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Reflexão de satélite é um fenômeno causado pela reflexão de raios solares por superfícies reflexivas nos satélites artificiais que, vista da Terra, cria uma espécie de "pulso luminoso" no céu que dura alguns segundos. Podem ser vistos algumas horas após o ocaso e algumas horas antes da alvorada. Para a maioria dos satélites esse fenômeno é praticamente imprevisível por causa de diversos fatores, como o movimento giratório próprio que varia para cada satélite. Mas a grande exceção são os satélites da empresa estadunidense Iridium, que possuem superfícies espelhadas que, ocasionalmente, refletem a luz solar, causando um brilho intenso que pode atingir a magnitude -8 (brilho vinte vezes maior que o de Vênus). Esses satélites estão sempre orientados em uma direção determinada e por isso suas superfícies espelhadas se mantêm a um ângulo constante em relação ao solo, permitindo, assim, a previsão dos flares, que pode ser feita por diversos programas de computador e sítios eletrônicos disponíveis gratuitamente.

As reflexões

Os satélites parecem brilhar porque refletem a luz do Sol que incide sobre eles. Como estão a centenas de quilômetros de altura, eles continuam a receber a luz solar algumas horas após o pôr do sol e algumas horas antes do nascer do sol e por isso podem ser vistos durante a noite. A maioria dos satélites não tem um brilho constante porque enquanto orbitam a Terra, apresentam um movimento giratório em torno de si mesmos. Por isso, nos momentos em que o feixe de luz refletido por superfícies metálicas é direcionado para a Terra, uma pessoa que estiver olhando o céu verá um aumento súbito de brilho do satélite (tal efeito pode ser comparado ao de uma bola de espelhos, usada em danceterias, que reflete diversos feixes de luz para diferentes direções enquanto gira). Para efeitos de comparação, uma superfície espelhada de um metro quadrado distante mil quilômetros da superfície do nosso planeta poderia produzir um brilho de magnitude -7 quando estivesse refletindo a luz solar diretamente. Entretanto, esses eventos são praticamente impossíveis de prever porque a posição dessas superfícies espelhadas em relação ao observador é difícil de se calcular, devido a diversos fatores que alteram o movimento dos satélite, como a força de arrasto provocado pelas moléculas da camada mais exterior da atmosfera, a exosfera.

Os satélites Iridium

De maio de 1997 a junho de 1999 foram lançados 88 satélites de telefonia pela empresa estadunidense Iridium, com a colocação em órbita de mais cinco satélites adicionais lançados em 2002. Eles giram em torno da Terra a uma altitude de cerca de quinhentos quilômetros e são utilizados para transferência de dados e telefonia via satélite. Esses satélites possuem três antenas denominadas Antenas Principais da Missão (MMA, Main Mission Antenna, em inglês), que estão a 40 graus de inclinação em relação ao corpo do satélite e possuem dimensões de 188 por 86 centímetros e 4 centímetros de espessura, concebidas com alumínio altamente refletivo (tratado com prata e coberta com teflon para controle térmico). Geralmente tais satélites são vistos com magnitude 6 (muito difíceis de se ver a olho nu), mas quando os raios solares são refletidos pelas antenas principais em direção à Terra no ângulo certo, podem ser vistos com magnitude superior a -8, o que significa um brilho vinte vezes maior que o de Vênus no seu brilho máximo, por um curto período de tempo (de cinco a vinte segundos). O satélite vai gradualmente aumentando seu brilho até atingir o máximo e depois começa a desaparecer gradualmente até voltar a magnitude original. O brilho pode ser tão intenso que permite sua visualização durante o dia, mas para isso é essencial saber a hora e a direção exata para onde se deve olhar.

A seguir, encontra-se um relato que um morador da cidade de Massillon, no estado norte-americano de Ohio descrevendo um acontecimento celeste que foi constatado se tratar de uma reflexão por um satélite Iridium. Isso foi feito simplesmente checando-se as previsões de flares para a madrugada do dia 16 de junho de 1999.

