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Description: FM 3-97.6 (90-6) MOUNTAIN OPERATIONS NOVEMBER 2000 HEADQUARTERS, DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMY DISTRIBUTION RESTRICTION: Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.
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FM 3-97.6 (90-6) MOUNTAIN OPERATIONS NOVEMBER 2000 HEADQUARTERS, DEPARTMENT OF THE ARMYDISTRIBUTION RESTRICTION: Approved for public release; distribution is unlimited.
Field Manual *FM 3-97.6No. 3-97.6 Headquarters Department of the Army Washington, DC, 28 November 2000 Mountain OperationsChapter 1 Contents Page PREFACE ....................................................................................................................v INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................................ vi INTELLIGENCE....................................................................................................... 1-1 Section I – The Physical Environment ................................................................. 1-1 Terrain...................................................................................................................... 1-2 Weather ................................................................................................................... 1-5 Section II – Effects on Personnel ......................................................................... 1-9 Nutrition.................................................................................................................. 1-10 Altitude ................................................................................................................... 1-11 Cold........................................................................................................................ 1-14 Section III – Effects on Equipment ..................................................................... 1-15 General Effects ...................................................................................................... 1-15 Small Arms............................................................................................................. 1-16 Machine Guns ........................................................................................................ 1-16 Antitank Weapons.................................................................................................. 1-17 Section IV – Reconnaissance and Surveillance................................................ 1-17 Reconnaissance .................................................................................................... 1-17 Surveillance............................................................................................................ 1-20DISTRIBUTION RESTRICTION: Approved for public release; distribution unlimited.*This publication supersedes FM 90-6, 30 June 1980. i
FM 3-97.6________________________________________________________________________________Chapter 2 COMMAND AND CONTROL .................................................................................. 2-1Chapter 3 Section I – Assessment of the Situation.............................................................. 2-3 Mission ..................................................................................................................... 2-4 Enemy ...................................................................................................................... 2-5 Terrain and Weather ................................................................................................ 2-5 Troops and Support Available.................................................................................. 2-8 Time Available.......................................................................................................... 2-9 Civil Considerations ................................................................................................. 2-9 Section II – Leadership........................................................................................ 2-10 Section III – Communications............................................................................. 2-11 Combat Net Radio ................................................................................................. 2-11 Mobile Subscriber Equipment ................................................................................ 2-13 Wire and Field Phones........................................................................................... 2-13 Audio, Visual, and Physical Signals ....................................................................... 2-14 Messenger ............................................................................................................. 2-14 Section IV – Training ........................................................................................... 2-15 Initial Training Assessment .................................................................................... 2-16 Physical Conditioning ............................................................................................. 2-16 Mountain Living ...................................................................................................... 2-17 Navigation .............................................................................................................. 2-18 Weapons and Equipment ...................................................................................... 2-18 Camouflage and Concealment .............................................................................. 2-18 Fortifications........................................................................................................... 2-19 Military Mountaineering .......................................................................................... 2-19 Driver Training........................................................................................................ 2-22 Army Aviation ......................................................................................................... 2-23 Reconnaissance and Surveillance ......................................................................... 2-23 Team Development................................................................................................ 2-23 FIREPOWER AND PROTECTION OF THE FORCE.............................................. 3-1 Section I – Firepower............................................................................................. 3-1 Field Artillery............................................................................................................. 3-1 Mortars ..................................................................................................................... 3-5 Air Support ............................................................................................................... 3-6 Electronic Warfare ................................................................................................... 3-7 Section II – Protection of the Force...................................................................... 3-7 Air Defense Artillery ................................................................................................. 3-7ii
_____________________________________________________________________Mountain OperationsChapter 4 Engineer Operations ................................................................................................ 3-9Chapter 5 NBC Protection ...................................................................................................... 3-10 MANEUVER............................................................................................................. 4-1 Section I – Movement and Mobility ...................................................................... 4-2 Mounted Movement ................................................................................................. 4-3 Dismounted Movement ............................................................................................ 4-7 Mobility ..................................................................................................................... 4-8 Special Purpose Teams......................................................................................... 4-10 Section II – Offensive Operations....................................................................... 4-16 Planning Considerations ........................................................................................ 4-16 Preparation............................................................................................................. 4-17 Forms of Maneuver................................................................................................ 4-18 Movement to Contact............................................................................................. 4-19 Attack ..................................................................................................................... 4-20 Exploitation and Pursuit ......................................................................................... 4-22 Motti Tactics ........................................................................................................... 4-23 Section III – Defensive Operations ..................................................................... 4-25 Planning Considerations ........................................................................................ 4-25 Preparation............................................................................................................. 4-26 Organization of the Defense .................................................................................. 4-27 Reverse Slope Defense ......................................................................................... 4-29 Retrograde Operations .......................................................................................... 4-30 Stay-Behind Operations ......................................................................................... 4-31 LOGISTICS AND COMBAT SERVICE SUPPORT................................................. 5-1 Section I – Planning Considerations.................................................................... 5-3 Section II – Supply ................................................................................................. 5-5 Supply Routes .......................................................................................................... 5-6 Classes of Supply .................................................................................................... 5-7 Section III – Transportation and Maintenance .................................................... 5-9 Section IV – Personnel Support ......................................................................... 5-10 Section V – Combat Health Support .................................................................. 5-11 Planning ................................................................................................................. 5-11 Evacuation ............................................................................................................. 5-12 Mountain Evacuation Teams ................................................................................. 5-12 Treatment............................................................................................................... 5-13 iii
FM 3-97.6________________________________________________________________________________Appendix A MOUNTAIN ILLNESSES AND INJURIES .............................................................. A-1 Chronic Fatigue (Energy Depletion).......................................................................... A-1 Dehydration.............................................................................................................. A-2 Giardiasis (Parasitical Illness) .................................................................................. A-2 Hypoxia .................................................................................................................... A-3 Acute Mountain Sickness (AMS) ............................................................................. A-3 High Altitude Pulmonary Edema (HAPE) ................................................................. A-4 High Altitude Cerebral Edema (HACE) .................................................................... A-4Appendix B FORECASTING WEATHER IN THE MOUNTAINS ................................................ B-1 Indicators of Changing Weather .............................................................................. B-1 Applying the Indicators ............................................................................................. B-4 GLOSSARY ................................................................................................. Glossary-1 BIBLIOGRAPHY.....................................................................................Bibliography-1 INDEX ............................................................................................................... Index-1iv
PrefaceFM 3-97.6 describes the tactics, techniques, and procedures that the United States (US) Armyuses to fight in mountainous regions. It is directly linked to doctrinal principles found in FM 3-0and FM 3-100.40 and should be used in conjunction with them. It provides key information andconsiderations for commanders and staffs regarding how mountains affect personnel, equipment,and operations. It also assists them in planning, preparing, and executing operations, battles,and engagements in a mountainous environment.Army units do not routinely train for operations in a mountainous environment. Therefore,commanders and trainers at all levels should use this manual in conjunction with TC 90-6-1,Army Training and Evaluation Program (ARTEP) mission training plans, and the trainingprinciples in FM 7-0 and FM 7-10 when preparing to conduct operations in mountainous terrain.The proponent of this publication is Headquarters TRADOC. Send comments andrecommendations on DA Form 2028 directly to Commander, US Army Combined Arms Centerand Fort Leavenworth, ATTN: ATZL-SWW, Fort Leavenworth, Kansas 66027-6900.Unless this publication states otherwise, masculine nouns and pronouns do not refer exclusivelyto men. v
IntroductionThe US Army has a global area of responsibility and deploys to accomplish missions in bothviolent and nonviolent environments. The contemporary strategic environment and the scope ofUS commitment dictate that the US Army be prepared for a wide range of contingenciesanywhere in the world, from the deserts of southwest Asia and the jungles of South America andsoutheast Asia to the Korean Peninsula and central and northern Europe. The multiplicity ofpossible missions makes the likelihood of US involvement in mountain operations extremelyhigh. With approximately 38 percent of the world's landmass classified as mountains, the Armymust be prepared to deter conflict, resist coercion, and defeat aggression in mountains as in otherareas.Throughout the course of history, armies have been significantly affected by the requirement tofight in mountains. During the 1982 Falkland Islands (Malvinas) War, the first British soldier toset foot on enemy-held territory on the island of South Georgia did so on a glacier. A 3,000-meter(10,000-foot) peak crowns the island, and great glaciers descend from the mountain spine. Insouthwest Asia, the borders of Iraq, Iran, and Turkey come together in mountainous terrain withelevations of up to 3,000 meters (10,000 feet).Mountainous terrain influenced the outcome of many battles during the Iran-Iraq war of the1980s. In the mountains of Kurdistan, small Kurdish formations took advantage of the terrain inan attempt to survive the Iraqi Army's attempt to eliminate them. In the wake of the successfulUnited Nations (UN) coalition effort against Iraq, US forces provided humanitarian assistance toKurdish people suffering from the effects of the harsh mountain climate.Major mountain ranges, which are found in desert regions, jungles, and cold climate zones,present many challenges to military operations. Mountain operations may require specialequipment, special training, and acclimatization. Historically, the focus of mountain operationshas been to control the heights or passes. Changes in weaponry, equipment, and technology havenot significantly shifted this focus. Commanders should understand a broad range of differentrequirements imposed by mountain terrain, including two key characteristics addressed in thismanual: (1) the significant impact of severe environmental conditions on the capabilities of unitsand their equipment, and (2) the extreme difficulty of ground mobility in mountainous terrain.vi
