbach RP, Mortier P, Bruffaerts R, et al. (2018) WHO World Mental Health Surveys International College Student Project: Prevalence and distribution of mental disorders. J Abnorm Psychol. 127(7):623-638.
Busby Grant, J, Bruce CP, Batterham PJ. (2016) Predictors of personal, perceived and self-stigma towards anxiety and depression. Epidemiol Psychiatr Sci. 25(3)247-254
Idler EL, Benyamini Y. (1997) Self-rated health and mortality: a review of twenty-seven community studies. J Health Soc Behav. 38(1):21–37.
Miilunpalo S, Vuori I, Oja P, et al. (1997) Self-rated health status as a health measure: the predictive value of self-reported health status on the use of physician services and on mortality in the working-age population. J Clin Epidemiol. 50(5):517-28.
Singh-Manoux A, Martikainen P, Ferrie J, et al. (2006) What does self rated health measure? Results from the British Whitehall II and French Gazel cohort studies. J Epidemiol Community Health. 60(4):364-72.
Craig BA, Morton DP, Morey PJ, et al. (2018) The association between self-rated health and social environments, health behaviors and health outcomes: a structural equation analysis. BMC Public Health. 18(1):440.
World Health Organization 2004. Gender in mental health research.
Seedat S, Scott KM, Angermeyer MC, et al. (2009) Cross-national associations between gender and mental disorders in the World Health Organization World Mental Health Surveys. Arch Gen Psychiatry. 66(7):785-95.
Schmidt M. (2012) Predictors of self-rated health and lifestyle behaviours in Swedish university students. Grob J Health Sci. 4(4),1-14.
Xu Z, Su H, Zou Y, et al. (2011) Self-rated health of Chinese adolescents: distribution and its associated factors. Scand J Caring Sci. 25(4),780-6.
Othman N, Ahmad F, El Morr C, Ritvo P. (2019) Perceived impact of contextual determinants on depression, anxiety and stress: a survey with university students. Int J Ment Health Syst. 13:17.
Brion N, Demarez JP, Belorgey C, et al. (2005) Comité de protection des personnes. Therapies, 60(4), 319-328.
Spitzer RL, Kroenke K, Williams JB. (1999) Validation and utility of a self-report version of PRIME-MD: the PHQ primary care study. Primary Care Evaluation of Mental Disorders. Patient Health Questionnaire. JAMA. 282(18):1737-44.
Kroenke K, Spitzer RL, Williams JB. (2003) The Patient Health Questionnaire-2: validity of a two-item depression screener. Med Care. 41(11):1284-92.
Sheeran T, Reilly CF, Raue PJ, et al. (2010) The PHQ-2 on OASIS-C: A New Resource for Identifying Geriatric Depression Among Home Health Patients. Home Healthc Nurse. 28(2):92-102;quiz 102-4.
Buysse DJ, Reynolds CF, 3rd, Monk TH, et al. (1989) The Pittsburgh Sleep Quality Index: a new instrument for psychiatric practice and research. Psychiatry Res. 28(2):193-213.
Ando S, Yamaguchi S, Aoki Y, et al. (2013) Review of mental-health-related stigma in Japan. Psychiatry Clin Neurosci. 67(7):471-82.
Kasahara-Kiritani M, Matoba T, Kikuzawa S, et al. (2018) Public perceptions toward mental illness in Japan. Asian J Psychiatr. 35:55-60.
Bonazzo C, Wong YJ. (2007) Japanese international female students' experience of discrimination, prejudice, and stereotypes. College Student Journal. 41(3):631-640.
Steptoe A, Peacey V, Wardle J. (2006) Sleep duration and health in young adults. Arch Intern Med. 166(16):1689-1692.
Stefan L, Juranko D, Prosoli R, et al. (2017) Self-Reported Sleep Duration and Self-Rated Health in Young Adults. J Clin Sleep Med. 13(7):899-904.
Kaur G, Sharma V, Singh A. (2015) Association of sleep quality with general health: an Indian college students study. Int J Med Sci Public Health. 4(12),1767-71.
Mikolajczyk RT, Sebena R, Warich J, et al. (2016) Alcohol Drinking in University Students Matters for Their Self-Rated Health Status: A Cross-sectional Study in Three European Countries. Front Public Health. 4:210.
Gall K, van Zutven K, Lindstrom J, et al. (2016) Obesity and emotional well-being in adolescents: Roles of body dissatisfaction, loss of control eating, and self-rated health. Obesity (Silver Spring). 24(4):837-42.
Stefan L, Sporis G, Kristicevic T. (2018) Are lower levels of physical activity and self-rated fitness associated with higher levels of psychological distress in Croatian young adults? A cross-sectional study. PeerJ. 6:e4700.
Galan I, Boix R, Medrano MJ, et al. (2013) Physical activity and self-reported health status among adolescents: a cross-sectional population-based study. BMJ Open. 3(5). e002644.
Vingilis ER, Wade TJ, Seeley JS. (2002) Predictors of adolescent self-rated health. Analysis of the National Population Health Survey. Can J Public Health. 93(3):193-7.
Vingilis E, Wade TJ, Adlaf E. (1998) What factors predict student self-rated physical health? J Adolesc. 21(1):83-97.
i-Share (France)
n=5,655
Kyoto (Japan)
n=17,148
PHQ-2, n(%)
Low depressive symptoms [0-2]
High depressive symptoms [3-6]
4,355 (77.0)
16,555 (96.5)
Self-rated health, n(%)
Sex, n(%)
Age, mean (SD)
20.8 (2.6)
Year of study, n(%)
1st undergraduate
Sleep, n(%)
BMI*, n(%)
<18.5
[18.5-24.9]
[25-29.9]
1,381 (8.1)
Physical activity, n(%)
Occasional or less
Smoking, n(%)
Alcohol consumption, n(%)
At least sometimes
Table 1 Description of the study population
Abbreviations; PHQ-2, the 2-item Patient Health Questionnaire; BMI, body mass index
*i-Share cohort had BMI missing values: 305 (5.4)
Description of the two cohorts concerning PHQ-2, Self-rated heath, Sex, Age, Year of study, Sleep, BMI, Physical activity, Smoking and Alcohol consumption, respectively.
Table 2 Univariate comparison of all variables according to PHQ-2 score in the two cohorts
PHQ-2
n=593
Abbreviation; PHQ-2, the 2-item Patient Health Questionnaire
Table 2 Univariate comparison of all variables according to PHQ-2 score in the two cohorts (Continued)
Abbreviation; PHQ-2, the 2-item Patient Health Questionnaire; BMI, body mass index
* BMI missing values: 221 (5.1) for [0-2] and 84 (6.5) for [3-6]; p value was calculated without missing values
Table 3 Multivariate logistic regression analysis
i-Share (France) n=5,350
Kyoto (Japan) n=17,148
95% wald CI
BMI, n(%)
Abbreviation; BMI, body mass index
Table 3 Multivariate logistic regression analysis (Continued)
Association between PHQ-2 and Self-rated health, adjusted for Sex, Age, Year of study, Sleep, BMI, Physical activity, Smoking and Alcohol consumption.
5ElectronicSupplementaryMaterialKM2.xlsx
AdditionalFileTable.xlsx
AdditionalFileFigure.pptx