Noite passada [...] eu olhei para o céu da madrugada. Eu vi uma luz branca e brilhante quando estava olhando para a direção sudoeste. Primeiramente, pensei que fosse ou o planeta Júpiter ou uma estrela muito brilhante, como Sirius. Continuei olhando para essa luz brilhante e percebi que ela ia se tornando cada vez mais fraca, até que desapareceu completamente. [...] Eu descartei a possibilidade desse objeto estar sendo obscurecido pelas nuvens porque as outras estrelas permaneceram brilhantes, até mesmo as mais fracas. Também descartei a possibilidade de avião quando eu vi um voando um minuto depois, quando pude ver as luzes brancas e vermelhas piscando.

Previsão e observação

Os satélites Iridium possuem uma grande peculiaridade. Quando estão operacionais, eles mantêm a sua posição axial e longitudinal constante, ou seja, o ângulo entre o espelho e a Terra é sempre o mesmo, apenas com ínfimas variações. Conhecendo-se a posição do satélite, sua orientação em relação ao Sol, as propriedades refletivas do espelho e a posição do observador na Terra, um programa de computador pode ser desenvolvido para prever o horário exato e a magnitude da reflexão por meio de cálculos relativamente simples envolvendo trigonometria. Existem diversos programas de computador que fazem tais cálculos. O sítio eletrônico Heavens-Above é o mais popular para determinar o horário em que ocorrerão passagens de satélites em geral e, inclusive, faz a previsão detalhada da ocorrência de flares dos satélites Iridium para qualquer local do globo.

Entretanto, para se obter uma boa previsão, é necessário fornecer ao programa de previsão os dados detalhados de latitude e longitude pois, no caso dos flares de Iridium, uma diferença de um quilômetro ou 0,01° pode resultar em uma diferença substancial entre o previsto e o observado, visto que a área em que a luz refletida é visível é relativamente pequena. Uma vez feita a previsão, basta olhar na direção certa no horário certo, pois esse evento dura somente poucos segundos. É possível também ver o brilho causado pela reflexão durante o dia, apesar de ser muito mais difícil por causa do ofuscamento causado pelo Sol. A previsão, contudo, também não é certeza de que a reflexão vai acontecer com o brilho que deveria, pois o satélite pode sofrer pequenas variações de orientação que alteram drasticamente o brilho, que pode ser menor ou mesmo maior que o previsto. Os satélites também podem ter falhas e por isso sua altitude pode variar, o que consequentemente compromete a previsão e por isso podem não refletir na direção que deveria.

Fim das reflexões previsíveis
Desde 2018, havia-se notado que muitas reflexões dos satélites Iridium não mais apareciam conforme as previsões. Isso porque os satélites da primeira geração, que produziam o fenômeno, tornaram-se obsoletos e estão sendo retirados de operação. Com o início do programa Iridium NEXT, anunciado em 2017, eles estão sendo substituídos por satélites mais modernos, que não produzem reflexões previsíveis. Apesar de suas posições não poderem mais ser acompanhadas com precisão, os satélites antigos devem continuar em órbita por algum tempo, mas a maioria deve começar fazer a reentrada após 2019.

Ligações externas
  Para a previsão de passagens de satélites visíveis e ocorrência de flares. (em Inglês)
 Aplicativo de previsão de flares de Iridium para Itunes.

Astronomia
Satélites


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Georges Joseph Christian Simenon (; 12/13 February 1903 – 4 September 1989) was a Belgian writer, most famous for his fictional detective Jules Maigret. One of the most popular authors of the 20th century, he published around 400 novels, 21 volumes of memoirs and many short stories, selling over 500 million copies.

Apart from his detective fiction, he achieved critical acclaim for his literary novels which he called romans durs (hard novels). Among his literary admirers were Max Jacob, François Mauriac and André Gide. Gide wrote, "I consider Simenon a great novelist, perhaps the greatest, and the most genuine novelist that we have had in contemporary French literature."

Born and raised in Liège, Belgium, Simenon lived for extended periods in France (1922–45), the United States (1946–55) and finally Switzerland (1957-1989). Much of his work is semi-autobiographical, inspired by his childhood and youth in Liège, extensive travels in Europe and the world, wartime experiences, troubled marriages, and numerous love affairs.

Critics such as John Banville have praised Simenon's novels for their psychological insights and vivid evocation of time and place. Among his most notable works are The Saint-Fiacre Affair (1932), Monsieur Hire's Engagement (1933), Act of Passion (1947), The Snow was Dirty (1948) and The Cat (1967).