Chapter 1IntelligenceBefore they can understand how to fight in mountainous environment,commanders must analyze the area of operations (AO), understand itsdistinct characteristics, and understand how these characteristics affectpersonnel and equipment. This chapter provides detailed information onterrain and weather necessary to conduct a thorough intelligence prepa-ration of the battlefield (IPB), however, the IPB process remains unaf-fected by mountains (see FM 2-01.3 for detailed information on how toconduct IPB).SECTION I – THE PHYSICAL CONTENTSENVIRONMENT Section I – The Physical Environment........ 1-1 Terrain........................................................ 1-2 1-1. The requirement to Weather...................................................... 1-5 conduct military opera- tions in mountainous Section II – Effects on Personnel................ 1-9 regions presents com- Nutrition................................................... 1-10 manders with chal- Altitude .................................................... 1-11 lenges distinct from Cold.......................................................... 1-14 those encountered in less rugged environ- Section III – Effects on Equipment............ 1-15 ments and demands in- General Effects ....................................... 1-15 creased perseverance, Small Arms .............................................. 1-16 strength, will, and Machine Guns ......................................... 1-16 courage. Terrain char- Antitank Weapons .................................. 1-17 acterized by steep slopes, great variations Section IV – Reconnaissance and in local relief, natural Surveillance............................................. 1-17 obstacles, and lack of Reconnaissance ..................................... 1-17 Surveillance............................................. 1-20 1-1
FM 3-97.6 ________________________________________________________________________________ accessible routes restricts mobility, drastically increases movement times, limits the effectiveness of some weapons, and complicates supply operations. The weather, variable with the season and time of day, combined with the terrain, can greatly affect mobility and tactical operations. Even under non- violent conditions, operations in a mountainous environment may pose sig- nificant risks and dangers.TERRAIN 1-2. Mountains may rise abruptly from the plains to form a giant barrier or ascend gradually as a series of parallel ridges extending unbroken for great distances. They may consist of varying combinations of isolated peaks, rounded crests, eroded ridges, high plains cut by valleys, gorges, and deep ra- vines. Some mountains, such as those found in desert regions, are dry and barren, with temperatures ranging from extreme heat in the summer to ex- treme cold in the winter. In tropical regions, lush jungles with heavy seasonal rains and little temperature variation frequently cover mountains. High, rocky crags with glaciated peaks and year-round snow cover exist in moun- tain ranges at most latitudes along the western portion of the Americas and in Asia. No matter what form mountains take, their common denominator is rugged terrain.MOUNTAINOUS REGIONS 1-3. The principal mountain ranges of the world lie along the broad belts shown in Figure 1-1. Called cordillera, after the Spanish word for rope, they encircle the Pacific basin and then lead westward across Eurasia into North Africa. Secondary, though less rugged, chains of mountains lie along the At- lantic margins of America and Europe. PAMIR KNOTCORDILLERANBELTSINTERCONTINENTALCORDILLERAN LINKSOTHER HIGHLANDS Figure 1-1. Mountain Regions of the World1-2
_______________________________________________________________________________ Chapter 1 1-4. A broad mountainous region approximately 1,600 kilometers wide domi- nates northwestern North America. It occupies much of Alaska, more than a quarter of Canada and the US, and all but a small portion of Mexico and Cen- tral America. The Rocky Mountain Range includes extensive high plains and basins. Numerous peaks in this belt rise above 3,000 meters (10,000 feet). Its climate varies from arctic cold to tropical heat, with the full range of seasonal and local extremes. 1-5. Farther south, the Andes stretch as a continuous narrow band along the western region of South America. Narrower than its counterpart in the north, this range is less than 800 kilometers wide. However, it continuously exceeds an elevation of 3,000 meters (10,000 feet) for a distance of 3,200 kilometers. 1-6. In its western extreme, the Eurasian mountain belt includes the Pyren- ees, Alps, Balkans, and Carpathian ranges of Europe. These loosely linked systems are separated by broad low basins and are cut by numerous valleys. The Atlas Mountains of North Africa are also a part of this belt. Moving eastward into Asia, this system becomes more complex as it reaches the ex- treme heights of the Hindu Kush and the Himalayas. Just beyond the Pamir Knot on the Russian-Afghan frontier, it begins to fan out across all parts of eastern Asia. Branches of this belt continue south along the rugged island chains to New Zealand and northeast through the Bering Sea to Alaska.MOUNTAIN CHARACTERISTICS 1-7. Mountain slopes generally vary between 15 and 45 degrees. Cliffs and other rocky precipices may be near vertical, or even overhanging. Aside from obvious rock formations and other local vegetation characteristics, actual slope surfaces are usually found as some type of relatively firm earth or grass. Grassy slopes may include grassy clumps known as tussocks, short al- pine grasses, or tundra (the latter more common at higher elevations and latitudes). Many slopes will be scattered with rocky debris deposited from the higher peaks and ridges. Extensive rock or boulder fields are known as talus. Slopes covered with smaller rocks, usually fist-sized or smaller, are called scree fields. Slopes covered in talus often prove to be a relatively easy ascent route. On the other hand, climbing a scree slope can be extremely difficult, as the small rocks tend to loosen easily and give way. However, this characteris- tic often makes scree fields excellent descent routes. Before attempting to de- scend scree slopes, commanders should carefully analyze the potential for creating dangerous rockfall and take necessary avoidance measures. 1-8. In winter, and at higher elevations throughout the year, snow may blan- ket slopes, creating an environment with its own distinct affects. Some snow conditions can aid travel by covering rough terrain with a consistent surface. Deep snow, however, greatly impedes movement and requires soldiers well- trained in using snowshoes, skis, and over-snow vehicles. Steep snow covered terrain presents the risk of snow avalanches as well. Snow can pose a serious threat to soldiers not properly trained and equipped for movement under such conditions. Avalanches have taken the lives of more soldiers engaged in mountain warfare than all other terrain hazards combined. 1-9. Commanders operating in arctic and subarctic mountain regions, as well as the upper elevations of the world's high mountains, may be confronted 1-3
FM 3-97.6 ________________________________________________________________________________ with vast areas of glaciation. Valleys in these areas are frequently buried un- der massive glaciers and present additional hazards, such as hidden crevices and ice and snow avalanches. The mountain slopes of these peaks are often glaciated and their surfaces are generally composed of varying combinations of rock, snow, and ice. Although glaciers have their own peculiar hazards re- quiring special training and equipment, movement over valley glaciers is of- ten the safest route through these areas (TC 90-6-1 contains more informa- tion on avalanches and glaciers, and their effects on operations).MOUNTAIN CLASSIFICATIONS 1-10. There is no simple system available to classify mountain environments. Soil composition, surface configuration, elevation, latitude, and climatic pat- terns determine the specific characteristics of each major mountain range. When alerted to the potential requirement to conduct mountain operations, commanders must carefully analyze each of these characteristics for the spe- cific mountain region in which their forces will operate. However, mountains are generally classified or described according to their local relief; for military purposes, they may be classified according to operational terrain levels and dismounted mobility and skill requirements.Local Relief 1-11. Mountains are commonly classified as low or high, depending on their local relief and, to some extent, elevation. Low mountains have a local relief of 300 to 900 meters (1,000 to 3,000 feet) with summits usually below the timberline. High mountains have a local relief usually exceeding 900 meters (3,000 feet) and are characterized by barren alpine zones above the timber- line. Glaciers and perennial snow cover are common in high mountains and usually present commanders with more obstacles and hazards to movement than do low mountains.Operational Terrain Levels 1-12. Mountain operations are Level Description generally carried out at three different operational terrain I The bottoms of valleys and main levels (see Figure 1-2). Level I II lines of communications terrain is located at the bottom III of valleys and along the main The ridges, slopes, and passes that lines of communications. At overlook valleys The dominant terrain of the summit region this level, heavy forces can operate, but maneuver space is Figure 1-2. Operational Terrain Levels often restricted. Light and heavy forces are normally combined, since vital lines of communication usu- ally follow the valley highways, roads, and trails. 1-13. Level II terrain lies between valleys and shoulders of mountains. Gen- erally, narrow roads and trails, which serve as secondary lines of communica- tion, cross this ridge system. Ground mobility is difficult and light forces will expend great effort on these ridges, since they can easily influence operations at Level I. Similarly, enemy positions at the next level can threaten opera- tions on these ridges.1-4
_______________________________________________________________________________ Chapter 1 1-14. Level III includes the dominant terrain of summit regions. Although summit regions may contain relatively gentle terrain, mobility in Level III is usually the most difficult to achieve and maintain. Level III terrain, however, can provide opportunities for well-trained units to attack the enemy from the flanks and rear. At this terrain level, acclimatized soldiers with advanced mountaineering training can infiltrate to attack lines of communication, lo- gistics bases, air defense sites, and command infrastructures.Dismounted Mobility Classification 1-15. When conducting mountain operations, commanders must clearly un- derstand the effect the operational terrain level has on dismounted move- ment. Therefore, in addition to the general mobility classification contained in FM 2-01.3 (unrestricted, restricted, severely restricted), mountainous ter- rain may be categorized into five classes based on the type of individual movement skill required (see Figure 1-3). Operations conducted in class 1 and 2 terrain require little to no mountaineering skills. Operations in class 3, 4, and 5 terrain require a higher level of mountaineering skills for safe and effi- cient movement. Commanders should plan and prepare for mountain opera- tions based, in large part, on this type of terrain analysis. Class Terrain Mobility Re- Skill Level Required* quirements 1 Gentler slopes/ Walking techniques Unskilled trails (with some assistance) 2 Steeper/rugged Some use of hands and terrain Basic Mountaineers 3 Easy climbing Fixed ropes where Basic Mountaineers 4 exposed (with assistance from assault Steep/exposed climbing Fixed ropes required climbers) 5 Near vertical Technical climbing Assault Climbers required * See Chapter 2 for a discussion of mountaineering skill levels Figure 1-3. Dismounted Mobility ClassificationWEATHER 1-16. In general, mountain climates tend to be cooler, wetter versions of the climates of the surrounding lowlands. Most mountainous regions exhibit at least two different climatic zones – a zone at low elevations and another at elevations nearer the summit regions. In some areas, an almost endless vari- ety of local climates may exist within a given mountainous region. Conditions change markedly with elevation, latitude, and exposure to atmospheric winds and air masses. In addition, the climatic patterns of two ranges located at the same latitude may differ radically. 1-17. Like most other landforms, oceans influence mountain climates. Moun- tain ranges in close proximity to oceans and other large bodies of water usu- ally exhibit a maritime climate. Maritime climates generally produce milder temperatures and much larger amounts of rain and snow. Their relatively mild winters produce heavy snowfalls, while their summer temperatures 1-5
FM 3-97.6 ________________________________________________________________________________ rarely get excessively hot. Mountains farther inland usually display a more continental climate. Winters in this type climate are often bitterly cold, while summers can be extremely hot. Annual rain- and snowfall here is far less than in a maritime climate and may be quite scarce for long periods. Rela- tively shallow snow-packs are normal during a continental climate's winter season. 1-18. Major mountain ranges force air masses and storm systems to drop sig- nificant amounts of rain and snow on the windward side of the range. As air masses pass over mountains, the leeward slopes receive far less precipitation than the windward slopes. It is not uncommon for the climate on the wind- ward side of a mountain range to be humid and the climate on the leeward side arid. This phenomenon affects coastal mountains, as well as mountains farther inland. The deepest winter snow-packs will almost always be found on the windward side of mountain ranges. As a result, vegetation and forest characteristics may be markedly different between these two areas. Prevail- ing winds and storm patterns normally determine the severity of these ef- fects. 1-19. Mountain weather can be erratic, varying from strong winds to calm, and from extreme cold to relative warmth within a short time or a minor shift in locality. The severity and variance of the weather require soldiers to be prepared for alternating periods of heat and cold, as well as conditions rang- ing from dry to extremely wet. At higher elevations, noticeable temperature differences may exist between sunny and shady areas or between areas ex- posed to wind and those protected from it. This greatly increases every sol- dier's clothing load and a unit's overall logistical requirements. Figure 1-4 summarizes the effects of mountain weather discussed below. FM 2-33.201 and FM 3-97.22 contain additional information on how weather affects opera- tions.TEMPERATURE 1-20. Normally, soldiers encounter a temperature drop of three to five de- grees Fahrenheit per 300-meter (1,000-foot) gain in elevation. In an atmos- phere containing considerable water vapor, the temperature drops about one degree Fahrenheit for every 100-meter (300-foot) increase. In very dry air, it drops about one degree Fahrenheit for every 50 meters (150 feet). However, on cold, clear, and calm mornings, when a troop movement or climb begins from a valley, soldiers may encounter higher temperatures as they gain ele- vation. This reversal of the normal situation is called temperature inversion. Additionally, during winter months, the temperature is often higher during a storm than during periods of clear weather. However, the dampness of pre- cipitation and penetration of the wind may still cause soldiers to chill faster. This is compounded by the fact that the cover afforded by vegetation often does not exist above the tree-line. Under these conditions, commanders must weigh the tactical advantage of retaining positions on high ground against seeking shelter and warmth at lower elevations with reduced visibility. 1-21. At high elevations, there may be differences of 40 to 50 degrees Fahr- enheit between the temperature in the sun and that in the shade. This is similar in magnitude to the day-to-night temperature fluctuations experi- enced in some deserts (see FM 3-97.3). Besides permitting rapid heating, the1-6