text:
COMING SOON: 1950s American style diner to open in the Northern Quarter
New diner, Infamous Diner, is due to open in July.
By I Love MCR
Manchester's relentless food & drink scene is to get its first proper independent American diner this summer as popular bar group, MAD Ltd, confirms plans for its new site in Basil Chamber, Northern Quarter.
'not just another
burger joint.'
Sure, there's been a few stabs at the American diner concept – we've had Starvin Marvin's, Fatty Arbuckle's, even TGI Friday's – but they've all fallen short of the proper experience. Of course the only inspiration the market has is from a mood-board of pictures and black & white films, so all's forgiven for not getting it quite right. No more over-complicated burgers or pulled-pork, please!
This new venture is called Infamous Diner, and is due to open in July. A dining establishment which will become famous for wicked deeds, perhaps.
Operators promise a retro 1950's feel and will serve up classic diner food, the American way; with big flavours, big plates and service with a smile.
MAD's new Group Executive Head Chef, Chris Byron, who took over at the helm of the group from Rob Owen Brown in April, is developing the menu, which will include classic burgers, hotdogs and shakes.
The new diner will have capacity for 80 along with a cocktail bar, which will be open until late.
Mark Andrew, managing director says: "We wanted to bring something new and exciting to Manchester, not just another burger joint. Infamous Diner promises to be just that – not only in bringing all the flavours of American food to the table, but the food-focused fun atmosphere and overall experience to boot."
So there you have it. Fingers crossed for five dollar shakes, sewn name patches, jukeboxes, red leather and a refreshing friendly service.
To keep up to date with the diner's progress, customers can sign up on the website www.infamousdiner.co.uk or follow on Facebook (facebook.com/InfamousDiner) or Twitter (@InfamousDiner).
Chic drinking and dining
XYZ building
Trafford Hall Hotel
A historic hotel
23 Talbot Road
These Stockport businesses are offering free meals for those in need
Spinningfields restaurant is new home for First Dates TV show
Middleton actress Saira Choudhry to star in ITV's McDonald & Dodds
Creative and safe ways to make the most of Lockdown 3 at Great Northern


