High school teacher Maria Johnson isn't impressed by her students' Google and Wikipedia research.
Washington (CNN) - A new study from the Pew Research Center's Internet and American Life Project found cell phones, tablets, Google and Wikipedia are at the center of how educators teach and how students learn - but they bring new challenges, too.
Almost three-quarters of teachers surveyed said cell phones are used in their classrooms to complete assignments, while 45% use e-readers and 43% use tablet computers.
The Pew study said 76% of teachers surveyed strongly agree that "search engines have conditioned students to expect to be able to find information quickly and easily," and 83% agree that the amount of information is overwhelming.
The survey of about 2,400 middle school and high school teachers from across the United States asked how they use technology in their classrooms and at home. The teachers were all Advanced Placement teachers or from the National Writing Project, so all their students are considered academically advanced.
"Several teachers noted that if a student looks for a particular piece of information online for a few minutes and can't find it, they will often not interpret that to mean they have to search differently or go to a different resource," said Kristen Purcell, the main author of the report.
Students will assume "that information is not out there to be found," she said. "If it were, the search engine would find it quickly."
Editor's note: Don't miss the premiere of "The Bully Effect" on "AC360" at 10 p.m. ET tonight.
(CNN) - In the last few years, awareness about bullying has increased dramatically. Some adults may still think bullying is just a youthful rite of passage, but it seems worse than in previous generations for many parents, educators and kids.
It doesn't stop at the schoolyard or even a child's front door. Access to the Internet and social media websites mean kids can be bullied and tormented around the clock, even in the supposed safety of their own homes. The cruelty that can come with the strike of a button on a keyboard can hurt just as much as any punch or push in a playground.
I first started reporting on the problem of bullying a few years ago when a rash of suicides of children propelled the issue into the national spotlight. Since then, I've interviewed far too many parents whose children took their own lives because they felt like it was the only way out of the pain. It's not just tragic, it's unacceptable.
Analy High School students watch while a 3-D printer makes a tetrahedron die in their Project Make class.
(CNN) - You can almost hear the old shop teacher asking - so, how is this going to work?
In his State of the Union speech, President Barack Obama talked about redesigning schools for a high-tech future. He gave a shout-out to a technical high school in Brooklyn, and to 3-D printing. In a moment of seeming agreement, Republican Sen. Marco Rubio mentioned incentives for schools to add vocational and career training.
But long gone are the days of shop class, or even "vocational training," said Stephen DeWitt, the senior director of public policy for the Association for Career and Technical Education. For many years, he saw career and technical education cut by shrunken budgets or "literally and figuratively left in the back of the school, separate from academics."
What's emerging in schools now is something tougher to pin down. In one district, it might be a fancy new school dedicated to teaching tech. In another, an apprenticeship program. Some schools design career and technical classes to line up with college-prep courses that guide students to become engineers, chefs, CEOs or doctors. Almost 80% of high school students who concentrated on career and technical studies pursued some type of postsecondary education within two years of finishing high school, the U.S. Department of Education reported in 2011.
"We're hearing policy makers talk about it more often. Certain districts are looking at career and technical education as a way to reform schools," DeWitt said. "The focus on project-based learning, how to get students engaged more, is something that's caught on."
That might mean more maker spaces sprouting up at schools, too.
Students helped build out the maker space at Analy High School.
They are exactly what they sound like - a space to make things. The workshops and warehouses have taken off in communities around the country during the last few years, but the push to add them to schools is still fresh.
"Maker spaces aren't in schools and they need to be," MAKE magazine founder Dale Dougherty told a crowd at Maker Faire in Michigan last summer. "Not just a summer camp, not just an after-school program."
MAKE secured a grant from the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency to build the "hacker spaces" in schools - a move some criticized because of its military ties. The money helped to launch maker spaces at a handful of Northern California schools this school year.
The goal: more than 1,000 by 2015.
A survey of teachers revealed most teachers would not bring a weapon to their school but would feel safer with armed guards.
(CNN) - Nearly three-fourths of the nation's teachers say they personally would not bring a firearm to their school if allowed, but most educators believe armed guards would improve campus safety, a new survey showed.
Since the December massacre by a lone gunman in Newtown, Connecticut, many schools have hastened to add safety measures in an effort to prevent similar violence.The most common step since the shooting at Sandy Hook Elementary School that left 20 first-graders and six educators dead has been ensuring that all doors are locked, teachers said.
Of the nearly 11,000 educators surveyed nationwide, most said they generally feel safe in their schools, but disagreed on whether their workplaces were safe from gun violence.
Nearly four in 10 school superintendents who responded said their schools were not safe from gun violence, slightly higher than the 31% of teachers who felt their schools were not safe.
January's online survey was conducted by School Improvement Network, a for-profit company that specializes in professional development for educators and partners with schools, districts, and educators.
Some 72.4% of educators said they would be unlikely to bring a firearm to school if allowed to do so.


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Dale Surowitz, Amandeep Kaur, and Sheldon Steier congratulate a new graduate of the Annenberg School of Nursing
Just a few weeks ago, the Los Angeles Jewish Home's Annenberg School of Nursing graduated its most recent class of vocational nurses (LVN). Seventeen students of all ages and backgrounds completed the 13-month program, which culminated in a COVID-safe, drive-thru ceremony recognizing their impressive achievements.
With the pandemic continuing to be a challenge, these students pressed on with their studies, receiving vital clinical training that tested their mettle. Each student committed to the full-time program, study groups, and hours of homework.
"This was such an impressive group of individuals, and they were all determined to succeed," states Amandeep Kaur, director of the Annenberg School. "Some of them lost family members while going through the program, and others became new parents. But nothing stopped them from persevering, and I was so proud of that."
Amandeep and the rest of the school's expert educators, Jewish Home CEO and President Dale Surowitz, Annenberg Board of Directors Chair Sheldon Steier, and Jewish Home senior staff were all on-hand to join in the celebration. Each student was presented with a certificate of completion and ceremonial Florence Nightingale nursing lamp as they emerged one at a time from their family's cars to receive the honors.
Among the recipients was Sarai Rodriguez, who has a deep history of connection to the Jewish Home. Her aunt, Josie Mata, the team leader of activities in the Home's Taper Building, will soon be celebrating her 32nd anniversary as a Jewish Home employee.
Annenberg graduate Sarai Rodriguez and family
"It's wonderful to have my niece join us as a member of the Jewish Home family," Josie says. That family includes multiple members of the Mata family: One of Josie's sisters (and Sarai's mother), Ibeth Mata, a medical technician at the Eisenberg Newman Building, has spent nearly 26 years working at the Home. Josie's nephew, Hector Landeros, is an LVN who has worked at the Home's Brandman Centers for Senior Care, a Program of All-inclusive Care for the Elderly, for about five years. For nearly 16 years, Sarai's cousin Walter has worked in maintenance at Fountainview. Even Sarai's father, Wilfredy, is in on the action; he, too, has been a Jewish Home employee with the Auerbach Geriatric Psychiatry Unit in the JEK Building for 25 years.
Given how rooted she is at the Jewish Home and the significant role it has played in her family's life, it comes as no surprise that Sarai chose to pursue her education there. Looking to the future, perhaps she will decide to develop her career at the Home, as well, continuing the Mata family's legacy of intergenerational impact on seniors across our community.
"Our entire family is so proud of Sarai!" Josie says. "We're also just incredibly grateful to the Jewish Home, which gives so many opportunities, not just to the Mata family, but to everyone looking to develop and grow. The Jewish Home is the best—you can't find any other place like it!"
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Contrary to its tag, the Little Gallery in Benson will feature the versatile and prolific Omaha artist Courtney Kenny Porto in its next exhibit, Switch it Up, which opens this Friday, June 2, from 6-9 p.m.
Eschewing her more familiar exotic and figurative work, for the past several months Porto has been painting hundreds of light switch covers for her upcoming show during this month's Benson First Friday.
She originally decided to use light switch covers as her canvas as a less expensive way for viewers to buy an original piece of art. Porto was also interested in the idea that these pieces can be used functionally, as true light-switch covers, or displayed in groups as a multi-paneled painting.
To that end, the ambitious Porto has painted about 450 covers in order to cover a 19-ft wall in the Little Gallery. Her intention is for the viewer to be completely engulfed in hundreds of small pieces of art.
The majority of Porto's covers are abstract pieces, utilizing design, texture and composition; some are representational, one group makes up a larger recognizable image and a few depict small segments from other larger paintings.
Though the work in Switch It Up may appear at first glance to be only decorative and industrial, Porto raises the bar with her knack for clever composition, graphic design and gestural mark-making.
The wall light covers and other related paintings in Switch It Up will open June 2 at the Little Gallery in Benson from 6-9 p.m. and continue until June. 30.


