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"Experiential rather than Reflective" — A Review of Stewart Dippel and Jeffrey F. Champlin's Redeemed at Countless Cost": The Recovery of Iconographic Theology and Religious Experience from 1850 to 2000
[Victorian Web Home —> Social History —> Religion —> Reviews of books about religion]
Our discussion of literature and art throughout this book continually raises questions of theology and Biblical exegesis, whether it be Norman Rockwell rendering Isaiah, Holman Hunt further on, or Tolstoy or Bulgakov. Our goal in the two chapters devoted to theology is, first, by way of an example, to suggest the shape of an iconographic theology; and then, second, to raise the question of whether, in the wake of modernity, even post-modernity, and "the eclipse of Biblical narrative" described by Hans Frei, such a theology still be relevant and compelling. [Chapter 3]
ippel, who explains that the "recovery of an iconographic religious experience is the central theme of this book" (10), defines such religious experience as fundamentally opposed to what he terms the logocentric, the difference between the two appears in whether "we encounter God's presence . . . through texts or through images." The logocentric "emphasizes both the spoken and written Word and envisions both textual analysis and contemplation, and even meditation, of the text." In contrast, the iconographic emphasizes "images, sounds, as in music, and movement, as in a fluid worship that involves both clergy and laity, and so is experiential rather than reflective" (emphasis added). When he tells us that "the former privileges sermons and the latter sacraments" (10), we realize that Redeemed at Countless Cost takes the side of High Anglicans and Roman Catholics in their struggle, begun in early Victorian days, with Evangelicals of many denominations and sects.
Readers may stumble over the somewhat eccentric use of the term iconographic, since Merriam-Webster defines iconography as follows: "pictorial material relating to or illustrating a subject," "the traditional or conventional images or symbols associated with a subject and especially a religious or legendary subject," or "imagery or symbolism of a work of art, an artist, or a body of art." The Merriam-Webster definition is stretching things a bit, since, as Erwin Panofsky explains, iconology is the proper term for the study of symbols. Nonetheless, the authors make their idiosyncratic use of the term clear enough to follow their arguments and interpretations.
A first chapter, "Introduction: Ways and Means," begins with the the 1851 British Religious Census that revealed that far fewer people attended church than authorities expected and from there the discussion moves to subsequent attempts to bring people back to the church. These included "the necessity of revival, using the term in an ecumenical sense to signify renewal, within the church," simply building more churches, the need for a social gospel appropriate to an urban population, and "reaching an accommodation with science" (2). Throughout this valuable first chapter, Dippel examines various nineteenth-century challenges to the literal truth of the Bible and introduces as an ideal the Russian idea of a communitarian sobornost', which differs from Christian Socialism and the Social Gospel, he claims, because they "disdain any individual responsibility . . . [and] eschew any belief in individual sin" (4). I'm hardly an expert here, but what I have seen of those preaching a social gospel makes me question Dippel's charge.
As part of his program for religious renewal, Dippel next introduces the notion of the icon, which he argues is primarily
worship rather than art. As such, icon painters are restricted to a strict set of canons governing their composition and presentation. Individual artistic signatures, as in Western art, are therefore understandingly [sic] forbidden. An icon is a door through which we enter and commune with some aspect of the divine essence. Included here are God in all of the Trinitarian manifestations, the holy family, the apostles and disciples, the angelic hosts, and all of the saints. Through this door temporal time and space are fused with eternal time and space into one Eternal Now. The secular and the sacred are collapsed into one. Thus, as both Bennett and Keble argued . . ., when we worship we worship literally in the presence of God and the angels. Icons play an important part in the Orthodox Church's liturgy. [11; emphasis added]
After this emphasis on icons, the expected discussion of specific Russian icons occurs in a second chapter, "Rosie the Riveter, Norman Rockwell, and Religious Iconography," which examines Rockwell's painting in terms of religious imagery. Following the work of a number of scholars, all generously credited, the chapter points out that Rockwell's Rosie is obviously modeled after Michelangelo's Sistine Chapel Isaiah and that the artist placed a halo over Rosie's head and "with reference to Isaiah's notion of God, or God's agents, stomping out the forces of evil, Rosie tramples Mein Kampf, the image of Hitler and so of world's evil during World War II, underfoot" (27). This is all very well, but I find it very odd that in a book in which figural (or typological) imagery plays such a central role, Dippel apparently doesn't know that Rockwell has portrayed Rosie in the exact pose found in countless medieval and later statues of a seated Virgin Mary trampling the serpent, an very popular image of the antitype (or typological fulfillment) of Genesis 3:15.
Left: Rosie the Riveter. Norman Rockwell. 1943. Courtesy of the Crystal Bridges Museum of American Art, Bentonville, Arkansas. 2007.178. Right: Christ in the Wilderness. Ivan Kramskov. 1872-74. The State Tretyakov Museum, Moscow. [Click on images to enlarge them.]
After examining Rockwell's other paintings for their religious meanings, Dippel introduces us to Andrei Rublev's fifteenth-century The Old Testament Trinity, which depicts the three angels who appear to Abraham and Sarah in Genesis 18:1-15 and who are taken to represent the trinity. Dippel explains how icons, such as this one, "invite the observer, or believer, if you will, into the picture's narrative as a participant" (29). What Dippel terms "inverse perspective is the mechanism by which believers enter into and participate in the divine narrative" (29). If so, such experience must be something viewers bring to the image and not something that the painting, which looks very much like Italian art before Giotto, itself produces. Dippel then argues that Rockwell's paintings, which emphasize an American version of sobornost', "function in much the same way as icons" (32). Convincing as I find the author's political readings of Rockwell's work, I have to conclude that if these works, like the nineteenth-century Russian painters discussed in a later chapter, function like icons, nothing specifically artistic or painterly produces this effect and that it is the associated textual traditions that do so. This emphasis upon the verbal seems counter to much of the book's argument.
Dippel, who has published three books on seventeenth-century theology, somewhat eccentrically stays close to home in his third chapter, "Richard Hooker and Jeremy Taylor: Iconographic Theology Exemplified," whereas, as he admits, he could "well have discussed F. D. Maurice or the 'ritualistic controversy'" (39). One wishes he had, since after all the book's title states that it will discuss "religious experience from 1850 to 1900." Chapter 4, "Imaginative Quality of Experience: Resources for an Iconographic Theology," surveys the history of biblical interpretation with side glances at theories of imagination, King Lear, and those people that the author takes to be key figures, such as Hooker, Hans Frei, Baruch Spinoza, David Friedrich Strauss. An unsatisfactory fifth chapter, "The Recovery of Religious Vision in Nineteenth-century Russian Art," surveys its subject without placing it in the necessary contexts of contemporary French, German, and British painting from which it obviously seems to borrow.
An interesting sixth chapter, "The Iconographic Dimension of British Popular Culture Fin de Siecle: Plays and Painting," begins with an examination of four "immensely popular" (142) novels and their dramatic and cinematic adaptations, which Dippel claims "as much as any other development . . . triggered the iconographic restoration which is the thesis of this book" (142) — Lew Wallace's Ben-Hur: A Tale of the Christ (1880), Henryk Sienkiewicz's Quo Vadis: A Narrative of the Time of Nero (1896), Wilson Barrett's The Sign of the Cross (1896), and Henry Arthur Jones' Michael and his Lost Angel (1897). This chapter's discussion of religious drama, like other parts of the book, has some strange omissions, such as not mentioning that both ancient Greek and medieval English drama had their origins in religious ritual.
When I received this book for review, I immediately noticed the color reproduction of William Holman Hunt's The Light of the World on its cover and I assumed the authors or publishers sent it to me because I had written a book on Hunt. Like every reviewer, I checked the bibliography and index to see if my work was mentioned, and as it turned out, I found not the Hunt book but my equally relevant Victorian Types, assigned to the authorship of one George Landon. Some of the book's other errors are unintentionally amusing, such as when Redeemed at Countless Cost mentions "historical criticism of the Bile" (87). Of course, everyone makes mistakes. I know I certainly do, but I also know that when I do they cut rather sharply into what Aristotle termed my authorial ethos or credibility. Since I'm not an expert on either Russian painting or literature, I have to take much of what the authors state, particularly factual information, on faith. I was therefore particularly interested in what Dippel had to say about Hunt. He discusses not only The Light of the World but also Hunt's The Shadow of Death and The Awakening Conscience. He has nice things to say about my comments on the first painting in Victorian Types, but rather surprisingly he doesn't know important information about the second. He does not know, for example, either that Hunt claimed The Light of the World recorded a vision that turned him from atheism into devout, if idiosyncratic, Christian belief or that it and The Awakening Conscience together form a dyptich in which the first painting presented an allegorical or visionary image of his experience and the second offered one that employed social criticism and styles associated with social realism: the young woman, the rich man's mistress, begins to play "Oft in the stilly night," a song she knew in her days of innocence, and suddenly has a vision or conversion experience. Dippel criticizes Bram Dyskstra's description of the young woman as a "domesticated prostitute," confessing that "his interpretation perplexes me" (156), but that's what the painter said she was.
Perhaps more important a problem in a book dedicated to the advocacy of typological readings of scripture, Dippel does not realize that The Light of the World is in many ways an atypical work by Hunt, who after his conversion dedicated years to painting works in which typology enabled him to fuse realistic ethnographic, geographic, and archeological facts with elaborate integrated symbolism. Hunt does in fact create the kind of paintings that Dippel describes as icons, and one could include The Light of the World in that number, but The Finding of the Saviour in the Temple, The Scapegoat, and The Shadow of Death better fit that description.
A seventh chapter, "The Religious Experience in Russian Literature," closes the volume with discussions largely dependent on earlier critics of Tolstoy and Dostoyevsky. Although filled with interesting discussions of art, literature, and theology, the book is, as Dippel admits, "almost a series of essays" (13) rather than a tightly organized volume. The chapter on Rockwell, which begins the book, might work better as a final chapter, and the inclusion of the Russian material demands many more comparisons of it with Anglo-American examples. More serious a problem involves the book's emphasis upon biblical typology. According to the authors "Figural reading" — reading for types and shadows of Christ and his dispensation — "is, in effect, the literal sense when considered across the whole scope of scripture" (87), and therefore "with an imagination formed by the inexhaustible reservoir of Scripture, reality for the believing reader is that rendered by the text" (87). If I understand their argument, Dippel and Champlin write for an audience of believing Protestants and not in order to convert nonbelievers. They therefore begin with an assumption that their intended reader already not only believes in Christianity but accepts Christ as Lord and Saviour. Starting from this position, one can of course read both Old and New Testaments permeated by Christ and anticipations of him. The problem here, the central problem, appears in the fact that the typological readings of scripture the book advocates depend upon a belief that even the smallest details of the Bible are literally true, something that nineteenth-century geology, study of semitic languages, and simple comparing of quantities given in various passages passages (as Bishop Colenso had done) convinced many that the Bible could not be literally true. Despite all the discussion of Strauss, Frei, and others, the book just seems to bracket all the textual problems that make figuralism difficult if not impossible, put them away somewhere, and ignore them. Perhaps I have misunderstood.
Another equally serious problem lies in the the allegiance to the church party to which the authors belong, for much of their arguments urge the superiority of High Anglican, Russian Orthodox, and Roman Catholic religion to evangelical protestantism, and yet much of what the authors want in their "iconographic religion" can be found in Victorian evangelicalism. According to Redeemed at Countless Cost,
Iconographic religion is experiential. That is to say, it tends to be dynamic rather than static. Logocentric religion is attentive and reflective. Quakers quietly sitting in their meeting houses waiting upon the spirit personifies a static religious orientation, as do the faithful sitting in their pews in a traditional, as in the seventeenth- or eighteenth-century, Presbyterian church patiently attentive to their pastor working through point by point, in accordance with the principles of Ramist logic as elucidated by William Perkins around the turn into the seventeenth-century, the doctrine and applications, or uses, of his text.
By contrast, churches which are preeminently iconographic incorporate movement, movement which often actively folds the laity into liturgical motion, into their services. Think here especially of the Roman Catholic, Orthodox, and Anglican traditions. This emphasis on motion is clearly manifest in the activity regarding the preparation and administration of the Eucharist. It finds expression elsewhere as well. The English church during the medieval and on into the early modem era through the seventeenth-century, and so covering both its Roman Catholic and Protestant identities, celebrated Rogation week every year. The priest, accompanied by cross and Eucharistic host, would lead his flock throughout the parish, offering up prayers and blessings.
The "movement" that book here praises is accurately described, to be sure, but exactly how much movement does the worshipper actually encounter, and how central to the religious experience is it? More to the point are two other issues. First of all, much of the immersive imaginative experience that Redeemed at Countless Cost argues to be central to religious experience seems far more characteristic of nineteenth-century British evangelicals than it does of High Anglicans. Second, where is this "recovery" of so-called iconographic religious experience? In a half century of teaching I encountered few undergraduates who had read any part of the Bible.
Dippel on Rev. William J.E. Bennett's building of St. Barnabas, Pimlico
Dippel, Stewart, and Jeffrey F. Champlin's Redeemed at Countless Cost: The Recovery of Iconographic Theology and Religious Experience from 1850 to 2000. New York: Peter Lang, 2017.
Created 8 March 2018