_______________________________________________________________________________ Chapter 1 clear air at high altitudes also results in rapid cooling at night. Consequently, temperatures rise swiftly after sunrise and drop quickly after sunset. Much of the chilled air drains downward so that the differences between day and night temperatures are greater in valleys than on slopes.Weather Condition Flat to Moderate Terrain Effects Added Mountain EffectsSunshine • Sunburn • Increased risk of sunburn and • Snow blindness snow blindnessWind • Temperature differences betweenRain • Severe, unexpected tempera-Snow sun and shade ture variations between sun and shadeStorms • WindchillFog • AvalanchesCloudiness • Reduced visibility • Cooler temperatures • Increased risk and severity of • Cold weather injuries windchill • Reduced mobility and visibility • Snow blindness • Blowing debris or driven snow • Blowing snow causing reduced visibility • Rain/snow • Avalanches • Reduced visibility • Lightning • Landslides • Flash floods • Reduced mobility/visibility • Avalanches • Reduced visibility • Increased risk and severity of common effects • Avalanches • Extended duration and intensity greatly affecting visibility and mobility • Extremely high winds • Avalanches • Increased frequency and dura- tion • Greatly decreased visibility at higher elevationsWIND Figure 1-4. Comparison of Weather Effects 1-22. In high mountains, the ridges and passes are seldom calm. By contrast, strong winds in protected valleys are rare. Normally, wind velocity increases with altitude and is intensified by mountainous terrain. Valley breezes mov- ing up-slope are more common in the morning, while descending mountain breezes are more common in the evening. Wind speed increases when winds are forced over ridges and peaks (orographic lifting), or when they funnel through narrowing mountain valleys, passes, and canyons (Venturi effect). Wind may blow with great force on an exposed mountainside or summit. As wind speed doubles, its force on an object nearly quadruples. 1-23. Mountain winds cause rapid temperature changes and may result in blowing snow, sand, or debris that can impair movement and observation. Commanders should routinely consider the combined cooling effect of ambi- ent temperature and wind (windchill) experienced by their soldiers (see Fig- ure 1-5 on page 1-8). At higher elevations, air is considerably dryer than air at sea level. Due to this increased dryness, soldiers must increase their fluid 1-7
FM 3-97.6 ________________________________________________________________________________ intake by approximately one-third. However, equipment will not rust as quickly, and organic matter will decompose more slowly. WIND SPEED COOLING POWER OF WIND EXPRESSED AS "EQUIVALENT CHILL TEMPERATURE" KNOTS MPH TEMPERATURE (o F) CALM CALM 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 -0 -5 -10 -15 -20 -25 -30 -35 -40 -45 -50 -55 -60 EQUIVALENT CHILL TEMPERATURE 3-6 5 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0 -5 -10 -15 -20 -25 -30 -35 -40 -45 -50 -55 -60 -70 7-10 10 30 20 15 10 5 0 -10 -15 -20 -25 -35 -40 -45 -50 -60 -65 -70 -75 -80 -90 -95 11-15 15 25 15 10 0 -5 -10 -20 -25 -30 -40 -45 -50 -60 -65 -70 -80 -85 -90 -100 -105 -110 16-19 20 20 10 5 0 -10 -15 -25 -30 -35 -45 -50 -60 -65 -75 -80 -85 -95 -100 -110 -115 -120 20-23 25 15 10 0 -5 -15 -20 -30 -35 -45 -50 -60 -65 -75 -80 -90 -95 -105 -110 -120 -125 -135 24-28 30 10 5 0 -10 -20 -25 -30 -40 -50 -55 -65 -70 -80 -85 -95 -100 -110 -115 -125 -130 -140 29-32 35 10 5 -5 -10 -20 -30 -35 -40 -50 -60 -65 -75 -80 -90 -100 -105 -115 -120 -130 -135 -145 33-36 40 10 0 -5 -15 -20 -30 -35 -45 -55 -60 -70 -75 -85 -95 -100 -110 -115 -125 -130 -140 -150 WINDS ABOVE LITTLE DANGER INCREASING DANGER GREAT DANGER 40 HAVE (Flesh may freeze within 1 minute) (Flesh may freeze within 30 secs) LITTLE ADDITIONAL EFFECT Figure 1-5. Windchill ChartPRECIPITATION 1-24. The rapid rise of air masses over mountains creates distinct local weather patterns. Precipitation in mountains increases with elevation and occurs more often on the windward than on the leeward side of ranges. Maximum cloudiness and precipitation generally occur near 1,800 meters (6,000 feet) elevation in the middle latitudes and at lower levels in the higher latitudes. Usually, a heavily wooded belt marks the zone of maximum precipi- tation.Rain and Snow 1-25. Both rain and snow are common in mountainous regions. Rain presents the same challenges as at lower elevations, but snow has a more significant influence on all operations. Depending on the specific region, snow may occur at anytime during the year at elevations above 1,500 meters (5,000 feet). Heavy snowfall greatly increases avalanche hazards and can force changes to previously selected movement routes. In certain regions, the intensity of snowfall may delay major operations for several months. Dry, flat riverbeds may initially seem to be excellent locations for assembly areas and support activities, however, heavy rains and rapidly thawing snow and ice may create flash floods many miles downstream from the actual location of the rain or snow.1-8
_______________________________________________________________________________ Chapter 1Thunderstorms 1-26. Although thunderstorms are local and usually last only a short time, they can impede mountain operations. Interior ranges with continental cli- mates are more conducive to thunderstorms than coastal ranges with mari- time climates. In alpine zones, driving snow and sudden wind squalls often accompany thunderstorms. Ridges and peaks become focal points for light- ning strikes, and the occurrence of lightning is greater in the summer than the winter. Although statistics do not show lightning to be a major mountain- eering hazard, it should not be ignored and soldiers should take normal pre- cautions, such as avoiding summits and ridges, water, and contact with metal objects.Traveling Storms 1-27. Storms resulting from widespread atmospheric disturbances involve strong winds and heavy precipitation and are the most severe weather condi- tion that occurs in the mountains. If soldiers encounter a traveling storm in alpine zones during winter, they should expect low temperatures, high winds, and blinding snow. These conditions may last several days longer than in the lowlands. Specific conditions vary depending on the path of the storm. How- ever, when colder weather moves in, clearing at high elevations is usually slow.Fog 1-28. The effects of fog in mountains are much the same as in other terrain. However, because of the topography, fog occurs more frequently in the moun- tains. The high incidence of fog makes it a significant planning consideration as it restricts visibility and observation complicating reconnaissance and sur- veillance. However, fog may help facilitate covert operations such as infiltra- tion. Routes in areas with a high occurrence of fog may need to be marked and charted to facilitate passage.SECTION II – EFFECTS ON PERSONNEL 1-29. The mountain environment is complex and unforgiving of errors. Sol- diers conducting operations anywhere, even under the best conditions, be- come cold, thirsty, tired, and energy-depleted. In the mountains however, they may become paralyzed by cold and thirst and incapacitated due to utter exhaustion. Conditions such as high elevations, rough terrain, and extremely unpredictable weather require leaders and soldiers who have a keen under- standing of environmental threats and what to do about them. 1-30. A variety of individual soldier characteristics and environmental condi- tions influence the type, prevalence, and severity of mountain illnesses and injuries (see Figure 1-6 on page 1-10). Due to combinations of these charac- teristics and conditions, soldiers often succumb to more than one illness or injury at a time, increasing the danger to life and limb. Three of the most common, cumulative, and subtle factors affecting soldier ability under these variable conditions are nutrition (to include water intake), decreased oxygen due to high altitude, and cold. Preventive measures, early recognition, and 1-9
FM 3-97.6 ________________________________________________________________________________ rapid treatment help PRECIPITATION minimize nonbattle casualties due to these TEMPERATURE conditions (see Appen- dix A for detailed in- ELEVATION formation on moun- tain-specific illnesses AGE and injuries). FATIGUENUTRITION WIND NUTRITION AND ACTIVITY VELOCITY RACE AND AREA OF ORIGIN 1-31. Poor nutrition TRAINING AND EXPERIENCE PREVIOUS/EXISTING INJURIES contributes to illness USE OF MEDICATIONS or injury, decreased MEDICAL HISTORY performance, poor mo- rale, and susceptibility to cold injuries, and can severely affect Figure 1-6. Environmental and Soldier Conditions Influencing Mountain Injuries and Illnesses military operations. Influences at high alti- tudes that can affect nutrition include a dulled taste sensation (making food undesirable), nausea, and lack of energy or motivation to prepare or eat meals. 1-32. Caloric requirements increase in the mountains due to both the altitude and the cold. A diet high in fat and carbohydrates is important in helping the body fight the effects of these conditions. Fats provide long-term, slow caloric release, but are often unpalatable to soldiers operating at higher altitudes. Snacking on high-carbohydrate foods is often the best way to maintain the calories necessary to function. 1-33. Products that can seriously impact soldier performance in mountain operations include: • Tobacco. Tobacco smoke interferes with oxygen delivery by reducing the blood's oxygen-carrying capacity. Tobacco smoke in close, confined spaces increases the amounts of carbon monoxide. The irritant effect of tobacco smoke may produce a narrowing of airways, interfering with optimal air movement. Smoking can effectively raise the "physiological altitude" as much as several hundred meters. • Alcohol. Alcohol impairs judgement and perception, depresses respira- tion, causes dehydration, and increases susceptibility to cold injury. • Caffeine. Caffeine may improve physical and mental performance, but it also causes increased urination (leading to dehydration) and, there- fore, should be consumed in moderation. 1-34. Significant body water is lost at higher elevations from rapid breathing, perspiration, and urination. Depending upon level of exertion, each soldier should consume about four to eight quarts of water or other decaffeinated fluids per day in low mountains and may need ten quarts or more per day in high mountains. Thirst is not a good indicator of the amount of water lost,1-10
_______________________________________________________________________________ Chapter 1 and in cold climates sweat, normally an indicator of loss of fluid, goes unno- ticed. Sweat evaporates so rapidly or is absorbed so thoroughly by clothing layers that it is not readily apparent. When soldiers become thirsty, they are already dehydrated. Loss of body water also plays a major role in causing altitude sickness and cold injury. Forced drinking in the absence of thirst, monitoring the deepness of the yellow hue in the urine, and watching for behavioral symptoms common to altitude sickness are important factors for commanders to consider in assessing the water balance of soldiers oper- ating in the mountains. 1-35. In the mountains, as elsewhere, refilling each soldier's water containers as often as possible is mandatory. No matter how pure and clean mountain water may appear, water from natural sources should always be purified or chemically sterilized to prevent parasitical illnesses (giardiasis). Command- ers should consider requiring the increased use of individual packages of powdered drink mixes, fruit, and juices to help encourage the required fluid intake.ALTITUDE 1-36. As soldiers ascend in altitude, the proportion of oxygen in the air de- creases. Without proper acclimatization, this decrease in oxygen saturation can cause altitude sickness and reduced physical and mental performance (see Figure 1-7). Soldiers cannot maintain the same physical performance at high altitude that they can at low altitude, regardless of their fitness level. Altitude Meters Feet Effects Low Sea Level – 1,500 Sea Level – 5,000 None. 5,000 – 8,000 Mild, temporary altitude sick- Moderate 1,500 – 2,400 8,000 – 14,000 ness may occur High 2,400 – 4,200 Altitude sickness and de- 14,000 – 18,000 Very High 4,200 – 5,400 creased performance is in- 18,000 - Higher creasingly common Extreme 5,400 – Higher Altitude sickness and de- creased performance is the rule With acclimatization, soldiers can function for short periods of time Figure 1-7. Effects of Altitude 1-37. The mental effects most noticeable at high altitudes include decreased perception, memory, judgement, and attention. Exposure to altitudes of over 3,000 meters (10,000 feet) may also result in changes in senses, mood, and personality. Within hours of ascent, many soldiers may experience euphoria, joy, and excitement that are likely to be accompanied by errors in judgement, leading to mistakes and accidents. After a period of about 6 to 12 hours, euphoria decreases, often changing to varying degrees of depression. Soldiers may become irritable or may appear listless. Using the buddy system during this early exposure helps to identify soldiers who may be more severely af- fected. High morale and esprit instilled before deployment and reinforced fre- quently help to minimize the impact of negative mood changes. 1-11
FM 3-97.6 ________________________________________________________________________________ 1-38. The physical effect most noticeable at high altitudes includes vision. Vi- sion is generally the sense most affected by altitude exposure and can poten- tially affect military operations at higher elevations. Night vision is signifi- cantly reduced, affecting soldiers at approximately 2,400 meters (8,000 feet) or higher. Some effects occur early and are temporary, while others may per- sist after acclimatization or even for a period of time after descent. To com- pensate for loss of functional abilities, commanders should make use of tac- tics, techniques, and procedures that trade speed for increased accuracy. By allowing extra time to accomplish tasks, commanders can minimize errors and injuries.HYPOXIA-RELATED ILLNESSES AND EFFECTS 1-39. Hypoxia, a deficiency of oxygen reaching the tissues of the body, has been the cause of many mountain illnesses, injuries, and deaths. It affects everyone, but some soldiers are more vulnerable than others. A soldier may be affected at one time but not at another. Altitude hypoxia is a killer, but it seldom strikes alone. The combination of improper nutrition, hypoxia, and cold is much more dangerous than any of them alone. The three most signifi- cant altitude-related illnesses and their symptoms, which are essentially a series of illnesses associated with oxygen deprivation, are: • Acute Mountain Sickness (AMS). Headache, nausea, vomiting, fatigue, irritability, and dizziness. • High Altitude Pulmonary Edema (HAPE). Coughing, noisy breathing, wheezing, gurgling in the airway, difficulty breathing, and pink frothy sputum (saliva). Ultimately coma and death will occur without treat- ment. • High Altitude Cerebral Edema (HACE). HACE is the most severe ill- ness associated with high altitudes. Its symptoms often resemble AMS (severe headache, nausea, vomiting), often with more dramatic signals such as a swaying of the upper body, especially when walking, and an increasingly deteriorating mental status. Early mental symptoms may include confusion, disorientation, vivid hallucinations, and drowsiness. Soldiers may appear to be withdrawn or demonstrate behavior gener- ally associated with fatigue or anxiety. Like HAPE, coma or death will occur without treatment.OTHER MOUNTAIN-RELATED ILLNESSES 1-40. Other illnesses and effects related to the mountain environment and higher elevations are: • Subacute mountain sickness. Subacute mountain sickness occurs in some soldiers during prolonged deployments (weeks/months) to eleva- tions above 3,600 meters (12,000 feet). Symptoms include sleep distur- bance, loss of appetite, weight loss, and fatigue. This condition reflects a failure to acclimatize adequately. • Carbon monoxide poisoning. Carbon monoxide poisoning is caused by the inefficient fuel combustion resulting from the low oxygen content of air and higher usage of stoves, combustion heaters, and engines in en- closed, poorly ventilated spaces.1-12
