N. W. Metal Fabricators, Inc. was established in October 1986 by Kerry and Vendla Karlson. We currently employ approximately 30 employees, with the summer being our busiest time.
Our main source of projects is in the food processing industries (potatoes, cheese, onions, etc.). The following is some of our key employees and their years of experience.
Kerry Karlson – Majority Owner: background – 40+ years working in food industry, Bachelors Degree in manufacturing engineering.
We at NW Metal Fabricators have surrounded ourselves with key people in the fields that we pursue. We are ASME Certified, carry O Stamp and currently have qualifications up to Class 5 Boiler License. We have certified welders in up to 15 special materials/applications, Certified Crane Operators, TWIC Certified, OSHA 10 and other OSHA certifications, D2000, and other Industry specific certifications. All of our employees are required to go through pre-employment and random drug testing and a comprehensive training program. Safety is our number one concern for our employees and all individuals exposed to our jobs and jobsites. We promote ongoing training, both safety and industry specific training, among all of our staff.
We have limited plans to expand our business into other areas. At the present we will strive to maintain quality in workmanship and service all our customers' needs in the best possible manner.
Dahlgren Industrial – Columbia River Cheese Plant in Boardman, Oregon. Job description, to fabricate and install stainless steel catwalks, stairs and handrails. Note, all the engineering and design was done by the general contractor, our contract was to fabricate and install. The value of the contract was over $1,000,000.
Oregon Potato – Replace AMU duct work that damaged in fire. Included fabrication of ducting and installation. The value of the work completed was $350,000.
NW Metal Fabricators, Inc. continues to reach out in the local community to help keep our youth involved in healthy activities and excel in their fields of interest.
We have made contributions to Boy Scouts of America, HHS Project Graduation, area sports and booster clubs, Hermiston Linebacker Club, Umatilla and Morrow County FFA, HHS FFA Career Day, Echo Kiwanis Scholarship, March of Dimes, Relay for Life, Kevin P Gregerson Memorial Scholarship, and many others.


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Building personal relationships with each of our factories is important to us. We regularly visit diligently each factory and make it a point to build strong bonds with the owners; they too are a part of the Matt & Nat family. We make sure that while we provide you with a quality product, the conditions of the workers developing it are up to par with our standards. One of our factories operates by the SA8000 standard, which ensures quality work conditions for all. We hope to make the latter a bigger part of our production, in the future.
Live beautifully is our mantra. Its meaning is broad yet easy to understand; simply put we take care of our planet as it takes care of us. We love the environment and aim to work with it to offer you sustainable, ecological and highly fashionable accessories.
With each season, we make it a point to offer our customers the cutting edge of ethical and eco-friendly fashion. Our materials are consistently improved and updated with composites that are less harmful for flora and fauna. Our materials are always vegan. PU is always preferred over PVC, as it is less harmful for the environment. More renewable materials like cork and rubber are also frequently used in our designs. All our linings are always made out of 100% recycled plastic bottles; on average, that represents over 120 000 recycled bottles a year.


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The Pupil Premium is a government initiative which began in 2011, and which is designed to support children who are deemed to be from a disadvantaged background. Money is paid to the school which is then used to target resources in a way which benefits these children. Children who have been on Free School Meals (FSM) at any point over the past six years, and any children who have been in care for 1 day or more are provided for through Pupil Premium. Additionally there is some funding for children who have a parent serving in the forces.
The government has never dictated what the money has to be spent on, but what is clear is that money needs to be used to narrow the gap between the highest and lowest achieving pupils, and that it is for the school to decide the best way for this to happen.
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Does distance matter in foreign direct investment sub-national location choice? Evidence from China
Yibo Bi1,
Zhiyi Ren2 &
Kun Bao2
Multinational enterprises (MNEs) make investment decisions according to the distance factors at a sub-national level. This paper made estimates using the gravity model with provincial foreign direct investment (FDI) data from 2000 to 2012 and employed three concepts of distance. Our empirical results indicate that geographic distance and cultural distance have significant negative effects on FDI flow, whereas economic distance has a significant positive effect. It suggests that FDI prefers to locate in regions that are geographically and culturally close but economically distant from the home country, which further implies that FDI in China is dominated by vertical FDI. Our findings suggest that Chinese provincial governments should place emphasis on attracting FDI from culturally close countries and provide institutional support to encourage and promote horizontal FDI.
How multinational enterprises (MNEs) make investment decisions has been a dominant topic in the area of international business research over the past few decades. The mainstream of research, focusing on country-specific factors, has influenced the flow, distribution, and entry mode of foreign direct investment (FDI) across the world. It overlooks the effects of relational factors between the source and recipient regions of investment. Recent studies have investigated how the distance between countries impacts the flow of economic activity across borders (Kogut and Singh 1988). However, few studies have investigated the impacts of distance factors at a sub-national level.
A growing number of empirical studies imply that MNEs make equal considerations regarding sub-national locational advantages offered by multi-level local governments when selecting a proper site for investment (Nielsen et al. 2017). Accurate and comprehensive attention paid to sub-national locational characteristics is particularly critical for MNEs that are going to join a large market, due to the tremendous regional disparity in a geographically wide market. That regional disparity includes differences in language, culture, climate, economic development, and government administration, which are determinative factors in MNEs' location choice.
China is a particularly good case for exploiting the location patterns of FDI at a sub-national level. It has the third-largest territory with the biggest population in the world. Besides the vast territory, China also has a diverse climate and natural environment across various regions. As such, there are differences in economic development, culture and institutions among different regions. Thus, it is not reasonable to measure the distance between the home country of the FDI and China as a whole. In terms of geographic distance, the straight-line distances across China are about 5500 km from the north to the south and about 5200 km from the east to the west. In this case, a particular country may be at distinct distances from different regions in China. For instance, transportation and communications in the eastern region are well-developed, while the middle and western regions have the advantage of being well-endowed with natural resources. Therefore, MNEs face a business environment peculiar to a particular host region in China. The huge regional disparity makes location choice more strategically important for MNEs.
Prior empirical literature on sub-national location choice of FDI in China used aggregated FDI inflow data, which failed to reveal a difference in location choices of various source countries (Cheng 2000). However, some empirical studies found that location choice strategy differs among home countries and is changing over time (Pan 1997). Additionally, according to the eclectic OLI (O-ownership; L-location; I-international) theory, MNEs' ownership advantages highly depend on country-specific characteristics, but crucially determine the destination of foreign investments (Dunning 1980). Thus, MNEs who source from different countries are supposed to have various considerations and standards regarding location choice, since they have distinct ownership advantages. Therefore, we want to examine FDI location choice, considering the characteristics of both home and host regions. Specifically, we focus on the distance and linkage between the home country and host destination.
This study uses novel FDI data, sorted by home country at a regional level, from 2000 to 2012. Distance is introduced as an independent variable, which is widely used in national-level studies but rarely in sub-national location choice studies. This paper contributes to the literature in three distinct aspects. First, although recent studies found the distance between countries to be significant on economic activities across countries, they did not consider the influence of distance on sub-national level investments. We aim to fill this gap by estimating a gravity model with distance proxies between the FDI's home country and host region in China. Second, differing from FDI location choice studies in China, we estimate a gravity model with a novel dependent variable, FDI flow by home country and host region over time, to explore the effects of both home and host regions, rather than just a unilateral effect. Finally, the distance factors are considered from three perspectives. Besides geographic distance and economic distance, cultural distance is also taken into account. The empirical results imply that the gravity model can explain FDI flow in China; FDI increases with market size on both sides of the investment but decreases with geographic distance, and FDI prefers to locate in a culturally close but economically dissimilar region. In addition, economic development in both host and home regions and the research and development (R&D) level in the home country are also contributing factors to FDI flow.
The rest of the paper is organized as follows: The next section reviews relevant theoretical literature and proposes the hypotheses. Section 3 presents the methodology, including the data description, measurement of variables and empirical strategy. Section 4 presents the main results and various robustness tests. Section 5 shows the discussion of the results. Section 6 is the final section with a conclusion.
Determinants of FDI: the eclectic paradigm
The eclectic paradigm or OLI theory, developed by Dunning (1980), is widely used to explain international production or FDI, which embraces both internalization theory and trade theory. Dunning (1980) proclaimed that FDI is preferred when there are simultaneous ownership advantages (O), location advantages (L), and internalization advantages (I). To be specific, if a firm chooses to become an international enterprise, it must have more ownership advantages than domestic competitors in the host country, and those ownership advantages must significantly outweigh the risks and costs of servicing an unfamiliar market (Hirsch 1976). Besides the ownership advantages, an enterprise that invests abroad has to be able to afford the cost of transport and acquiring information due to geographical distance and cultural differences.