Early life and education

Simenon was born at 26  (now number 24) to Désiré Simenon and his wife Henriette Brüll. Désiré Simenon worked in an accounting office at an insurance company and had married Henriette in April 1902. Simenon was either born at 11.30 pm on Thursday 12 February 1903 (according to the birth certificate), or just after midnight on Friday 13th (the date possibly being falsified on the certificate due to superstition).

The Simenon family was of Walloon and Flemish ancestry, settling in the Belgian Limburg in the seventeenth century. His mother's family was of Flemish, Dutch and German descent. One of his mother's most notorious ancestors was Gabriel Brühl, a criminal who preyed on Limburg from the 1720s until he was hanged in 1743. Later, Simenon would use Brühl as one of his many pen names.

In April 1905, two years after Simenon's birth, the family moved to 3 rue Pasteur (now 25 rue Georges Simenon) in Liège's  neighbourhood. Simenon's brother Christian was born in September 1906 and eventually became their mother's favourite child, which Simenon resented. The young Simenon, however, idolised his father and later claimed to have partly modelled Maigret's temperament on him.

At the age of three, Simenon learned to read at the Ecole Guardienne run by the Sisters of Notre Dame. Then, between 1908 and 1914, he attended the Institut Saint-André, run by the Christian Brothers.

In 1911, the Simenons moved to 53 rue de la Loi, where they took in lodgers, many of them students from Eastern Europe, Jews and political refugees. This gave the young Simenon an introduction to the wider world, which was later reflected his novels, notably Pedigree (published 1948) and Le Locataire (The Lodger) (1938).

Following the outbreak of the First World War in August 1914, Liège was occupied by the German army. Henriette took in German officers as lodgers, much to Désiré's disapproval. Simenon later said that the war years provided some of the happiest times of his life. They were also memorable for a child because, "my father cheated, my mother cheated, everyone cheated."

In October 1914, Simenon began his studies at the Collège Saint-Louis, a Jesuit high school. After a year, he switched to Collège St Servais, where he studied for three years. He excelled at French, but his marks in other subjects declined. He read widely in the Russian, French and English classics, frequently played truant, and turned to petty theft in order to buy pastries and other war time luxuries.

In 1917, the Simenon family moved to a former post office building in the rue des Maraîchers. Using his father's heart condition as a pretext, Simenon quit school in June 1918, without taking his end-of-year exams. After brief periods working in a patisserie and a bookshop, Simenon found himself unemployed when the war ended in November 1918. He witnessed scenes of violent retribution against residents of Liège accused of collaboration which stayed with him for the rest of his life. He described these scenes in Pedigree and Les trois crimes de mes amis (My Friends' Three Crimes) (1938).

Early career, 1919–22
In January 1919, the 15-year-old Simenon took a job as a junior reporter at the Gazette de Liège, a right-wing Catholic newspaper edited by Joseph Demarteau. Within a few months he was promoted to crime reporting, signing his articles "Georges Sim". By April he was given his own opinion and gossip column which he signed "Monsieur Le Coq." He was also assigned interviews with leading international figures such as Hirohito, Crown Prince of Japan, and French war hero Marshal Foch. In 1920-21 he enrolled in a course on forensic science at the University of Liège in order to improve his knowledge of the latest police methods.

In May 1920, Simenon began publishing short fiction in the Gazette. In September he completed his first novel, Au Pont des Arches which he self-published in 1921. He wrote two other novels while working at the Gazette, but these were never published.

In June 1919, Simenon had been introduced into a group of young artists and bohemians which called itself "Le Caque" (herring barrel). The group met at night to drink, discuss art and philosophy, and experiment with drugs such as morphine and cocaine. In early 1922 one of the members of the group, Joseph Kleine, hanged himself at the doors of the St Pholien church of Liège after a night of excess with Le Caque. Simenon was one of the last people to see Kleine alive and was deeply affected by his suicide, later referring to the incident in Les trois crimes de mes amis and Le pendu de St Pholien (The Hanged Man of Saint Pholien) (1931).

Through Le Caque, Simenon met a young painter, Régine Renchon, and in early 1921 they began a relationship. They soon became engaged and agreed that Simenon should complete his year of compulsory military service before they married.