_______________________________________________________________________________ Chapter 1• Sleep disturbances. High altitude has significant harmful effects on sleep. The most prominent effects are frequent periods of apnea (tem- porary suspension of respiration) and fragmented sleep. Sleep distur- bances may last for weeks at elevations less than 5,400 meters (18,000 feet) and may never stop at higher elevations. These effects have even been reported as low as 1,500 meters (5,000 feet).• Poor wound healing. Poor wound healing resulting from lowered im- mune functions may occur at higher elevations. Injuries resulting from burns, cuts, or other sources may require descent for effective treat- ment and healing.ACCLIMATIZATION 1-41. Altitude acclimatization involves physiological changes that permit the body to adapt to the effects of low oxygen saturation in the air. It allows sol- diers to achieve the maximum physical work performance possible for the al- titude to which they are acclimatized. Once acquired, acclimatization is main- tained as long as the soldier remains at that altitude, but is lost upon re- turning to lower elevations. Acclimatization to one altitude does not prevent altitude illnesses from occurring if ascent to higher altitudes is too rapid.1-42. Getting used to living and working at • Altitudehigher altitudes requires acclimatization. • Rate of AscentFigure 1-8 shows the four factors that affect • Duration of Stayacclimatization in mountainous terrain. • Level of ExertionThese factors are similar to those a scubadiver must consider, and the consequences ofan error can be just as severe. In particular, Figure 1-8. Factors Affecting Acclimatizationhigh altitude climbing must be carefullypaced and staged in the same way that divers must pace and stage their as-cent to the surface.1-43. For most soldiers at high to very high altitudes, 70 to 80 percent of therespiratory component of acclimatization occurs in 7 to 10 days, 80 to 90 per-cent of overall acclimatization is generally accomplished by 21 to 30 days, andmaximum acclimatization may take several months to years. However, somesoldiers may acclimatize more rapidly than others, and a few soldiers may notacclimatize at all. There is no absolute way to identify soldiers who cannot ac-climatize, except by their experience during previous altitude exposures.1-44. Commanders must be aware that highly fit, motivated individuals maygo too high too fast and become victims of AMS, HAPE, or HACE. Slow andeasy climbing, limited activity, and long rest periods are critical to altitudeacclimatization. Leaves that involve soldiers descending to lower altitudesand then returning should be limited. Acclimatization may be accomplishedby either a staged or graded ascent. A combination of the two is the safestand most effective method for prevention of high altitude illnesses.• Staged Ascent. A staged ascent requires soldiers to ascend to a moder- ate altitude and remain there for 3 days or more to acclimatize before ascending higher (the longer the duration, the more effective and thor- ough the acclimatization to that altitude). When possible, soldiers 1-13
FM 3-97.6 ________________________________________________________________________________ should make several stops for staging during ascent to allow a greater degree of acclimatization. • Graded Ascent. A graded ascent limits the daily altitude gain to allow partial acclimatization. The altitude at which soldiers sleep is the criti- cal element in this regard. Having soldiers spend two nights at 2,700 meters (9,000 feet) and limiting the sleeping altitude to no more than 300 meters per day (1,000 feet) above the previous night's sleeping alti- tude will significantly reduce the incidence of altitude sickness. 1-45. In situations where there is insufficient time for a staged or graded as- cent, commanders may consider using the drug acetazolamide to help accel- erate acclimatization; however, commanders must ensure soldiers are accli- matized before they are committed to combat. When used appropriately, it will prevent symptoms of AMS in nearly all soldiers and reduce symptoms in most others. It has also been found to improve sleep quality at high altitudes. However, commanders should consult physicians trained in high-altitude or wilderness medicine concerning doses, side effects, and screening of individu- als who may be allergic. As a non-pharmacological method, high carbohydrate diets (whole grains, vegetables, peas and beans, potatoes, fruits, honey, and refined sugar) are effective in aiding acclimatization.COLD 1-46. After illnesses related to not • Frostbite (freezing) being acclimatized, cold injuries, both • Hypothermia (nonfreezing) freezing and nonfreezing, are gener- ally the greatest threat. Temperature • Trench/immersion Foot (nonfreezing) and humidity decrease with increas- ing altitude. Reviewing cold weather • Snow Blindness injury prevention, training in shelter Figure 1-9. Common Cold construction, dressing in layers, and Weather Injuries using the buddy system are critical and may preclude large numbers of debilitating injuries. Figure 1-9 lists the cold and snow injuries most common to mountain operations. See FM 3-97.11 and FM 4-25.11 for information regarding causes, symptoms, treatment, and prevention. 1-47. Altitude sickness and cold injuries can occur simultaneously, with signs and symptoms being confused with each other. Coughing, stumbling indi- viduals should be immediately evacuated to medical support at lower levels to determine their medical condition. Likewise, soldiers in extreme pain from cold injuries who do not respond to normal pain medications, require evacua- tion. Without constant vigilance, cold injuries may significantly limit the number of deployable troops and drastically reduce combat power. However, with command emphasis and proper equipment, clothing, and training, all cold-weather injuries are preventable.1-14
_______________________________________________________________________________ Chapter 1SECTION III – EFFECTS ON EQUIPMENT1-48. No manual can cover • Operator/Maintenance Personnelthe effects of terrain and • Line-of-Sightweather on every weapon • Rangeand item of equipment • Thermal Contrastwithin the Army inventory.Although not all- • Ballistics and Trajectoryencompassing, the list at • Target Detection and AcquisitionFigure 1-10 contains factors • First Round Hit Capabilitythat commanders should • Camouflage and Concealment/Noisetake into account when • Mobilityconsidering the effect the • Wear and Maintenancemountainous environment • Aerodynamics and Liftmay have on their weapons • Functioning and Reliabilityand equipment. Of these, • Positioning/Site Selectionthe most important factor isthe combined effects of the Figure 1-10. Weapons and Equipmentenvironment on the soldier Factors Affected by the Environmentand his subsequent abilityto operate and maintain his weapons and equipment. Increasingly sophisti-cated equipment requires soldiers that are mentally alert and physically ca-pable. Failure to consider this important factor often results in severe injury,lowered weapons and equipment performance, and mission failure. The in-formation provided within this manual, combined with the information foundin weapon-specific field manuals (FMs) and technical manuals (TMs), pro-vides the information necessary to know how to modify tactics, techniques,and procedures to win on the mountain battlefield.GENERAL EFFECTS 1-49. In a mountainous environment, the speed and occurrence of wind gen- erally increase with elevation, and the effects of wind increase with range (depending on the speed and direction). Due to these factors, soldiers must be taught the effects of wind on ballistics and how to compensate for them. In cold weather, firing weapons often creates ice fog trails. These ice fog trails obscure vision and, at the same time, allow the enemy to more easily discern the location of primary positions and the overall structure of a unit's defense. This situation increases the importance of alternate and supplementary firing positions. 1-50. Range estimation in mountainous terrain is difficult. Depending upon the type of terrain in the mountains, soldiers may either over- or underesti- mate range. Soldiers observing over smooth terrain, such as sand, water, or snow, generally underestimate ranges. This results in attempting to engage targets beyond the maximum effective ranges of their weapon systems. Looking downhill, targets appear to be farther away and looking uphill, they appear to be closer. This illusion, combined with the effects of gravity, causes the soldier shooting downhill to fire high, while it has the opposite effect on soldiers shooting uphill. 1-15
FM 3-97.6 ________________________________________________________________________________ 1-51. Higher elevations generally afford increased observation but low- hanging clouds and fog may decrease visibility, and the rugged nature of mountain terrain may produce significant dead space at mid-ranges. These effects mean that more observation posts are necessary to cover a given frontage in mountainous terrain than in non-mountainous terrain. They also require the routine designation of supplementary firing positions for direct fire weapons. Rugged terrain also makes ammunition resupply more difficult and increases the need to enforce strict fire control and discipline. Finally, the rugged environment creates compartmented areas that may preclude mutual support and reduce supporting distances.SMALL ARMS 1-52. In rocky mountainous terrain, the effectiveness of small arms fire in- creases by the splintering and ricocheting when a bullet strikes a rock. M203 and MK-19 grenade launchers are useful for covering close-in dead space in mountainous terrain. Hand grenades are also effective. Although it may seem intuitive, soldiers must still be cautioned against throwing grenades uphill where they are likely to roll back before detonation. Grenades (as well as other explosive munitions) lose much of their effectiveness when detonated under snow, and soldiers should be warned that hand grenades may freeze to wet gloves. 1-53. As elevation increases, air pressure and air density decrease. At higher elevations, a round is more efficient and strikes a target higher, due to re- duced drag. This effect does not significantly influence the marksmanship performance of most soldiers, however, designated marksmen and snipers should re-zero their weapons after ascending to higher elevations. (See FM 3- 25.9 and FM 3-23.10 for further information on ballistics and weather effects on small arms.)MACHINE GUNS Figure 1-11. Classes of Fire with Respect to the Ground 1-54. Machine guns pro- vide long-range fire when visibility is good. However, grazing fire can rarely be achieved in mountains because of the radical changes in elevation. When grazing fire can be obtained, the ranges are normally short. More often, plunging fire is the re- sult (see Figure 1-11 and FM 3-21.7). In moun- tainous terrain, situa- tions that prevent indi- rect fire support from protecting advancing forces may arise. When1-16
_______________________________________________________________________________ Chapter 1 these occur, the effects of machine-guns and other direct fire weapons must be concentrated to provide adequate supporting fires for maneuvering ele- ments. Again, supplementary positions should be routinely prepared to cover different avenues of approach and dead space.ANTITANK WEAPONS 1-55. The AT4 is a lightweight antitank weapon ideally suited for the moun- tainous environment and for direct fire against enemy weapon emplacements. Anti-tank guided missiles (ATGMs), such as the Javelin and the tube- launched, optically tracked, wire-guided, heavy antitank missile system (TOW), tend to hinder dismounted operations because of their bulk and weight. In very restrictive mountainous terrain, the lack of armored avenues of approach and suitable targets may limit their utility. If an armored or mechanized threat is present, TOWs are best used in long-range, antiarmor ambushes, while the shorter-range Javelin, with its fire-and-forget technol- ogy, is best used from restrictive terrain nearer the kill zone. However, their guidance systems may operate stiffly and sluggishly in extreme cold weather.SECTION IV – RECONNAISSANCE AND SURVEILLANCERECONNAISSANCE 1-56. During operations in a mountainous environment, reconnaissance is as applicable to the maneuver of armies and corps as it is to tactical operations. Limited routes, adverse terrain, and rapidly changing weather significantly increase the importance of reconnaissance operations to focus fires and ma- neuver. Failure to conduct effective reconnaissance will result in units being asked to achieve the impossible or in missed opportunities for decisive action. 1-57. As in all environments, reconnaissance operations in a mountainous area must be layered and complementary in order to overcome enemy at- tempts to deny critical information to the friendly commander. In order to gather critical and timely information required by the commander, the activi- ties of reconnaissance assets must be closely coordinated. Strategic recon- naissance platforms set the stage by identifying key terrain, as well as the general disposition and composition of enemy forces. Operational level com- manders compare the information provided by strategic assets with their own requirements and employ reconnaissance assets to fill in the gaps that have not been answered by strategic systems and achieve the level of detail they require. 1-58. At the beginning of a campaign in a mountainous environment, recon- naissance requirements will be answered by aerial or overhead platforms, such as satellites, joint surveillance, target attack radar systems (JSTARSs), U2 aircraft, and unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs). In a mountain AO, it may often be necessary to commit ground reconnaissance assets in support of stra- tegic and operational information requirements. Conversely, strategic and operational reconnaissance systems may be employed to identify or confirm the feasibility of employing ground reconnaissance assets. Special reconnais- sance (SR) and long-range surveillance (LRS) teams may be inserted to 1-17
FM 3-97.6 ________________________________________________________________________________ gather information that cannot be collected by overhead systems, or to verify data that has already been collected. In this instance, satellite imagery is used to analyze a specific area for insertion for the team. The potential hide positions for the teams are identified using imagery and, terrain and weather permitting, verified by UAVs. See FM 3-100.55 for detailed information on combined arms reconnaissance. 1-59. In harsh mountain terrain, ground reconnaissance operations are often conducted dismounted. Commanders must assess the slower rate of ground reconnaissance elements to determine its impact on the entire reconnaissance and collection process. They must develop plans that account for this slower rate and initiate reconnaissance as early as possible to provide additional time for movement. Commanders may also need to allocate more forces, in- cluding combat forces, to conduct reconnaissance, reconnaissance in force missions, or limited objective attacks to gain needed intelligence. Based upon mission, enemy, terrain and weather, troops and support available, time available, civil considerations (METT-TC), commanders may need to priori- tize collection assets, accept risk, and continue with less information from their initial reconnaissance efforts. In these cases, they must use formations and schemes of maneuver that provide maximum security and flexibility, to include robust security formations, and allow for the development of the situation once in contact. 1-60. Although reconnaissance patrols should normally use the heights to ob- serve the enemy, it may be necessary to send small reconnaissance teams into valleys or along the low ground to gain suitable vantage points or physically examine routes that will be used by mechanized or motorized forces. In mountainous environments, reconnaissance elements are often tasked to de- termine: • The enemy's primary and alternate lines of communication. • Locations and directions from which the enemy can attack or counter- attack. • Heights that allow the enemy to observe the various sectors of terrain. • Suitable observation posts for forward observers. • Portions of the route that provide covert movement. • Level of mountaineering skill required to negotiate routes (dismounted mobility classification) and sections of the route that require mountain- eering installations. • Suitability of routes for sustained combat service support (CSS) opera- tions. • Trails, routes, and bridges that can support or can be improved by en- gineers in order to move mechanized elements into areas previously thought to be impassable. • Bypass routes. • Potential airborne and air assault drop/pick-up zones and aircraft landing areas.1-18