Mathews (2006) extended the eclectic paradigm from the OLI to an alternative LLL (linkage, leverage, and learning). In this framework, the important roles of network and interfirm linkage in FDI are introduced. In practice, the new/latecomer prefers a joint venture rather than a wholly-owned business, to obtain cooperation with a host partner and access local knowledge and networks. Based on the LLL perspective, Buckley and Casson (1998) also incorporated the linkage between host and home countries into the eclectic paradigm as an institutional asset. They reconstructed the eclectic paradigm theory with the idea that the determinants of international business activities can be classified by country-specific ownership advantages (CSAs), host country-specific location advantages, and the distance and linkage between the home and host countries. CSAs often significantly relate to outward FDI, since institutions and the macro-economic environment in the home country can be transferred to firms' competitive advantages in internationalized processes. Host country-specific location advantages refer to the host country's locational attractions. Cross-country distance or linkage captures the interactive effect of a pair of home and host countries, which impacts the flow between them. Moreover, Buckley and Casson (1998) also stressed that linkage variables improve the explanatory power of the eclectic paradigm and are shown to be an adjunct, not an alternative.
Vertical FDI and horizontal FDI
Generally, an enterprise has several possible approaches for achieving growth. It can develop horizontally, which means creating new product lines, or vertically, into new activities, such as supplying or after-sales service. Also, it can expand market share by acquiring existing enterprises or exploiting foreign markets. Regarding motivations for going abroad, FDI can be categorised into vertical FDI and horizontal FDI. Considering vertical FDI, for instance, exporting accounts form a substantial part of the total cost. Assuming the inputs of manufacturing are the same in all countries, exporting generates transport, insurance, communication, and exchange costs and trade barriers (tariffs and entry and license fees). Horizontal FDI sells products on the host country market instead of exporting, whereby the costs of geographical distance are lower. However, they need to pay the costs of adapting products to the local market and training local workers to use the MNE's technology. Apparently, these costs are highly related to linkage variables.
According to Hymer (1976), cross-national dissimilarity and distance could lead to liability of foreignness (LOF), which poses challenges to the lasting return and profit of MNEs. LOF was categorised into four aspects: costs due to spatial distance (travel, transport, and coordination), unfamiliarity with the local environment, differential treatment by the host country, and costs imposed by the environment of the home country (Zaheer 1995). From the perspective of business management, a concept that corresponds to LOF is the costs of doing business abroad (CDBA). Hymer (1976) believed that foreign firms would afford the CDBA because of the disadvantages and barriers regarding integration into the host market. MNEs may have unfamiliar hazards which are caused by the information disadvantage, requiring MNEs to spend additional time and money on obtaining knowledge to put them at a comparable level with local firms. Moreover, MNEs may suffer informal differential treatment if they are viewed as an outsider. This is possibly caused by environmental hazards (Choi et al. 2016; Henisz and Williamson 1999) or the unfamiliarity of foreign firms.
Besides geographic distance, economic and social costs could also be generated by cultural distance. Greater cultural distance leads to more unfamiliarity and relational hazards as consequences of rising LOF (Eden and Miller 2004). Scholars have found evidence that firms operating in culturally dissimilar countries have more difficulties transferring management routines and capabilities (Kostova and Roth 2002; Kostova and Zaheer 1999). Therefore, geographic and culture distance causes LOF to MNEs during international expansion. MNEs need to utilise their advantages or employ entry mode strategies to minimise the potential costs. Meanwhile, the effects of distance on LOF may also leverage on the location choice of FDI. In a specific range of choice, an MNE may choose a host region with less LOF over others. In other words, having a shorter distance from the home country is a competitive advantage for one region in attracting FDI.
Market size is important for a firm's short-term and long-term sales and profits (Makino et al. 2004). For market-seeking FDI, a larger market size provides more opportunities to maximise the effects of economies of scale by supplying products and services to a new market (Dunning 1980). For efficiency-seeking FDI, many business activities are scale-sensitive, for instance, production, distribution, and per-unit costs. Hence, aiming at sustainable growth and future profit, firms are more likely to choose a host region with a larger market size. Given the huge disparity among regions in China and the findings of previous empirical studies (e.g., Aleksynska and Havrylchyk 2013; Bailey and Li 2015), a host region in China with a greater market size should receive more foreign investment compared to a province with a smaller market size.
Differing from trade studies, the influence of spatial distance in FDI studies is not predictable. In terms of international business, long geographic distance represents high transportation costs for sending staff and shipping goods. Those high transportation costs seem to have opposite effects on vertical and horizontal FDI. For vertical FDI, costly shipping is a hindrance, since vertical FDI needs to export its products back to the home country and not solely sell them in the host market. However, for horizontal FDI, long geographic distance gives MNEs more motivation to conduct FDI rather than export to the foreign market, which demonstrates that FDI flow between a pair of regions separated by a longer geographic distance should be greater than with those separated by a shorter distance. Given the vast territory and complex terrain in China, the transportation costs for MNEs are undoubtedly huge. In 2012, FDI in the manufacturing industry in China still accounted for 43.74% of the total and took the largest share in the total 19 industries, which implies that vertical FDI dominates in China rather than horizontal FDI. Therefore, this paper proposes the first hypothesis:
Hypothesis 1: MNEs prefer regions with shorter geographic distance and larger market size regarding FDI location choice.
Many studies have demonstrated the importance of cultural similarities for international business (Chen et al. 2017; Kuang and Wang 2018). According to Du et al.'s (2012) argument, FDI from a culturally closer country could effectively turn government intervention into help. A historical relationship creates a backdrop that is shared by the home and host region pair, and this shared history may make it more likely that the home invests in the host regions (Garrett 2016). In addition, Jones and Khanna (2006) argued that a history of business contact helps match the international buyers and sellers since foreign firms have social network resources in a host region sharing past business relations. Some regions in China had close business relationship with foreign countries in history, increasing the mutual understanding of each other's culture and institutions. Thus, the existence of a business history between a pair of home and host regions is a significant increasing factor of FDI. This paper uses the historical business tie to proxy the cultural distance and proposes the second hypothesis:
Hypothesis 2: MNEs prefer a culturally closer host region rather than a culturally remote region regarding FDI location choice.
Empirical results suggest that regions with a more advanced economic level, higher income, and better infrastructure receive and conduct more FDI, which implies the importance of the demanding factor for attracting inward FDI (Belderbos et al. 2011). From the perspective of an investment supplier, a firm sourcing from a mature economic environment has abundant business experience of marketing and managing. That experience makes MNEs more competitive in a foreign economy compared to local and other foreign firms.
Although the positive relationship between economic development and FDI is confirmed by many studies, there is no consensus on the impact of the economic similarity between home and host regions. Horizontal FDI produces services for both home and host regions and tends to be located in similarly endowed economies. However, for vertical FDI, a region with dissimilar economies is preferred, since headquarter services are completely separated from production to exploit factor cost differentials. Given that vertical FDI dominates in China, this paper proposes the third hypothesis:
Hypothesis 3: Regions with higher economic development receive and conduct more FDI, but MNEs in China prefer to invest in a dissimilar economy.
In summary, we hypothesize that the promoting factors for FDI flow into China's various host regions are market size, GDP per capita of both home and host regions, and economic distance. The resistance factors include geographic distance and culture distance. Figure 1 illustrates the effects of distance factors on FDI inflow to regions in China.
The effects of distance factors on FDI in different regions in China
Data and sampling
The data of FDI inflow are only provided by some provincial governments in China. The dataset we used covers 20 of 31 Chinese provincial-level regions and the period from 2001 to 2012, though there are a few missing years for Shanxi, Shanghai, Hunan, Hainan, Ningxia, and Xinjiang.
The sample we chose is fairly representative. Although this dataset do not include all the host regions or investment sourcing countries, the primary contributors to China's FDI inflow are included in this sample, from the perspective of foreign investing countries. Figure 2 represents the percentages of total FDI in China from the sample countries from 2001 to 2012. These countries contributed over 80% of China's FDI in most of the years and over 70% in 2005, 2006, 2007, and 2008.
Share of FDI contributed by the sample countries (2001–2012)
According to the classification of the Report on Foreign Investment in China, distribution of FDI can be divided into the east, central, and west areas. The sample includes 9 of 11 provincial regions in the east area, 6 of 8 regions in the central area, and 5 of 12 regions in the west area. Hence, from the perspective of host regions, the sample of 20 host regions in China is representative of FDI destinations.