Simenon's father died In November 1921, an event which Simenon called, "the most important day in a man's life." Soon after, he began his military service. After a brief posting with the allied occupation forces in Germany, he was transferred to the cavalry barracks in Liège and was soon given permission to resume writing for the Gazette.

When Simenon's military service ended in December 1922, he resigned from the Gazette and moved to Paris to establish a base for himself and his future wife Régine, whom he preferred to call "Tigy".

France, 1922–1945

Literary apprenticeship, 192228
Now in Paris, Simenon found a menial job with a far-right political group headed by the writer Binet-Valmer. In March 1923, he returned to Liège to marry Régine. Although neither Simenon or Régine were religious, they were married in a Catholic church to please Simenon's mother, who was devout.

The newly-weds moved to Paris where Régine tried to establish herself as a painter while Simenon resumed work for Binet-Valmer and sent articles to the Revue Sincère of Brussels for which he was the Paris correspondent. He also wrote short stories for popular magazines, but sales were sporadic.

In the summer of 1923, Simenon was engaged by the Marquis de Tracy as his private secretary, which obliged him to spend nine months of the year at the aristocrat's various rural properties. Régine soon moved to a village near the Marquis's principal estate at Paray-le-Frésil, near Moulins.

While working for the Marquis, Simenon began submitting stories to Le Matin whose literary editor was Colette. Colette advised him to make his work "less literary" which Simenon took to mean that he should use simple descriptions and a limited stock of common words. Simenon followed her advice and within a year became one of the paper's regular contributors.

Now with a steady income from his writing, Simenon left the Marquis' employ in 1924 and returned to Paris where he and Régine found an apartment in the fashionable Place des Vosges. Simenon was writing and selling short stories at the rate of 80 typed pages a day, and now turned his hand to pulp novels. His first, Le roman d'une dactylo (The Story of a Typist) was quickly sold and two more appeared in 1924 under the pseudonyms "Jean du Perry" and "Georges Simm". From 1921 to 1934 he used a total of 17 pen names while writing 358 novels and short stories.

In the summer of 1925, the Simenons took a holiday in Normandy where they met Henriette Liberge, the 18-year-old daughter of a fisherman. Régine offered her a job as their housekeeper in Paris and the young woman accepted. Simenon began calling her "Boule", and she was to become his lover and part of the Simenon household under that name for the next 39 years.

Simenon began an affair with Josephine Baker in 1926 or 1927, and became her part-time assistant and editor of Josephine Baker's Magazine. However, the Simenons were tiring of their hectic life in Paris, and in April 1928 they set out with Boule for a six-month tour of the rivers and canals of France in a small boat, the Ginette. Without the distractions provided by Josephine Baker, Simenon's tally of published popular novels increased from 11 in 1927 to 44 in 1928.

Birth and retirement of Maigret, 192939
In the spring of 1929, the Simenons and Boule set off for a tour of northern France, Belgium and Holland in a larger, custom-built boat, the Ostrogoth. Simenon had begun contributing detective stories to a new magazine called Détective and continued to publish popular novels, mainly with the publishers Fayard.During his northern tour, Simenon wrote three popular novels featuring a police inspector named Maigret, but only one, Train de nuit (Night Train) was accepted by Fayard. Simenon began working on the latter novel (or possibly its successor Pietr-le-Letton (Pietr the Latvian)) in September 1929 when the Ostrogoth was undergoing repairs in the Dutch city of Delfzijl, and the city is now celebrated as the birthplace of Simenon's most famous character.

On his return to Paris in April 1930, Simenon completed Pietr-le-Letton, the first novel in which commissioner Maigret of the Paris mobile crime brigade was a fully developed character. The novel was serialised in Fayard's magazine Ric et Rac later that year, and was the first fictional work to appear under Simenon's real name.

The first Maigret novels were launched in book form by Fayard in February 1931 at the fancy dress bal anthropométrique  which had a police and criminals theme. The launching party was widely reported and the novels received positive reviews. Simenon wrote 19 Maigret novels by the end of 1933, and the series eventually sold 500 million copies.

In April 1932, the Simenons and Boule moved to La Rochelle in south-west France. Soon after, they left for Africa where Simenon visited his brother, who was a colonial administrator in the Belgian Congo. Simenon also visited other African colonies and wrote a series of articles highly critical of colonialism. He drew on his African experience in novels such as Le Coup de Lune (Tropic Moon) (1933) and 450 à l'ombre (Aboard the Aquitaine) (1936).