_______________________________________________________________________________ Chapter 1RECONNAISSANCE IN FORCE 1-61. The compartmented geography and inherent mobility restrictions of mountainous terrain pose significant risk for reconnaissance in force opera- tions. Since the terrain normally allows enemy units to defend along a much broader front with fewer forces, a reconnaissance in force may be conducted as a series of smaller attacks to determine the enemy situation at selected points. Commanders should carefully consider mobility restrictions that may affect plans for withdrawal or exploitation. Commanders should also position small reconnaissance elements or employ surveillance systems throughout the threat area of operations to gauge the enemy's reaction to friendly recon- naissance in force operations and alert the force to possible enemy counterat- tacks. In the mountains, the risk of having at least a portion of the force cut off and isolated is extremely high. Mobile reserves and preplanned fires must be available to reduce the risk, decrease the vulnerability of the force, and exploit any success as it develops.ENGINEER RECONNAISSANCE 1-62. Engineer reconnaissance assumes greater significance in a mountain- ous environment in order to ensure supporting engineers are properly task organized with specialized equipment for quickly overcoming natural and reinforcing obstacles. Engineer reconnaissance teams assess the resources re- quired for clearing obstacles on precipitous slopes, constructing crossing sites at fast-moving streams and rivers, improving and repairing roads, erecting fortifications, and establishing barriers during the conduct of defensive op- erations. Since the restrictive terrain promotes the widespread employment of point obstacles, engineer elements should be integrated into all mountain reconnaissance operations. 1-63. In some regions, maps may be unsuitable for tactical planning due to inaccuracies, limited detail, and inadequate coverage. In these areas, engi- neer reconnaissance should precede, but not delay operations. Because rug- ged mountain terrain makes ground reconnaissance time-consuming and dangerous, a combination of ground and aerial or overhead platforms should be used for the engineer reconnaissance effort. Data on the terrain, vegeta- tion, and soil composition, combined with aerial photographs and multispec- tral imagery, allows engineer terrain intelligence teams to provide detailed information that may be unavailable from other sources.AERIAL AND OVERHEAD RECONNAISSANCE 1-64. During all but the most adverse weather conditions, aerial or overhead reconnaissance may be the best means to gather information and cover large areas that are difficult for ground units to traverse or observe. Airborne standoff intelligence collection devices, such as side-looking radar, provide excellent terrain and target isolation imagery. Missions must be planned to ensure that critical areas are not masked by terrain or other environmental conditions. Additionally, aerial or overhead photographs may compensate for inadequate maps and provide the level of detail needed to plan operations. In- frared imagery and camouflage detection film can be used to determine pre- cise locations of enemy positions, even at night. Furthermore, AH-64 and 1-19
FM 3-97.6 ________________________________________________________________________________ OH-58D helicopters can provide commanders with critical day or night video reconnaissance, utilizing television or forward-looking infrared. 1-65. Terrain may significantly impact the employment of overhead recon- naissance platforms using radar systems to detect manmade objects. These systems may find themselves adversely impacted by the masking effect that occurs when the mountain terrain blocks the radar beam. Thus, the radar coverage may not extend across the reverse slope of a steep ridge or a valley floor. Attempts to reposition the overhead platform to a point where it can "see" the masked area may merely result in masking occurring elsewhere. This limitation does not preclude using such systems; however, the com- mander should employ manned or unmanned aerial reconnaissance when available, in conjunction with overhead reconnaissance platforms in order to minimize these occurrences. The subsequent use of ground reconnaissance assets to verify the data that can be gathered by overhead and electro-optical platforms will ensure that commanders do not fall prey to deliberate enemy deception efforts that capitalize on the limited capabilities of some types of overhead platforms in this environment.SURVEILLANCE 1-66. In the mountains, surveillance of vulnerable flanks and gaps between units is accomplished primarily through well-positioned observation posts (OPs). These OPs are normally inserted by helicopter and manned by small elements equipped with sensors, enhanced electro-optical devices, and appro- priate communications. Commanders must develop adequate plans that ad- dress not only their insertion, but their continued support and ultimate ex- traction. The considerations of METT-TC may dictate that commanders pro- vide more personnel and assets than other types of terrain to adequately con- duct surveillance missions. Commanders must also ensure that surveillance operations are fully integrated with reconnaissance efforts in order to provide a3dequate coverage of the AO. 1-67. Long-range surveillance units (LRSUs) and snipers trained in moun- tain operations also contribute to surveillance missions and benefit from the restrictive terrain and excellent line-of-sight. Overhead platforms and air cavalry may also be used for surveillance missions of limited duration. How- ever, weather may impede air operations, decrease visibility for both air and ground elements, and reduce the ability of ground surveillance elements to remain hidden for prolonged periods without adequate logistical support. As with overhead reconnaissance, terrain may mask overhead surveillance plat- forms.1-20
Chapter 2Command and ControlIn the mountains, major CONTENTSaxes of advance are limitedto accessible valleys and Section I – Assessment of the Situation .... 2-3often separated by Mission ...................................................... 2-4restrictive terrain. The Enemy ........................................................ 2-5compartmented nature of Terrain and Weather................................. 2-5the terrain makes it Troops and Support Available ................ 2-8difficult to switch the effort Time Available........................................... 2-9from one axis to another or Civil Considerations................................. 2-9to offer mutual supportbetween axes. The battle to Section II – Leadership .............................. 2-10control the major lines of Section III – Communications ................... 2-11communications of Level Idevelops on the ridges and Combat Net Radio .................................. 2-11heights of Level II. In turn, Mobile Subscriber Equipment............... 2-13the occupation of the Wire and Field Phones ........................... 2-13dominating heights in Audio, Visual, and Physical Signals ..... 2-14Level II may leave a force Messenger ............................................... 2-14assailable from the Section IV – Training .................................. 2-15restrictive terrain of Level Initial Training Assessment ................... 2-16III. Each operational Physical Conditioning ............................ 2-16terrain level influences the Mountain Living ...................................... 2-17application of tactics, Navigation ............................................... 2-18techniques, and procedures Weapons and Equipment....................... 2-18necessary for successful Camouflage and Concealment .............. 2-18operations. Fortifications ........................................... 2-19 Military Mountaineering ......................... 2-19 Driver Training ........................................ 2-22 Army Aviation.......................................... 2-23 Reconnaissance and Surveillance........ 2-23 Team Development................................. 2-23 2-1
In mountainous terrain, it is usually difficult to conduct a coordinatedbattle. Engagements tend to be isolated, march columns of even smallelements extremely long, and mutual support difficult to accomplish.Command and control of all available assets is best achieved if commandposts are well forward. However, the mountainous environment de-creases the commander's mobility. Therefore, commanders must be ableto develop a clear vision of how the battle will unfold, correctly anticipatethe decisive points on the battlefield, and position themselves at thesecritical points.The success of a unit conducting mountain operations depends on howwell leaders control their units. Control is limited largely to a well-thought-out plan and thorough preparation. Boundaries require carefulplanning in mountain operations. Heights overlooking valleys should beincluded in the boundaries of units capable of exerting the most influenceover them. These boundaries may be difficult to determine initially andmay require subsequent adjustment.During execution, leaders must be able to control direction and speed ofmovement, maintain proper intervals, and rapidly start, stop, or shiftfire. In the mountains, soldiers focus mainly on negotiating difficult ter-rain. Leaders, however, must ensure that their soldiers remain alert for,understand, and follow signals and orders. Although in most instancesaudio, visual, wire, physical signals, and messengers are used to main-tain control, operations may be controlled by time as a secondary means.However, realistic timetables must be based on thorough reconnaissanceand sound practical knowledge of the mountain battlefield.Commanders must devote careful consideration to the substantial effectthe mountain environment may have on systems that affect their abilityto collect, process, store, and disseminate information. Computers, com-munications, and other sophisticated electronic equipment are usuallysusceptible to jars, shocks, and rough handling associated with the rug-ged mountain environment. They are also extremely sensitive to the se-vere cold often associated with higher elevations. Increased precipitationand moisture may damage electronic components, and heavy amounts ofrain and snow, combined with strong surface winds, may generate back-ground electronic interference that can reduce the efficiency of inter-cept/direction finding antennas and ground surveillance radars. Localizedstorms with low sustained cloud cover reduce the effectiveness of mostimagery intelligence (IMINT) platforms, to include unmanned aerial ve-hicles (UAVs). The collective effect of mountain weather and terrain di-minishes a commander's ability to achieve shared situational under-standing among his subordinates. However, increased use of human in-telligence (HUMINT), clear orders and intents, and leaders capable of ex-ercising initiative, allow commanders to dominate the harsh environmentof a mountain area of operations.
Chapter 2 As in any environment, mountain operations pose both tactical and acci- dent risks. However, since most units do not routinely train for or operate in the mountains, the level of uncertainty, ambiguity, and friction is often higher than in less rugged environments. Commanders must be able to identify and assess hazards that may be encountered in executing their missions, develop and implement control measures to eliminate unneces- sary risk, and continuously supervise and assess to ensure measures are properly executed and remain appropriate as the situation changes. Al- though risk decisions are the commanders' business, staffs, subordinate leaders, and individual soldiers must also understand the risk manage- ment process and must continuously look for hazards at their level or within their area of expertise. Any risks identified (with recommended risk reduction measures) must be quickly elevated to the chain of com- mand (see FM 3-100.14).SECTION I – ASSESSMENT OF THE SITUATION 2-1. Although higher-elevation terrain is not always key, the structure of a mountain area of operations (AO) often forms a stairway of key terrain fea- tures. Identification and control of dominant terrain at each operational ter- rain level form the basis for successful mountain maneuver. Key terrain fea- tures at higher elevations often take on added significance due to their inac- cessibility and ease of defense. To maintain freedom of maneuver, command- ers must apply combat power so that the terrain at Levels II and III can be exploited in the conduct of operations. Successful application of this concept requires commanders to think, plan, and maneuver vertically as well as hori- zontally. 2-2. Mountain operations usually focus on lines of communication, choke points, and dominating heights. Maneuver generally attempts to avoid strengths, envelop the enemy, and limit his ability to effectively use the high ground. Major difficulties are establishing boundaries, establishing and main- taining communications, providing logistics, and evacuating wounded. Throughout the plan, prepare, and execute cycle, commanders must continu- ously assess the vertical impact on the mission, enemy, terrain and weather, troops and support available, time available, civil considerations (METT-TC). HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVE Importance of Controlling Key Terrain: Mustafa Kemal at Gallipoli (April 1915) On 25 April 1915, the Allies launched their Gallipoli campaign. However, LTC Mustafa Kemal's understanding of the decisive importance of the hilly terrain, his grasp of the enemy's overall intent, and his own resolute leadership pre- served the Ottoman defenses. His troops seized the initiative from superior forces and pushed the Allied invasion force back to its bridgehead. The result was nine months of trench warfare, followed by the Allies' withdrawal from Gallipoli. 2-3
German Fifth Army Commander General von Sanders expected a major Al-lied landing in the north, at Bulair. The British, however, were conducting afeint there; two ANZAC divisions were already landing in the south at AriBurnu (now known as "ANZAC cove") as the main effort. The landing beacheshere were hemmed by precipitous cliffs culminating in the high ground of theSari Bair ridge, a fact of great importance to the defense. Only one Ottomaninfantry company was guarding the area. Although prewar plans had estab-lished contingencies for using 19th ID, Kemal, the division commander, hadreceived no word from his superiors regarding the developing scenario. Nev-ertheless, understanding that a major Allied landing could easily split the pen-insula, he decided that time was critical and set off for Ari Burnu without wait-ing for his senior commander's approval. In his march toward Ari Burnu thatmorning, he recognized that the hilly terrain in general and the Sari Bair ridgein particular were of vital strategic importance: if the enemy captured this highground they would be in an excellent position to cut the peninsula in half.Kemal now engaged the enemy. He impressed upon his men the importanceof controlling the hilltops at all costs, issuing his famous order: "I am not or-dering you to attack. I am ordering you to die. In the time it takes us to die,other forces and commanders can come and take our place." Despite beingoutnumbered three-to-one, the Turkish counterattack stabilized their positionand prevented the Allies from capturing the Sari Bair ridge. Nightfall broughtabout a lull in the fighting. There was some sniping and a few local encounterson 26 April, and on 27 April Kemal finally received major reinforcements. Thefront stabilized and the opposing armies settled down into trench warfare. On16 January 1926, the Allies admitted defeat and withdrew.The 19th ID's counterattack, which prevented the ANZAC from establishingthemselves on the Sari Bair ridge, may well have decided the outcome of theentire Gallipoli campaign. Despite his lack of situational knowledge, Kemal in-stinctively understood the enemy's intent and, recognizing the importance ofcontrolling the hilltops and ridgelines, was committed to concentrating hiscombat power to seize and hold this key terrain. Compiled from "The Rock of Gallipoli," Studies of Battle Command, George W. GawrychMISSION 2-3. Mission analysis must include the spatial and vertical characteristics of the AO. Although defeating the enemy continues to be the basic objective of tactical operations, the task of controlling specific operational terrain levels will be paramount. At brigade level and below, major tactical objectives are normally translated into tasks pertaining to seizing, retaining, or controlling specific dominating heights at either Level II or Level III. Therefore, it is im- perative to identify the tasks and assets necessary to access each operational terrain level. 2-4. At any operational terrain level, defending and delaying are easier at de- files, while attacking is more difficult. Due to the compartmented terrain, units usually execute offensive missions by conducting several simultaneous