All data are deflated using 2010 as the base year and employing China's deflator from the World Bank for the host region variable. Table 1 is a complete description of all variable definitions and sources. The raw data of home countries, including GDP, GDP per capita, population, and R&D, were collected from the World Bank database. China Statistical Yearbook (various years) provided data relating to host regions, including GDP, GDP per capita, and population. The dependent variable FDI was collected from China Statistical Yearbook for various provinces separately. There are 5312 observations in our sample. Table 2 shows descriptive statistics for each variable.
Table 1 Variable description and source
Table 2 Descriptive statistics
Measurement of variables
In the studies of FDI location choice, FDI stock and FDI flow are two commonly used measurements of FDI flow. According to a survey paper conducted by Nielsen et al. (2017), who reviewed 153 quantitative studies on FDI location choice, there are 94 studies exploring FDI flow and 59 studies focusing on FDI stocks. Flow data could directly reflect how FDI accesses a specific region at a given time, and stock data could reveal the relationship between the FDI location and local characteristics, but not the entrance decision itself (Galan et al. 2007). For this study, we use FDI annual inflow as the dependent variable.
To measure geographic distance, we used the distance between the capital cities of the home and host regions in keeping with previous literature (e.g., Portes and Rey 2005). It is measured by the direct distance between the capital cities of pair regions according to the google maps. A great geographic distance creates high transporting costs, which encourages firms to conduct direct investment rather than export. However, greater distance is usually associated with unfamiliar language and culture, and higher transaction costs, which may detract from the FDI activities. Therefore, the effect of geographic distance on FDI is inconclusive.
To measure cultural similarity, previous studies have commonly used linguistic or religious proximity to gauge the cultural distance (Kuang and Wang 2018). However, these country-specific linkages are not suitable for a sub-national level study. In this study, a historical business tie between a home country and a host region is applied to capture cultural distance. We measure historical business tie by identifying if the pair regions have ever had a business link from 1840 to 1978. China started implementing reform and opening up as a national policy in 1978. Before then the foreign business link was unbalanced among sub-national regions. We take the value of 1 if the pair regions have ever had a historical business tie from year 1840 to 1978, and 0 otherwise, indicating the cultural distance since the historical business tie makes home and host regions culturally closer.
According to the research by Egger and Pfaffermayr (2004), the economic similarity is calculated by the following equation:
$$ {\boldsymbol{SIMI}}_{\boldsymbol{ijt}}=\boldsymbol{1}\hbox{-} {\left|\frac{{\boldsymbol{GDP}}_{\boldsymbol{it}}}{\left({\boldsymbol{GDP}}_{\boldsymbol{it}}+{\boldsymbol{GDP}}_{\boldsymbol{jt}}\right)}\right|}^{\boldsymbol{2}}\hbox{-} {\left|\frac{{\boldsymbol{GDP}}_{\boldsymbol{jt}}}{\left({\boldsymbol{GDP}}_{\boldsymbol{it}}+{\boldsymbol{GDP}}_{\boldsymbol{jt}}\right)}\right|}^{\boldsymbol{2}}. $$
The effect of economic similarity on FDI inflow could be positive or negative. Theoretically, horizontal MNEs tend to be found in similarly endowed economies; however, vertical MNEs tend to occur in dissimilar economies. MNEs, who mainly offer services locally, in the host market, and which rely on economies of experience, scale, and standardisation, will prefer regions that have similar economic profiles, as they have to replicate their mature business model to obtain a competitive advantage, which is hard to achieve in an economy where customer incomes are very different. However, for particular industries, competitive advantage comes from economic arbitrage, the exploitation of cost and price differentials between markets.
Technology flow plays an important role as a driver of FDI flow in China. As a late developer, China imported technology from advanced countries, which have become significant sources of know-how and investment. Technology flow exists with both horizontal and vertical FDI, but vertical FDI is more willing to transfer technology, since it results in production facilities that are tailored to the production environment of the host economy. As countries upgrade their technology, they obtain more competitive advantages in technological products and exports. Firms in technologically leading countries drive this pattern through technology flow to next stage producers, mainly by FDI. Their motivation is to utilise their technological assets as much as possible after their domestic production advantage fades away. Thus, it is more feasible that FDI in China is driven by technology flow than by economies of scale or factor price differences. In this paper, R&D levels in the home country are measured as the sum of medium- and high-tech industry over manufacturing value-added.
A bonded area is a special economic zone inside the territory while outside the customs. It provides storage, export processing, and re-exporting services. Although the details of the preferential policy differ across various regions, a primary rule is that foreign goods imported from abroad into the bonded area are duty-free. To capture the attractive aspect of this policy for FDI, we generate a variable BA taking the value of 1 if a region has a bonded area, otherwise, it is 0.
Estimation approach
The empirical framework is estimated based on the traditional gravity model, which comes from Newton's law of gravitation, declaring that attractive force increases with the masses of two objects but reduces with the distance between them. It was widely used to explain economic flow, such as international trade and FDI (Anderson and van Wincoop 2003; Eaton and Kortum 2002; Feenstra 2015; McCallum 1995; Ravenstein 1885; Redding and Venables 2004; Savage and Deutsch 1960; Tinbergen and Hekscher 1962; Trefler 2002). The set-up of the gravity model can be interpreted that the potential flow between the supplied part i and destination j(Yij) is positively determined by the masses of goods or labour or other factors in i and j (XiXj), but negatively determined by the distance Dij, which is shown as follows:
$$ {\boldsymbol{Y}}_{\boldsymbol{i}\boldsymbol{j}}={\boldsymbol{X}}_{\boldsymbol{i}}{\boldsymbol{X}}_{\boldsymbol{j}}/{\boldsymbol{D}}_{\boldsymbol{i}\boldsymbol{j}.} $$
Since 1961, the gravity model has been widely applied in empirical studies on trade flows and FDI (Anderson and van Wincoop 2003). Although the gravity model was initially implemented to study bilateral flow, it is also applicable for one-directional flow data because it can successfully explain how the interaction between the source and destination impacts the flow, and also capture the effects of source and destination variables. Therefore, the gravity model is applied in many empirical studies on one-directional FDI flow data. For instance, to investigate the effects of instability in home and host countries on FDI flow, the gravity model is employed by Chenaf-Nicet and Rougier (2016) to estimate the FDI flowing from Europe and the Mediterranean region to the four main recipients of FDI in the Middle East and North Africa from 1985 to 2009. In this paper, we also adopt the gravity model to explore the determinants of the FDI inflow to different provinces in China, with a special focus on distance.
Population and GDP are both classic variables for measuring masses of home and host regions in the gravity model in FDI studies. Previous literature has found that regional population is more representative than regional economic development in explaining the possibility of being a recipient of foreign capital (Flores and Aguilera 2007). Thus, this study uses population to measure the market sizes of home and host regions (Cuervo-Cazurra 2006; Henisz 2000). As suggested by the gravity model, the masses of both source and destination markets are promoting factors for bilateral flow. GDP per capita of the supplier and demander are often estimated in a gravity equation. The assumption behind this is that higher-income countries perform more expansion activities in foreign markets, since a higher income level implies a more advanced infrastructure, a developed legal system, and abundant human resources, which are all pulling factors for investment.
Focusing on distance factors, this study uses a pooled cross-sectional regression with various control variables based on the gravity model. The regression equation is as follows:
$$ {\boldsymbol{FDI}}_{\boldsymbol{ij}\boldsymbol{t}}={\boldsymbol{\beta}}_{\mathbf{1}}{\boldsymbol{DIST}}_{\boldsymbol{ij}}+{\boldsymbol{\beta}}_{\mathbf{2}}{\mathrm{C}\boldsymbol{ULT}}_{\boldsymbol{ij}}+{\boldsymbol{\beta}}_{\mathbf{3}}{\boldsymbol{SIMI}}_{\boldsymbol{ij}\boldsymbol{t}-\mathbf{1}}+{\boldsymbol{\beta}}_{\mathbf{4}}{\boldsymbol{X}}_{\boldsymbol{ij}\boldsymbol{t}-\mathbf{1}}+{\boldsymbol{\gamma}}_{\boldsymbol{t}}+{\boldsymbol{\varepsilon}}_{\boldsymbol{ij}\boldsymbol{t},} $$
where i denotes home countries, j denotes host regions, and γt is the time effect. FDIijt symbolises the FDI flow from the home country i to the host region j in year t. DISTij refers to the geographic distance between home countries and host regions. CULTij is a dummy variable with the value 1 if the region ever had a business contact with foreign firms from 1840 to 1978, and 0 otherwise. SIMIijt − 1 is a proxy that measures the similarity of the economies in the home country and host region. X presents other controlling variables, including population, GDP per capita, R&D, and bonded area. All independent variables are one-year lagged, since the investment decisions made by MNEs are based on the figures in the previous year.