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Working with Displaced Learners: SNHU's Global Education Movement
With over 70 million displaced people worldwide, a parallel crisis is also emerging: around the world only 3% of refugees have access to higher education, compared to a global average of 34%. In addition to fueling inequity, this gap entrenches people in a system of disenfranchisement, excluding refugees from acquiring the credentials and skills required to be economically empowered decision-makers in their own lives or to become effective advocates for their communities. Come hear about how Southern New Hampshire University's Global Education Movement (GEM) is aiming to solve this complex challenge. GEM is creating pathways for refugees to pursue accredited degrees and employment and leadership, preparing graduates for careers and transformative action in their communities, general workplaces, and the humanitarian system. GEM has begun to drive systemic change through the growing international network of graduates, who are set to become key leaders in the search for solutions to the global refugee crisis. There is no better time to build a solution that empowers refugees and offers an alternative narrative to refugee life outcomes.
Chrystina Russell
Noria Dambrine Dusabireme

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


Definitely will do. Thanks, and congrats to you,too.
Daydream is an AWESOME SONG !
love the banjo in it. vocals are GREAT ! Love it !!
Thanks for your comments on my track 'Don't Want To Be Like You'. I will take all your comments on board.
i tried--wow!--pretty cool tune!--5 stars--cheers--joe.
Reach for the stars, AWESOME TUNE LOVE IT !!!
Thank you so much for taking the time to review my song "Transalgia"! So glad you like it! Have a fantastic weekend.


Explore Cruisers Yachts boats for sale. View this 1997 Cruisers Yachts 3750 Motoryacht for sale at Surfman Marine, located in Port tobacco, MD.
Two things will (or should) impress you about the Cruisers Yachts 3650 if you've been boat-shopping: the tremendous sense of space; and the easy access throughout. Stepping down into the saloon, the airy and spacious feel is partly because of the open layout and the big cabin windows, partly because of the headroom (6'6" in the saloon, nearly 8'0" in the galley/ dinette), and partly because of the pale maple woodwork.
Cruising comfort for the whole family is taken to new levels with the Cruisers 3650 Motoryacht. This deluxe aft-cabin design offers smooth handling, excellent living space, molded-in steps instead of ladders, and all the comforts of home to make for a great experience in pleasure cruising. The ergonomically designed helm station offers paired gauges, accessible controls, and room for additional electronics. The 3650's aft deck features a well-appointed wet bar, plenty of space for relaxing or entertaining on board, and convenient molded-in steps to all areas of the boat and swim platform. This cruiser's bright, spacious salon features a booth-style dinette - double berth to starboard, a galley to port, and 6-foot, 6-inch headroom throughout. In addition, her full-service galley includes a large refrigerator and freezer, microwave oven, electric stove, as well as impressive counter and storage space. The master stateroom aft boasts a large island double berth with inner spring mattress and generous storage for cruising vacations, whereas the forward stateroom offers a large double berth and ample storage space. The master head, part of the aft-cabin suite, features standing headroom, a large vanity and sink and, as a special touch, a bath tub with shower; the forward head includes a shower and standing headroom.
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Butterflies in the Hopi culture symbolize moisture and flowers. They flutter across the desert land giving life to the plants and announcing the coming rain clouds. The Blue Butterfly carries rain clouds symbols upon it's wings. Green Butterfly has prayer elements representing the blessings to all life.