Chapter 2 smaller-scale attacks, utilizing the full height, width, and depth of their area of operations. Consequently, commanders must always consider the impact of decentralization on security. 2-5. One method of maintaining freedom of action is to seize or hold key ter- rain. In the mountains, key terrain is frequently identified as terrain that is higher than that held by the enemy. Seizing this terrain often depends on long and difficult envelopments or turning movements. Therefore, the speci- fied and implied tasks associated with mobility and sustainment, as well as command and control, must be considered in terms of their vertical difficulty.ENEMY 2-6. An enemy will nor- • Utilize the environment to his mally position forces in advantage depth and height along likely avenues of approach. • Conduct air operations Mountain terrain facili- • Conduct decentralized operations tates wide dispersal, al- • Utilize the terrain in Levels II and III lowing relatively small • Employ obstacles or barriers to units to hold dominant ter- rain in a connected system restrict maneuverability of strong points. To pre- • Conduct limited-visibility operations • Sustain his maneuver elements vent bypassing and envel- Figure 2-1. Factors Affecting Assessment of opment attempts, the en- the Enemy Situation emy may adopt a many- tiered, perimeter defense. Aside from the relative size of forces, the type of enemy units and their equipment must be compared with those of friendly forces, to include a comparison of the suitability of forces, tactics, and train- ing. When considering the enemy's ability to operate in mountainous terrain, commanders should consider how well the enemy can accomplish the tasks and actions listed in Figure 2-1. Again, in analyzing both enemy and friendly factors during mountain operations, the vertical, as well as the horizontal, perspective should be fully integrated into all aspects of the assessment.TERRAIN AND WEATHER 2-7. As in all military operations, terrain analysis involves observation and fields of fire, cover and concealment, obstacles, key terrain, and avenues of approach (OCOKA). Terrain often influences the conduct of operations more in the mountains than on flatter terrain. The mountains form the nonlinear and vertical structure of the battlefield, and the influences of geography and climate dictate the extent to which commanders modify tactics. Examples of these difficulties are often encountered in the concentration of forces, as well as in the maintenance of command and control. 2-8. In the mountains, as elsewhere, surprise is easier to achieve for the force that knows the terrain better and has the skills and equipment necessary to achieve greater mobility. The appropriate use of vertical terrain improves the element of surprise if the terrain has been analyzed properly to determine the best means to counter the enemy's reactions. Once the commander decides 2-5
on a preliminary course of action, he should immediately initiate a detailed terrain reconnaissance. 2-9. In a mountainous environment, the terrain normally favors the defender and necessitates the conduct of limited visibility operations. Highly trained units can achieve significant tactical gains and decisive victories by exploiting limited visibility. However, limited visibility operations in mountainous ter- rain require precise planning, careful daylight reconnaissance, exceptionally good command and control, and a high degree of training. Imaginative and bold limited visibility operations can minimize the advantage of terrain for the defender and shift the balance of combat power to the side that can best cope with or exploit limited visibility.OBSERVATION AND FIELDS OF FIRE 2-10. Although moun- 1. The ability to observe and identify tar- tainous terrain generally gets in conditions of bright sunlight permits excellent long- range observation and 2. The ability to estimate range in clear air fields of fire, steep slopes 3. The ability to apply wind corrections and rugged terrain affect 4. The ability to shoot accurately up and a soldier's ability to accu- down vertical slopes rately estimate range Figure 2-2. Factors Affecting Observation and frequently cause and Fields of Fire large areas to be hidden from observation. The existence of sharp relief and dead space facilitates covert approaches, making surveillance difficult despite such long-range observation. Four factors that influence what can be seen and hit in mountainous terrain are listed in Figure 2-2.COVER AND CONCEALMENT 2-11. The identification and proper use of the cover and concealment provided by mountainous terrain are fundamental to all aspects of mountain opera- tions. The ridge systems found in Level II may provide covert approaches through many areas that are hidden from observation by the vegetation and relief. The difficulties a force encounters in finding available cover and con- cealment along ridges are fewer than those on the peaks, especially above the timberline. Uncovered portions of an approach leave a force exposed to obser- vation and fire for long periods. The enemy can easily detect movement in this region, leaving commanders with three primary options to improve cover and concealment: 1. Identify and exploit avenues of approach the enemy would consider unlikely, due to their difficult ascent or descent. 2. Negotiate routes during periods of limited visibility. 3. Provide overwhelming route security.OBSTACLES 2-12. Obvious natural obstacles include deep defiles, cliffs, rivers, landslides, avalanches, crevices, and scree slopes, as well as the physical terrain of the mountains themselves. Obstacles vary in their effect on different forces. Commanders must evaluate the terrain from both the enemy and friendly
Chapter 2 force perspective. They must look specifically at the degree to which obstacles restrict operations, and at the ability of each force to exploit the tactical op- portunities that exist when obstacles are employed. Man-made obstacles used in conjunction with restrictive terrain are extremely effective in the moun- tains; however, their construction is very costly in terms of time, materiel, transportation assets, and labor. Commanders must know the location, ex- tent, and strength of obstacles so that they can be incorporated into their scheme of maneuver.KEY TERRAIN 2-13. Key terrain generally increases in importance with an increase in ele- vation and a decrease in accessibility. In the mountains, however, terrain that is higher than that held by the opposing force is often key, but only if the force is capable of fighting there. A well-prepared force capable of maneuver in rugged terrain can gain an even greater advantage over an ill-prepared enemy at higher elevation levels. 2-14. The vast majority of operations in the mountains requires that the commander designate decisive terrain in his concept of operations to commu- nicate its importance to his staff and subordinate commanders. In operations over mountainous terrain, the analysis of key and decisive terrain is based on the identification of these features at each of the three operational terrain levels. There are few truly impassable areas in the mountains. The com- mander must recognize that what may be key terrain to one force may be an obstacle to another force. He must also recognize that properly trained com- batants can use high obstructing terrain as a means to achieve decisive victo- ries with comparatively small-sized combat elements.AVENUES OF APPROACH 2-15. In mountainous terrain, there are few easily accessible avenues of ap- proach, and they usually run along valleys, defiles, or the crests and spurs of ridges. This type of geography allows the defender to economize in difficult terrain and to concentrate on dangerous avenues of approach. A typical offen- sive tactic is to conduct a coordinated assault with the main effort along ac- cessible avenues of approach, and supporting efforts by one or more maneu- ver elements on difficult and unexpected avenues of approach. Normally, high rates of advance and heavy concentration of forces are difficult or impos- sible to achieve along mountainous avenues of approach. Relief features may create large areas of dead space that facilitate covert movement. Units may use difficult and unlikely avenues of approach to achieve surprise; however, these are extremely high-risk operations and are prone to failure unless forces are well trained and experienced in mountaineering techniques. In mountainous terrain, the analysis of avenues of approach should be based on a thorough reconnaissance and evaluated in terms of the factors listed in Figure 2-3 on page 2-8.WEATHER 2-16. As discussed in Chapter 1, weather and visibility conditions in the mountainous regions of the world may create unprecedented advantages and disadvantages for combatants. To fight effectively, commanders must acquire 2-7
accurate weather informa- • Ability to achieve surprise • Vulnerability to attack fromtion about their AO. Ter- surrounding heightsrain has a dominant effect • Ability to provide mutual support toon local climate and forces on other avenues of approachweather patterns in the • Effect on rates of advance • Effect on command and controlmountains. Mountainous • Potential to accommodate deceptionareas are subject to fre- operationsquent and rapid changes of • Ability to support necessary CS and CSS operationsweather, including fog, • Access to secure rest and halt sitesstrong winds, extreme heat • Potential to fix the enemy and reduceand cold, and heavy rain or the possibility of retreatsnow. Thus, many forecaststhat describe weather overlarge areas of terrain areinherently inaccurate. Figure 2-3. Factors Affecting AnalysisCommanders must be able of Avenues of Approachto develop local, terrain-based forecasts by combining available forecasts with field observations (localtemperature, wind, precipitation, cloud patterns, barometric pressure, andsurrounding terrain). Forecasting mountain weather from the field improvesaccuracy and enhances the ability to exploit opportunities offered by theweather, while minimizing its adverse effects (see Appendix B).TROOPS AND SUPPORT AVAILABLE 2-17. Commanders must assess the operational and tactical implications of the restrictive environment on mobility, protection, firepower, and logistics. The complex task of arranging activities in time, space, and purpose requires commanders to fully understand the impact of elevation, weather, and visi- bility on the capabilities of his subordinate elements and relative combat power. Mountainous terrain and weather can greatly enhance the relative combat power of defending forces and, conversely, it can drastically reduce those of the attacking forces. For example, an infantry battalion may be in- adequate to defeat a defending infantry company in the mountains. Instead, an infantry battalion may only be capable of defeating a well-positioned in- fantry platoon. However, commanders must carefully consider each unique situation and weigh all tangible and intangible aspects of combat power (ma- neuver, firepower, leadership, protection, and information) when comparing strengths and determining the forces necessary to accomplish the mission. 2-18. Commanders must also assess the proper mix of heavy and light forces that capitalizes on the unique strengths that each type of force can bring to mountain operations while minimizing their limitations. While generally complicating command and control, an appropriate mix allows commanders more flexibility in the synchronization of their operations. Additionally, the difficulty providing combat support and combat service support for mountain operations must be evaluated to determine if the proportion of support troops to combat troops is sufficient. 2-19. Prior to and throughout an operation, commanders must continually assess the effect that the rugged mountain environment and sustained com- bat operations has on the ability of their soldiers to accomplish the mission.
Chapter 2Commanders may need to slow the pace of their operation, transition to thedefense for short periods, or rotate units to ensure that their soldiers arephysically capable of striking effectively at decisive times and locations. Toooften, commanders consider only the operational readiness (OR) rate ofequipment and logistics levels when determining their overall ability to con-tinue offensive actions. Failure to consider this intangible human aspect mayresult in increased loss of lives and mission failure.2-20. Vertical operations are an integral part of mountain operations and areone means to improve the success of decisive engagements. Commandersmust review the state of training of their units to ensure they are adequatelyprepared to maneuver and fight at various elevations. Increased require-ments for aviation support require aviation units to be capable of operating inthe specific mountain environment. Units must also have sufficient numbersof pathfinders and trained air assault personnel to select and mark landingzones (LZs) and prepare sling loads.TIME AVAILABLE2-21. In the mountains, proper tim-ing is fundamental to creating oppor- • Adaptability of plans to the terrain and varying weathertunities to fight the enemy on favor- • Increased time needed toable terms. Restrictive terrain,weather, the accumulation of chance conduct reconnaissance,errors, unexpected difficulties, and execute movements, andthe confusion of battle increase the synchronize events on thetime necessary to assemble, deploy, battlefieldmove, converge, and mass combat • Significant variance in thepower, effectively decreasing the number of hours ofamount of time available to plan and visibility with season andprepare. To optimize the time avail- elevationable, commanders must continuously Figure 2-4. Factors Affectingevaluate the impact of reduced mo- Time Availablebility caused by the weather and ter-rain. At times, commanders may need to conduct a tactical pause to facilitatethe concentration of combat power at a decisive point. However, they mustconsider time with respect to the enemy as time available is always related tothe enemy's ability to execute his own plan, prepare, and execute cycle. Fig-ure 2-4 summarizes the time considerations that are different from or greaterthan those encountered on flatter terrain.CIVIL CONSIDERATIONS 2-22. Generally, civilian population centers will be located at the lower eleva- tions of Level I close to sources of water and along major lines of communica- tions. Refugees and displaced civilians may increase congestion on the al- ready limited road and trail networks normally found in mountainous envi- ronments, further complicating maneuver and sustaining operations. 2-23. Commanders must also consider the impact of operations on the often- limited civilian resources available in the mountains. The wisdom of using lo- cal resources to lighten in-theater supply requirements must be balanced 2-9
against the impact on civilians and their local economy. While the purchase of goods and services from the local economy is generally welcomed, it may serve to inflate prices and make it impossible for local civilians to purchase their own scarce and needed supplies. 2-24. In mountainous regions, commanders often encounter a populace of di- verse political and ethnic orientation that may support, oppose, or be am- bivalent to US operations or the presence of US forces. Depending on friendly force objectives, commanders may conduct public relations, civil affairs, hu- manitarian assistance, and psychological operations (PSYOP) to influence perceptions and attitudes of neutral or uncommitted parties. Even if com- manders choose not to commit resources to enlist civilian sympathy and sup- port, they must still adjust their operations to minimize damage and loss of life to innocent civilians.SECTION II – LEADERSHIP 2-25. To help ease their anxiety in combat, soldiers must have confidence in their leaders. This confidence may diminish rapidly unless leaders demon- strate the ability to lead over formidable terrain and under the most difficult weather conditions. Superficial knowledge of mountain warfare and igno- rance or underestimation of mountain hazards and environmental effects may result in mission failure and the unnecessary loss of soldiers' lives. 2-26. Effective leadership in mountain operations combines sound judgment with a thorough understanding of the characteristics of the mountain envi- ronment. Commanders must first develop flexible and adaptable leadership throughout the chain of command. They must then be able to understand and exploit the operational and tactical implications of the mountain environ- ment, as well as its effects on personnel, equipment, and weapons. The keys to meeting this challenge are proper training and operational experience in the mountains. To fight effectively, leaders creatively exploit the opportuni- ties offered by the mountain environment while minimizing the adverse ef- fects it can have on their operations. 2-27. Leadership rapidly becomes the primary element of combat power on the mountain battlefield. Commanders must recognize the distinctive effects created by decentralization of command, develop a depth of leadership that forms the vital link to unity of effort, and organize and direct operations that require minimum intervention. While specific situations require different leadership styles and techniques, the nature of mountain warfare generally necessitates that commanders embrace the philosophy of command and control known as mission command (see FM 6-0). This type of command and control requires subordinates to make decisions rapidly within the framework of the commander's concept and intent. Commanders must be able to accept some measure of uncertainty, delegate, and trust and encourage subordinate leaders at all levels to use initiative and act alone to achieve the desired re- sults, particularly when the situation changes and they lose contact with higher headquarters.