Although the gravity model is widely used to predict bilateral flow in empirical studies and also provides stable and significant evidence, there are several unsolved issues related to its empirical application. For instance, the unobserved heterogeneity and existence of zero flow in the dependent variable could reduce the feasibility of the logarithm estimation of the gravity model. Some previous literature introduced truncating and censoring estimates to deal with zero flow. However, the loss of information from zero observations leads to possible selection bias, since zero is usually not randomly distributed in trade (Linders and de Groot 2006; Westerlund and Wilhelmsson 2011).
Besides using a truncated OLS estimate, an alternative to deal with zero observations is to add a particular number onto the dependent variable, such as taking a natural logarithm of (FDI + 1). Although it has drawbacks where biased estimates could be generated by the increase in the dependent variable value, it is widely applied in empirical studies because of its success in maintaining the information from zero observations. In this paper, we adopt this conduction to treat the dependent variable.
Researchers have estimated the gravity model on panel data frameworks, aiming to investigate specific time or country effects (Egger and Pfaffermayr 2004). Fixed effects and random effects are two main techniques. For this research, although the fixed effects estimate is able to control unobserved heterogeneity, the random effects model is preferred since the fixed effects model drops some key constant regressors, such as distance and border variables.
In addition, Silva and Tenreyro (2006) proclaimed that the parameters of log-linearised model estimated by OLS could be highly misleading in the presence of heteroskedasticity. They argued that the gravity equation should be estimated in its multiplicative form and with proposed Poisson pseudo-maximum-likelihood (PPML). Hence, the dependent variable is introduced in level value but not log value, which successfully captures the information from zero observations. Although a PPML estimate was accepted by some researchers in empirical studies (e.g., Westerlund and Wilhelmsson 2011), it has to be mentioned that PPML estimates may present limited dependent variable bias when a significant part of the observations are censored.
The Heckman sample selection model is also widely used in gravity equation. It is a two-step estimation method. In the first step, a Probit equation is estimated to investigate whether flow occurs between the supplier and demander. In the second step, the expected values of the flow are estimated, based on an OLS estimate. The Heckman sample selection model requires exclusion variables that only determine the decision process. The disadvantage of the Heckman sample selection model is that the occurrence of the flow is not modelled independently from the decision of the volume of the flow.
Aiming to deal with zero observations, Tobit or censored regression is another alternative estimate for the gravity model. However, compared with the Heckman sample selection estimate, the disadvantage of employing Tobit or censored regression is that the probability of censoring and the value of observed outcome are determined by the same set of variables.
Therefore, each model has its advantages and drawbacks. Besides the pooled cross-sectional estimation, this study selects various models to estimate the gravity equation, including random effect, Tobit model, Heckman sample selection model, and PPML, to obtain a robust and reliable conclusion.
Empirical results
In Table 3, various models are employed. The first column presents the empirical results of the pooled cross-sectional OLS estimates with the dependent variable ln(FDIijt + 1). The second column reports the results from the random effect OLS estimates. The third column reports the panel-data regression results employing the Tobit model. The fourth column shows the results on the Heckman sample selection estimates. The last column presents the empirical results on the PPML estimates, with the form of the dependent variable reshaped.
Table 3 Results on various estimates
Our key independent variables are distance factors. The coefficients of geographic distance (DIST) are statistically significant at the 1% level across all five models. The signs of the coefficients of geographic distance are the same, and the sizes of them are very similar. Since the dependent variable is ln(FDIijt + 1) in the regression model, the value of the coefficient cannot be interpreted directly as the amount to which the independent variables contribute to FDI flow. However, the results demonstrate a significant negative effect of the geographic distance from the home country on the provincial FDI in China, indicating that MNEs prefer to choose the location of FDI which is geographically close to their home country. On the other hand, the mass variable measured by population is significantly positive at the 1% level across five models, indicating FDI flow grows with market size of the province in China. These results confirm our Hypothesis 1.
Referring to cultural distance, the variable CULT is confirmed to have a significant and positive impact on FDI flow. Except for the coefficients from the Tobit model,the results are statistically significant across all the columns. That implies that if the home and host regions share a historical business link, the FDI flow between them is greater than between a pair of regions without a history of business link. These results confirm our Hypothesis 2.
Regarding the economic distance, the coefficients of SIMI are statistically significant at the 1% level across all five models. Although we observe that the sizes of the coefficients of economic similarity varies, the signs of them remain the same in all columns. The results demonstrate a significant negative effect of economic similarity, indicating that MNEs prefer to choose a location of FDI that is economically distant to their home country. On the other hand, positive effects of GDP per capita in the home countries and the host regions are observed in all columns, indicating FDI flow grows with the economic development in both host and home regions. These results confirm our Hypothesis 3.
RD is the control variable, and its coefficients are statistically significant at the 1% level across all five models. Although the sizes are different, the signs of the coefficients remain positive in all columns, which demonstrates that an investing country with a higher level of R&D conducts more outward FDI. Another controlling variable BA indicates whether a region has a bonded area. There is a positive relationship between a bonded area and FDI, whereas less than half of the models show statistically significant results. The conclusion that a host region having a bonded area is more attractive for inward FDI is not fully established.
Robustness check
To confirm the robustness of the empirical results, we used GDP as an alternative measure of market size. The results in Table 4 are consistent with the main results. GDP in the home and host countries are the economy mass variables capturing the market size in alternative gravity regression. The coefficients of GDP in the home country remain positive; however, they are not statistically different from zero in the OLS or Tobit random effect. GDP in the host region shows a positive effect on inward FDI in most regressions, except for the Heckman estimates. The CULT variable is also found to have significant and positive coefficients in most columns except for Tobit and PPML regressions. The coefficients of economic similarity are significantly positive in all regressions except for the Heckman sample selection model. The results of RD in the home country are consistent with the main regressions. BA is positive in all regressions but only statistically significant in less than half of the models. Other independent variables, including GDP per capita in the home and host regions and geographic distance, show consistent results with the main regressions.
Table 4 Results using GDP as an alternative measurement of market size
Table 5 reports the results of quantile regression based on OLS, which is the most widely used estimate in empirical gravity model studies. However, standard linear regression technique reflects the average effect of each regressor and the outcome variable based on the conditional mean function E(y|x), assuming that this function is normal and has symmetrical distribution. Paniagua and Sapena (2014) found that OLS provides only a partial view of FDI, since large shares of the world's overall FDI are occupied by a small number of firms. In this case, Quantile regression is suitable to employ when the data concentrate at different levels. For this study, given that the majority of FDI flow to China is contributed from a limited number of countries, we applied a quantile regression to check the robustness of the main results.
Table 5 Results of quantile regression based on OLS estimates
Overall, the empirical results of quantile regression perform well and are consistent with the main results. Most of the variables are statistically significant, with the expected signs that vary with the quantiles. The results are presented by the 10%, 25%, 50%, 75%, 90%, and 99% quantiles. The effect of population in the host region decreases with the quantile, which means that market size is less important for foreign investment compared to smaller investment. GDP per capita in the host region, geographic distance, culture distance, and R&D in the home country follow the same trend. In addition, the coefficients of population, culture distance, economic similarity, and R&D are not statistically significant for large quantiles, indicating that the effects of these variables are not significant for large investments. The bonded area dummy variable shows the clearest upward trend, and it is positive in all quantiles.
Besides the importance of the location choice of FDI at a national level, MNEs also make considerations regarding sub-national locational advantages offered by multi-level local governments when selecting a proper site for investment (Nielsen et al. 2017). This is especially true for a country such as China, whose market is geographically wide and where the regional disparity is tremendous. That regional disparity includes differences in language, culture, climate, economic development, and government administration, which are all determinant factors for MNEs' location choice. However, the previous literature relating to sub-national level location choice of MNEs mainly focuses on the effects of some locational specific factors in the host region but overlooks the impact of relational factors between the source and recipient regions of investment. Thus, this study has first addressed the impact of distance on sub-national level location choice of FDI in China, which is missing in the previous literature.