In 1933, the Simenons visited Germany and Eastern Europe, and Simenon secured an interview with Leon Trotsky in exile in Turkey for Paris-Soir. On his return, he announced that he would write no more Maigret novels, and signed a contract with the prestigious publisher Gallimard for his new work.

Maigret, written in June 1933, was intended to be the last of the series and ended with the detective in retirement. Simenon called the Maigret novels "semi-literary" and he wanted to establish himself as a serious writer. He stated his aim was to win the Nobel Prize for Literature by 1947.

Simenon's notable novels of the 1930s, written after the temporary retirement of  Maigret, include Le testament Donadieu (The Shadow Falls) (1937), L'homme qui regardait passer les trains (The Man who Watched the Trains Go By) (1938) and Le bourgmestre de Furnes (The Burgomaster of Furnes) (1939).  André Gide and François Mauriac were among Simenon's greatest literary admirers at the time.

In 1935, the Simenons undertook a world tour which included the Americas, the Galapagos Islands, Tahiti, Australia and India. They then moved back to Paris, in the fashionable Neuilly district, where they lived a life of luxury which Simenon later described as "too sumptuous".

They moved home to La Rochelle in 1938 because, as Simenon later explained, "I was sickened by the life I was leading." In April the following year, Simenon's first child, Marc, was born.

Second World War, 193945
Simenon was in a café in La Rochelle when France declared war on Germany on 3 September 1939. In May 1940, Germany invaded Belgium, and La Rochelle became the reception centre for Belgian refugees. The Belgian government appointed Simenon Commissioner for Refugees, and he organised the reception, accommodation, and food and health needs for some 55,000 war refugees before the armistice of 22 June. By August, all Belgian refugees had been repatriated and Simenon resumed civilian life in his new home at Fontenay-le-Compte in the Vendée.

Later in 1940, a local doctor examined Simenon and diagnosed a serious heart illness, advising him to cut back on his favourite pastimes of pipe smoking, excessive eating, alcohol, and sex. Simenon began working on his memoirs Je me souviens (I remember), intended as a letter to his son from a father who would soon be dead.  A second medical opinion was later sought, and Simenon was assured his heart was sound.

Simenon returned to writing Maigret stories and novels, completing two in 1940 and three in 1941. He also wrote longer novels such as Pedigree, a fictionalised reworking of Je me souviens. As a popular, non-Jewish author who avoided war themes and anti-German sentiments, Simenon had few problems in having his works published at a time of censorship and paper restrictions.

Among his major works written during the war years are La veuve Couderc (The Widow Couderc) (1942), Le fuite de M. Monde (Monsieur Monde Vanishes) (published 1945), and Pedigree (published 1948). Simenon also conducted correspondence, most notably with André Gide. Gide considered La veuve Couderc superior to Camus' The Stranger which was published around the same time and has a similar main character and themes.

During the war, Simenon sold the film rights to five of his novels to Continental Films, which was funded by the German government and banned the participation of Jews. The Continental production of Simenon's Les inconnus dans la maison (Strangers in the House) had exaggerated anti-Semitic themes which are not in the novel. Resistance underground newspapers began attacking Continental Films and anyone who took their money.

In 1942, the French Commissariat-Géneral aux Questions Juives notified Simenon that they suspected him of being Jewish and gave him one month to prove he wasn't. Simenon was able to obtain the necessary certificates of birth and baptism through his mother, and soon after the Simenons moved to a more remote village in the Vendée.

In 1944, Régine discovered Simenon's long-term affair with Boule, and Simenon also confessed to his numerous other affairs. The couple agreed to remain married for the sake of their child, but to give each other their sexual freedom.

In November 1944, following the German retreat, Simenon, Marc and Boule moved to a hotel in the resort town of Les Sable d'Olonne, while Régine returned to their house near La Rochelle which had now been evacuated by the Germans. In January 1945, Simenon was placed under house arrest by the police and the French Forces of the Interior on suspicion of collaboration. After three months of investigations, he was cleared of all charges.