The RSFS is a provincial network which envisions the creation of a favourable environment in which Francophones in Saskatchewan are able to seek and receive health services in French, and where health institutions and health professionals are actively offering a continuum of quality health services in French which are adapted to the needs of the French-speaking population of Saskatchewan.
Our mission is to ensure a better access to French language health and social services and programs in Saskatchewan.
RSFS seeks to achieve this mission through collaboration with leaders in the health care sector and with the community by offering achievable and practical approaches which can be implemented to improve access to French-language health services in our province. The RSFS is one of 16 provincial networks affiliated with the Société Santé en français.
Our mandate is to promote, protect and enhance access to health services in French in Saskatchewan.
Encouraging providers to proactively offer services in French.


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"Mathematics is not about numbers, equations, computations or algorithm. It is about understanding"
General theory of relativity and field equation
Coordinate transformation | Gravitational waves | Differential Equation
Albert Einstein transformed the way we all see the world. Just over one hundred years ago, his theory of Relativity stunned scientists, but today it is integral to modern thought as the most important scientific discovery of twentieth century.
Field equations are a set of equations in the formulation of general relativity, which gave many fruitful and interesting results about gravity. Time was shown to be the fourth dimension earlier in special theory of relativity. Space and time were combined to form spacetime. To come about this unification Einstein simply modified famous phytagoras law to include time in a certain manner. The spacetime interval was proved to be fundamental to his theory. All measurement is relative. Temporal separation and space separation are different for different observer but spacetime interval is the same for all. There is no basic difference between space and time from relativistic viewpoint. Mass , length and time all became relative. There is just one absolute structure and that is four dimensional spacetime. These were the facts that the theory of special relativity revealed about our world. But Einstein later took bold task to include gravity in framework of theory of relativity. He thought what if gravity is bending and warping of spacetime itself. He successfully explained that gravity was in fact so and finally proposed his field equations.
Take a flat piece of rubber sheet. The sheet is flat in the sense that the distance between two points corresponds to phythagoras's law. So you lay down the coordinates for each point and you can calculate distance exactly according to Pythagoras's law. Now stretch and twist the rubber sheet without tearing or glueing it with other. Now the coordinates will move away from each other with the amount of distance which must differ from point to point. Equal stretch will not give equal distance. The usual law of Pythagoras will no longer hold. You now have a curved surface. Time dimension is excluded for simplicity. This is also known as rubber-sheet analogy of curved spacetime. This is Einstein's general theory of relativity!!!
"As there is such law of gravity , universe can create upon itself"
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Field Equation
Field equation of Einstein's General theory of relativity is perhaps one of the greatest theories ever discovered by any human intellect. It reveals certain structure of the physical world, which has great impact on philosophy and science. Gravity can be easily explained using the field equations as a curvature of spacetime. It is a tensor equation and so valid in any reference frame. Although field equation is harder to solve , many exact solutions had been found over a century. Solutions of field equations gave many interesting fact about the universe like black holes, worm hole and time travel. Wor m hole is a hypothetical gateway that connect s two distance regions of space. it can be used as a time machine also. In the movie interstellar the crew of the ship travel through wormhole , which was shown to be a sphere in three dimensions.
Force in Newtonian framework is the gradient of a gravitational field (φ). The field in Newtonian framework has one quantity and a direction at each point in space. This is equivalent to acceleration that an object experiences due to gravity.
The Laplacian (∇) of the field is proportional to mass density.
Now we consider similar equation of the form given below , which contains Laplacian of metric tensor g(uv).
In general relativity field is the metric tensor g(uv). Metric tensor transforms like a second rank tensor. As a result gravity is solely the result of coordinates tranformation. Metric tensor allows one to calculate distance between two points in spacetime. Suppose you want to calculate distance on the surface of a cylinder. The distances in various direction s are different as the curvature changes along each direction. Metric tensor takes account of all these individual distances to calculate total distance between any two points. On the surface of cylinder there is usually two directions. In space time there are many directions and components of metric tensor track all these directions. The idea of metric tensor dates back to Gauss's remarkable theorem egregium . The theorem states that if any surface is developed on to another surface , the curvature at each point will remain the same. This curvature is known as Gaussian curvature. He also stated that the measure of curvature can be determined from the Measurement of length , angle and rate of change of these. The curvature does not depend on the way the surface is embedded in space. The theorem is remarkable because definition of curvature makes direct use of position of the surface in space . So it is quite surprising that the result does not depend on its embedding in spite of all bending and twisting deformations undergone.
Now calculating the divergence of Einsteing tensor G(ab) and energy momentum tensor T(ab ) and setting them equal to zero we can find the value of constant (μ). Putting back everything in equation (11) we get field equations.
Field equations describe basic interplay between space, time, matter and energy. It reflects a great mathematical as well as philosophical insight. It is a second order partial non linear differential equation. The constants of the field equations are Cosmological constant Λ, gravitational constant(G), speed of light(c). The cosmological constant (Λ) was proposed by Einstein. His field equations did not allow for a static universe. He wanted to stop the universe from collapsing in on itself because gravity would contract it. Later he considered it as the biggest blunder of his life, when he knew that universe is indeed expanding. Other parameters of the left hand side are metric tensor, ricci tensor. Divergence of the left hand side is zero and so is the right hand side of energy momentum tensor. Divergence in relativity is defined through the covariant derivative, which is the 4-dimensional analog of that in Euclidean space.
Euclidean space is a mathematical construct. Euclid first created an axiomatic system which helped Euclidean space to be constructed. Euclidean geometry is the geometry of Euclidean space. There are few axioms and propositions of Euclidean system. The axioms are :
1)To draw a straight line from any point to any point.
2)To produce [extend] a finite straight line continuously in a straight line.
3)To describe a circle with any centre and distance [radius].
4)That all right angles are equal to one another.
5)[The parallel postulate]: That, if a straight line falling on two straight lines make the interior angles on the same side less than two right angles, the two straight lines, if produced indefinitely, meet on that side on which the angles are less than two right angles.
One of the axiom was the parallel postulates. Parallel lines are the lines which do not intersect themselves. Given a line in a plane there two class of lines , which cuts the given line and which do not. Paralel lines to this given line is defined to limit of these two classes.
It was refusal to admit the parallel postulates without proof that began the development of meta-geometry or non-euclidean geometry. There are other cases where parallel postulate does not hold. For example on the surface of a sphere (elliptic geometry) where parallel lines do meet. Such elliptic space is positively curved.
Our space is similarly curved due to presence of mass and energy content of the universe . Space in our solar system is curved due to the mass of sun and other planet. But we can not directly percieve such curved space because of our restricted sens e. Think about a bug living on the surface of a sphere. The bug does not know that he is actually living in higher dimension other than its surface. But Gauss had shown that we need not reference higher dimension in order to infer the curvature of any space. The metric of any space can reveal the intrinsic curvature. So we can easily find out any properties of our space without thinking about how our three dimensional space is embedded in higher dimensions.
We can decompose the field equation into individual components like this : .
In empty space the field equations reduce to simpler form : .
So what are the field equations all about? It suggests that the material world is intimately connected with the curvature of spacetime. Geometry is the same as physics. The field equation is a system of ten simultaneous separate equations which correspond to the ten independent components of metric tensor. In the right hand side , the constant quantity is very small. So a large amount of mass is needed to create a little spacetime curvature. In theoretical consideration, even an electron can create some spacetime curvature as it has some mass. As the mass of electron is too small, The curvature created by it is too small.
That the space is curved refers to the fact that the ratio of circumference to the radius is not the constant 2π rather it is greater or less than 2π. When the ratio is greater than 2π , it is characterized by hyperbolic geometry and when it is less than 2π , it is characterized by elliptic geometry. In Euclidean geometry it is exactly 2π.