Despite the slight differences, most of the empirical results in this study are shown as expected, and the results are consistent with our hypotheses. First, geographic distance significantly reduces FDI flow. Combining the positive effects of the mass variables, the negative effect of geographic distance confirms the existence of the gravity effect on FDI location choice in China. Second, economic similarity is significant and negatively related to FDI flow in all models. Together with the results of geographic distance, the preference of MNEs for an economically dissimilar region implies that vertical FDI dominates in China. Third, the significant and positive effect of CULT dummy variable shows that cultural distance impacts FDI location choice in China. Finally, the signs of others in the traditional gravity model are significant in most regressions, which is in accordance with past literature. GDP per capita in both home and host regions has significant positive effects on FDI flow. By comparing the coefficients of GDP per capita in the home country and host region, the effect of GDP per capita in the host region is stronger than in the home country, which implies that the pulling factors for inward FDI are stronger than the pushing factors for outward FDI. This is also confirmed by the coefficients of population, which are much greater in the host region than in the home country. The sign of the R&D variable in the home country is significantly positive, which means that the level of R&D in the home country is a pushing factor for outward FDI. The dummy variable BA positively relates to FDI flow but is not statistically significant, showing the impact of a bonded area on FDI flow is not confirmed.
This paper made estimates based on the gravity model with provincial FDI flow data from 2000 to 2012 and employed three concepts of distance: geographic distance, cultural distance, and economic distance. The regression results indicate that geographic distance and cultural distance have significant negative effects on FDI flow, whereas economic distance has a significant positive effect. That means that FDI prefers to locate in regions that are geographically and culturally close but economically distant from the home country, which further implies that FDI in China is dominated by vertical FDI. The results also confirm the existence of the gravity effect. FDI increases with market size in both home and host regions but decreases with distance. Other independent variables, such as the economic standard in the home and host regions, and the R&D level in the home country, are also significant determinants of FDI. However, the bonded area in the host region is not a clear contributing factor to FDI flow.
The empirical findings above provide implications for policymakers in China. First, the provincial government should put emphasis on attracting FDI from culturally close countries and from countries with advantages in R&D, since these countries have more motivation to invest than others. Second, the government should provide some institutional and policy support to encourage and promote horizontal FDI, which can reduce the negative effects of geographic and economic distances on FDI inflow. Although we provided a novel perspective by investigating the effect of distance on the FDI location choice in China, the measurements of the distance factors are far from perfect, indicating this study is still at an early stage. Future studies may benefit from using various measures of distance to obtain more solid conclusions.
If anyone is interested, please contact: kunbao0223@163.com.
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This paper has greatly benefitted from comments of Prof. Lina Song and Dr. Jing Zhang from the Nottingham University Business School, and comments of Prof. Yuanping Lu from Zhongnan University of Economics and Law.
This paper has no additional funding.
Business School, Renmin University of China, Beijing, China
Yibo Bi
Business School, University of Nottingham, Nottingham, UK
Zhiyi Ren & Kun Bao
Zhiyi Ren
Kun Bao
We declare that all the authors have contributed sufficiently in this paper, while KB is a corresponding author. All authors read and approved the final manuscript.
Correspondence to Kun Bao.
The authors declare that they have no competing interest.
Bi, Y., Ren, Z. & Bao, K. Does distance matter in foreign direct investment sub-national location choice? Evidence from China. Front. Bus. Res. China 14, 12 (2020). https://doi.org/10.1186/s11782-020-00080-8
Multinational enterprises (MNEs)
Horizontal FDI
Vertical FDI
Gravity model
Sub-national level
Geographic distance
Cultural distance
Economic distance


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1 March 2012 Growth of Juvenile Red King Crabs, Paralithodes camtschaticus, Through Sequential Molts in the Laboratory
Bradley G. Stevens
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Bradley G. Stevens1,*
1Living Marine Resources Cooperative Science Center, University of Maryland Eastern Shore, Princess A
*E-mail: bgstevens@umes.edu
J. of Crustacean Biology, 32(2):215-222 (2012). https://doi.org/10.1163/193724011X615460
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Studies of crustacean growth, including king crabs, have typically used modal analysis rather than growth of individual crabs. I studied the individual growth of several hundred juvenile red king crabs (initial size 14–35 mm carapace length, CL) that were captured from a pod in Kodiak, Alaska, in July and August 2000, and retained in the laboratory for up to 14 months. During that period, 295 crabs molted at least once, including a subset of 52 that molted twice, and a subset of 9 that molted three times. Mean molt increment (MI) was 5.5 mm, and did not differ significantly between the three molts. MI increased significantly with premolt size for molt 1, and proportional growth rate at molt 1 was greater than that of molts 2 or 3. The first molt occurred earlier (August–October) and at warmer temperatures among smaller crabs than among larger crabs, which molted in January–February at colder temperatures. Post-molt CL for first molts was a simple ratio: Post-molt CL = 1.25 · (Pre-molt CL) (R2 = 0.9587, df = 291). Growth during the second molt was less than during the first molt, possibly reflecting a limitation imposed by the holding conditions. This is the first study to record growth information for individual juvenile red king crabs in the size range of 15–50 mm CL through sequential molts, and results can be used to fill a gap in current growth models.
© The Crustacean Society, 2012. Published by Koninklijke Brill NV, Leiden
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Bradley G. Stevens "Growth of Juvenile Red King Crabs, Paralithodes camtschaticus, Through Sequential Molts in the Laboratory," Journal of Crustacean Biology 32(2), 215-222, (1 March 2012). https://doi.org/10.1163/193724011X615460
Received: 15 June 2011; Accepted: 1 September 2011; Published: 1 March 2012
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What roles would the Toy Story characters play in Events Management?
We've made it a hat trick! Our third blog post, and this is a fun one! Inspired by one of our all-time favourite family films, Toy Story, a childhood classic.
We began thinking about the strong personality traits each of the characters have and how they would apply themselves to events management. Which roles would they take on? What an exciting entourage they would make as an events management team!
Supplier negotiator: Woody
Someone who will stick his neck out for the best results, a problem solver through communication and a loveable personality. Woody will always rise to the occasion to create value. A good all-round guy who we just love.
Planner: Buzz Lightyear
To infinity and beyond! He makes things happen, he is the commander and the most authoritative, organised and efficient toy in the box. With a huge pride in the work he undertakes as an events planner, he always has the determination to succeed.
Security: Rex
He might not be as fearsome as he looks, but he's big and scary on the outside so we will use him for a job that rarely needs doing, which must be in place as a safety precaution.
Exhibition coordinator: Mr Potato Head
Exhibition coordinators have lots of things to coordinate, just like Mr Potato head's body parts. They have to juggle numerous parties and their individual requests. It's tough, I think the exhibition is exciting – it's tough, but the buzz of securing a sale really makes up for it!
Marketing Coordinator: Jessie
The most enthusiastic cowgirl in the land! But there is a diligent side to her too, she's got all of the ideas and creativity to come up with exciting marketing campaigns and has the energy to execute them.
Executive Assistant: Slinky Dog
He's loyal and would do anything for anyone. If only all of us had an executive assistant side kick like Slinky Dog, we'd get a lot more done.
Accounts: Hamm (the piggy bank)
Of course, he doesn't necessarily have the best track record when it comes to looking after money. His coins tend to fall out of the bank in a crisis, but he's a piggy bank after all – we couldn't really name anyone else as the money man, could we?
Speakers: The bucket of soldiers
They're intelligent, have a mission to complete whilst at the conference and secretly love their position of power, which most of the time is taken very seriously. The sergeant of course is the key note speaker.
Delegates: Squeeze toy aliens
There's lots of them, they all follow each other in an orderly fashion, or so they should, the little green aliens! Also, two words – the clawwww! Which in events terms translates to any particularly gripping PowerPoint presentations.
What value can you take from this blog post? Hopefully some humour, light entertainment. And perhaps when recruiting events staff or looking to delegate roles to people within events, look for those who match up with the personality traits of those we've covered. Except the delegates and speakers of course; those we've put in just for fun!
If you found this content useful, have some feedback or have a suggestion for future blog posts, we would love to hear from you, drop me a line at mica@cfsevents.co.uk.
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Home » Workhuman Blog » The Science of Gratitude and Well-Being
The Science of Gratitude and Well-Being
November 26, 2012 Darcy Jacobsen
Regularly expressing gratitude is amazingly good for us—and by extension our workplaces— in more ways than we might realize.