'Hellboy' is a movie genre Drama, was released in April 11, 2019. Neil Marshall was directed this movie and starring by David Harbour. This movie tell story about Hellboy comes to England, where he must defeat Nimue, Merlin's consort and the Blood Queen. But their battle will bring about the end of the world, a fate he desperately tries to turn away.
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Naomi Klein's Capitalism vs. the Climate is both excellent and remarkable. Though, when I saw it sourced (by the new climate blog Planet3.0) as being from "the American hard-left magazine The Nation" I almost choked. I am, I confess, a man of a certain age, and I remember what "hard left" used to mean.
I don't think of The Nation as being "hard left." Nor Klein for that matter.
Anyway, her title is catchy, but also a bit misleading. Most of her case isn't against capitalism in itself, but against "capitalism-as-usual," or "contemporary capitalism," or "the corporate sector, with its structural demand for increased sales and profits." Which is I suppose what you'd expect, this being a reasonable piece. Because it's not at all clear that we're up against capitalism in itself. What we know for sure is that we're up against this capitalism. That we either fix it or it's "game over," as Jim Hansen recently put it.
Klein touches only lightly on the really tough issues in the climate and capitalism debate (yes, there is one!), which she does – cleverly? strangely? — in the "Ending the cult of shopping" section. This is where we get the problem of "growth" (the most confusing abstraction of them all) and the reference to Tim Jackson's definitional book Prosperity without growth (download the original report here for free). The problems of redistribution, and of desire (the democratic disciplining of desire) are only suggested. In other words, there's not really much here about the problems of capitalism in itself.
Which is fine with me, at least for now.
There are people out there writing books about how capitalism (the thing itself) is absolutely and intrinsically incompatible with the continuation of human civilization as we know it – and Klein, at least to my mind, has done us a major service by taking a different tack. It seems to me that she's not taking an abstract position, but speaking, concretely, for renovations so grand and sweeping that we'd have a hard time recognizing them as "reforms," in the old sense.
I should speak for myself. And my view is that, while the climate crisis is a crisis of capitalism, it's also a manageable one. Which is to say that we're not already doomed. But to save ourselves, we have to create a different kind of capitalism. Nothing more is possible in the limited time left before us – the climate clock really is ticking – but it's actually quite a lot. Recognizing this is radical enough for me.


text:
Q: how can I install gulp for windows 7? Trying to install gulp with npm :
npm install gulp