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Justia Patents Determination Of Communication ParametersUS Patent for Method and apparatus for non-intrusive single-ended voice quality assessment in VoIP Patent (Patent # 8,305,913)
Method and apparatus for non-intrusive single-ended voice quality assessment in VoIP
Jun 15, 2006 - Nortel Networks Limited
An apparatus (1240), method, and computer program to assess VoIP speech quality (130) using access to degraded signals is provided. Different types of impairment (110) have different effect, on speech quality. Preferred embodiments address up to four different types of impairment that affect VoIP signal quality: packet loss (230), speech clipping in time (850), noise (1400) and echo. An overall assessment algorithm factors in degradation due to various impairment factors to generate an overall speech quality assessment score or value.
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This application claims priority under 35 USC 119(e) to U.S. provisional Application Ser. No. 60/810,575, filed on Jun. 2, 2006, and which is incorporated herein by reference. This application is a continuation-in-part of, and claims priority under 35 USC 365 to international application No. PCT/IB2005/001680 filed on Jun. 15, 2005, which application claims priority under 35 USC 119(e) to U.S. provisional Application Ser. No. 60/579,703 filed on Jun. 15, 2004, and which are incorporated herein by reference.
This disclosure relates generally to voice-over-internet-protocol (VoIP) systems and more specifically to an apparatus, method, and computer program for voice quality assessment in a VoIP system.
VoIP is a promising technology that is expected to replace traditional telephone networks. Although VoIP is efficient, its speech quality is still less than what telephone users are accustomed to, due to packet loss, more perceived echo, excessive delay, and clipping. Network administrators need to maintain certain level of quality by monitoring speech quality of live calls for actions to be taken.
Subjective methods are unsuitable for live calls assessment. Objective intrusive methods mandate a reference signal, therefore cannot monitor live calls. The only suitable method is the E-model that estimates the speech quality based on statistics collected from the network.
The above discussion led VoIP service providers to implement a variety of techniques to enhance speech quality offered in VoIP. This resulted in a large number of providers offering services with competing prices and different levels of quality. The problem now changed to how to assess the quality of speech offered. Providers need methods to assess the performance of their services and compare it to services offered by competing providers. Engineers also need these methods to evaluate the newly developed techniques and compare it to old ones. Network administrators need methods to monitor the quality of speech transmitted through the networks, so they can take actions whenever the quality of speech degrades. Finally, the users also need these methods to compare the quality offered by different service providers.
One of the most important issues in VoIP these days is to measure the speech quality. Efforts have been focused to develop methods to measure the speech quality especially for VoIP. To measure the speech quality correctly, these methods have to reflect the human perception of speech quality. The most reliable approaches are the subjective methods. In these methods, a number of subjects (humans) rate the speech signals. The average of their ratings is calculated and is considered as the quality rate of the signal.
The most well known subjective test is MOS (Mean Opinion Score). Developers try to develop objective methods which give the same quality scores as MOS does.
Objective methods are those carried out by machines, without human interference. These methods are necessary for monitoring network performance since subjective methods cannot be used for this purpose. Most of the available objective methods are intrusive in nature. In these intrusive techniques, a reference signal is injected in the network from some point and received at another point. Since the original signal is known, the received degraded signal can be rated by comparing it to the original one. These techniques give relatively good estimates of MOS scores.
The most reliable and widely used of these methods are PAMS (Perceptual Analysis/Measurement System), PSQM (Perceptual Speech Quality Measurement) and PESQ (Perceptual Evaluation of Speech Quality).
Another approach is called non-intrusive. In this approach, no reference signal is injected in the network. Instead, the algorithm operates on signals that are present in the network or on the statistics collected from the network. The challenge in this technique is that the original signal is not known to the algorithm, so it cannot compare between original and degraded signals to assess the quality of the received signal. Some attempts are made in this approach but no robust algorithm is found.
The E-model is the leading method currently available that is considered non-intrusive. This model uses the statistics collected from the network during operation, such as the packet loss rate, delay, jitter estimates and signal to noise ratio, to estimate a quality score of the signal. This method is based on statistical nature, which does not guarantee accuracy. For example, statistically if packet loss rate is high, the quality score is low. But this is not always true, since the quality of the signal is still high, if most of the lost packets are in silence periods. Another non-intrusive method was recently developed. The idea is to estimate the original speech from the degraded counterpart. Then the two speech signals are compared to provide the quality assessment. This method, however, is seen to be inaccurate and very complex to implement.
There is, therefore, a need for a method which can monitor a live call and determines the quality of this call for its whole duration. These methods are needed to alert network administrator when the quality of the call is degraded, so some action can be taken to guarantee an acceptable quality of calls all the time. This method has to assess speech quality by examining degraded signals only without any information about original signals.
The reader is assumed to be familiar with, the various current VoIP speech quality standards.
There is also a need in the art for an objective non-intrusive method to assess speech quality based on characteristics extracted from degraded signals and not statistics collected from the network.
This disclosure provides an apparatus, method, and computer program to assess VoIP speech quality using access to degraded signals. Different types of impairment have different effect on speech quality. Preferred embodiments address two distinct types of impairment that are unique to VoIP: packet loss and speech clipping in time.
In one aspect, a method for voice quality estimation in a VoIP system comprises detecting an impairment in a received VoIP signal having a series of packets, where an original signal corresponding the received VoIP signal is not available; evaluating an amount of degradation in the received VoIP signal caused by the impairment; and estimating the voice quality of the received VoIP signal according to the amount of degradation.
In accordance with another aspect of the present invention, there is provided a method for voice quality estimation in a VoIP system. Impairment is detected in a received VoIP signal having a series of packets, where an original signal corresponding to the received VoIP signal is unavailable. Degradation is determined in the received VoIP signal caused by the impairment and voice quality is estimated for the received VoIP signal based on the determined degradation.
In another embodiment, there is provided a telecommunications apparatus having a processor and memory, the processor configured to receive a VoIP signal comprising a series of packets and performed the method as described above.
In another embodiment, there is provided a method of voice quality estimation in a VoIP system. The method includes detecting impairment in a received VoIP signal having a series of packets, where an original signal corresponding the received VoIP signal is unavailable. First, second and third amounts of degradation in the received VoIP signal are evaluated that are caused by lost packets, clipping and noise, respectively. An overall voice quality assessment of the received VoIP signal is estimated based on the first, second and third amounts of degradation.
Other technical features may be readily apparent to one skilled in the art from the following figures, descriptions, and claims.
For a more complete understanding of this disclosure and its advantages, reference is now made to the following description, taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, in which:
FIG. 1 depicts a flowchart of a broad process in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention;
FIG. 2 depicts a flowchart illustrating the steps used to determine the occurrence of packet loss, in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the present invention;
FIG. 3 depicts a series of graphs corresponding to the process of FIG. 2, in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the present invention;
FIG. 4 depicts a flowchart of a process to determine the degradation of speech quality due to lost packets, in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the present invention;
FIG. 5 depicts a flowchart of a process to determine if a lost packet has been replaced with a previous packet, in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the present invention;
FIG. 7 depicts a flowchart of a process to determine the location of lost packets and a speech quality score, in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the present invention;
FIG. 8 depicts a flowchart of a process to assess voice quality of a clipped speech signal when the original reference is not available, in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the present invention;
FIG. 9 depicts a block diagram of an echo detector in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the present invention;
FIG. 10 illustrates the DS method in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the present invention;
FIGS. 11A and 11B illustrate a Sparse method in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the present invention.
FIG. 12 depicts a hardware context in which the various disclosed embodiments may be implemented;
FIG. 13 illustrates or diagrams a packet loss module or method in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the present invention;
FIG. 14 illustrates or diagrams a noise measurement process or module in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the present invention;
FIGS. 15A and 15B illustrate a method or process for generating an overall voice quality assessment in accordance with one aspect of the present invention; and
FIG. 16 is logical block diagram illustrating the generation of the listening-only and conversational model or algorithms.
FIGS. 1 through 16, discussed below, and the various embodiments used to describe the principles of the present invention in this patent document are by way of illustration only and should not be construed in any way to limit the scope of the invention. Those skilled in the art will understand that the principles of the present invention may be implemented in any suitably arranged device. The numerous innovative teachings of the present application will be described with particular reference to the presently preferred embodiment.
This disclosure provides an apparatus, method, and computer program to assess VoIP speech quality using access to degraded signals. Different types of impairment have different effect on speech quality. Preferred embodiments address several distinct types of impairment that are unique to VoIP, including packet loss, speech clipping in time, and echo.
Preferably, the effect on speech quality resulting from each type of impairment is detected from the signals separately, and then the results of each analysis can be combined for an overall examination of speech quality. For each type of impairment, the following steps are followed using the degraded signal only: detection of the occurrence of the impairment; quantization of the degradation caused by this impairment; and mapping the amount of degradation to Perceptual Analysis/Measurement System (PAMS), Perceptual Speech Quality Measurement (PESQ), or Mean Opinion Score (MOS) score, all known to those of skill in the art.
MOS, PAMS, and PESQ scores, and other similar scores, can be used in this process. PAMS and PESQ are not necessarily the ideal scores to use, as they are not perfectly designed to accommodate for the impairments examined here. MOS is a better method, but is often not feasible here in terms of financial and time limitations. PAMS and PESQ scores are therefore typically the preferable scores to use.