The development of non-Euclean geometry took a long time. When Einstein used it , it became clear that our space is indeed curved and Euclidean axioms and propositions only hold in a limiting case of that. The curvature can be explained in terms of amount of deviation of total angle of a triange in curved space from that in Euclidean space as the area of the triangle shrinks to zero.
Two dimensional surface is characterized by geodesics. Plane in Euclidean geometry is an special case of two dimensional manifold s. At every point on a two dimensional manifold there are infinite number of geodesics that pass through it. These geodesic are arcs which have measures of curvature. Among them there are two of which the measure of curvature is either least or greatest. These two measures of curvature determine the curvature of surface at the particular point i.e the product of the two. If the measure of curvature is the same at every point then the surface is said to be of constant cur vature. Sphere is an example of surface of constant curvature. Such curved surface deviates away from a plane which is tangent to it at every point. So the amount by which the surface pulls away from the plane is quadratic in the coordinates measured from the point of tangency. We expect similar thing to happen in four dimensions. In four dimensions there are a number of surfaces that pass through a point. Each surface has a curvature defined at the point so the total curvature of the space will be a collection of numbers.
"The life on earth may be a expensive but it certainly includes a free trip around the sun once a year"
Field equation is the theory of gravity which Einstein struggled for ten years to find out. Mach's idea influenced Einstein to develop his theory. Mach's idea was that there is no absolute rotation. Newton thought that motion and acceleration was absolute. He demonstrated a famous experiment known as "Newton's bucket" to prove this. But later Mach refuted his claim and told that the said acceleration is relative to all the stars and nebulae in universe. The water in the Newton's bucket is really rotating with respect to the entire mass content of the universe. Field equation is the best description of our physical world in macroscopic perspective. Field equations say not only mass energy creates gravitational field but also pressure and stress contribute to the gravity.
Where there is no matter the equation takes a simple form. This is the so called vacuum condition: R(ik) = 0 . Ricci tensor vanishes but the Riemann curvature tensor does not necessary vanish. Some components of the Riemann curvature tensor can exist. Empty space can be curved too. What it means is that average scalar curvature is zero. Einstein's field equation is very hard too solve. German physicist Karl Swardchild first found the exact solution of the field equation. This solution is used to describe the spacetime around a star when it turns into a black hole. The solution is relatively hard to derive from the field equation. But we can surely give a try.
First we consider an isolated object of mass M. Surrounding spacetime around the object will be curved by its mass. So we need to find the metric that can describe the spacetime distortion around the object. We use spherical polar coordinate system which has coordinates r, θ and φ. we need an additional coordinate t. So a set (r, θ,φ, t) will describe the non-euclidean spacetime around the object.
We apply symmetry under each coordinate change from positive to negative. Using the properties of metric tensor's transformation we see that all the components vanish except the diagonal components. The combination of these diagonal components will be our final form of metric.
Next we let U= g(11) and V= g(44) and compute the components of Christoffel symbols. We can use the formula where it contains the derivative of metric tensors. After tedious computation we can get four independent components of christoffel symbols which can be used in the vacuum equations. These symbols become simplified under certain conditions.
The covariant metric tensor is the negative one (-1) multiplied the inverse of contravariant one. Each individual component of Christofel symbol is calculated using this inverse metric and derivative of metric tensor's components. Most of the Off-diagonal components seems to vanish.
Now the values of some christoffel symbols are calculated.
Similarly some others are calculated for individual indices. Christoffel symbol's component are symmetric in lower indices. Now the task is to compute ricci tensor components. The diagonal components R(00) and R(11) are computed for brevity.
Now the Einstein tensor G(00) and G(11) is determined where Ricci scalar is used.
In the weak field limit when r tends to infinity the value of U=A=g(44) and V=B(r)= must take the value of that of Minkoswki metric. Thus we finally find the value of U in terms of mass (m) of the object and radius r.
Finally putting the value of U and V in the line element we get the metric of the spacetime around the object of mass m. This is so called exact solution of Einstein field equation. It has predicted the existence of black hole. So far large number of such black holes have been discovered. Our milky way contains a black holes that is a million times heavier than the sun. Heavier star collapses under the pull of gravitational field of it after it has run out of its fuel.
The nonlinearity of the EFE makes finding exact solutions hard. One way of solving the field equations is to make an approximation, namely, that far from the source(s) of gravitating matter, gravitational field is very feeble and the spacetime approximates to that of Minkowski space. The metric is then written as the sum of the Minkowski metric and a term denoting the deviation of the true metric from the Minkowski metric, with terms that are quadratic in or higher powers of the deviation being disregarded. This linearization procedure can be used to investigate the phenomena of gravitational radiation.
The distorted picture of spacetime around a massive object will look like something like this:
"nature abhorrs a nacked singularity!"
The most attractive part of the universe is curvy. Space tells matter how to move and matter tells space how to curve. This is the most beautiful theory in physics.
The importance of geodesics came from the idea that freely moving bodies experiencing no other forces except gravity move in geodesics. In field equation the concept of geodesic is implicit. What is geodesic really?
A lonely pedestrian in Alps might want to go from one valley to another. He surely want to find shortest route from one valley to another. Shotest route is to mean the path between the two places while reamining on the earth everytime. He can not find it by drawing a straight line on the map. For the average gradient of some path can be greater that others which slopes gradually from one pass and down again on the next. What he is seeking is geodesics. The general definition of geodesic is not shortest route. Geodesic is the path such that distance from one point to another on it is stationary. Silght different paths are either longer or slightly differnt paths are shorter. First order change of path length is zero. This is the problem of maximizing and minizing a function. Geodesic path on the surface of the earth is the great circle. For many complicated surface the geodesic can be very complicated curve. In theory of relativity geodesic is the path of longest time. This is so because the distance in relativity is time-like. When it is possible for a material particle to travel between two events , the interval in spacetime is what seems like the lapse of time between those events. It is unlike the usual distance in Euclidean geometry.
There is one matter of great importance , which is not clear in the usual accounts of relativity theory. How are to know that given two events in spacetime, they are happening to the same piece of matter ? An electron and a proton are supposed to preserve its identity thoughout the time considered. But out continumm is a continuum of events. So one must suppose that one piece of matter is a series of events or series of sets of events. There is no specific criterion to determine whether a piece of matter belong to any such series. It is not supposed that events that overlap at the same place and time belongs to one piece of matter belong to no other. It is also supposed that events that have spacelike interval or zero interval does not belong to same piece of matter. But in case of timelike interval there is no obvious criterion. Two events which have time-like interval can always be connected by a geodesic and as the laws of dynamics suggest events on it will belong to the same piece of matter. Still we sometimes think they do and sometimes they don't.
"one must see the hell before he has any right to speak of heaven.."
To sum up the above lengthy discussion about field equation, spacetime has a four dimensional order of events. At each event of spacetime, the field equations are satisfied by the value of the coordinates of the event. In particular , at each event metric tensor has ten components which corresponds to ten non linear differential equations. There are twenty one numbers at each event, corresponding to various curvature components of Riemann curvature tensor. The events satisfying field equations have very complicated non linear realtions among them.
You can provide your comment and response about field equations below:
You told us how an almost churchlike atmosphere is pervading your desolate house now. And justifiably so, for unusual divine powers are at work in there. Besso to Einstein, 30 Oct 1915