Getting the following error:
npm ERR! fetch failed https://registry.npmjs.org/minimist/-/minimist-1.1.1.tgz
npm ERR! fetch failed https://registry.npmjs.org/minimist/-/minimist-1.1.1.tgz
npm ERR! fetch failed https://registry.npmjs.org/minimist/-/minimist-1.1.1.tgz
npm ERR! network tunneling socket could not be established, cause=connect ETIMEDOUT
npm ERR! network This is most likely not a problem with npm itself
npm ERR! network and is related to network connectivity.
npm ERR! network In most cases you are behind a proxy or have bad network settings.
npm ERR! network
npm ERR! network If you are behind a proxy, please make sure that the
npm ERR! network 'proxy' config is set properly.  See: 'npm help config'

npm ERR! System Windows_NT 6.1.7601
npm ERR! command "C:\\Program Files\\nodejs\\\\node.exe" "C:\\Program Files\\nodejs\\node_modules\\npm\\bin\\npm-cli.js" "install" "gulp"
npm ERR! cwd C:\gulpapp
npm ERR! node -v v0.10.33
npm ERR! npm -v 1.4.28
npm ERR! code ECONNRESET
npm ERR! not ok code 0

Then I tried this:
npm config set proxy=null

Did not solve it either. How get around this?

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


Can never get enough of pearls. What can I say? It is my favorite gem. I made this "Baby Shoes" today. Didn't notice that they look like baby shoes until I took this picture.
I broke one piece though...actually I accidentally drop it on the floor and it breaks at its neck.
Mei, they are indeed like little baby shoes! So charming and lovely, and the colour is gorgeous.
I love the pearl sparkly ring too, so elegant. And oooh YAY I can't wait to see the crystal sparklies when they arrive!
haha! They DO look like baby shoes! How cute! I like how you've done twisty thing with the pink pearl on top! classy!
Hi Bell, been a while. How are you? Heard you mom going over. Kuang graduating? How time flies.
Your sparklies are on their way, shipped them this morning.


text:
Q: How to add files to a .bundle file in xcode I am working on an iOS application that I did not create and I would like to add some audio and image assets to the project. Right now these are all located in a .bundle file and accessed like this:

[[NSBundle mainBundle] pathForResource:@"MyBundle.bundle/some_audio" ofType:@"m4a"]

My question is, how do I add new assets to MyBundle.bundle? I have located MyBundle.bundle in the project navigator and on the filesystem but I can't figure out how to add files.

A: I figured it out:

*

*Locate the .bundle in Finder (in XCode you can right click and select "Show in Finder")

*Right click the .bundle and choose "Show Package Contents"

*Drag files into the new finder window that opens


where to Find Us "The Fire Pit"
Take (I-90 East) to Albany.
Merge onto (I-81 North) EXIT 36 toward Syracuse Airport/Watertown.
Merge onto (I-481 North) EXIT 29N towards Oswego.
Take the Circle Drive exit, EXIT 10, toward US- 11/N Syracuse.
Turn left onto Circle Dr E.
Turn left onto Brewerton Road/US-11, Continue to follow US-11.
Bear Road Plaza 709 N MAIN ST is on the right. Entrance to Blaze Gymnastics is at the back of the building.