Packet loss and clipping in time are two types of impairments whose effects are analyzed according to the techniques disclosed herein. Packet loss is one of the major problems in VoIP usually occurring at peak times due to congestion. Packet loss concealment techniques are usually used in the receivers to replace lost packets with some packets to decrease its degradation effect. The packet loss concealment techniques used here are the replacement of the lost packets with constant silence packets and the replacement of the lost packets with previous packets.
In such a process, first lost packets are detected and their locations are specified; a process that can be accomplished by header analysis. When lost packets are replaced with silence, lost packets are detected by the sudden drop in the energy of the signal. When lost packets are replaced with previous ones, lost packets are detected by the resemblance of successive packets.
The next step is to determine the degradation caused by these lost packets. In case of the first packet loss concealment technique, the degradation caused by the lost packet is determined by the amount of energy estimated in the lost packet. In case of the second technique, the amount of degradation caused by each lost packet is determined by the location of the lost packet, whether this packet falls in silence, voiced or unvoiced period. If the packet falls in silence period, it does not affect speech quality. Packets lost from voiced periods degrade the signal more than those lost from unvoiced periods. At the end, these factors are mapped to PESQ score with different weighting to estimate the quality score of degraded signals accurately.
Clipping in time usually occurs because of the usage of VAD (Voice Activity Detection) and nonlinear processor (NLP) in echo cancellers. VAD is usually used in VoIP to save bandwidth when there is silence. Echo cancellers usually estimate the echo and subtract it from the received signal. If any of these two techniques is not of very high performance, the signal is clipped in time. This means that some parts of the signal are silenced, as described herein. Depending on the threshold value of the VAD, the amount of degradation in the signal is predicted. Mapping threshold value of VAD to PESQ score, a quality score can be estimated. Two methods are suggested to estimate the VAD threshold value. The first method depends on the procedure used in simulating the clipping effect. The second method depends on the statistics of the duration of speech and silence periods present, in the degraded signal.
It may be advantageous to set forth definitions of certain words and phrases that are used within this patent document. The terms "include" and "comprise," as well as derivatives thereof, mean inclusion without limitation. The term "or" is inclusive, meaning and/or. The phrases "associated with" and "associated therewith," as well as derivatives thereof, may mean to include, be included within, interconnect with, contain, be contained within, connect to or with, couple to or with, be communicable with, cooperate with, interleave, juxtapose, be proximate to, be bound to or with, have, have a property of, or the like.
Other symbols used in the discussion herein include:
R Transmission rating factor
R0 The basic signal-to-noise ratio
Is The effect of simultaneous impairments
Id The impairments caused by delay
Ie Impairments caused by low bit rates codecs
A Expectation factor
f(r) Estimated degradation
r Percentage of total lost energy to the total energy of the signal
S(p) Estimated speech quality score
p Packet loss percentage
Acronyms used herein include:
VoIP Voice over Internet Protocol
IP Internet Protocol
MOS Mean Opinion Score
PAMS Perceptual Analysis/Measurement System
PSQM Perceptual Speech Quality Measurement
PESQ Perceptual Evaluation of Speech Quality
DSLA Digital Speech Level Analyzer
VAD Voice Activity Detection
NLP Nonlinear Processor
ITU-T International Telecommunications Union Telecommunications
SID Silence Insertion Descriptor
QoS Quality of Service
PLC Packet Loss Concealment
DMOS Degradation Mean Opinion Score
ACR Absolute Category Rating
DCR Degradation Category Rating
LQ Listening Quality
LE Listening Effort
FIG. 1 depicts a flowchart of a broad process in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention. These steps are discussed in more detail below.
The first step is detection of the impairment (step 110). In the examples below, lost packets and clipping are discussed in particular, but of course, other types of impairments can be detected.
Next is evaluation of the amount of degradation caused by this impairment (step 120).
The next step is estimation of the voice quality of this signal according to the amount of degradation calculated (step 130).
For modeling or other purposes, impairment can be deliberately introduced to the original signal, using MATHWORKS MATLAB or other program written specifically for each type of impairment. The exact method of simulating each type of impairment is unimportant to an understanding of the invention. After introducing the impairment to the signal, the occurrence of this impairment is detected based on the characteristics of the degraded signal only. Using a certain criteria based on the type of impairment, an amount of degradation is determined. A mapping of the amount of degradation to speech quality is formulated for each type of impairment. According to this mapping, the speech quality of the degraded signal is estimated based on the amount of degradation determined in the previous step.
These embodiments include a method to estimate the MOS score based on the introduction of packet loss. Packet loss is treated in VoIP by packet loss concealment techniques. Two types of these techniques are discussed, which are replacement of lost packets with constant silent packets and the replacement of lost packets with previous ones. Of course, a "silent" packet, as used herein, does not necessarily mean a complete absence of any sound, rather, it indicates a packet that does not indicate voice or any other significant sound. The method to detect the occurrence of packet loss in each case is discussed. The quantization of the amount of degradation caused by the packet loss is shown. Finally, the modeling of packet loss to PAMS or PESQ results is described.
Packet loss is one of the major problems facing VoIP. The causes of packet loss are known to those of skill in the art. Packet loss is usually treated by retransmission of lost packets in packet networks. This technique can be accepted in data transmission which can tolerate large delays. Speech, however, is a real time application, which is intolerable to large delays, thus retransmission of lost packets cannot be applied. Packet loss is unavoidable in speech transmission over packet network. To decrease the degradation in the speech quality due to packet loss, packet loss concealment techniques are developed. These techniques try to replace the lost packets with other packets, in order to make packet loss invisible to users. Two common techniques are replacement of lost packets with silence packets and replacement of lost packets with the last received packet; those of skill in the art are also familiar with more sophisticated techniques, which can also be examined using the disclosed processes.
The technique used in this case is the replacement of the lost packets with zero packets or silence packets. Usually, these silence packets are not exactly zeros. They are noise-like packets with very low energy. This technique is not so efficient but its advantage is its simplicity, as it does not need any computational complexity. This technique is usually not used in today's codecs, but aids in understanding the behavior of packet loss and its effect on the speech quality and help in modeling the effect of packet loss when other packet loss concealment techniques are used.
The first step is to detect the occurrence of packet loss. When packets are lost during speech, there is a sudden drop in the energy. Therefore, monitoring the change in the energy of the degraded speech signals can be used to determine the occurrence of packet loss. In cases of extreme jitter, delayed out-of-order packets can be treated as lost packets.
FIG. 2 depicts a flowchart illustrating the steps used to determine the occurrence and location of packet loss, in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the present invention. First, the packet voice signal is received (step 205). Next, the average energy of each packet is calculated (step 210). Energy is usually calculated as the average of the squares of the amplitudes of the samples. In these examples, the sum of the absolute value of the amplitudes of the signal is used instead of the square of the amplitude. This gives better accuracy due to the format numbers are represented with.
Next, an energy threshold of silence is determined (step 215). This threshold can be evaluated depending on the nature of the signal and the surroundings. This threshold points out the silence packets and the lost packets, which are replaced with zeros or silence as well. This threshold is useful also because it allows the process to ignore packet loss when it occurs in silence periods. When packets are lost during silence periods, this should have no effect on the quality of speech.
Next, energy values less than this threshold are replaced with the threshold value (step 220). This step is used so that in the next step silence and lost packets will have the same inverse value. Also, this step avoids division by zero.
Next, the inverse of the energy of the packet voice signal is calculated (step 225). In this step, all silence and lost packets will have the same inverse values. For ease of visualization, the energy values and inverse-energy values can be graphed.
Peaks are identified, which indicate lost packets (step 230). If a packet is lost during a speech period and replaced with a zero packet, there will be a peak in the inverse of the energy graph. Whenever a peak occurs in the inverse of the energy, this indicates that a packet was lost and replaced with a zero packet. To determine if there is a peak, the value of this peak should be the inverse value of the energy threshold determined previously. Also, an assumption is made. This assumption is that no more than three successive packets can be lost; therefore the length of the peak is maximum three points.
FIG. 3 depicts a series of graphs corresponding to the process of FIG. 2.
In FIG. 3, a series of graphs illustrating the steps to detect and locate the occurrence of lost packets when replaced by silence are shown. In the first part, the degraded signal is shown. It can be seen that two packets are lost and replaced with silence. In the second part, the plot of the energy against time is shown. Also the energy threshold for silence used is shown. It can be seen that when the two packets are lost, there are two sudden drops in the energy plot. This two drops result in two peaks in the plot of the inverse of the energy which is shown in the third part of the figure. Since there are two peaks in the plot of the inverse of the energy, it can be said that there are two packets lost and replaced with silence.
FIG. 4 depicts a flowchart of a process to determine the degradation of speech quality due to lost packets, in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the present invention. First, of course, the identification of the lost packets and the packet energy values are received (step 405); such values were produced in the process of FIG. 2. The location of the lost packet determines its effect on the quality of the speech. Since in this case, the lost packets are replaced with zero packets, the energy of the lost packet determines the amount of degradation it causes. As the energy of the lost packet increases, the amount of degradation increases and vice versa. In reality, there is no access to the lost packets. Therefore, the estimate of the energy of the lost packet has to be calculated (step 410). A good estimation of this value is the average of the energies of the two packets before and after the lost one.