The basis of Einstein's general theory of relativity is the bold idea that not only do the metrical relations of spacetime deviate from perfect Euclidean flatness, but that the metric itself is a dynamical object. In every other field theory the equations describe the behavior of a physical field, such as the electric or magnetic field, within a constant and immutable arena of space and time, but the field equations of general relativity describe the behavior of space and time themselves. The spacetime metric is the field. This fact is so familiar that we may be inclined to simply accept it without reflecting on how ambitious it is, and how miraculous it is that such a theory is even possible, not to mention comprehensible. Spacetime plays a dual role in this theory, because it constitutes both the dynamical object and the context within which the dynamics are defined. This self-referential aspect gives general relativity certain characteristics different from any other field theory. For example, in other theories we formulate a Cauchy initial value problem by specifying the condition of the field everywhere at a given instant, and then use the field equations to determine the future evolution of the field. In contrast, because of the inherent self-referential quality of the metrical field, we are not free to specify arbitrary initial conditions, but only conditions that already satisfy certain self-consistency requirements (a system of differential relations called the Bianchi identities) imposed by the field equations themselves. The self-referential quality of the metric field equations also manifests itself in their non-linearity. Under the laws of general relativity, every form of stress-energy creates gravitation, including gravitation itself. This is really unavoidable for a theory in which the metrical relations between entities fix the "positions" of those entities, and those positions in turn affects the metric. This non-linearity arises both practical and theoretical issues. From a practical standpoint, it ensures that exact analytical solutions will be very difficult to find except in special cases. More importantly, from a conceptual standpoint, non-linearity make sure that the field cannot in general be uniquely defined by the distribution of material objects, because variations in the field itself can serve as " material objects". Furthermore, after eschewing the comfortable but trusting principle of inertia as a suitable foundation for physics, Einstein concluded that "in the general theory of relativity, space and time cannot be defined in such a way that differences of the spatial coordinates can be directly measured by the unit measuring rod, or differences in the time coordinate by a standard clock...this requirement ... takes away from space and time the last vestige of physical objectivity".
It seems that we're completely at sea, unable to even begin to hypothesize a definite solution, and lacking any definite system of reference for defining even the most elementary quantities. It's not obvious how a viable physical theory could emerge from such an austere level of abstraction. These difficulties no doubt explain why Einstein's path to the field equations in the years 1907 to 1915 was so twisted, with so much confusion and backtracking. One of the principles that heuristically guided his search was what he called the principle of general covariance. This was understood to mean that the laws of physics should be expressible in the form of tensor equations, because such equations automatically hold with respect to any system of curvilinear coordinates (within a given diffeomorphism class). He abandoned this principle at some stage, holding that he and Grossmann had proven it could not be made coherent with the Poisson equation of Newtonian gravitation, but he subsequently realized the invalidity of their arguments, and re-embraced general covariance as a fundamental principle of formulation of GR.
It strikes many people as ironic that Einstein found the principle of general covariance to be so engaging, because, strictly speaking, it's possible to express almost any physical law, including Newton's laws, in generally covariant form (i.e., as tensor equations). This was not clear when Einstein first formulated general relativity, but it was shown in one of the very first published critiques of Einstein's 1916 paper, and immediately acknowledged by Einstein. It's worth remembering that the generally covariant formalism had been developed only in 1901 by Ricci and Levi-Civita, and the first real use of it in physics was Einstein's formulation of general relativity. This historical accident made it spontaneous for people (including Einstein, at first) to imagine that general relativity is distinguished from other theories by its general covariance, whereas in fact general covariance was only a new mathematical formalism, and does not connote a distinguishing physical attribute. For this reason, some people have been tempted to concede that the requirement of general covariance is actually vacuous. In reply to this criticism, Einstein clarified the real meaning (for him) of this principle, showing that its heuristic value arises when combined with the idea that the laws of physics should not only be expressible as tensor equations, but should be expressible as simple tensor equations. In 1918 he wrote "Of two theoretical systems which accord with experience, that one is to be preferred which from the point of view of the absolute differential calculus is the simplest and most transparent". This is still a bit unclear, but it seems that the quality which Einstein had in mind was closely related to the Machian idea that the expression of the dynamical laws of a theory should be symmetrical up to arbitrary continuous transformations of the spacetime coordinates.
Of course, the presence of any particle of matter with a determinate state of motion automatically breaks the symmetry, but a particle of matter is a dynamical object of the theory. The general principle that Einstein had in mind was that only dynamical objects could be permitted to introduce asymmetries. This leads naturally to the conclusion that the coefficients of the spacetime metric itself must be dynamical elements of the theory, i.e., must be acted upon. In this way, Einstein believed he had pointed out what he regarded as the strongest of Mach's criticisms of Newtonian spacetime, namely, the fact that Newton's space acted on objects but was never acted upon by objects.
Let's follow Einstein's original presentation in his famous paper "The Foundation of the General Theory of Relativity", which was published early in 1916. He noticed that for empty space, far from any gravitating object, we expect to have flat (i.e., Minkowskian) spacetime, which amounts to demanding that Riemann's curvature tensor R(abcd) vanishes. However, in regions of space near gravitating matter we must clearly have non-zero intrinsic curvature, because the gravitational field of an object cannot simply be "transformed away" (to the second order) by a change of coordinates. Thus there is no system of coordinates with respect to which the manifold is flat to the second order, which is exactly the condition indicated by a non-vanishing Riemann curvature tensor. Nevertheless, even at points where the full curvature tensor R(abcd) is not zero, the contracted tensor of the second rank, R(bc)= g(ad)R(abcd) = R(dbcd) may vanish. Now, a tensor of rank four can be contracted in six different ways (the number of ways of choosing two of the four indices), and in general this brings six distinct tensors of rank two. We are able to single out a more or less sistinct contraction of the curvature tensor only because of that tensor's symmetries , which suggest that of the six contractions of R(abcd), two are zero and the other four are identical up to sign flip.
By convention we define the Ricci tensor R(bc) as the contraction g(ad)R(abcd). In seeking favorable conditions for the metric field in empty space, Einstein observes that …there is only a minimum arbitrariness in the choice... for besides R(mn) there is no tensor of rank two which is formed from the g(mn) and it derivatives, contains no derivatives higher than the second, and is linear in these derivatives. This prompts us to require for the matter-free gravitational field that the symmetrical tensor R(mn) ... shall vanish. Thus, guided by the belief that the laws of physics should be the simplest possible tensor equations (to ensure general covariance), he proposes that the field equations for the gravitational field in empty space should be
Noting that R(mn) takes on a particularly simple form on the condition that we choose coordinates such that = 1, Einstein originally expressed this in terms of the Christoffel symbols as
(In his 1916 paper Einstein had a different sign because he defined the symbol Γabc as the negative of the Christoffel symbol of the second kind.) He then concludes the section with words that obviously gave him great pleasure, since he repeated essentially the same comments at the conclusion of the paper: These equations, which proceed, by the method of pure mathematics, from the requirement of the general theory of relativity, give us, in combination with the [geodesic] equations of motion, to a first approximation Newton's law of gravity, and to a second approximation the explanation of the precession of the perihelion of the planet Mercury discovered by Leverrier. These facts must, in my opinion, be taken as a convincing proof of the validity of the theory. To his friend Paul Ehrenfest in January 1916 he wrote that "for a few days I was beside myself with joyous excitement", and to Fokker he said that seeing the abnormalities in Mercury's orbit emerge naturally from his purely geometrical field equations "had given him palpitations of the heart". (These recollections are remarkably similar to the presumably spurious story of Newton's trembling hand when he learned, in 1675, of Picard's revised estimates of the Earth's size, and was thereby able to reconcile his previous calculations of the Moon's orbit based on the assumption of an inverse-square law of gravitation.)
The identity R(mn) = 0 gives ten distinct equations in the ten unknown metric components gmn at each point in empty spacetime (where the term "empty" signifies the absence of matter or electromagnetic energy, but obviously not the absence of the metric/gravitational field.) Since these equations are generally covariant tensor equations, it implies that given any single solution we can construct infinitely many others simply by applying arbitrary (continuous) coordinate transformations. So each individual physical solution has four full degrees of freedom which allow it to be expressed in different ways. In order to uniquely fix a particular solution we must impose four coordinate conditions on the g(mn), but this gives us a total of fourteen equations in just ten unknowns, which could not be expected to have any non-trivial solutions at all if the fourteen equations were fully independent and arbitrary. Our only hope is if the ten formal conditions represented by our basic field equations automatically satisfy four identities for any values of the metric tensor's components, so that they really only impose six independent conditions, which then would uniquely fix a solution when augmented by a set of four arbitrary coordinate conditions. It isn't hard to guess that the four "automatic" conditions to be satisfied by our field equations must be the vanishing of the covariant derivatives, since this will guarantee local conservation of any energy-momentum source term that we may place on the right side of the equation, analogous to the mass density on the right side of Poisson's equation