Gratitude comes in many forms. Researchers of gratitude define it as: "an emotion which occurs after people receive aid which is perceived as costly, valuable, and altruistic," or "an emotion that (is) directed towards appreciating the helpful actions of other people," or even "appreciation of one's abilities, or of a climate in which such successful work (is) possible."
No matter how one defines it, one thing is clear, feeling and expressing gratitude yields side benefits for our emotional and physical well-being. For your employees, this can translate into:
A more positive workplace
Happier, more optimistic employees
Lower stress
Better teamwork
A culture of helpfulness
Lower absenteeism and better physical health
Here's the evidence:
Gratefulness Increases Emotional Well-Being
A 2007 study published in the Journal of Research in Personality found that "gratitude is uniquely important to well-being and social life." That study showed a relationship between gratitude and well-being that was independent of personality factors (extraversion, neuroticism, openness to experience, conscientiousness, or agreeableness), and proved that over time gratitude leads to lower stress and depression and higher levels of social support. The authors of the study call for therapists to employ gratitude as a clinical tool, saying: "giving people the skills to increase their gratitude may be as beneficial as such cognitive behavioral life skills as challenging negative beliefs ."
Grateful People Sacrifice for the Greater Good
In a study published in 2010 in the American Psychological Association Journal Emotion, researchers found that "gratitude functions to enhance cooperative as opposed to selfish economic behavior." Even when dealing with strangers, and no prospect of reciprocity, the subjects who were grateful made their decisions based on what was good for the group—even when it was against their individual interest. Gratitude, the researchers argued, had a direct and positive influence on judgment.
Grateful People Get Along Better with Others
A paper published in 2009 in the Clinical Psychology Review by researchers from Hofstra and several UK universities claims that people who express gratitude are more extroverted, agreeable, open, conscientious, and less neurotic. The study suggests that gratitude is associated with habitual positive well-being and a wide variety of adaptive personality traits conducive to developing and maintaining positive relationships:
"Grateful people were less angry and hostile, depressed, and emotionally vulnerable, (and) experienced positive emotions more frequently. Gratitude was also correlated with traits associated with positive social functioning; emotional warmth, gregariousness, activity seeking, trust, altruism, and tender-mindedness. Finally, grateful people had higher openness to their feeling, ideas, and values (associated with humanistic conceptions of well-being, and greater competence, dutifulness, and achievement striving."
Grateful People Sleep Better
A 2012 study from a group of Chinese researchers looked at the combined effects of gratitude and sleep quality on symptoms of anxiety and depression. They found that higher levels of gratitude were associated with better sleep, and with lower anxiety and depression. Those results were echoed in a study by the University of Manchester. Sleep, in turn, has been linked with things like improved memory, healthier weight, lower stress, and higher levels of creativity, stress and attention.
Grateful People Achieve More
A study by researchers from the University of California asked subjects to keep a daily journal of things they were grateful for. Two other groups kept journals of daily annoyances or general daily observations. Those assigned to keep the gratitude journals showed significant increases in determination, attention, enthusiasm and energy, when compared to the two other groups. Likewise, in a study published in the Journal of Happiness Studies, researchers surveyed 1,035 high-school students and found that the most grateful had more friends and higher GPAs. Even athletes benefit from gratitude.
Grateful People Pay It Forward
In one 2006 study conducted at Northeastern University, researchers sabotaged participant's computers and had a "helpful observer" jump in to help. Afterward, the students who had been helped were more likely to volunteer to help someone else with an unrelated, and time-intensive, task. In this study, gratitude was shown to be far more powerful than simply inducing a good mood.
Grateful People Are Less Aggressive
At the University of Kentucky, some students in a study received praise for their writing, where others got a scathing evaluation. Next, students played a game against the person who'd done the evaluation, in which they could blast them with white noise. In general, the insulted writers retaliated with loud blasts of noise. But among those insulted writers, some had been instructed to write essays about things for which they were grateful. Those students who had written about their gratitude were less likely to blast noise at their critics. "Gratitude is more than just feeling good," says Nathan DeWall, who led the study. "It helps people become less aggressive by enhancing their empathy."
Grateful People Are Physically Healthier
At the University of Connecticut, researchers found that gratitude has a protective effect against heart attacks. According to expert Robert Emmons of UC Berkeley's Greater Good Science Center, it also strengthens the immune system, lowers blood pressure, reduces symptoms of illness, increases resistance to pain, correlates with better exercise habits, and encourages us to take better care of our health.
Gratitude can also aid in recovering more quickly when you have health issues. In a study of organ recipients, scholars from UC Davis and the Mississippi University for Women found that patients who keep journals of their appreciation scored better on measures of mental health, general health and vitality than those who keep only routine notes about their days.
Grateful People Are More Resilient to Trauma
Studies of Vietnam War veterans have shown that gratitude is significant in helping people to maintain emotional well-being after traumatic life experiences.
It turns out that expressing gratitude in writing also has powerful benefits. In a study at Kent State, Professor Steve Toepfer examined the effects of writing letters of gratitude on happiness, life satisfaction, and depression. Said Toepfer: "The more letter writing people did, the less depressive symptoms they had. They improved significantly on happiness and life satisfaction. By writing these letters – 15 to 20 minutes each, once a week for three weeks to different people – well-being increased significantly."
Researchers at the University of Pennsylvania had similar results when they asked subjects to write and personally deliver a thank you letter to someone who had never been properly thanked for his or her kindness. Subjects had a huge and immediate increase in their happiness scores. This impact, said researchers, was greater than that from any other intervention, with benefits lasting for a month.
In addition to all of this, it appears that grateful people have better love lives. =)
All of this just goes to show that being thankful and appreciative, and making opportunities—for yourself and for your employees—to feel and express gratitude are investments that pay off exponentially. "We are all walking around with an amazing resource: gratitude," said Steve Toepfer, author of the Kent State University study. "It helps us express and enjoy, appreciate, be thankful and satisfied with a little effort. We all have it, and we need to use it to improve our quality of life."
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Discussion on talent retention with Leigh Branham, author of "The 7 Hidden Reasons Employees Leave".
3 Things That You're Thankful For
We take a moment to consider the act of thanksgiving.


ICCHP focuses on Assistive Technology (AT) and eAccessibility enabling a more independent life, participation, inclusion and improved services and support for people with disabilities and older adults.
By its nature, ICCHP covers a wide area of topics and has a future oriented mission. The following list, therefore, is not exhaustive and topics are not to be seen isolated. The list should motivate to get involved.
ICCHP 2018 is open to visionary ideas and future oriented thoughts – a floor for your visions!
(e)Accessibility addresses overcoming or proactive avoiding barriers for people with disabilities in the information society, e.g. Web, Software, Document, Communication and Conversation, Consumer Electronic (e.g. iDTV accessibility) Accessibility.
(e)Ageing and Gerontechnology discusses systems and tools helping to maintain autonomy and independence when ageing. How such systems can be designed for persons who are not familiar with technologies is part of this topic, too.
Ambient and Assisted Living outlines the potential, accessibility and usability of e.g. embedded systems, smart homes, mobile computing for people with disabilities and older adults.
Assessment and Profiling calls for research on methodologies, concepts and techniques for evaluating capabilities and needs of individuals and how to translate them into computable requirements and profiles. This should allow better matching of persons and technology.
Assistive Technology (AT) focuses on innovation and advancing the quality and availability of assistive devices aiming at overcoming or compensating functional limitations and its impact. This includes contributions of mainstream technology showing potential for supporting people with disabilities, special Rehabilitation Technology and Biomedical Engineering.
Augmented and Alternative Communication (AAC) intends to progress methods and tools for people with problems in spoken and written communication.
Cloud Computing will analyse the potential of shared and configurable Internet based resources for enhanced AT and services as well as the challenges for eAccessibility.
Design for All (D4All) highlights the proactive application of principles, methods and tools to meet the requirements of a broad diversity of users including those with disabilities in fields like e.g. architecture, traffic, housing, public buildings, work place, information, education.
eGovernment and eDemocracy discusses eAccessibility of ICT and Internet based public services for all citizens.
eHealth – Medicine and Care encourages synergetic aspects of ICT/AT for diagnostics, care, therapy, training and rehabilitation.
eInclusion, Policies and Legislation outlines programmes, legal contexts and funding opportunities aiming at a better exploitation of ICT, AT and eAccessibility for inclusion.
eLearning – special and/or inclusive – illustrates new dimensions opened by ICT/AT for didactic and methodological settings and the changing role for learners, teachers and administrators.