The energy of the lost packet is estimated using the estimation described above, as the average of the energies of the two packets before and after the lost packet. The percentage of the estimated lost energy to the total energy in the signal is calculated (step 415):
Percentage=((Estimated lost Energy)/(Total Energy))*100
Next, determine the estimated degradation (step 420). The following formula plots the estimated degradation in an exemplary embodiment:
f(r)=−0.0026r2+0.1396r+0.0617
where r is the percentage of the estimated lost energy to the total energy in the signal. The output of this curve, f(r) is the estimated degradation in the speech quality score. The exemplary formulas provided herein are all based on regression analysis of specific cases. There is no general case, and each case can be analyzed using known regression-analysis techniques.
Next, calculate the estimated speech quality score (step 425). To calculate the estimated speech quality score the following equation is used, where the ideal score is 5 in this example:
Estimated score=5−Estimated degradation
Next, more than one lost packet is considered. Different packet loss percentages are applied to each original file. The percentages range from 0% to 15% in increment of 1%. This range is enough as usually available networks have packet loss percentages much less than 15%. In practice, a network with 15% packet loss is unacceptable. The steps are the same as the steps explained above for single packet loss. The energy of each lost packet is estimated.
Two approaches are described here, including individually calculating the degradation from each lost packet using the curve obtained previously and then summing all the degradations. The other approach is to add the estimated energies of all the lost packets together and use the percentage of this value to the total energy in the signal to calculate the degradation in the speech quality using the same curve. The second approach is more accurate, and so is preferable. This is expected, as the degradation caused by packet loss is not expected to be linear.
From losing one packet only in the whole signal file, the threshold of the silence could be enhanced. Actually here, the silence/speech determination is not the goal. The goal is to determine whether the lost packet affects the quality of speech or not. Therefore, this threshold is chosen to be 1.4. If the sum of the absolute amplitudes of the samples in a single packet of length 80 samples (10 ms, 8 KHz) is less than this threshold, this packet is considered silence packet.
When the percentage of the estimated lost energy to the total energy of the signal exceeds a certain value, the PAMS score reaches 1 (Minimum PAMS score). This value is experimentally found to be 34.5%.
When the percentage of the lost estimated energy increases, it is seen that the curve obtained before does not fit well to the actual PAMS results. From simulation results it is shown that it is better to fit another curve when the percentage-exceeds 21.5%. Fitting another curve to the part where the percentage is between 21.5% and 34.5%. Therefore two polynomials are used in mapping the percentage to degradation value. The functions used are as follows:
f  ( r )  { 0 r = 0 - 0.0026  r 2 + 0.1396  r + 0.0617 0 < r ≤ 21.5 - 0.0097  r 2 + 0.6585  r - 7.8238 21.5 < r ≤ 34.5 4 r ≥ 34.5
where r is the percentage calculated and f(r) is the estimated degradation. The estimated quality score is:
Estimated quality score=5−f(r)
Using the disclosed methods, all packets lost and replaced with zero packets can be detected, except those occurred in silence periods or in very low energy periods which are ignored due to their ineffectiveness on the quality of speech. The exact effective packet loss percentage can be determined. The exact position of each lost packet can also be determined. A percentage of estimated lost-energy and the total energy in the signal can be calculated. This percentage is used to estimate the PAMS score of this signal. This technique can estimate the PAMS score with an absolute error of value 0.3 with 72.5% confidence.
It is seen that the location of the lost packets in the signal has an effect on the degradation caused by these lost packets. Usually, in traditional available methods, packet loss rate is used blindly, without any information about the location of lost packets. The disclosed approach using the location of lost packets to determine the amount of degradation is seen to be more efficient.
Using the disclosed techniques, the MOS score estimated varies according to the estimated energy in the lost packet. This gives results which correlate more to the MOS scores estimated by PAMS. Also, this can be clearly seen, even if there is a large packet loss rate, most of the lost packets fall in silence periods. In this case, the disclosed method gives high estimated MOS score. Traditional methods give low scores because of the large packet loss rate. The disclosed method is more accurate, since lost packets during silence periods do not degraded the signal if MOS is correctly used. From this discussion, it is seen that locating lost packets is essential to get more accurate MOS scores.
Replacement of lost packets with previous packets: The packet loss concealment technique used in this case is the replacement of the lost packets with previous ones (the last received packet). In this technique, the receiver saves the last packet received. If a packet is lost, the receiver replaces it with the saved packet. This technique is seen to perform much better than the one used in the previous section.
Despite this fact, this technique is still implemented in some of the codecs which are used at present time. This technique is used for its simplicity. It has no computational complexity. It only needs memory that has enough space to save the last received packet. This prevents the extra delay caused by more efficient techniques to estimate the shape of the lost packets.
Detecting and locating the occurrence of packet loss: In this case, the lost packet is replaced with a previous one. Thus a repetition of a packet occurs. To determine the occurrence of packet loss in this case, the resemblance between successive packets is examined. To examine the degree of resemblance, cross correlation between successive packets is used. Cross correlation determines the degree of resemblance between successive packets. Cross correlation gives an array of values between −1 and 1. Each one of these values determines the resemblance between the two packets with a certain shift. Whenever this value is 1, these two packets are exactly the same with this time shift. Whenever this value is −1, these two packets are also exactly the same but with opposite signs. Whenever the value is 0 or near 0, these two packets are not related to each other by any means.
In the instant case, the only value that matters is when there is no shift. Depending on whether this value is near 1, 0 or −1, the degree of resemblance between the two packets is determined. If a packet is lost and replaced with a previous one, the value of cross correlation between these two packets, when there is no shift, should be very high near 1 (ideally 1).
FIG. 5 depicts a flowchart of a process to determine if a lost packet has been replaced with a previous packet, in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the present invention. The steps used are:
First, divide the signal into speech and silence periods using the energy threshold used above (step 505). This step is done to ignore the occurrence of packet loss during silence. During silence periods, packets are highly correlated, thus cross correlation between successive packets in silence periods is high. This step is also executed to prevent the algorithm from considering these packets as lost packets.
Next, the cross correlation between each two successive packets is calculated (step 510). The MATLAB built-in function for cross correlation, for example, can be used.
Next, the value of cross correlation with no shift is monitored for each two successive packets (step 515).
Next, a threshold for this value is determined (step 520). This threshold value has to be high enough, that it cannot result from two successive packets in normal speech. A value near 1 is chosen; 0.8 was used in one simulation. This value is seen to be a good threshold.
Next, the replaced packets are identified (step 525), as whenever the correlation is more than this threshold value, there is a lost packet replaced with the previous one, on condition that this occurred in speech period.
FIG. 6 depicts a series of graphs corresponding to the process of FIG. 5. In the first part, the degraded signal is shown. In the second part, the cross correlation with no shift is shown. Also the classification of the signal into speech and silence is shown, along with the threshold (0.8) which determines the occurrence of packet loss. It can be seen that this cross correlation exceeds the threshold twice during speech periods, which indicates that two packets are lost. It can also be seen that this correlation exceeds the threshold many times during silence periods, but since the signal is classified into speech and silence periods in the beginning of the method, these points are ignored.
FIG. 7 depicts a flowchart of a process to determine the location of lost packets and a speech quality score, in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the present invention. As described above, the location of the lost packet determines the amount of degradation it causes to the speech quality of the signal. This process uses a different approach than the one using the estimated energy of the lost packet. The speech signal is divided into three categories (step 705). These three categories are silence, voiced and unvoiced periods. The amount of degradation caused by a lost packet is determined by the category of the speech in which it is located.
There are many algorithms used to classify the speech signals into silence/voiced/unvoiced segments, known to those of skill in the art. Any of these techniques can be used in the proposed algorithm.
Information about the location of each lost packet was used in determining its effect on the speech quality of the signal. Whether each lost packet falls in a voiced period or unvoiced period is determined (step 710), this information is used to determine the speech quality of the signal.
Next, the packet loss percentage p is calculated, as described above (step 715).
The effect of losing packets during voiced periods is greater than the effect of losing packets during unvoiced periods. It is preferable to determine the location of lost packets before estimating the degradation resulting from this packet loss. Two curves are used to determine the estimated speech quality score S(p). One curve is used when all lost packets fall in unvoiced periods, and the other one is used when all lost packets fall in voiced periods. The curve when all lost packets fall in unvoiced periods has the following formula:
S(p)=−0.0007p5+0.01p4−0.0583p3+0.175p2−0.356p+4.5
The curve when all lost packets fall in voiced periods has the following formula:
S(p)=−0.0023p5+0.0338p4−0.1908p3+0.5713p2−1.1818p+4.5
After calculating the packet loss percentage, two speech quality scores are calculated using the two curves obtained (unvoiced only and voiced only) (step 720). The ratio of the number of packets lost during unvoiced periods and the number of packets lost during voiced is calculated (step 725). The two scores are added with the same ratio to estimate the final speech quality of the signal (step 730). Clipping in time is another significant impairment addressed by the techniques disclosed herein. Below, the effect and detection of signal clipping in time is discussed, including ways to quantize this clipping. Clipping cannot be assessed without processing the media payload. Therefore, the traditional E-model together with RTCP will not be able to take this factor in online voice quality evaluation.