where we've chosen units so that Newton's gravitational constant equals 1. In tensor calculus the divergence generalizes to the covariant derivative, so we expect that the covariant derivatives of the metrical field equations must identically vanish too. The Ricci tensor R(mn) itself does not satisfy this requirement, but we can form a tensor that does satisfy the requirements (using the Bianchi identity as explained below) with just a slight modification of the Ricci tensor, and without disturbing the relation R(mn ) = 0 for empty space. Subtracting half the metric tensor times the invariant R = g(mn)R(mn) gives what is now called the Einstein Tensor
Obviously the condition R(mn) = 0 implies G(mn) = 0. Conversely, if G(mn) = 0 we can see from the mixed form
that R must be zero, because otherwise Rmn would need to be diagonal, with the components R/2, which doesn't contract to the scalar R (except in two dimensions). Consequently, the condition Gmn = 0 is equivalent to Rmn = 0 for empty space, but for coupling with a non-zero source term we must use G(mn) to represent the metrical field. To represent the "source term" we will use the covariant energy-momentum tensor T(mn), and regard it as the "cause" of the metric curvature (although one might also conceive of the metric curvature as, in some temporally symmetrical sense, "causing" the energy-momentum). The components of this symmetrical tensor are the fluxes of the four components of momentum in each of the four directions. Thus the time-time component T(00) is the mass-energy density, T(0j) are the translational momenta, and the remaining T(jk) are momentum fluxes signifying pressures and shear stresses. (For this reason, Tμν is sometimes called the stress-energy tensor.) Einstein acknowledged that the introduction of this tensor is not vindicated by the relativity principle alone, but it has the virtues of being closely related by analogy with the Poisson equation from Newton's theory, it gives local conservation of energy and momentum, and finally it implies gravitational energy gravitates just as does every other form of energy. On this basis we surmise that the field equations coupled to the source term can be written in the form G(mn) = kT(mn) where k is a constant which must equal −8π (remembering that Newton's gravitational constant is 1 in our units) in order for the field equations to reduce to Newton's law in the weak field limit. Thus we have the complete expression of Einstein's metrical law of general relativity
------(2)
The minus sign of the right hand side is due to our choice of g(ad)R(abcd) for the definition of the Ricci tensor. As noted above, this is the negative of g(ac)R(abcd), which we could just as well have chosen as the definition of the Ricci tensor, in which case the sign of the right side of (2) would be positive. The choice is purely conventional. It's worth noting that although the left side of the field equations is quite pure and almost uniquely determined by mathematical requirements, the right side is a hodge-podge of miscellaneous "stuff". As Einstein wrote,
The energy tensor can be considered only as a provisional means of representing matter. In reality, matter consists of electrically charged particles... It is only the circumstance that we have no sufficient knowledge of the electromagnetic field of concentrated charges that forces us, provisionally, to leave undetermined in presenting the theory, the true form of this tensor... The right hand side [of (2)] is a formal condensation of all things whose comprehension in the sense of a field theory is still problematic. Not for a moment... did I doubt that this formulation was merely a makeshift in order to give the general principle of relativity a preliminary closed-form expression. For it was essentially no more than a theory of the gravitational field, which was isolated somewhat artificially from a total field of as yet unknown structure. Alas, neither Einstein nor anyone since has been able to make further progress in determining the true form of the right hand side of (2), although it is at the heart of current efforts to reconcile quantum field theory with general relativity. At present we must be content to let T(mn) represent, in a vague sort of way, the energy density of the electromagnetic field and matter. A different (but equivalent) form of the field equations can be found by contracting (2) with g(mn) to give R - 2R = -R = -8πT, and then substituting for R in (2) to give
G(mn) is a rank two tensor. So it R(mn) and g(ab). Field equation is a tensor equation. Without the knowledge of tensor theory of general relativity is hard to understand. Tensor formalism has the beauty of simplicity and elegance. For interested reader s this tensor analysis page can be very helpful.
We know that general theory of relativity connects geometry with physics. But what is geometry ?
Geometry is a scientific knowledge and branch of Mathematics. It deals with spatial magnitudes. Any kind of geometry is possible if four axioms are satified :
a) continuity and dimensions : In a space of n dimension , a point is uniquely determined by n continuously changing variables.
b) lines and points: two points uniquely determine a straight line. Between 2n coordinates of a rigid body there exist a equation, which is the same for all congruent point pairs of the body. By considering sufficient number of point-pairs, we get more equations than unknown quantities: this gives us a method for detrmining the form of these equations , so that all can be satisfied.
b) axiom of free mobility: eEvery point can pass freely from one position to other. From (2) and (3) it follows that if two systems A, B can be brought into congruence in any position, it can be done in any position.
c) Axiom of rotation of rigid body(Monodromy): if (n-1) points of a rigid body remain fixed so that every other point describes a certain curve then the curve is closed
Slipsism
Solipsism is the idea that only the mind exist. Nothing outside the mind exists. There is certain reason to believe in solipsism. This material world is the projection of our mind. What we see is just The figment of our imagination. What if this world is just a scientific construct. The people who believe in solipsism is called solipsists. solipsism is philosophically the same thing as idealism. Idealism states that only ideas and concepts create our reality. All these evidences certainly support in favour of solipsism.
DEFINITION OF A DYNAMICAL WORLD
Before roceeding to the laws of motion, which introduce new complications of which some are difficult to express in terms of pure mathematics, I wish briefly to define in logical language the dynamical world as it results from previous chapters. Let t be a one-dimensional continuous series, s a three-dimensional continuous series, which we will not assume to be Euclidean as yet. If R be a many-one relation whose domain is t and whose converse domain is contained in s, then R defines a motion of a material particle. The indestructibility and ingenerability of matter are expressed in the fact that R has the whole of t for its field. Let us assume further that R defines a continuous function in s. In order to define the motions of a material system, it is only necessary to consider a class of relations having the properties assigned above to R, and such that the logical product of any two of them is null. This last condition expresses impenetrability. For it asserts that no two of our relations relate the same moment to the same point, i.e. no two particles can be at the same place at the same time. A set of relations fulfilling these conditions will be called a class of kinematical motions. With these conditions, we have all that kinematics requires for the definition of matter; and if the descriptive school were wholly in the right, our definition would not add the new condition which takes us from kinematics to kinetics. Nevertheless this condition is essential to inference from events at one time to events at another, without which Dynamics would lose its distinctive feature.
Russell's philosophy of theory of gravity
Although physics has worked with differential equations ever since the invention of calculus , geometry was supposed to be able to start with laws applying to finite spaces. If we adopt the viewpoint of Einstein , there can be no separation between geometry and physics; every propositionns of geometry will be to some extent causal. Take first the special theory. Relatively to axes (x,y,z, t) we can obtain propositions of geometry by keeping t constant; but relatively to other axes these propositions will refer to events at different times. It is true that these events (simultaneous events), in any system of co-ordinates , will have space-like interval, and will have no causal relations with each other, but they will have indirect causal relations derived from a common ancestry. Let us take for example , say : The sum of the angles of a triangle is two right angles. Our triangles may be composed of rods or of light rays.In either case , it must preserve a certain constancy while we measure it. Both rods and light rays are complicated physical structures, and the physical laws of their behaviour are involved in taking them as approximations to ideal straight lines. Neverthless, so far as the special theory is concerned, all this might be allowed , and yet we might maintain a certain distinction between geometry and physics, the former being a set of laws supposed exact, and approximately verified , for the relations of the x, y, z coordinates in any Galilean frame when t is kept constant.
But in general theory the intermixture of geometry and physics is more intimate. We can not accurately reduce ds(2) to the form :
dx(2)+dy(2)+dz(2) - dt(2)
and therefore can not accurately distinguish one coordinate as representing time. We can not therefore obtain a timeless geometry by putting t=constant. With this goes a change in our axioms. We no loger have, as in Euclid, in Lobatchevsky and Bolyai , and in projective geometry, axioms dealing with straight lines and finite lengths. We now have as our initial apparatus , infinitesimal from which large-scale results must be found by method of integration. From this point of view , Weyl's extension of Einstein seems natural. The proposition is that the statement that the distances AB and CD are equal is the assertion of the relation between the four points A, B, C and D. If all the relations that constitute our initial apparatus are confined to infinitesimal , so must this relation; if so points A, B, C and D must be close together and Weyl's geometry results.
Feynman's Lecture on Gravitation
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Фёдор Дмитриевич Климов (1838 — после 1877) — самарский губернатор с 1872 по 1875 гг.