HCI and Non Classical Interfaces will explore the potential of emerging Human-Computer Interaction developments like sensor based interaction, Brain-Computer Interaction (BCI), gesture interaction, natural language interfaces, tangible interfaces, game based interfaces, computer vision, virtual environments, wearable computing, adaptive interfaces, mobile and touch technology.
History in AT and eInclusion gives a tribute to the founders of our discipline and intends to avoid reinventing the wheels.
Labour Market Integration discusses how to ameliorate the career opportunities of people with disabilities by using ICT/AT and making the work place accessible and how to better qualify users and professionals.
Social Innovation and (e)Service Delivery covers all aspects (human, economical, organisational and management) involved in implementing concrete services. ICCHP discusses ideas and concepts of social innovation, e.g. user driven and crowed sourcing approaches, and the potential of ICT/AT and eAccessibility.
Usability and Ergonomics will focus on day to day use of (accessible) ICT/HCI/AT based systems and services and their efficiency, effectiveness, learnability, memorability, flexibility, joy, … of use for people with disabilities and their environment.
User centred Design, User Involvement will underline the importance of involving end users in all steps of R&D towards application and will present strategies, methods and experiences for a more user driven R&D practice.


Take a quick tour around Santa Ana, California and you'll see local tiendas, single story homes, low rise multifamily units and school buildings about every five or six blocks. You'll find students and families welcoming you with pride on the front steps of their schools and welcoming you to their community hubs.
What is less apparent is that Santa Ana is one of the most densely populated cities in the U.S. and has an almost 30% homelessness rate (see the definition from the National Health Care for the Homeless). The city is north Orange County, a world away from Newport Beach and the wealthy coastal communities of South Orange.
For the last five years, Santa Ana Unified School District (SAUSD) has been rethinking teaching and learning to better serve their families and 50,000 students. The work was initiated by school-based plans for personalized learning. Career pathways were added at the secondary level and coordinated districtwide to ensure an equity of offerings.
District leaders have also worked hard to ensure educators are multilingual and representative of the families and students that they work with. At most campuses, there is strong evidence of community engagement and student and family support.
Under the leadership of Don Isbell, Director of CTE, most schools have career pathways for students to explore (visit the SAUSD CTE page for more and see a sample of the pathways in the image below). Isbell has led a revolution to shift what CTE means and dismantle the notion that it is for students who aren't succeeding in other core subject areas (i.e. math and literacy) and raised the bar for what these pathways look like for all students.
On a recent visit to three Santa Ana schools, their commitment to vibrant community connected career pathways was evident.
Valley High School is a sprawling open concept comprehensive high school built 60 years ago on a 55-acre site. It serves about 2,300 students on one campus.
A Family and Community banner greets visitors at the entrance. We visited with parents taking leadership courses in the wellness center (increasingly common across SAUSD). Some parents had students that were SAUSD alumni but still come back to access the wellness center resources and courses.
Next to the wellness center is the office of High School Inc., a nonprofit organization setup to facilitate work-based learning experiences across six career pathways.
What is going on inside of Valley is a blend of traditional learning methods with next-gen career and technical education. The school is led by Hector Galicia who welcomed back his staff this year by singing mariachi and instilling a sense of pride in his team for their culture and rich history as a community.
We walked through several of the career pathways offered at Valley, including their health, culinary arts, new media and automotive paths.
The culinary student team, led by Chef Tiffany Heremans, prepared a meal for us and shared how they train for national culinary competitions. They have won the Cooking Up Change Challenge multiple years in a row. The competition invites students to prepare a healthy high school meal option using a specific budget and ingredients.
The oldest high school in the district has some of the freshest ideas when it comes to meaningful pathways and projects. The Latino International Film Institute works with students to create documentaries about relevant topics in their lives and community. They also work with several other schools in the district as part of the Youth Cinema Project. Students (several see in the panel below) work to dream, create, direct and produce their films.
Students shared their stories of growth and change within the Santa Ana schools they attended. The shared that the unique opportunity to incorporate film into a school project has brought them a sense of new possibilities and options. Many shared that some aspect of film (marketing, production, writing, etc.) is in their plans for their future and that they are hoping to keep growing their skills before they leave Santa Ana High.
Whoever said middle school couldn't be a place of joy and thriving students hasn't yet visited Lathrop Intermediate. Serving low resource neighborhoods in Santa Ana hasn't stopped the staff from focusing more on opportunities and assets than the challenges their students face.
Lathrop is led by Principal Stuart Cadwell who has been in SAUSD for over a decade. Along with his support, the school decided to open up several classrooms to create bigger open and collaborative spaces. They added a STEM Lab where students work through Project Lead the Way and unpack engineering ideas and concepts.
Stefanie Phillips has been in the district for five years and superintendent for two. She has reiterated the district's goal "to prepare students with 21st-century skills to graduate from high school and to become productive contributors to our society." (Check out Dr. Phillips report to the school board.) She has maintained the district's commitment to career education while boosting the focus on equity.
Visit Santa Ana to see well-developed career pathways, community partnerships and strong student supports.


A security expert has cracked one of the U.K.'s new biometric passports, which the British government hopes will cut down on cross-border crime and illegal immigration.
The attack, which uses a common RFID (radio frequency identification) reader and customized code, siphoned data off an RFID chip from a passport in a sealed envelope, said Adam Laurie, a security consultant who has worked with RFID and Bluetooth technology. The attack would be invisible to victims, he said.
"That's the really scary thing," said Laurie, whose work was detailed in the Sunday edition of the Daily Mail newspaper. "There's no evidence of tampering. They're not going to report something has happened because they don't know."
The British government, which began issuing RFID passports about a year ago, eventually wants to incorporate fingerprints and other biometric data on the chips, although privacy activists are concerned over how data will be stored and handled.
Currently, the chip contains the printed details on the passports, the person's photograph and security technology to detect if those files have been altered.
The attack was executed while the passport was still in its original envelope used to send it from the passport service, since RFID chips can be read from a few inches away, Laurie said. He used a passport ordered by a woman affiliated with No2ID, a group that opposes the U.K.'s biometric passport and ID card programs.
The data on the passport's chip is locked until an RFID reader provides the encryption key, Laurie said. The encryption key is calculated using a combination of the person's personal data, such as date of birth, and is contained in the "machine-readable zone" (MZR) -- the string of characters and digits on the bottom of the passport's first page.
At an immigration desk, the optical character reader scans the MZR and gets the key. The RFID chip is unlocked, and the information on the chip is matched with that on the passport.
However, Laurie was able to do this process himself. He analyzed ICAO 9303, the standard from the International Civil Aviation Organization that been adopted worldwide for machine-readable passports, to see how the MZR is organized.
Laurie also knew some of the woman's personal details -- used to calculate her passport's key -- and found out more through Internet research.
He then wrote what's known as a "brute force" program, which repeatedly tries different combinations of data to discover the key. After about 40,000 attempts by the program, he cracked the key.
To scan the chip, he used a common RFID reader from ACG ID, now part of Assa Abloy Identification Technology GmbH of Germany.
The attack could then let Laurie begin the process of making an exact copy of the woman's passport. However, the U.K. Home Office defended the passports on Tuesday, asserting the hack doesn't make them less secure.
"The key point ... is that the information on the chip cannot by changed, rendering the procedure described by Adam Laurie pretty pointless," wrote Peter Wilson, senior press officer, in an e-mail.
Further, a cloned chip would have to be inserted into a forged passport, and new security measures in the passports make that "virtually impossible," the Home Office said, quoting a report released last month by the National Audit Office.
But Laurie said the new passports were marketed as enhancing security, "but so far I don't see anything about it that increases my security."
The greatest weakness with the passports is using relatively easy-to-find data to compose the encrypted key, Laurie said. It would be better to include more random elements that would render brute-force style programs nearly useless, he said.
Laurie's work spawned from concern over how users can know what's on their passport's chip.
"At the moment, if you want to see what's in your own passport, you have to go to passport office," Laurie said. "With my code, you can do it at home."
Laurie has published a library of open-source tools written in the Python programming language that will run on RFID readers made by ACG and by Frosch Electronics OEG, based in Austria.


Former Jakarta governor Joko Widodo was sworn in as Indonesia's seventh president, inheriting an economy growing at its slowest pace since 2009 that he has pledged to boost through reforms such as raising fuel prices.