The clipping effect: The clipping in the signal usually occurs in two different ways. One of them is clipping in amplitude and the other one is clipping in time. Clipping in time occurs in transmitting voice over packet switched networks due to the usage of VAD (Voice Activity Detection) in the transmitting side. Also, clipping occurs during double-talk when echo cancellers employ nonlinear processor (NLP).
VAD is used to save bandwidth when the user in the transmitting side is not talking. VAD usually scans the speech of the talker looking for the beginning and the end of speech periods. When VAD detects the beginning of a silence period the transmitter does not send packets continuously as usual. Instead, silence insertion descriptor (SID) frames are transmitted with very low frequency as long as there is silence. These frames are sent to update the receiver with the characteristics of the background noise present. Since packets are not sent as frequently as when there is speech, significant bandwidth is saved during silence periods when there is no important information to be sent. When the silence period ends and a speech period starts, the VAD detects this again, and the transmitter starts sending speech packets by the normal rate.
When VAD is not very precise, clipping occurs to the speech signals. In this case, the VAD classifies some speech packets as silence packets. Therefore, some parts of the speech are lost due to VAD. A similar clipping effect occurs when using a nonlinear processor (NLP) in echo cancellers. Because of the finite word length and the additive transmission noise, the canceller filter will not fully model the echo channel. Therefore, there will be uncancelled (residual) echo. This residual echo is still audible and in most cases causes annoyance to the user. Upon detecting that there is no speech from the other end (no double-talk), the canceller activates the NLP by placing a large attenuation to eliminate the residual echo. In cases, however, the double-talk detector falsely detects single-talk while there is double-talk present. In this case, clipping occurs and voice quality gets degraded. In the following discussion, while VAD is mentioned, the same argument applies equally to NLP.
FIG. 8 depicts a flowchart of a process to assess voice quality in terms of estimating the MOS score of a degraded (clipped) speech signal when the original reference is not available, in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the present invention. First, the sum of the absolute of the amplitudes of each packet is calculated (step 805). An initial threshold value for this sum is selected (step 810), as below. The sum value for each packet is compared with this threshold (step 815).
Next, each packet it determined to be speech or silence (step 820). If the sum value of the packet is equal to or greater than the threshold value, this packet is considered speech packet and is left unchanged. If this sum is less than the threshold value, this packet is considered silence packet and is replaced with all zero packet.
This threshold is changed along a range of values from 0 to 6, to simulate different levels of performance of VAD. Whenever this threshold is small, this results in less aggressive VAD. In this case, voice quality is maintained at the expense of bandwidth saving. Whenever this threshold increases the VAD becomes more aggressive, leading to more bandwidth saving at the expense of voice quality degradation.
First, quantify the relation between VAD threshold and the corresponding effect on MOS. Next, estimate, from the degraded speech, what threshold VAD has used. This will provide an estimate of MOS degradation due to clipping. Again, the PESQ is used here to estimate the MOS score.
The first step produces a mapping between the level of the threshold value used in VAD and the PESQ score. Increasing the threshold value used in VAD increases the degradation in the signal, resulting in decreasing the PESQ score. If the threshold value used in VAD is correctly estimated, the PESQ score of the degraded file will be estimated with an absolute error value of less than 0.3 with confidence of 78.5%. The probability of getting an absolute error value of more than 0.5 is not more than 5.5%. Therefore, it is important to estimate the threshold value used in VAD. Two approaches are disclosed. The first approach is based on the method used to simulate the VAD effect. The other approach is based on the statistics of the duration of speech and silence periods of the degraded signal.
Step-up Threshold Approach: This approach is based on the idea that if a threshold, which is lower than the VAD threshold, is applied on the degraded signal, the resulting signal will be the same as the degraded signal. Once applying a threshold a little bit greater than the VAD threshold, the resulting signal will differ from the degraded signal.
Therefore, continuing from step 820 above, the signal resulting from step 815 is compared to the original degraded signal (step 825). If the signals are substantially the same (step 830) the threshold is increased (step 835), and the process repeats. Preferably, the process starts from threshold value of zero, and increasing the threshold value by steps of 0.2, each time a new threshold is applied, the resulting signal is compared to the degraded signal. If there is no difference between the two signals, the threshold is increased further and the same procedure is repeated.
If the two signals start to differ (step 830), then this degraded signal resulted from a threshold value less than the one used in this step. More precisely, this signal resulted from a threshold value between this value and the threshold value used in the previous attempt. The accuracy of VAD threshold estimate depends on the resolution of threshold step size. The step size used here is 0.2 and it is seen to be adequate. The threshold at which the signals differed is stored as the VAD threshold estimate (step 840). The current voice/silence determinations are kept.
Human speech is composed of talkspurts separated by pauses or silences. In a long term, each speaker is only active no more than 50 percent during a conversation. The technique above produces the beginning and the end of the talkspurt on a frame basis. Accordingly, input speech frames are classified into active frames (talkspurt) or non-active frames (silence) by the VAD decision rules. The silence frame does not mean a frame of zero energy at all. In reality, the background noise always presents, also, some fricative consonants have a very limited energy, they may be classified as non-active.
Based on locations, the VAD clippings can be classified into three categories: Front End Clipping (FEC), Middle Speech Clipping (MSC) and Back End Clipping (BEC).
By comparing the silent packets to the talkspurt (step 845), the percentage of packets that are clipped as FEC, MSC, and BEC is determined (step 850).
Finally, the estimated MOS is calculated (step 855) as
MOS=4.55−C1·FEC %−C2·MSC %−C3·BEC %
where MOS is modeled as a linear combination of FEC %, MSC % and BEC %, and C1, C2 and C3 are weight coefficients. The optimum MOS is 4.55 without any clipping, which is derived from mapping the high-end of PESQ MOS, 4.50. Based on the degraded signal received, the coefficients in C1, C2, and C3 are found by using the linear regression.
Speech-Silence Duration Statistics Approach: This second approach is based primarily on the statistics of the duration of the silence and speech periods in degraded signals. As the VAD threshold value increases the durations of the speech periods tend to decrease, at the same time the durations of the silence periods tend to increase. In other words, more speech periods have shorter duration and more silence periods have longer duration. Such statistics result from well known regression modeling.
As the threshold of VAD increases more speech periods have shorter duration and more silence periods have longer duration. The distribution of the duration of the speech periods tends to be narrower and more concentrated near the zero as the threshold of the VAD increases. The opposite occurs to the distribution of the duration of the silence periods.
Therefore, using these techniques, the effect of time clipping caused by VAD or NLP on voice quality is determined. The MOS score can be estimated when only the received degraded (clipped) speech is accessible. A two-step procedure is used. The first step models the MOS with regard to the energy threshold used in VAD or NLP. The result of the first step is tabulated and becomes ready to use when the speech signal is received with clipping. In the second step, the VAD (or NLP) threshold is estimated and then the MOS score is obtained from the available table. Two approaches can be used to estimate VAD/NLP threshold of the received signal.
The disclosed methods model the clipping effect based on the energy threshold used in VAD. This is done by estimating the VAD threshold and then mapping it to speech quality score. This technique is valid even when the VAD used does not use energy threshold to classify speech and silence periods. If the VAD uses other methods, even frequency based ones, when estimating speech quality of a certain period of the signal, the method will treat the signal as if it is the result of a VAD using energy threshold. Accordingly it will estimate the energy threshold that must have been used in VAD if it uses the energy threshold. Therefore, the proposed method will estimate the effect of the VAD with energy based that would have produced the same resulting signal as the one really used. At the end the signal produced is the same as the one that would have been produced using the VAD with energy threshold equals the threshold estimated by the proposed method. In sum, the method still can estimate speech quality independently on the type of VAD used.
Another common impairment in VoIP signals results from echo and echo cancellation techniques. The disclosed embodiments include a system and method to measure the effects of echo on speech quality. There are several kinds of echo that generally effect VoIP speech quality, known to those of skill in the art, including network echo, talker echo, listener echo (negligible when talker echo is well controlled), and acoustic echo.
Echo detection is necessary for measuring echo parameters (although they are stored in the EC), since these parameters are often unavailable at the measurement point, and the values may be different at the measurement point.
A preferred embodiment measures two parameters: echo path delay and echo path loss (EPL). In VoIP, this echo path delay could be very excessive (up to 1000 ms); all the traditional methods (such as cross correlation or adaptive filtering methods) are computationally intensive. The nonlinearity and the temporal clipping introduced by modern codecs invalidate the assumption of linear echo path, and affect the measurement. Also, the measurement performance suffers from the disturbances such as noise and double talk. The measurement results serve as the inputs to the echo model. As a speech quality estimate, less accurate measurement will not change the speech estimate significantly.
The preferred embodiment therefore provides a simpler implementation of echo measurement that greatly reduces the computation complexity while keeping good measurement accuracy.