Семья
Федор Дмитриевич родился под Курском, в имении родителей в 1838 году.

Образование
Окончил Константиновский кадетский корпус в 1857 году.

Гражданская служба
16 июня 1857 года Климов начал карьеру военного и 6 июля того же года поступил на службу корнетом в лейб-гвардии уланский полк. Служба в избранной Климовым кавалерийской части не вдохновила его и профессиональным военным он не стал. С 1861 по 1863 год в звании поручика он исполнял должность мирового посредника в родной ему Курской губернии. Совмещение военной и гражданской службы дало ему возможность быстро продвигаться по служебной лестнице, поэтому в полк он вернулся уже ротмистром.

В 1863 году вспыхнуло польское восстание, ставшее причиной возвращения Ф. Д. Климова в порядком позабытую им воинскую часть. Ротмистр Климов принял участие в подавлении военным восстания. Гражданская служба с сохранением военного чина была очень выгодна, и Федор Дмитриевич с 7 сентября 1863 года становится членом проверочной комиссии Минской губернии. На этой должности он стал подполковником армейской кавалерии, что равнялось чину надворного советника VII класса Табели о рангах. Климов являлся председателем Слуцкого мирового съезда, а в 1869 году был произведен в полковники и 11 июля 1869 года ушёл в отставку с военной службы.

Самарский губернатор
Фёдор Дмитриевич был назначен на место самарского губернатора 15 декабря 1872 года и утвержден в этой должности министром внутренних дел А. Е. Тимашевым. В недалеком прошлом кадровый военный, он считался консерватором, который после «либерального» Аксакова наведёт строгий порядок в Самарской губернии и сможет «подтянуть» её.

В 1873 году Поволжье пережило острейший голод. Климов подвергся сильной критике за медлительность в оказании помощи голодавшим, а бездарное управление Климова привело к тому, что правительство выделило голодающим Самарской губернии только мизерную часть необходимых средств. Это обстоятельство и спровоцировало конфликт между губернатором и самарским земством. Председатель самарской губернской земской управы А. Н. Хардин действовал в ходе борьбы с голодом в обход Климова. За несоблюдение субординации губернатор, уволил его по Высочайшему повелению с занимаемого поста. За этим последовала административная высылка одного из членов Самарской уездной управы и устранение Бузулукской уездной земской управы от заведования продовольственным делом.

С крестьянами Ф. Д. Климов тоже не церемонился, он абсолютно не понимал голодавших, ведь сам всегда жил в достатке. А либеральный Аксаков тем временем продолжал помогать голодавшим, не заботясь о престиже губернатора Климова. Климову не нравилось это «противодействие власти». Это противостояние двух дворян, из которых один был губернатором, а второго не так давно сняли с этого поста, было крайне необычным для России и очень показательным.

В 1874 году разгорелся ещё один конфликт. Очередное губернское земское собрание отказалось создать ревизионную комиссию для проверки отчёта деятельности управы по продовольственному вопросу, мотивируя своё решение тем, что управа неподотчётна собранию. Подтекстом решения была обида на своевольное вмешательство Климова в дела управы и невозможность собрания отреагировать на это вмешательство. Следующим решением собрание обжаловало те действия, которые были приняты губернатором в 1873 году по улучшению ситуации с продовольствием.

Ф. Д. Климов опротестовал все решения собрания. Таким образом, конфликт принимал все больший размах, и губернатор показывал себя не с лучшей стороны. В столице стали обращать серьёзное внимание на самарские дела. Бывший самарский губернатор К. К. Грот осудил Климова. В конфликт вмешался министр внутренних дел А. Е. Тимашев, «настоятельно рекомендовавший» губернатору отказаться от протестов. После «погашения» конфликта отношения управления оставались настолько натянутыми, что 3 января 1875 года А. Е. Тимашев был вынужден перевести ярого противника земств на другую должность.

Санкт-Петербург
10 января 1875 года неполадивший с самарским земством губернатор был назначен управляющим Временного отделения по поземельному устройству государственных крестьян министерства государственных имуществ. Из Самары Ф. Д. Климов отбыл 11 января 1875 г. При видимой ничьей в борьбе земств с губернатором победа, конечно, была не за Климовым.
На занятой должности Климов упоминался в последний раз в 1877 году, причём по-прежнему действительным статским советником. За 3 года работы в Санкт-Петербурге бывший самарский губернатор не смог повысить свой чин ни на одну ступень.

Награды
Тёмно-бронзовая медаль в память Восточной (Крымской) войны 1853—1856- гг. была получена, но конечно не за участие в военных действиях. Так же за введение в действие положения об удельных крестьянах он получил знак отличия, и в 1865 году получил орден св. Станислава 2-й степени.

Литература
 Алексушин Г. В. Самарские губернаторы. — Самара, Самарский дом печати, 1996 г.

Родившиеся в 1838 году
Самарские губернаторы
Политики Самары
Участники войны против польских повстанцев 1863 года
Персоналии, чья дата смерти не установлена

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


The Justice Department has recognized several bike clubs which it considers are highly ordered criminal ventures, a number allied in 1 kind or the other against the beat known group, the Hells Angels Motorcycle Club. A Justice Department report classifies these associations as outlaw motorcycle gangs, and national law enforcement authorities are concentrated in their alleged drug action and potential relations to Mexican cartels.
A vast majority of the clubs membership is composed of Hispanic men who reside from the Los Angeles region, and several are former street gang members using a very long history of using violence to settle grievances," based on this report.
The Bandidos Motorcycle Club, biker together with approximately 900 members from the USA, is just one of the two biggest in the Nation, according to the Justice Department. The Bandidos are based at the West and South. "The Bandidos are enlarging in every one of those areas by forming added chapters and enabling members from encouraging clubs, called'puppet' or even'duck' team members, to combine," based on the Justice Department report.
Such members utilize the colours and stains of a tiny regional club however do the"dirty work" of this larger"mother team," the government states. The clubs can become a brand new chapter of the bigger club.
The Outlaws Motorcycle Club includes 700 members in 86 chapters and can be based in the upper Midwest, in which they contend with all Hells Angels for associates. Some Outlaws chapter associates are convicted of murder and kidnapping, and national governments say they believe a lot of the club cash is generated via the production and supply of methamphetamine.
A"support team" known as the Black Pistons MC has been recognized as recently as 2002 but rapidly expanded over the U.S. and to Europe. "The Outlaws also utilize the Dark Pistons chapters to run criminal action, particularly for the transport and supply of medication," according to the national report.
The Pagans Motorcycle Club includes 200 to 250 associates that run in 11 mid-Atlantic countries, and is mostly concerned with trafficking cocaine, meth and PCP, as stated by the Justice Department.
The Pagans are connected to criminal ventures at Pittsburgh and Philadelphia and so are attached with extortion rings, arson and murder, and the government states.
Running on The Vagos are mostly concerned about the manufacturing and supply of meth, Vagos associates also have been charged with money laundering and insurance fraud, in addition to violent offenses, the Justice Department states.
The Sons of Are harmful enough that the Justice Department has called them among its four Bicycle clubs of biggest concern. "Implicated in several criminal activities, such as murder, assault, Theft," as stated by the Justice Department.
Less is understood about the Cossacks, that weren't mentioned at the Justice Department report. They, together with the Bandidos, were one of the gangs linked with past violence in Waco. The Cossacks and Bandidos have an abusive history dating to 2013. Five guys were hurt. One of these was the pioneer of the Bandidos. The two individuals murdered last were Cossacks or even Bandidos.
I'm NOT Buying the New iPhone XS nor XS Max!