text:
In the ides of August…
It was quiet in the Vaughn household on the evening of the fourteenth. There were no romantic interludes with candles and soft music planned, no social outings with friends. The two occupants of the house converged at their house, consumed a serene meal, and did a little reading (grown-up homework courtesy of the Central Intelligence Agency). Before heading to bed, they engaged in their pre-bedtime rituals which included the usual bathing procedure. Every now and again, they might shower together or she would take a bath on her own. That night, she soaked in the tub by herself, while her husband went to his study during his time alone.
Lauren and Michael Vaughn, on the surface, seemed the typical married couple, as the events of the evening had shown. They were prone to good days and bad days. Unfortunately, there had been a considerable amount of "bad" days since Vaughn had returned from Hong Kong three months previous. That was an incident he didn't want to think about. But the truth was, Vaughn had felt a bit withdrawn throughout the whole ritual of a night at home on the night of the fourteenth. His mind had been miles away. Five thousand, seven hundred eighteen miles away.
While his wife was luxuriating in the bathtub, Vaughn allowed himself to partake in an indulgence of his own.
Everyone had hidden pockets of their lives that they only brought to light when no one was around, like a worn picture whispering of the past. On the night of fourteenth, the whisper came all the way from Spain.
Vaughn moved aside his folder on the Covenant's movements in Europe, glancing guiltily at his cracked door. Judging from the sloshing sounds coming from tub and his wife's contented sighs, he knew he had a little while yet. So he opened a drawer and unearthed a nondescript manila envelope that would have not aroused suspicion in the clutter of his desk drawer, but by itself, it hinted at something clandestine.
He had fought with himself day and night ever since he had married Lauren. One day he had decided to tell her; by the end of the day, he found his mouth shut on the subject and ready to move on to something else. Either that or he had totally forgotten the whole dilemma because his mind was occupied with other problems (or one problem in particular). So here he was, married to Lauren Reed, having declared to be with her for better or for worse through sickness and health, for half a year with a secret eating a hole inside of him. A big secret.
Inside of the envelope were a letter and a sheaf of photographs and magazine clippings. The letter he could recite from memory; he left it inside the envelope, opting for the largest, glossiest photograph instead.
The person in the photograph he chose wore her hair unbound. The curly mass of mahogany brown framed a heart-shaped face. Her milky white shoulders were bared by an off-the-shoulder dress in a peach hue. Olive-green eyes as intense as his own stared at an unseen point off-camera, and the coral-shaded lips were slightly upturned at the edges, as if she were thinking of an amusing irony she shared with no one. A cream-gloved hand was placed in her lap, and as she was angled toward the viewer, she held the other gloved hand over the V exposing her chest—a sign of modesty. He always smiled when he noticed that, thinking of what her reaction could have been. She would have punched his shoulder laughingly and would have told him not to read too much into a silly picture.
He placed the picture aside and pulled one of the magazine clippings from the envelope. It touted the exploits of a Manhattan-born beauty who had taken Broadway by storm with her kaleidoscopic talent while giving a bit of background on her early life. After skimming the slightly overdone article, he pulled another photograph from the pile, one that included a younger version of him and another guy flanking her at the sides. They all wore baseball caps and huge grins. Vaughn recalled the rousing game they had just come from and smiled again. They'd made a bet, and she'd won like she always did.
An indefinite amount of time had passed when he heard the door to the bathroom open. He heard Lauren's footsteps in the bedroom, heard the pause. Quickly he slid everything into the envelope and the envelope underneath the folder at which he was supposed to be looking.
When Lauren walked into the study with her tawny hair piled on top of her head, she saw her husband poring over a file from work. He tapped a pen idly on the desktop as he read, and his brows were furrowed in concentration. He didn't look up immediately when she entered, so she went to him at the desk to get his attention.
"There you are," she said with a smile. Lauren placed a hand on his shoulder and he gazed up at her. "Still working?"
"Yeah. Just looking at some stuff for the briefing tomorrow morning." He paused as she glanced down at the desktop. One of the corners of the envelope was visible. Vaughn placed her lips on hers so that she was distracted from his desk long enough to conceal the corner. When she pulled away, a light smile curved his lips. "You smell nice. Is that new?"
Lauren beamed at the observation. It was nice that despite their times of discord that he would notice something like the scent of her body wash. Though, with her at this proximity, it was hard to miss without holding his breath. "The saleswoman at the store recommended it. Do you like it?"
"I do. Very much." Vaughn carefully closed the file folder on his desk and set it neatly in the middle of the surface. In one smooth move, he stood and kissed her on the cheek.
"You go on to bed," Vaughn told Lauren. "I'll be there in a minute."
Lauren complied and left him alone once again. After she had left the room, Vaughn exhaled heavily and collapsed in the chair. Silently he berated himself for not telling her sooner, chided himself for not finding the balls to sit her down and tell her at that moment.
I will tell her tomorrow, Vaughn told himself. I will take her aside, away from work, and tell her.
Of course, a more cynical person would have recognized the fact that that was an empty vow, thought only to ensure a false sense of accomplishment. But Michael Vaughn didn't think about it any longer. If he did, he'd find that heart-shaped face in his dreams.
Meanwhile, five thousand, seven hundred eighteen miles away, a woman watched the rising of the sun with a multi-colored blanket covering her shoulders to ward off the pre-dawn chill. She wore a sweater and jeans, but she couldn't quite ward off the cold. She was not sickly or anemic, but on the morning of the fifteenth, and only on the morning of the fifteenth, she always felt cold.
Her roommates, so to speak, were ensconced in slumber. She didn't want to rouse them; this was her time alone, and she was going to take it. She liked the tranquil peace before the day began. In her life filled with toys, cartoons, math homework, and the occasional grocery expedition, this was one of her few mature indulgences.
She wasn't a lonely woman by any means, nor did she feel crowded by the direction her life had taken or the people in it. She was content with her accomplishments and didn't regret any choices she'd made. Well, perhaps just one.
But you let him go, she reminded herself. You let him go—when you both needed each other most. And you know who to thank for that.
Yes, she did, and she thought about dancing on that person's grave…
But that would be rather vulgar of her. She had breeding, right? Her mother had taught her to turn the other cheek, to act and not react. Not to mention, she was an adult. She was above such overtures. It was all in the past, and everything was better because of it. She was better because of it.
So, with that thought, she brought the blanket tighter around her and headed into the house. She had a birthday cake to make.