FIG. 9 depicts a block diagram of an echo detector in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the present invention. In this figure, x(n) is reference speech; y(n) is residual echo; w(n) is white noise; and v(n) is possible near-end speech. The codecs 915/920 shown here can be implemented using standard G.711, G.729AB (VAD ON/OFF) codecs. The hybrid 905 can be implemented with an ITU-T G.168 echo model 5. In VoIP, the residual echo suffers from the codec nonlinear distortion, time clipping as well as the extra delay. The block 930 measures the two major parameters on echo perception, echo path delay and echo path loss. In the measurement block 930, DTD 935 suspends the measurement when DT is detected, and VAD 945 stops the measurement when the far-end send channel is idle. G.711 and G.729AB codecs are commonly included in VoIP gateway or terminal.
There are three disclosed methods for determining the echo path delay (cross-correlation based), in accordance with disclosed embodiment. The first step in each of these is to determine the echo path delay. Here, the echo path delay is first determined using
r ^ XY  ( m ) = 1 N - m  ∑ n = 0 N - m - 1  X *  ( n ) · Y  ( n + m ) 0 ≤ m < N where D ^ = arg   max m  { C xy  ( m ) }
The sequences used in computation are generally greatly reduced in length or information contained.
The second step, to produce {circumflex over (D)}, differs in each of the three approaches.
The first method includes down-sampling both the X(n) and Y(n) signals to produce the {circumflex over (D)} signal (the "DS method"). FIG. 10 illustrates the DS method in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the present invention.
The second method, the Sparse method, includes applying a pre-defined window to one signal. FIGS. 11A and 11B illustrate a Sparse method in accordance with an exemplary embodiment of the present invention. FIG. 11A show a pre-defined window for Sparse sampling, and FIG. 11B shows a block diagram of the cross-correlation being applied.
The third method includes using the DS method and Sparse method in cascade.
The selection of methods and parameters for each method trade off between the computational complexity and measurement accuracy requirements, as shown in the following table:
Total Method Multiplication Addition Computation
Reference L2 L2 − L 100% None-DS (L/F1)2 (L/F1)2 − (L/ 1.6% (F1 = 8) F1) Sparse L2/F2 (L2/F2) − L 12.5% (F2 = 8)
Next, compute the speech echo path loss (SEPL) by directly using the measured delay information, according to
P E = 10   log 10  ( 10 P N + E 10 - 10 P N 10 )   where   EPL = P X - P E
Unless otherwise indicated above or below as requiring specific hardware, the techniques and methods described herein can be implemented using the processors, memory, and other hardware already present in conventional VoIP equipment, programmed and configured to perform the described processes, as known to those of skill in the art.
FIG. 12 depicts a hardware context in which the various disclosed embodiments can be implemented. This figure illustrates the scenario of a typical PSTN-to-PSTN call through VoIP services, using the disclosed techniques. At the talker side, the regular telephone 1205 is plugged into an adaptor 1210, which converts the voice signals into IP packets. These packets are sent into IP networks 1215, such as the Internet. Finally, the call is terminated at the listener side, where the VoIP gateway 1220 interfaces between IP networks 1215 and PSTN switch 1225 and transcodes the voice streams for regular phone 1230.
To assess the listener's perception of the VoIP speech quality, the measurement device 1240 is deployed at the VoIP gateway 1220. In case of a PSTN-to-IP call, the device is deployed at the IP terminal 1235 directly.
In either case, the measurement device 1240 is configured to perform one or more of the voice quality measurements described in detail above. Unless otherwise described above, there is no specific hardware requirement to implement the measurement device 1240. In some embodiments, all implementations are done in software using existing VoIP hardware. In other embodiments, these elements are implemented by an ASIC (application specific integrated circuit) or other suitable hardware implementation, as will be recognized by those of skill in the art. A significant feature of the disclosed embodiments is that assessing voice quality is undertaken only at the receiver side without any sort of handshaking required with the transmitting side.
In various embodiments, the system characterizes the sources of received voice degradation. Upon identifying those sources, the resources available (such as memory and processing power) in the receiver can be utilized in a more efficient way. For example, if no packet loss is seen to occur, the packet loss concealment functionality may be stopped and its resources can be directed somewhere else.
As such, corresponding embodiments will analyze the VoIP signal to detect the presence of multiple types of impairment, then evaluate an amount of degradation in the VoIP signal caused by the impairment and estimate the voice quality of the VoIP signal according to the amount of degradation for only those types of impairment that are detected, thereby saving system resources by not performing evaluations and estimates on types of impairment that are not detected.
New and different apparatus, methods and processes, which may be used in combination with the above described subject matter, are described below for determining/calculating or modeling speech quality and degradation. These new methods and processes are described with respect to mapping the quantified degradation within the MOS framework, though the concepts and teachings herein may be applied to other systems.
In another embodiment, a packet loss profile is generated for use in determining/calculating or modeling speech quality and degradation due to various factors. The packet loss profile is generated from information calculated, derived or obtained from Internet protocol analysis (e.g., packet header and loss information) of packets and packet voice payload information. This information generally includes codec type, packet size, packet loss rate, packet loss pattern and Packet Loss Concealment (PLC) algorithm, is obtained or derived from the Real-time Transport Protocol (RTP) and the Real Time Control Protocol-Extended Report (RTCP-XR). This information also includes packet loss location and type of packet loss information, which is generally obtained or derived from the RTP information above and packet voice payload information.
Now referring to FIG. 13, there is shown an illustration diagramming a packet loss module or method 1300 in accordance with the present invention. As shown in FIG. 13, a packet loss profile 1302 is obtained by pooling various factors or information, such as PLC implementation 1304, codec type 1306, packet size 1308, loss rate 1310, loss burstiness (loss pattern) 1312 and loss location S/U/V type 1314. With some or all of this information (packet loss profile), a MOS (speech quality score) may be determined for the speech quality (degradation), as shown by reference numeral 1330. In other words, a packet loss component reflecting degradation due to packet loss (as described below) is generated. The quantified packet loss degradation is utilized to generate a MOS-based estimation of speech quality (degradation). The packet loss profile is generated from information effectively extracted from the RTP header and RTCP-XR information (identified as "Internet protocol" and reference numeral 1320), avoiding extensive payload analysis, though some voice payload information (reference numeral 1322) may be utilized, as described below. Codec type is determined from the payload type (PT) field of the RTP header (e.g., 0 for G.711 μ-law, 18 for G.729); packet size is derived from the RTP payload length (e.g., for a 10 ms frame, G.711 μ-law 80 bytes; G.729 10 bytes, silence insertion descriptor (SID) 2 bytes). The PLC algorithm (utilized by the receiver in a VOIP session) is read from the receiver configuration byte of the VoIP metrics report block of the RTCP-XR.
A packet loss event is determined from the discontinuity in the sequence number of the RTP header. When measured after the receiver jitter buffer, the receive/loss status X of a VoIP call packet stream may be represented using a sequence, e.g., 010001011100100, where X=0 represents a lost packet and X=1 represents a received packet. For such a sequence, the maximum likelihood estimators for the state transition probabilities p and q in the two-state Gilbert model, known to those of ordinary skill in the art, are given by:
{circumflex over (p)}=n01/n0 and {acute over (q)}=n10/n1 (1)
where p=Probability(X=1|X=0) and q=Probability(X=0|X=1), n01 is the number of times 0 is followed by 1 and n10 is the number of times 1 is followed by 0, n0 is the number of 0s and n1 is the number of is in the sequence. The loss rate ulp is calculated as n1/(n0+n1). To quantify the loss burstiness (packet loss pattern), the concept of BurstR in the E-model (prior art model) is used, and is determined as BurstR=1/({circumflex over (p)}+{circumflex over (p)}).
As a result, PLC, codec type, packet size, packet loss rate and pattern (burstiness) information 1304, 1306, 1308, 1310, 1312 is readily available for use in determining the packet loss profile 1302 of a VOIP packet data stream, which can be used to calculate an MOS. Other useful factors in determining packet loss profile are the location and identity of lost packets. Various methods have been described above relating to the detection of lost packet locations and their identity (i.e., lost packets replaced with silence or a previous packet) using information within the packet (and perhaps from packet header information). As described previously when the PLC method replaces lost packets with silence, the estimated score is based substantially on the percentage of the estimated lost energy to the total energy in the signal.
The following describes a new and different approach to classification of the lost packet as S/U/V. This new approach includes estimating the lost packet's features by nonlinear interpolation using packets immediately before and after the loss, and sending the estimated features to a S/U/V classification algorithm to determine the type of the lost packet.
The objective is not necessarily to analyze or conceal the lost packets (e.g., the replaced packets), but rather to recover some of their features from the surrounding received packets. Analyzing the lost/concealed packets provides little information because common PLC algorithms, such as built-in and repetition algorithms, only use the information from the previously received good packets. This approach may be inadequate in the event the packet loss location is positioned at or near transitional packets (voiced/unvoiced/silence). For example, if the packet right before the loss is an unvoiced packet, then a lost, but voiced, packet is highly likely to be reconstructed as an unvoiced packet. To solve this problem, a better approach may be to estimate the lost packet's features from adjacent packets through interpolation. In one embodiment, this approach utilizes the two packets immediately before and the two packets immediately after the lost packet.