Chapter 2SECTION III – COMMUNICATIONS 2-28. The communications means available to support operations in moun- tainous regions are the same as those to support operations in other regions of the world. However, rapid and reliable communications are especially diffi- cult to achieve and maintain in mountainous areas. The mountainous envi- ronment requires electronic equipment that is light, rugged, portable and able to exploit the advantages of higher terrain. The combined effects of ir- regular terrain patterns, magnetic and ionospheric disturbances, cold, ice, and dampness on communications equipment increase operating, mainte- nance, and supply problems and require precise planning and extensive coor- dination.COMBAT NET RADIOSINGLE-CHANNEL GROUND AND AIRBORNE RADIO SYSTEMS (SINCGARS) 2-29. The Single-channel Ground and Airborne Radio System (SINCGARS) family of frequency modulation (FM) radios is good for the control of battalion and smaller-sized units operating in a mountainous environment (see FM 6- 02.32 and FM 6-02.18). If available, hands-free radios, such as helmet- mounted radios, are an excellent means of communication for small unit tac- tics and close-in distances, particularly while negotiating rugged terrain. In colder environments, shortened battery life greatly reduces the reliability of manpacked systems that rely on constant voltage input to maintain maxi- mum accuracy. 2-30. Since even a small unit may be spread over a large area, retransmission sites may be needed to maintain communications and increase range. These sites require extensive preparation and support to ensure the survival of per- sonnel and the continued maintenance of equipment. Retransmission systems are often placed on the highest accessible terrain to afford them the best line- of-sight; however, through simple analysis, these locations are often predict- able and make them more vulnerable to enemy interdiction. The importance and difficulty of maintaining adequate communications in mountainous ter- rain requires commanders to devote additional resources for the protection of these limited assets and operators skilled in the proper use of cover and con- cealment, noise and light discipline, and other operations security (OPSEC) measures. 2-31. Physical range limitations, difficulties in establishing line-of-sight paths due to intervening terrain, and limited retransmission capabilities of- ten make it difficult to establish a brigade and larger-sized radio net. How- ever, commanders can, if within range, enter subordinate nets and establish a temporary net for various contingencies. In the mountains or if the mobile subscriber equipment network is not yet fully developed, commanders should consider the increased need for the improved high frequency radio (IHFR) family of amplitude modulation (AM) radios and single-channel tactical sat- ellite communications terminals for extended distances. 2-11
SATELLITE COMMUNICATIONS (SATCOM)2-32. Satellite communications • Greater freedom from siting(SATCOM) terminals are light, restrictionssmall, portable ground termi-nals that are able to communi- • Extended range, capacity, andcate in spite of rugged terrain. coverageDuring operations in mountain-ous areas having little or no in- • Mobility and rapid employment • Extremely high circuit reliabilityfrastructure to support com- Figure 2-5. SATCOM Advantagesmand and control, satellitecommunications become the primary means of communications. Single chan-nel SATCOM are currently transmitted over the ultrahigh frequency (UHF)band and readily support forces operating in the mountains, while providingworldwide tactical communications, in-theater communications, combat netradio (CNR) range extension, and linkage between elements of long-rangesurveillance units (LRSUs) and Army special operations forces (ARSOF).SATCOM can network with multiple users, communicate while enroute,penetrate foliage while on the ground, and has several other advantagesmaking it an ideal system for mountain communications (see Figure 2-5).However, limitations include restricted access, low-rate data communications,and lack of antijam capability. Commanders should review FM 6-02.11 forfurther information on the employment of SATCOM.COMMAND AND CONTROL (C2) AIRCRAFT 2-33. Using C2 aircraft can assist the commander in overcoming ground mo- bility restrictions and may improve communications that would otherwise limit his ability to direct the battle. In the mountains, terrain masking, while making flight routing more difficult, may provide the degree of protection needed to allow an increased use of aircraft. To avoid radar or visual acquisi- tion and to survive, C2 aircraft must use the same terrain flight techniques employed by other tactical aviation units. This flight method often degrades FM communications and reinforces the requirement for radio relay or re- transmission sites.ANTENNAS AND GROUNDS 2-34. Directional antennas, both bidirectional and unidirectional, may be needed to increase range and maintain radio communications. Although easy to fabricate, directional antennas are less flexible and more time-consuming to set up. Positioning of all antennas is also crucial in the mountains because moving an antenna even a small distance can significantly affect reception. 2-35. Antenna icing, a common occurrence at high elevations, significantly degrades communications. Ice may also make it difficult to extend or lower antennas, and the weight of ice buildup, combined with increased brittleness, may cause them to break. Antennas should have extra guy wires, supports, and anchor stakes to strengthen them to withstand heavy ice and wind load- ing. All large horizontal antennas should be equipped with a system of coun- terweights arranged to slacken before wire or poles break from the excess pressures of ice or wind. Soldiers may be able to remove wet snow and sleet that freezes to antennas by jarring their supports, or by attaching a hose to
Chapter 2 the exhaust pipe of a vehicle and directing the hot air on the ice until it melts. However, soldiers must exercise great care to ensure that the antenna is not damaged in their attempts to dislodge the ice. 2-36. Ground rods and guy wires are often difficult to drive into rocky and frozen earth. Mountain pitons are excellent anchors for antenna guys in this type of soil. In extreme cold, ropes can be frozen to the ground and guys tied to these anchor ropes. Adequate grounding is also difficult to obtain on frozen or rocky surfaces due to high electrical resistance. Where it is possible to in- stall a grounding rod, it should be driven into the earth as deep as possible or through the ice on frozen lakes or rivers. Grounding in rocky soil may be im- proved by adding salt solutions to improve electrical flow.MOBILE SUBSCRIBER EQUIPMENT 2-37. Like FM, mobile subscriber equipment (MSE) requires a line-of-sight transmission path and a tactical satellite or several relay sites to overcome mountainous terrain and maintain MSE connectivity (FM 6-02.55 contains in-depth information concerning the deployment and employment of MSE).WIRE AND FIELD PHONES 2-38. Wire is normally one of the most reliable means of communication. Un- fortunately, in rugged mountains and particularly during the winter months, wire is more difficult and time consuming to install, maintain, and protect. Wire may be dispensed in mountain areas by tracked or wheeled vehicle, foot, skis, snowshoes, or oversnow vehicles. As in any environment, units must pe- riodically patrol their wire lines to ensure that they have remained camou- flaged and that the enemy has not tapped into them. 2-39. Snow-covered cables and wire can cause the loss of many man-days in recovering or maintaining circuits. This can be avoided by pulling the cable from under the snow after each snowfall and letting it rest just below the sur- face of the snow. Trees or poles can be used to support wire. Allowances must be made for drifting snow when determining the height above ground at which to support the lines. However, when crossing roads, it is preferable to run the wire through culverts and under bridges rather than bury or raise wire overhead. In addition to ease, this technique reduces maintenance re- quirements associated with vehicles severing lines, particularly with higher volumes of traffic on limited road networks. If long-distance wire communica- tions are required, the integration of radio relay systems must be considered. 2-40. Great care must be taken in handling wire and cables in extreme cold weather. Condensation and ice on connectors make connecting cables difficult and can degrade the signal path. When rubber jackets become hard, the ca- bles must be protected from stretching and bending to prevent short circuits caused by breaks in the covering. Therefore, all tactical cable and wire should be stored in heated areas or warmed prior to installation. TC 24-20 provides more detailed information on the installation and maintenance of wire and cable. 2-41. Field phones are useful in a stationary position, such as a mountain pa- trol base or an ambush site, although leaders must consider the weight and 2-13
difficulties encountered in laying and maintaining wire in these sites of lim- ited duration. The batteries that are used to operate field telephones and switchboards are subject to the same temperature limitations as those used to power tactical radio sets. 2-42. When used with a hands-free phone, commercially available rope with a communication wire in it is ideally suited for mountain operations. This sys- tem is lightweight and easy to manage, and provides an added measure of se- curity during limited visibility operations. In addition to the standard uses, since it functions as both a rope and a wire, it can be used to control move- ment on all types of installations, and it can serve as a primary means of communication for climbing teams.AUDIO, VISUAL, AND PHYSICAL SIGNALS 2-43. Leaders can use simple audio signals, such as voice or whistles, to lo- cally alert and warn. Sound travels farther in mountain air. Although this ef- fect may increase the possibility of enemy detection, interrupting terrain, wind conditions, and echoes can restrict voice and whistle commands to cer- tain directions and uses. 2-44. Like audio signals, visual signals such as pyrotechnics and mirrors have limited use due to enemy detection, but may work for routine and emer- gency traffic at the right time and place. Blowing sand or snow, haze, fog, and other atmospheric conditions may periodically affect range and reliability. 2-45. Units should use hand and arm signals instead of the radio or voice whenever possible, especially when close to the enemy. Luminous tape on the camouflage band, luminous marks on a compass, or flashlights may be used as signals at night over short distances. Infrared sources and receiving equipment, such as night vision goggles, aiming lights, and infrared filters for flashlights, can be used to send and receive signals at night. However, an en- emy outfitted with similar equipment can also detect active devices. 2-46. A tug system is a common method of signaling between members of a roped climbing team. However, tug systems are often unreliable when climb- ers are moving on a rope or when the distance is so great that the friction of the rope on the rock absorbs the signals. Separate tug lines can be installed in static positions by tying a string, cord, or wire from one position to the next. Soldiers can pass signals quietly and quickly between positions by pulling on the tug line in a prearranged code.MESSENGER 2-47. Although slow, communication by messenger is frequently the only means available to units operating in the mountains. Messengers should be trained climbers, resourceful, familiar with mountain peculiarities, and able to carry their own existence load. During the winter, advanced skiing skills may also be required. Messengers should always be dispatched in pairs. Air messenger service should be scheduled between units and integrated with the aerial resupply missions. Vehicles may also be employed to maintain messen- ger communications when conditions of time, terrain, and distance permit.
Chapter 2SECTION IV – TRAINING2-48. Because US forces do not routinely train in a mountain environment,they must make extensive preparations to ensure individual and unit effec-tiveness. Ultimate success in the mountains depends largely on developingcohesive, combat-ready teams consisting of well-trained soldiers. To be suc-cessful, commanders must understand the stratification of mountain warfare,recognize the unique aspects of leadership required, and implement trainingprograms that prepare soldiers for the rigors of mountain fighting.2-49. In the mountains, • Mountaineering skillscommanders face the challenge of • Air assault and air movementmaintaining their units' combateffectiveness and efficiency. To operationsmeet this challenge, commanders • Deceptionconduct training that provides • Stealth and infiltrationsoldiers with the mountaineering • Limited visibility operationsskills necessary to apply combat • Patrollingpower in a rugged mountain • Reconnaissanceenvironment, and they develop • Communicationsleaders capable of applying • CS and CSS operationsdoctrine to the distinct characteris-tics of mountain warfare. Figure 2-6. Training Areas of Emphasis2-50. The ability to apply doctrine and tactics in mountainous environmentsis not as easy to develop as technical proficiency. Training, study, and garri-son experimentation may provide the basis for competence. However, onlythrough experience gained by practical application in the mountains willleaders become skilled in mountain warfare. Proficiency in the areas listed inFigure 2-6 will provide commanders with a degree of flexibility in the applica-tion of doctrine to a mountain area of operations.2-51. The best combat and combat support plans cannot ensure victory unlesscommanders concentrate on developing a leadership climate that is derivedfrom the human dimension of mountain warfare. The complexities of moun-tain combat make it extremely important to establish training programs thatmodify the traditional application of tactics so that units can reach their fullpotential. Training must simulate the tempo, scope, and uncertainty of moun-tain combat to create the versatility required to capitalize on the harsh envi-ronment as a force multiplier.2-52. Competent units operate effectively in mountains and focus on the bat-tle. Unprepared units, however, may become distracted by the environmentand end up expending as much effort fighting the environment as they dofighting the enemy. Soldiers cannot be fully effective unless they have theproper clothing and equipment, and are trained to protect themselves againstthe effects of terrain and frequent and sudden changes in weather. 2-15
INITIAL TRAINING ASSESSMENT 2-53. In addition to the questions applicable to every mission, commanders must consider the following when preparing for operations in a mountainous environment: • What kind of mountains will the unit be operating in? § What elevations will the unit be operating at? § What are the climatic and terrain conditions of the AO? § Are at least two years of accurate weather reports available (see Appendix B)? • When must the unit be ready to move? • What training resources are needed and available? • Are local training areas and ranges available? § If not, what alternative arrangements can be made? § What available training areas most closely resemble the AO? • What special equipment does the unit require? • What training assistance is available? § Does the unit have former mountain warfare instructors, military mountaineers, or others with experience in a mountainous environment? § Are instructors available from outside the unit? • What special maintenance is required for weapons and equipment? • What is the level of physical fitness? • What additional combat, combat support, and combat service support units are necessary to accomplish the operational missions? § Can specific units be identified for possible coordinated training? • Will allied and multinational troops participate? 2-54. As commanders get answers to these and other questions, they must develop training programs to bring their units to a level where they will be fully capable of operating successfully in mountainous conditions. To do this, they must establish priorities for training. The training requirements listed in Figure 2-7 are only a guide. Commanders should add, delete, and modify the tasks as necessary, depending on the specific AO, the state of readiness of their units when they begin preparations for mountain operations, and the time and facilities available (see FM 7-10).PHYSICAL CONDITIONING 2-55. Soldiers who have lived and trained mostly at lower elevations tend to develop a sense of insecurity and fear about higher elevations – many are simply afraid of heights in general. With this in mind, leaders must plan training that accustoms soldiers to the effects of the mountain environment. Physical conditioning must be strictly enforced, since "new muscle" strain as- sociated with balance and prolonged ascents/descents quickly exhausts even the most physically fit soldiers. Even breathing becomes strenuous, given the