text:
The Mazafran River is a river, with an estuary, in Algeria, North Africa.

About  in length, the river passes through an area covered in woodlands, and some evidence of the Roman land ownership patterns are still discernable. The river, which flows into the Mediterranean, forms part of the border of the wilaya of Tipaza.

It is created by the confluence of the Chiffa River and the Djer River, and although not navigable, has been used traditionally for irrigation.

References

Rivers of Algeria
Bodies of water of Algeria
Landforms of Algeria

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


Little is known about the prevalence of delusional disorder. An analysis of data from official German hospital statistics for the period between 2000 and 2006 indicate that 10% of psychiatric patients (cases) were admitted for psychotic disorders, predominantly schizophrenia, but only approximately 0.5% of patients met the diagnosis of delusional disorder. Therefore, patients with schizophrenia outnumbered patients with delusional disorder by approximately 20:1. It was also found that patients with delusional disorders were more likely to be female and older compared with schizophrenia.


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text:
Washington, DC ⥨ Florence, Italy
Washington, DC ⇄ Florence, Italy
International 2022 Washington, DC Florence, Italy Choose Year 2022 2021 2020 2019 2018 2017 2016 2015 2014 2013 2012 2011 2010 2009 2008 2007 2006 2005 2004 2003 2002 2001 2000
86 $673 $542 $2,844
Rates shown are government contract fares between Washington, DC and Florence, Italy. These fixed rate fares are available to U.S. federal employees on official travel in either direction between Washington and Florence. All prices are for one-way service in either direction.
The U.S. Government predicts approximately 86 government travelers flying between these two cities in 2022. The average "Unrestricted Coach Class" fare is $673.00. The average "Capacity-Controlled" fare is $542.00. The average Business Class fare is $2,844.00.
How long is the flight between Washington, DC and Florence, Italy?
The flight between Washington, DC and Florence, Italy is 3,791 nautical miles which takes approximately 8 hours and 49 minutes. † This calculation does not take into consideration real-time weather conditions and may be off by up to 10%.
Back to Florence, Italy
There is only 1 flights available between Washington, DC and Florence, Italy for FY 2022 (October 2021 to September 2022). All rates show are for one-way service in either direction.
Firenze (FLR) Delta
Flight $673 $542 $2,844
City Pair Statistics (2000-2022): Washington, DC ⇄ Florence, Italy
No, these fares may only be used by government personnel traveling on official business between Washington, DC and Florence, Italy.