A method shown to be quite effective in speech recognition, nonlinear interpolation using cubic Hermite polynomials, may be used, such as that disclosed by A. B. James and B. P. Milner, "An analysis of interleavers for robust speech recognition in burst-like packet loss," in Proc. IEEE Int. Conf. Acoustics, Speech, and Signal Processing, May 2004, vol. 1, pp. 853-856.
Other methods may be used to provide the interpolation techniques. For a burst of length p, the feature vector of the nth packet within the burst is estimated by:
{circumflex over (x)}b+n=xb(1−3t2+2t3)+xb+β+1(3t2−2t3)+xb′(t−2t2+t3)+x′b+β+1(t3−t2) (1≦n≦β)
where xb and xb+β+1 are the feature vectors from the packets immediately before and after the loss, respectively, t=n/(β+1), x′b=β(xb−xb−1) and x′b+β+1=β(xb+β+2−xb+β+1). The estimated feature vector of a lost packet, which includes the frame energy and 8-order linear prediction coefficients, is then sent into a S/U/V classification algorithm for type determination, such as the one disclosed by L. R. Rabiner and M. R. Sambur, "Application of an LPC distance measure to the voiced-unvoiced-silence detection problem," IEEE Trans. Acoust., Speech, Signal Processing, vol. 25, no. 4, pp. 338-343, August 1977.
As will be appreciated, other methods may be used for estimating the features of the lost packet and other S/U/V algorithms may be used.
To estimate or generate a MOS for packet loss degradation, a similar concept is used as set forth above which describes two curves representing packet loss occurring during voiced and unvoiced packets, respectively. A linear interpolation scheme has been used to model the effect of the random packet loss. Generation/estimation of the speech quality score (in the MOS framework) is given by the following:
MOS=MOSO−DMOSPL
where MOSO and DMOSPL represent the optimum MOS without any impairment and MOS drop (degradation) caused by packet loss (including codec distortion), respectively. MOSO is set to 4.55 when calibrated under ITU-T Rec. P.862.1. DMOSPL is determined as set forth below. When loss is random, linear interpolation scheme is used:
DMOSPL=Wu·DMOSPlu+Wv·DMOSPLv
where DMOSPLu and DMOSPLv are the drops (degradation) in MOS if the lost packets are all unvoiced or all voiced, with loss weights Wu and Wv, respectively, and Wu+Wv=1. DMOSPLu and DMOSPLv are determined by a third-order polynomial curve fitting:
DMOSi=C0+C1i·ulp+C2i·ulp2+C3i·ulp3
where subscript i equals PLu or PLv, and ulp is packet loss rate expressed in percentage (packet loss percentage).
When there is no packet loss, DMOSPL in the equation above simply equals C0, which represents the degradation resulting from the codec alone. Only effective packet losses are considered. That is, only losses during voiced and unvoiced packets are counted because losses during silences have little impact on speech quality.
An illustration of the computation of packet loss rate and weights is as follows. Assume a given speech signal includes two hundred (200) packets from which fifteen (15) packets are lost. Among the fifteen lost packets, three (3) packets are silence, four (4) packets are unvoiced, and eight (8) packets are voiced. Based on this, then ulp is (4+8)/200=6%, Wu is 4/(4+8)=0.3333 and Wv is 8/(4+8)=0.6667.
The packet loss rate ulp may further include an additional factor when loss is bursty. A new codec dependent parameter, called the codec burstiness index parameter a is introduced and utilized. Based on the measured loss burstiness parameter BurstR in the ITU-T E-model, the effective packet loss rate ulp is updated using this codec burstiness index to reflect burstiness:
ulpeqv=ulp·BurstRa
where ulpeqv represents the equivalent packet loss percentage under bursty loss as if it were lost randomly. The exponent a depends on the codec and its PLC algorithm and falls between 0 and 1. This value has been empirically determined through nonlinear optimization.
As result of modeling and testing, it has been determined that the coefficients in the equations above are given in the following Table 1 for several representative codecs calibrated using P.862.1.
Parameters for the Packet Loss Model
Burstiness Voiced Unvoiced
Codec PLC index α C0 C1 C2 C3 C1 C2 C3
G.711 Built-in 0.3099 0.0277 0.2992 −0.0201 0.00061 0.2657 −0.0160 0.00046 Repetition 0.0729 0.0277 0.3927 −0.0302 0.00091 0.2635 −0.0171 0.00054 Silence 0.2904 0.0277 0.4857 −0.0330 0.00091 0.2712 −0.0067 2.83E−05 G.729A Built-in 0.1115 0.9237 0.1970 −0.0095 0.00023 0.1441 −0.0049 8.71E−05 Repetition 0.1155 0.9237 0.2252 −0.0120 0.00031 0.1301 −0.0033 4.54E−05 Silence 0.1155 0.9237 0.5921 −0.0543 0.0017 0.3175 −0.0208 0.00054
It will be understood that other codecs may be modeled the various coefficients and parameters may be calculated or determined from modeling techniques and testing that can be performed by those skilled in the art.
In addition to signal (or signal quality) degradation caused by packet loss, noise may also degrade the signal quality. Thus, this document further describes calculating or generating a noise degradation component using a noise measurement process or module 1400 as shown in FIG. 14.
The measurement algorithm generates a Signal-To-Noise (SNR) measurement. The process generally includes two main steps including generating a rough (or initial) SNR calculation and adjusting the SNR. The rough SNR is calculated using estimated speech and noise spectrums of the speech signal. An SNR adjustment (generally made when SNR is relatively high) is then made based on the rough SNR and information from the estimated speech spectrum.
The speech spectrum of the degraded speech signal, is estimated (step 1402). For estimating the speech spectrum, a method that combines a Minimal Mean-Square Error Short-Time Spectral Amplitude (MMSE-STSA) estimator and a two-dimensional spectrum enhancement filter may be used, as described in Z. Lin and R. A. Goubran, "Musical noise reduction in speech using two-dimensional spectrogram enhancement," in Proc. 2nd IEEE Int. Workshop on Haptic, Audio and Visual Environments and Their Applications, September 2003, pp. 61-64. In addition, the noise spectrum of the degraded speech signal is estimated (step 1404). For estimating the noise spectrum, a method that uses the Minima Controlled Recursive Average (MCRA) may be used, as described in I. Cohen and B. Berdugo, "Noise estimation by minima controlled recursive averaging for robust speech enhancement," IEEE Signal Processing Lett., vol. 9, no. 1, pp. 12-15, January 2002.
The rough SNR is estimated or calculated from the estimation of both the speech and noise spectrums (step 1406). The rough SNR estimation is provided as follows:
S  N ^  R r = ∑ l  ∑ k   X ^  ( l , k )  2 / ∑ l  ∑ k   N ^  ( l , k )  2
where |{circumflex over (X)}(l,k)|2 and |{circumflex over (N)}(l,k)|2 are the estimated speech and noise spectrums, l is the index of all the signal frames that contain speech, and k is the frequency bin index.
The MCRA may overestimate noise when SNR is relatively high, especially when SNR is greater than 20 dB. Therefore, the rough SNR estimate should be adjusted. If it is smaller than 20 dB, a simple compensative factor is timed with the estimated SNR to get an unbiased value. If it is greater than 20 dB, the error will be too large to compensate. Instead, a simple energy voice activity detector (VAD) is used to detect the speech silence periods. An energy threshold is determined by the following expression:
TH = 1 10 ( 1 + SNR r 10 )
A frame whose energy is smaller than TH multiplying the maximum energy of all the frames is regarded as a silence frame. As a result, a more accurate estimation of noise is obtained by averaging the spectrum in the detected silence frames. This re-estimated noise spectrum is finally used to generate the SNR (step 1408). Finally, the SNR is applied to the ITU-T E-model for effect modeling (step 1410).
Though one approach to combining the effects of packet loss and clipping would be to simply add them together in the MOS domain, packet loss and temporal clipping are correlated. Therefore, a better approach is proposed which generates a correlation factor.
Temporal clipping resembles packet loss in a specific way where "losses" mainly occur during packets with low energy contents. The following equation takes into consideration interactions between the two with a correlation factor γ:
DMOSC=DMOSPL+DMOSTC+γDMOSPLDMOSTC
where DMOSC stands for the combined degradations of packet loss (DMOSPL) and temporal clipping (DMOSTC). For two example codecs having a given PLC algorithm, the value of γ is given in the table below.
CORRELATION FACTOR γ FOR PACKET LOSS AND TEMPORAL CLIPPING
PLC Built-in Repetition Silence
G.711 −0.3743 −0.3838 −0.3312 G.729A −0.3511 −0.3643 −0.3172
Four major components cause the degradation of the signal quality. These four components are packet loss, clipping, noise and echo. Referring to FIG. 15A, a method or process 1500 is described for integrating the four individual components (or information about these components) into an overall voice quality assessment algorithm for VOIP.