Chapter 2 TRAINING ALL STAFF AND TEAMS AND SPECIALISTS REQUIREMENTS LEADERS CREW ✔ ✔Physical Conditioning and ✔ ✔ MEMEBERS ✔Acclimatization ✔ ✔ ✔Mountain Illnesses and Injuries ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔Mountain Living and Survival ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔Mountain Navigation Techniques ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔Mounted and Dismounted March ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ Planning ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔Communications Techniques ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔Weapons/Equipment Training ✔ ✔ ✔Additional Maintenance ✔ ✔ ✔ ✔Requirements ✔ ✔Camouflage and Concealment ✔ ✔ObstaclesAbove-ground FortificationsLevel 1 MountaineeringLevel 2 and 3 MountaineeringDriver and Pilot TrainingAir Assault/Air MovementOperationsNBC Operations Figure 2-7. Mountain Preparatory Trainingthinner atmosphere at higher altitudes. Therefore, training must emphasizeexercises designed to strengthen leg muscles and build cardiovascular (aero-bic) endurance (see FM 3-25.20). Frequent marches and climbs with normalequipment loads enhance conditioning and familiarize soldiers with mountainwalking techniques.MOUNTAIN LIVING 2-56. Successful mountain living requires that personnel adjust to special conditions, particularly terrain and weather. To develop confidence, soldiers should train in conditions that closely resemble those they will face. Lengthy exercises test support facilities and expose soldiers to the isolation common to mountain operations. The mountain area of operations can be harsh, and training should develop soldiers who possess the necessary field craft and psychological edge to operate effectively under mountainous conditions. Al- though FM 4-25.10 and FM 3-25.76 do not specifically address mountain environments, much of their information applies. Regardless of the level of technical mountaineering training required, all soldiers deploying to a moun- tainous region should be trained in the areas listed in Figure 2-8 on page 2- 18. 2-17
NAVIGATION 2-57. Navigation in the moun- • Temperature extremes and tains is made more difficult be- clothing requirements cause of inaccurate mapping, magnetic attraction that affects • Bivouac techniques and shelter compass accuracy, and the ir- construction regular pace of the soldiers. It is easy to mistake large terrain fea- • Elevation and rarified air effects tures that are very far away for • Hygiene, sanitation, and health features that are much closer. The increased necessity for hazards • Locating and purifying water • Food-gathering techniques limited-visibility operations re- Figure 2-8. Mountain Living stricts the use of terrain tech- Training niques as the primary means of determining and maintaining direction. Individuals must train to use a vari- ety of equipment, such as a compass, an altimeter, global positioning system devices, and maps, as well as learn techniques pertaining to terrestrial navi- gation, terrain association, dead reckoning, resectioning, and artillery mark- ing (see FM 3-25.26).WEAPONS AND EQUIPMENT 2-58. Nearly every weapon or piece of equipment familiar to the soldier is af- fected to some degree by the mountain environment. In addition to honing skills, training must focus on the specific operational area and ways to over- come anticipated environmental impacts when using weapons and equip- ment. 2-59. Individual marksmanship training must emphasize the effect of wind and include practical training in wind measurement techniques and adjusted aiming points (holdoff). Practical training in range estimation techniques, combined with using laser range finders, M19 binoculars, target reference points, and range cards, helps to overcome difficulties in range estimation. 2-60. In the conduct of their preparations, commanders should strive to in- crease the number of qualified snipers within their units, as they are ideal in the mountains and can be used to adversely affect enemy mobility by deliv- ering long range precision rifle fire on selected targets. They can inflict casu- alties, slow enemy movement, lower morale, and add confusion to enemy op- erations. A single sniper team in well-concealed positions, such as mountain passes, can severely impede enemy movement (see FM 3-21.20 and FM 3-91.2 for further information on sniper employment).CAMOUFLAGE AND CONCEALMENT 2-61. The basic principles of camouflage and concealment also apply in mountain operations (see FM 3-24.3). However, certain elements must be adjusted for snow. With snow on the ground, standard camouflage nets and paint patterns are unsuitable. In areas where snow cover is above 15 percent of the background, winter camouflage nets should take the place of standard nets and temporary white paint should be used over the green portions of ve- hicles. In terrain with more than 85 percent snow cover, the vehicles and
Chapter 2 equipment should be solid white. However, with less than 15 percent snow cover, standard patterns should be maintained. 2-62. Snow provides excellent conditions for threat thermal and ultraviolet sensor detection. To counter these types of sensors, soldiers must be trained to utilize the terrain to mask themselves and their weapons and equipment from enemy detection. The mountainous terrain often limits the access routes to and from selected positions. Commanders must take appropriate measures to conceal vehicle tracks and limit movement times to periods of limited visi- bility. Snow presents a significant problem, making movement discipline an absolute requirement. When moving, leaders should be trained to follow the shadows along windswept drift lines as much as possible. Drivers should learn to avoid sharp turns, which are easily recognizable in the snow, and follow existing track marks where possible.FORTIFICATIONS 2-63. Fighting and protective positions in the mountains do not differ signifi- cantly from other environments, except in areas of snow and rock (see FM 3- 34.112 for more information on common survivability positions and FM 3- 97.11 for positions created in snow). Digging positions in rocky ground is dif- ficult and often impossible. If demolitions, pneumatic drills, and jackham- mers are available, positions may be blasted or drilled in the rock to afford some degree of protection. More often, it will be necessary to build above- ground positions by stacking boulders, stones, and gabions. If possible, exist- ing rock formations should be used as structural wall components. 2-64. If above-ground positions are to be used, considerable care should be taken to avoid siting them in view of any likely enemy avenues of approach. Even a two-man position is difficult to conceal if it is above the timberline. Camouflage nets and the use of background rocks are necessary to break up the outline of the position and hide straight edges. 2-65. Positions should be built of the largest rocks available, wedged securely together. Extreme care should be taken that the walls are stable and not leaning or sloping downhill. An unstable wall is more of a liability than an asset, as the first impact may cause it to collapse onto the defenders. Rocks and gabions should be stacked to systematically overlap each joint or seam to help ensure stable construction. Larger rocks or stones can be used to help bond layers of rock beneath. If possible, a layer of sandbags should be placed on the top of and around the inside of the wall. Substantial overhead cover is normally required in rocky areas. The effects of artillery bursts within and above a protective position are greatly enhanced by rock and gravel dis- placement or avalanche. Figure 2-9 on page 2-20 shows simple examples of the right and wrong way to build these positions.MILITARY MOUNTAINEERING 2-66. The skills required for movement are often difficult to learn and usually very perishable. Commanders must understand the application and mechan- ics of technical mountaineering systems needed for mobility and movement of soldiers and equipment. In the mountains, a unit may be ineffective unless it has the prerequisite technical training. However, some mountains may 2-19
feature terrain that is relatively benign, requiring minimal specialized tech-niques. Other areas will mandate the need for more advanced mountaineer-ing skills. One key to quickly determining the type and extent of training re-quired is to analyze and classify the level of individual movement requiredaccording to the dismounted mobility classification table introduced in Chap-ter 1. Once commanders have determined the specific level and tasks re-quired, TC 90-6-1 will provide them with detailed information on specificmountaineering techniques and equipment (described below).2-67. Military moun-taineering training pro-vides tactical mobilityin mountainous terrainthat would otherwise beinaccessible. Soldiers WRONG RIGHTwith specialized train- BUILD STABLE WALLSing who are skilled inusing mountain climb-ing equipment andtechniques can over-come the difficulties of WRONG RIGHTobstructing terrain.Highly motivated sol-diers who are in supe- BREAK THE JOINTrior physical conditionshould be selected formore advanced militarymountaineering train- WRONG RIGHTing (Levels 2 and 3)conducted at appropri- LAYER SANDBAGSate facilities. Soldiers BONDwho have completed ad- STONESvanced mountaineeringtraining should be usedas trainers, guides, and SIDE VIEW FRONTAL VIEWlead climbers duringcollective training. They Figure 2-9. Fortifications in Rocky Soilmay also serve as su-pervisors of installation teams (see Chapter 4) and evacuation teams (seeChapter 5). Properly used, these soldiers can drastically improve mobility andhave a positive impact disproportionate to their numbers. Units anticipatingmountain operations should strive to achieve approximately ten percent oftheir force with advanced mountaineering skills.LEVEL 1: BASIC MOUNTAINEER 2-68. The basic mountaineer, a graduate of a basic mountaineering course, should be trained in the fundamental travel and climbing skills necessary to move safely and efficiently in mountainous terrain. These soldiers should be comfortable functioning in this environment and, under the supervision of qualified mountain leaders or assault climbers, can assist in the rigging and use of all basic rope installations. On technically difficult terrain, the basic
Chapter 2mountaineer should be capable of performing duties as the "follower" or "sec-ond" on a roped climbing team, and should be well trained in using all basicrope systems. These soldiers may provide limited assistance to soldiers un-skilled in mountaineering techniques. Particularly adept soldiers may be se-lected as members of special purpose teams led and supervised by advancedmountaineers. Figure 2-10 lists the minimum knowledge and skills requiredof basic mountaineers.• Characteristics of the mountain • Rope management and knots environment (summer and winter) • Natural anchors • Familiarization with artificial• Mountaineering safety• Use, care, and packing of anchors individual cold weather clothing • Belay and rappel techniques • Use of fixed ropes (lines) and equipment • Rock climbing fundamentals • Rope bridges and lowering• Care and use of basic mountaineering equipment systems• Mountain bivouac techniques • Individual movement on snow and• Mountain communications ice• Mountain travel and walking • Mountain stream crossings (to techniques include water survival techniques)• Hazard recognition and route • First aid for mountain illnesses selection and injuries• Mountain navigation• Basic medical evacuation Figure 2-10. Level 1: Basic Mountaineer Tasks2-69. In a unit training program, level 1 qualified soldiers should be identi-fied and prepared to serve as assistant instructors to train unqualified sol-diers in basic mountaineering skills. All high-risk training, however, must beconducted under the supervision of qualified level 2 or 3 personnel.LEVEL 2: ASSAULT CLIMBER 2-70. Assault climbers are responsible for the rigging, inspection, use, and operation of all basic rope systems. They are trained in additional rope man- agement skills, knot tying, belay and rappel techniques, as well as using spe- cialized mountaineering equipment. Assault climbers are capable of rigging complex, multipoint anchors and high-angle raising/lowering systems. Level 2 qualification is required to supervise all high-risk training associated with Level 1. At a minimum, assault climbers should possess the additional knowledge and skills shown in Figure 2-11 on page 2-22.LEVEL 3: MOUNTAIN LEADER 2-71. Mountain leaders possess all the skills of the assault climber and have extensive practical experience in a variety of mountain environments in both winter and summer conditions. Level 3 mountaineers should have well- developed hazard evaluation and safe route finding skills over all types of mountainous terrain. Mountain leaders are best qualified to advise com- manders on all aspects of mountain operations, particularly the preparation and leadership required to move units over technically difficult, hazardous, or 2-21
• Use specialized mountaineering • Movement on moderate angle equipment snow and ice• Perform multipitch climbing: • Establish evacuation systems - Free climbing and aid climbing and perform high angle rescue - Leading on class 4 and 5 terrain • Perform avalanche hazard evaluation and rescue• Conduct multipitch rappelling techniques• Establish and operate hauling • Familiarization with movement systems on glaciers• Establish fixed ropes with intermediate anchors Figure 2-11. Level 2: Assault Climber Tasksexposed terrain. The mountain leader is the highest level of qualification andis the principle trainer for conducting mountain operations. Instructor expe-rience at a military mountaineering training center or as a member of a spe-cial operations forces (SOF) mountain team is critical to acquiring Level 3qualification. Figure 2-12 outlines the additional knowledge and skills ex-pected of mountain leaders. Depending on the specific AO, mountain leadersmay need additional skills such as snowshoeing and all-terrain skiing.• Recognizing and evaluating • Glacier travel and crevice rescue peculiar terrain, weather, and • Establish and operate technical hazards high angle, multipitch rescue and• Preparing route, movement, evacuation systems bivouac, and risk management • Winter shelters and survival plans for all conditions and techniques elevation levels • Leading units over technically difficult, hazardous or exposed• Roped movement techniques on terrain in both winter and steep snow and ice summer conditions• Multipitch climbing on mixed terrain (rock, snow, and ice)Figure 2-12. Level 3: Mountain Leader TasksDRIVER TRAINING • Identification and recognition of potential dangers 2-72. Driving in mountains is extremely difficult. To be suc- • Movement along steep grades cessful, drivers must know their combined with: equipment's limitations and ca- - Narrow roads and sharp curves pabilities. Training should cen- - Loose rock and gravel ter on practical exercises in - Ice and snow (to include using mountainous terrain that tire chains for wheeled vehicles) gradually introduce drivers to - Towed loads more complex terrain and weather conditions. The exact • Increased cold weather nature of the mountainous ter- maintenance requirements rain determines the training (see Figure 2-13). Figure 2-13. Driver Training
Chapter 2ARMY AVIATION 2-73. The mountainous environment, particularly its severe and rapidly changing weather, affects aircraft performance capabilities, accelerates crew fatigue, and influences basic flight techniques. These techniques can be ac- quired only through a specific training program for the particular type of mountainous terrain. Additionally, limited visibility operations in the moun- tains are extremely hazardous and require extensive training for those avia- tion units involved. Common problems associated with mountain operations become much more complex at night, even when using night vision devices. Few Army aviation units regularly train for mountain operations, so it is critical to alert them as soon as possible to facilitate the required training to ensure safe and successful mission execution.RECONNAISSANCE AND SURVEILLANCE 2-74. Training in reconnaissance and surveillance should focus on traffica- bility (route, mobility, and bridge classification), potential drop zones or landing areas, likely defensive positions, and potential infiltration routes. In- filtration and exfiltration are relatively easy in mountainous terrain and con- stitute a significant threat to the maneuver elements and their support units.TEAM DEVELOPMENT 2-75. The decentralized nature of mountain combat and the need for the ex- ercise of a mission command philosophy of command and control involve as- signing missions to independently operating small teams that may be isolated from their higher headquarters. The disruptive influences of the environment and sustained physical stress further increase the perception of isolation (see FM 4-02.22). The most important factor that sustains a soldier in combat is the powerful psychological support that he receives from his primary group, such as a buddy team, squad, or platoon. He is less likely to feel the stress of loneliness under the isolated conditions of mountain warfare if his primary group maintains its integrity. 2-76. The soldier's ability to survive and operate in the mountains is the ba- sis for the self-confidence needed to feel accepted by the team. Leaders must develop small-unit cohesion down to the buddy team. Each soldier must have a buddy to share both responsibilities and rewards. The leader must not sim- ply assign two soldiers as a buddy team, but pair soldiers whose skills and at- tributes complement each other. Each soldier can then learn his buddy's spe- cialized skills adding depth to the unit if one soldier becomes disabled. Sol- diers work with their buddies, as well as function as part of the larger squad team. The combined strengths of buddies enhance both unit effectiveness and combat power. FM 6-22 has more information on team development. 2-23
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