text:
The Peopling of New York City
Reading Responses
Group Research
Website Task Force
Christianity (Protestant)
In-class presentation schedule
Register & join the site
Post reading responses
Other Website Projects
Group Five: Buddhism
Erica Gailing, Tamar Herman, Marisa Oppenheim
Buddhist Temple — This is a recording of the prayer service and sermon that we went to.
1. History of foundation (include our foundation and who the people who go/volunteer are) – Erica
2. Values, include Buddhism- Tamar
3. Volunteering- Erica
4. Buddhas Birthday Celebration (include the uniform designation)-Marissa
History of the Tzu Chi Foundation
Upon entering the Tzu Chi Foundation, it was unclear to us just how special and widespread of a place we were entering. Little did we know that this one tiny street corner of Flushing was just one in a string of pearls just like itself throughout the world, devoting their time to helping the needy.
The Tzu Chi Foundation began with one brave woman: now the Venerable Dharma Master Cheng Yen who grew up in Taichung County in Taiwain. In 1944, as a young child, Cheng Yen moved to Taichung County, where she experienced her first taste of hatred and war: Japan had occupied Taiwan, who was enduring air raids frequently. This would effect her later in life as she became more conscious of efforts to combat this kind of outright hatred with love for others. At 23, Cheng Yen was attracted to Buddhism when her father died suddenly; with just a small family to turn to, she reached the conclusion that "one should expand the love for one's own family to the entire society and all humanity." From that point, she gave up her life of comfort to live remotely for some time in order to grow spiritually. Her new home was Hualien, which is a poor town on the East coast of Taiwan. With the shaving of her head, she embarked on the journey to becoming a Buddhist monastic; later, with the official ordination from Master Yin Shun at the Lin Chi Temple, Cheng Yen was seen as such in the eyes of Buddhists.
Dharma Master Cheng Yen acquired monastic disciples and was living a quiet life in the destitute east, supporting herself by sewing shoes for babies, knitting and raising vegetables. Only with the visit to a patient at a local hospital did Cheng Yen realize that she had not been doing all that she could as of yet. While at the hospital, Cheng Yen learned of a woman whose family had traveled for eight hours by foot from deep in the mountains to help this woman with the pain brought on by labor complications. Because she could not afford the fee of the hospital, the family had to turn around and head home with the woman still suffering, untreated. Cheng Yen was so saddened to hear that such a thing was happening and this began to get her thinking about helping. A short time later, Cheng Yen realized that with such values in Buddhism as the "love and compassion for all living beings," action needed to be organized and taken in such a way that it would affect other people. From this point, she decided that with the help of her thirty followers, who were housewives, putting aside $.50 a day from the earnings of the baby shoes could add up to enough money to save the native woman. By depositing money in a bamboo bank everyday, Dharma Master Cheng Yen was encouraging her followers "to think of helping others every day." The volunteer population grew and grew from this point on and is still growing today. The woman I interviewed, Jennifer Yin, is a newly instituted volunteer and was describing her knowledge of the beginnings of the Tzu Chi Foundation. "Basically she started with 30 followers who were housewives and they saved 56 Taiwanese dollars a day for charity work…and to help the people around them and slowly it basically just grew and now…we're in 47 different countries. We do international relief work. We're looking at Japan right now…we're not the front line, We're the second in line because we don't have the capabilities to go in the first line of help. We were in Haiti, and we're opening another headquarters down in Chili."
Thirty volunteers, over 43 years, expanded rapidly into volunteers in 47 countries and 372 offices throughout the world. It is amazing how such a humble looking place in Queens could be the connection to a worldwide organization of goodness.
Our Northeast office (Flushing) was founded 20 years ago. Our US headquarters (in California) was founded 21 years ago. Do you need the exact dates?
Oh yes and Tamar—I'd like to read your section before doing the Volunteering section.
HNRS 126W Spring 2011
Tues/Thurs., 1:40-2:55pm
Honors Hall 12
Professor Omri Elisha
Email: Omri.Elisha@qc.cuny.edu
Office Hours: Tues. 3:30-5pm; or by appointment
Powdermaker Hall 315H
Tsai-Shiou Hsieh (ITF)
Email: tsaishiou@gmail.com
Office Hours: Wed. 12-6
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Chapter 7, Safe Harbor
God IS in Chinatown
#7 Safe Harbor
Chap. 7
Corina Yee on Great Conclusion
Daniel Stalbow on Religious Diversity
Omri on Religious Diversity
Katherine Roszkowski on Founding dates of each religious organization
Karla Padawer Solomon on Founding dates of each religious organization
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