The quality (or degradation) process 1500 of the present invention, in general, includes individually calculating or estimating degradation (or loss) in a voice signal caused by different impairments, such as packet loss, clipping, noise and echo. These values are then combined into an overall assessment algorithm that calculates/estimates the overall voice quality of the signal.
Now referring to FIG. 15B, there is shown one embodiment of the process or method 1500 of the present invention. Degradation due to packet loss (step 1502) and clipping (step 1504) is determined. These are combined into a combined packet loss/clipping degradation value for both packet loss and clipping (step 1510). Degradation due to noise (step 1506) and echo (step 1508) is determined.
In accordance with aspects of the present invention and as described above, the packet loss, clipping and combined packet loss/clipping degradation values are calculated or estimated in the MOS domain. MOS is calculated for the combined packet loss/clipping value as:
MOS=4.55−DMOSC
This overall MOS (due to packet loss and clipping) is converted into an R factor in the E-model domain (step 1512) by taking the inverse of the following equation:
MOS = {  1  if   R < 0  1 + 0.035  R + R  ( R - 60 )  ( 100 - R ) · 7 · 10 - 6  if   0 ≤ R ≤ 100  4.5  if   R > 100
Using the noise degradation information, RO is calculated or recalculated using the E-model to reflect the impact of noise (step 1514). Using the echo degradation information, Idte is calculated or recalculated using the E-model reflecting the impact of noise (step 1516). The overall R-factor is then updated (step 1518). The updated R factor is converted back to MOS, using the equation above (step 1520).
As will be appreciated, the foregoing algorithm provides what is referred to as a conversational model MOS-CQE (mean opinion score-conversational quality estimated), generating a MOS and E-model rating R (depending on the desired domain) based on degradation of the signal due to packet loss, clipping, noise and echo impairment events.
Optionally, another slightly different model may be provided, referred to as the listening-only model MOS-LQO (mean opinion score-listening quality objective). This model generates a MOS and E-model rating R (depending on the desire domain) based on degradation of the signal due to packet loss, clipping and noise impairment events. In this model, echo information is omitted and the component Idte based on echo is not used.
It will be understood that not all impairment components need to be utilized in the overall assessment algorithm, and that different or variant methods of calculating impairments may be utilized to generate calculated or estimated values. In one aspect, the present invention provides an overall assessment algorithm based on the current ITU-T E-model framework, and which may be used to generate an overall MOS for the speech signal.
It will also be understood that the impact of delay is not a significant factor in the methods and processes described, but it may be addressed, if desired, by using the E-model parameter Idd if the delay is known.
Now referring to FIG. 16, there is logical block diagram illustrating the generation of the listening-only and conversational model or algorithms used to generate the overall speech quality assessment.
Those skilled in the art will appreciate that at least portions of the mechanism of the present invention are capable of being distributed as a computer program product in the form of a instructions contained within a machine usable medium in any of a variety of forms, and that the present invention applies equally regardless of the particular type of instruction or signal bearing medium utilized to actually carry out the distribution. Examples of machine usable mediums include: nonvolatile, hard-coded type mediums such as read only memories (ROMs) or erasable, electrically programmable read only memories (EEPROMs), user-recordable type mediums such as floppy disks, hard disk drives and compact disk read only memories (CD-ROMs) or digital versatile disks (DVDs), and transmission type mediums such as digital and analog communication links.
While this disclosure has described certain embodiments and generally associated methods, alterations and permutations of these embodiments and methods will be apparent to those skilled in the art. Accordingly, the above description of example embodiments does not define or constrain this disclosure. Other changes, substitutions, and alterations are also possible without departing from the spirit and scope of this disclosure, as defined by the following claims.
1. A method for voice quality estimation in a voice over Internet Protocol (VOIP) system, comprising:
detecting impairment in a received VoIP signal having a series of packets, where an original signal corresponding to the received VoIP signal is unavailable, the impairment comprising packet loss;
determining degradation in the received VoIP signal caused by the impairment, the determining degradation comprising determining a packet loss degradation component based on a packet loss profile, the packet loss profile comprising packet loss rate information, voiced/unvoiced information related to one or more lost packets in the series of packets and codec type information; and
estimating voice quality of the received VoIP signal based on the determined degradation.
2. The method in accordance with claim 1 further comprising:
estimating through interpolation one or more features of each one of the one or more lost packets using packets adjacent to the lost packet in order to classify each of the one or more packets as voiced, unvoiced, or silence.
3. The method in accordance with claim 1 wherein the packet loss profile further comprises packet loss pattern information and packet loss concealment information.
4. The method in accordance with claim 1 wherein the impairment further comprises clipping, and the method further comprises:
determining a clipping degradation component.
determining individually the packet loss component and the clipping degradation component; and
calculating a combined packet loss/clipping degradation value.
6. The method in accordance with claim 5 wherein the combined packet/loss degradation value is calculated in a Mean Opinion Score (MOS) domain, and the method further comprising:
calculating a voice quality MOS value based on the combined packet/loss degradation value;
converting the voice quality MOS value into an R factor in an E-model domain;
determining a signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of the received VoIP signal; and
adjusting the R factor based on the SNR.
determining an echo degradation value; and
adjusting the R factor based on the echo degradation value.
converting the adjusted R factor to an overall MOS value for the received VoIP signal.
9. The method in accordance with claim 4, wherein the impairment further comprises noise, and the method further comprises:
determining a noise degradation component.
10. The method in accordance with claim 9 wherein determining the noise-degradation component comprises:
estimating a speech spectrum of the received VoIP signal; and
estimating a noise spectrum of the received VoIP signal; and
calculating a signal-to-noise (SNR) ratio.
11. The method in accordance with claim 9, wherein the impairment further comprises echo, and the method further comprises:
determining an echo degradation component.
12. A method for voice quality estimation in a VoIP system, comprising:
detecting impairment in a received VoIP signal having a series of packets, where an original signal corresponding to the received VoIP signal is not available;
evaluating a first amount of degradation in the received VoIP signal caused by lost packets, the first amount of degradation evaluated based on at least packet loss rate and classification of one or more lost packets in the series of packets as voiced, unvoiced or silence;
evaluating a second amount of degradation in the received VoIP signal caused by clipping; and
evaluating a third amount of degradation in the received VoIP signal caused by noise;
generating an overall voice quality assessment of the received VoIP signal based on the first, second and third amounts of degradation.
13. The method in accordance with claim 12 further comprising:
evaluating a fourth amount of degradation in the received VoIP signal caused by echo; and
generating the overall voice quality assessment based further on the fourth amount of degradation.
14. A telecommunications apparatus, comprising:
a processor configured to receive a voice over Internet Protocol (VOIP) signal comprising a series of packets; and
a memory, accessible by the processor, the memory storing packet data corresponding to the series of packets, wherein the processor is configured to: detect impairment in a received VoIP signal having a series of packets, where an original signal corresponding to the received VoIP signal is unavailable, determine degradation in the received VoIP signal caused by the impairment and calculate a packet loss degradation component based on at least packet loss rate and classification of one or more lost packets in the series of packets as voiced, unvoiced or silence, and estimate voice quality of the received VoIP signal based on the determined degradation.
15. The telecommunications apparatus of claim 14 wherein the packet loss degradation component is further based on codec type, loss pattern, and packet loss concealment method.
16. The telecommunications apparatus of claim 14 wherein the processor is further configured to:
calculate a clipping loss degradation component based on clipping occurring in the received VoIP signal;
calculate a combined packet loss/clipping degradation value using a correlation factor; and
estimating the voice quality based on the combined packet loss/clipping degradation value.
calculate a noise degradation component based on an estimated signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of the VoIP signal; and
estimating voice quality based on the combined packet loss/clipping degradation value and the noise degradation component.
18. A method for voice quality estimation in a voice over Internet Protocol (VOIP) system, the method comprising:
detecting impairment in a received VoIP signal having a series of packets, where an original signal corresponding to the received VoIP signal is unavailable, the impairment comprising packet loss and clipping;
determining degradation in the received VoIP signal caused by the impairment, the determining degradation comprising, determining individually a packet loss degradation component based on a packet loss profile, determining individually a clipping degradation component, calculating a combined packet loss/clipping degradation value in a Mean Opinion Score (MOS) domain, calculating a voice quality MOS value based on the combined packet/loss degradation value, converting the voice quality MOS value into an R factor in an E-model domain, determining a signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) of the received VoIP signal, and adjusting the R factor based on the SNR; and
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Office Action issued by the United States Patent and Trademark Office on May 6, 2009 in connection with U.S. Appl. No. 11/629,548, filed Jan. 16, 2008.
Filed: Jun 15, 2006
Assignee: Nortel Networks Limited (Mississauga, Ontario)
Inventors: Mohamed El-Hennawey (Kanata), Rafik Goubran (Ottawa), Ayman M. Radwan (Kingston), Lijing Ding (Nepean)
Primary Examiner: Brian Roberts
Attorney: Robert D. McCutcheon
Current U.S. Class: Determination Of Communication Parameters (370/252); For Storage Or Transmission (704/201)
International Classification: H04L 12/26 (20060101);