Widodo, 53, abandoned his suit jacket, red tie and presidential limousine to break with tradition and ride in the midday heat down Jakarta's main thoroughfare in a horse-drawn open carriage, surrounded by a crowd of thousands, to his new home at the palace. He was earlier inaugurated at the parliament, where he faces an opposition that holds the bulk of seats and may try to obstruct his policies for Southeast Asia's largest economy.
"This is the time to return to Jalesveva Jayamahe," he said, referring to the Indonesian Navy's motto: "in the seas we will triumph".
He's expected to announce a new ministerial structure as soon as today, including a maritime department to improve sea logistics and trade in the world's largest archipelago at a time nations in Southeast Asia face pressure from China over its territorial claims in the South China Sea.
Indonesia's new leader must tackle a political elite split by a contested election outcome that overshadowed the transition from the decade-long rule of previous leader Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono, who called on everyone to support the new president. Investors are hoping Jokowi, like his Indian counterpart Narendra Modi, can take quick action, cutting red tape and subsidies that limit the government's ability to build more infrastructure.
The rupiah rose 0.5 percent against the U.S. dollar by 2.10 p.m. in Jakarta, according to prices from local banks, having lost most of the gains made earlier this year that came on expectations Jokowi would easily win July's election and deploy the can-do approach he was known for as Jakarta governor at a national level. Indonesian shares gained 0.8 percent.
Jokowi witnessed a short military welcoming ceremony at the palace, with a 21-gun salute, after which he praised the birds singing in the garden and Yudhoyono left the palace with his wife Ani. Jokowi then took part in a live videoconference with schoolchildren around the country.
The inauguration was watched by U.S. Secretary of State John Kerry, who is also meeting in Jakarta with regional leaders including Australian Prime Minister Tony Abbott and Malaysian Prime Minister Najib Razak to discuss challenges such as dealing with Islamic State militants, Ebola and maritime disputes.
"I hope this brings optimism and better Indonesia-Malaysia cooperation," Najib told reporters after the ceremony.
Jokowi will set up a one-stop shop for investors to speed up business permits within six months, gradually cut fuel subsidies within three years, move tax collection online and prioritize maritime logistics and mass public transportation, he said in an interview with Bloomberg TV.
"Expectations were too high and should be managed," he said in the interview last month, adding he envisioned a country with a self-reliant economy and national identity.
Jokowi, who likes to go on unscheduled walkabouts to chat with the public, joined a series of public events. He sat in the carriage with Vice President Jusuf Kalla in a parade of marching bands, stilt walkers and dancers. Yudhoyono, a former general, had suggested a military salute at the palace.
"I'm so excited because this is the first time a president is being inaugurated in such a way -- it's very grassroots," said Elfrida, a 32-year-old from Jakarta who works at an IT company and voted for Jokowi. "We have to be a part of this history," said Elfrida, who goes by one name.
Jokowi will later make a speech at a central square, ahead of a celebratory concert for the fan of heavy metal bands such as Metallica and Megadeth.
In the inauguration, he sat next to Yudhoyono and in remarks after the oath-taking referred to failed presidential candidate and opposition leader Prabowo Subianto as his partner and best friend.
As governor of the capital since 2012, he removed underperforming officials, lifted tax revenue and kickstarted a metro project. He wasted no time after winning 53 percent of July's vote in setting up a transition team, some of whom are expected to form his cabinet, yet he has gone back on pledges to have a team of professionals as he tries to gain support from political parties.
Proposals from within his party include Puan Maharani, the daughter of Megawati Soekarnoputri, the head of his Indonesian Democratic Party of Struggle or PDI-P, according to people familiar with the process who asked not to be named because the talks were private. Also in the running is Tjahjo Kumolo, secretary-general of PDI-P, and Rini Soemarno, the head of Jokowi's transition team and another ally of Megawati, the people said.
Jokowi is expected to tap the heads of state-owned enterprises who he regards as businesspeople battling to improve the state, such as RJ Lino and Ignasius Jonan, the heads of the state port and railway companies respectively, the people said.
Jokowi will need to offer posts to opposition parties to try to break up the coalition of Prabowo, said Fauzi Ichsan, a finance adviser to his team. Jokowi said he will have up to 60 percent professionals and the rest will be politicians.


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Michigan Omaha Bound After Knocking Off No. 1 UCLA in Super Regional
by Paul Condry | Jun 10, 2019 | Headlines, RRSN News | 0 comments
Site: Los Angeles, Calif. (Jackie Robinson Stadium)
Event: NCAA Super Regional (Game 3)
Score: Michigan 4, #1 UCLA 2
Records: U-M (46-20), UCLA (52-11)
Next U-M Event: Saturday, June 15 — vs. No. 8 Texas Tech – College World Series (Omaha, Neb.), noon or 5 p.m. CDT
» Michigan advances to the College World Series for the eighth time in program history, and first since 1984.
» UCLA had the tying runs on base and the go-ahead run at the plate in the bottom of the ninth, but a groundout ended the game.
» Despite missing Friday's game due to illness, starting pitcher Tommy Henry earned the win with seven strong innings.
LOS ANGELES, Calif. — The University of Michigan baseball team advanced to the NCAA College World Series on Sunday night (June 9) after the Wolverines stunned No. 1-ranked UCLA, 4-2, in the winner-take-all game of the Super Regional series at Jackie Robinson Stadium.
Michigan (46-20) returns to the College World Series for the eighth time in program history. Owners of two national championships (1953, 1962), the Wolverines also advanced to Omaha, Nebraska, in 1978 (fifth place), 1980 (fifth), 1981 (seventh), 1983 (third) and 1984 (seventh).
Michigan struck first and took an early lead in the second inning. Senior third baseman Blake Nelson walked with one out and moved to third when a hit-and-run turned into a double after junior left fielder Christan Bullock ripped a ball over the first-base bag. Sophomore shortstop Jack Blomgren then drove home Michigan's first run of the day with a groundout up the middle for a 1-0 advantage.
UCLA's Jake Pries tied the game at 1 in the bottom of the second with a leadoff home run over the left-center field wall. The Bruins then took a 2-1 lead in the third inning. With one out, Garrett Mitchell tripled when junior right fielder Jordan Brewer slipped and fell tracking a fly ball. One pitch later, Mitchell scored on a fielder's choice.
Following a quiet fourth inning, Michigan answered in the fifth. Bullock walked to lead off the frame and stole second, then moved to third on a line-drive single by Blomgren, who swiped second base. With two runners in scoring position, senior second baseman Ako Thomas singled up the middle and brought both runners around for a 3-2 Wolverine lead.
UCLA threatened in the bottom of the inning. With two outs, UCLA moved runners to second and third after a base hit to left field, a bunt single and a wild pitch. Three-hole hitter Chase Strumpf worked a full count but junior starting pitcher Tommy Henry threw a changeup for his sixth strikeout and ended the inning.
Michigan's offense was stifled in the sixth and seventh innings, and UCLA threatened again in the bottom of the seventh after a leadoff double quickly put Noah Cardenas in scoring position. A sacrifice bunt moved Cardenas to third, but Henry worked out of the inning with back-to-back groundouts to strand Cardenas and preserved Michigan's one-run lead.
The Wolverines added insurance late, as Brewer sent a 1-1 pitch to right field for a two-out single in the eighth. He stole second base and was originally called out on the play, but a Michigan challenge reversed the call. Senior first baseman Jimmy Kerr was then intentionally walked before UCLA brought in reliever Nathan Hadley, who earned a quick strikeout to end the rally and stranded both baserunners.
Redshirt junior Benjamin Keizer tossed a 1-2-3 eighth, and Michigan held the momentum headed into the ninth. Bullock led off with a triple deep to the left-center field gap and a walk to Blomgren put runners on the corners with no outs. Sophomore catcher Joe Donovan brought Bullock home with a sacrifice fly to left field, giving Michigan a two-run cushion.
A one-out single from Jeremy Ydens followed by a wild pitch put a runner scoring position in the bottom of the ninth, and a hit batsman put the tying run on base. A fly ball to deep center field advanced Ydens and pinch-runner Jordan Prendiz one base, but a 6-3 groundout ended the game.
Despite missing Friday's Super Regional opener game due to illness, Henry earned the win — his 10th of the year — on Sunday after he tossed seven innings and scattered seven hits with six strikeouts and no walks. Keizer held UCLA at bay through the eighth and ninth innings to earn the save.
The Wolverines will face off against No. 8-ranked Texas Tech on Saturday, June 15 in the opener of the College World Series. First pitch from TD Ameritrade Park will take place at noon or 5 p.m. CDT.