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City DOE exploits students to promote political agenda (commentary)
According to a movement denominated Strike With Us , a coalition of young people and adults across the world will "strike" this Friday, Sept. 20, "to demand transformative action be taken to address the climate crisis".
While ostensibly calculated to "exert pressure" on the United Nations Climate Action Summit, scheduled to begin three days later, the movement's organizers boldly declare, "we must carry this energy to the 2020 elections". Among the adult coalition members working toward that end is MoveOn, a leftist organization whose website is currently pushing to have Fifth Avenue in front of Trump Tower renamed "President Barack H. Obama Avenue.
The Progressive Democrats of America is among the numerous organizations partnering with the strike movement. This outfit is a real doozy as evidenced by the claim that its agenda is being frustrated because corporate lobbyists have turned the national and local media into right wing organs!
It thus emerges as crystal clear that Friday's "strike" is both conceptually and practically political in nature, and politically partisan in objective. Participating in the strike movement locally, the New York City Climate Strike is calling on young people and adults to assemble at noon at Foley Square and thereafter march to Battery Park for a late afternoon rally. It, too, boasts several left-wing supporting organizations, including New York Progressive and People's Mobilization to Stop the U.S. War Machine.
Political entanglement
What elevates all this from ho-hum status to a matter of major concern is the decision by the New York City Department of Education to excuse students wishing to attend the New York City strike from their legal obligation to attend school. In a supportive tweet, the DOE says "we applaud our students when they raise their voices in a safe and respectful manner on issues that matter to them....showing that student action will lead us forward".
By having deemed the strike worthy of granting participating students excused absences, the DOE has put itself, a government entity, in the position of deciding which political issues merit such an accommodation, and which do not. That judgment, in turn, necessarily involves regulating student speech. This is because the DOE decision forces students to take a stand – to speak, by word, action or both – on the strike rally. Skip school on Friday and they support the strike and, derivatively, its organizers and members. Stay in school, and they oppose it and them. And, as a not so incidental side note, those students who do opt to attend school as usual run the risk of being ridiculed as insensitive to what the strike movement, and obviously the city as well, insists is an environmental crisis.
Other protests
Student speech would also be at issue if, for instance, youngsters sought to skip school to attend the annual March for Life to protest abortion. Given New York City's liberal politics, however, there's no chance whatsoever that such students would receive a similar accommodation to absent themselves from school. And the DOE certainly wouldn't "applaud" their "raising their voices in a safe and respectful manner on issues that matter to them". The conclusion is inescapable, therefore, that the DOE, by its strike accommodation, is exploiting public school students and regulating their speech to further a goal with which it agrees.
Finally, and most important, the DOE action is almost certainly unconstitutional. In October 1969, the New York City Board of Education planned to allow students to absent themselves from school to protest the Vietnam War on Oct. 15, highly trumpeted as "Moratorium Day". Deciding a legal challenge to the policy initiated by a student at I.S. 27 on Staten Island, Supreme Court Justice Vito J. Titone struck down the city's action as unconstitutional because it effectively forced students to engage in political speech. In language clearly applicable to the DOE action today, Titone said: "The element of compulsion is clear. Students and teachers who do not attend school that day will be deemed to be against the Government's Viet Nam War policy, and those who attend will be assumed to favor such policy. It forces people to take a position when, as a matter of constitutional law, they are not required to do so".
In the absence of a last minute legal challenge, the DOE will nonetheless flout the Constitution and proceed to implement its policy regarding Friday's strike. But a lawsuit regarding that very policy seems almost inevitable. It merely awaits a motivated plaintiff and a DOE decision to deny a similar accommodation to students wishing to participate in a different political or social protest.


"Big Data" is a hot industry buzzword, used to describe datasets so large and complex that they are difficult to navigate or effectively use. However, if it can be harnessed, big data presents exciting new avenues of predictability for financial market trends and can serve as the base for new investment strategies. A new hedge fund team consisting of Wall Street veterans wanted to leverage today's data explosion to more aggressively optimize profits from trading of index options, and asked the Alacer team for assistance.
In order to best utilize big data to increase hedge fund yields, the Alacer team first had to determine the best methodologies for acquiring, formatting and scrubbing massive amounts of information. New standards for data quality were introduced, along with an algorithm for ensuring these standards were met for historical and real-time statistical purposes. Through modeling, automated strategies were developed that could be consistently used to manage large amounts of data for better regulatory compliance or for advanced predictive analytics.
With Alacer's solution for managing big data, the financial organization could now draw insights from huge streams of information to develop models for how markets might react to various events and to make better financial choices. The automated machine-directed yield on its hedge fund was 30% (54% when combined with human-based decisions), a phenomenal return on funds under management.


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redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


text:
ABB Has Smart Products In Its Luggage
Smart energy distribution
Clean power supply with ultra low harmonic drives
Milestone in level measurement
Video: ABB Has Smart Products In Its Luggage
Video: Plevo Series One - The world's most innovative smart luggage set 2023, January
With its product portfolio, ABB wants to be optimally equipped for the digital age and bundles its digital solutions and services across all industries under ABB Ability. This includes, for example, the concept of a digital switchgear that ABB will present at the Hanover Fair. The company offers a complete portfolio for energy suppliers to provide turnkey digital switchgear. ABB sees the following advantages with its solution: faster commissioning, reduced risk for personnel, less space required, predictive condition monitoring, increased cyber security as well as lower loads and less installed equipment in the substation.
ABB is also announcing a new solution for low-voltage switchgear for primary switchgear up to 6300 A with a short-circuit current up to 150 kA: System pro E power. The company promises analgesic construction in record time. Pre-configured assembly parts and accessories are designed to minimize the risk of errors and ensure excellent quality. The plug-in mounting system is designed to save up to 20% of the time compared to conventional cabinet systems. In addition to empty housings for customer-specific expansion, power distributions up to 2000 A and high-current power distributions with rear main busbars up to 6300 A, pre-assembled or in parts, are available. In interaction with intelligent switching devices, such as the Emax 2 circuit breaker,and the cloud-based platform Ekip Smartvision, the system is perfectly designed for digitization in the low-voltage network, according to ABB.
Direct impact on security technology
Automatic circuit breaker
ABB Stotz-Kontakt produces over 600 pole variants in one batch, even in small batch sizes
Under the motto "Prevention is better than cure", the company is introducing a complete range of frequency inverters that prevent harmonics from occurring in the first place. Harmonics can lead to distortions in the power grid, which in turn also disturbs devices connected to the grid or can also lead to failure. The ultra-low harmonic drive variant is said to achieve a harmonic content of only approx. 3%. With conventional frequency inverters, the harmonic content is between 35% and over 100% - a clear difference. In contrast to alternative solutions for damping or eliminating harmonics, the Ultra Low Harmonic Drives from ABB are equipped with systems to prevent such harmonics. "We tackle the problem at the root and don't let it arise in the first place",says product manager Fred Donabauer.
ABB and Microsoft want to create largest industrial cloud platform
With the LLT100 laser full-level transmitter, ABB wants to bring another milestone in continuous non-contact level measurement to the market. The devices are to combine the latest laser-based level measurement technology with the necessary robustness for industrial use. They are used in industries such as mining, oil and gas, chemicals, food and beverages, energy and steam generation, paper and pulp, pharmaceuticals as well as water and waste water.
Visitors to the Hannover Messe can take a closer look at all the new products and solutions at the ABB booth from April 24 to 28, 2017. There is also information about the strategic partnership between ABB and Microsoft, which is intended to enable ABB customers to access one of the largest cloud infrastructures on the market. Concrete projects will illustrate possible applications, advantages and benefits. (sh)
RS Has A New Stego Filter Fan System In Its Range
Stego Plus-FPI / / FPO series filter fans have been developed to protect electrical and electronic components from harmful environmental conditions. RS Components has added the series to its range
Bonfiglioli With Lots Of New Products In Its Luggage
After a record result in 2015 and the expansion of the product range upwards through the takeover of O & K Drive Technology, Bonfiglioli is well positioned and with many innovations at Bauma 2016
Lapp Has Expanded Its Portfolio For The Food Industry With Profitable Growth
After Lapp was able to position its connection technologies more successfully in the field of renewable energies and in e-mobility, the company now wants to expand its portfolio for the food and beverage industry. In the next few years, sales are expected to grow from 25 million euros today to 100 million euros
The Marburger Tapetenfabrik Has Launched Its New Seminar Program. Wallpaper And Wall Coverings For A New Era
The Marburger Tapetenfabrik is a pioneer in further training in the field of "wallpaper and wallpapering". For more than 25 years
The Building Trade In The Ostalb District Has Started Its Qualification Project "Chance Bauberuf" For Refugees. Qualification For Refugees
Together with the employment agency, the Aalen job center and the Kolping educational institute, the qualification project "Chance