Simenon went to Paris in May 1945 while Marc and Boule returned to their house near La Rochelle with Régine. Simenon, possibly out of concern that the French Communist Party might take over France, had decided to move to America. The rest of the family soon joined him in Paris and Simenon used his contacts to secure the required travel documents for America. Régine, however, refused to travel to America with Marc unless Boule stayed behind in France. Simenon reluctantly agreed to Régine's demand.

United States and Canada, 1945–1955
The Simenons arrived in New York in October 1945 and soon moved to Canada, where they set up home at Ste-Marguerite du Lac Masson, north of Montreal. In November, Simenon met Denyse Ouimet, a 25-year-old French-Canadian, with whom he started an affair and hired as his secretary. Denyse moved into the Simenon home in January 1946, and several weeks later told Régine that she was his new lover. Simenon fictionalised his affair with Denyse in his novels Trois chambres à Manhattan (Three Bedrooms in Manhattan) (1947) and Lettre à mon juge (Act of Passion) (1947).

The Simenons and Denyse drove to Florida in the summer of 1946, and then visited Cuba in order to arrange for permanent residence visas for the United States. It was in Florida that Simenon wrote Lettre à mon juge, widely considered one of his major works.

In June 1947, the Simenons moved to Arizona. Boule joined them there in 1948, after Régine dropped her objections to Simenon's desire to have a wife and two lovers in his household. Simenon continued to write quickly, working from 6 am to 9 am daily, and averaging 4,500 words a day. While in Arizona, Simenon wrote two Maigret novels and several romans durs (hard novels) including La neige était sale (The Snow Was Dirty) (1948), one of his major works. The 1951 American paperback edition of this novel sold 2 million copies.

Denyse became pregnant in early 1949, and Simenon asked Régine for a divorce. Denyse gave birth to Jean Dennis Chrétien Simenon (known as John) on 29 September. Régine had moved to California with Marc and Boule, and Simenon, Denyse and the baby soon moved to Carmel-by-the-Sea where they would be close to Marc. The divorce was granted in Nevada on 21 June 1950. Simenon married Denyse the following day.

The newly-weds moved to Lakeville, Connecticut  and also rented a house in nearby Salmon Creek for Régine, Marc and Boule. In the five years he lived in Connecticut, Simenon wrote 13 Maigret novels and 14 romans durs including the major works La mort de Belle (Belle) (1952) and L'horloger d'Everton (The Watchmaker of Everton) (1954).

While living in Connecticut, Simenon's book sales increased to an estimated 3 million a year, and he was elected president of the Mystery Writers of America. Simenon and Denyse made two trips to Europe, in 1952 and 1954. On the 1952 trip, Simenon was admitted to the Royal Belgian Academy. In February 1953, Denyse gave birth to a daughter, Marie-Georges Simenon (known as Marie-Jo). By this time, Boule had moved in with Denyse and Simenon and had resumed her position as his lover.

By 1955, Simenon had become disillusioned with America and concerned that Denyse, who wanted to live in Europe, was becoming more distant from him. In March, Simenon, Denyse and Boule left for a European holiday and were never to return to live in America.

Return to Europe, 1955–1989

The Simenons took up residence in France at Mougins, near Cannes, while Régine and Marc lived in a hotel nearby. Simenon wrote two Maigret novels and two romans durs during his first six months on the French Riviera, but was still searching for a permanent home. In July 1957, the Simenons and Boule moved to the Château d'Echandens near Lausanne, Switzerland, and were to remain there for seven years.

In May 1959, Denyse gave birth to a son, Pierre, who soon became seriously ill but survived a difficult first year. In December 1961, Simenon and Denyse employed Teresa Sburelin, a young Italian woman, as a maid. Teresa soon became Simenon's lover and was to remain his companion for the rest of his life.

Simenon continued to produce novels at a rate of three to five a year at Enchandens, including two of his most notable, Le président (The Premier) (1958) and Les anneaux de Bicêtre (The Patient) (1963).

However, the relationship between Denyse and Simenon was deteriorating. They were both drinking heavily and Simenon admitted that he had hit her. In June 1962, Denyse was persuaded to admit herself to a mental health clinic for several months. In 1961 the Simenons had decided to build a new house at Epalinges in the heights above Lausanne. The house was completed in December 1963, but Denyse lived there for only a few months before returning to the clinic.

Denyse left Epalinges for the last time in April 1964. In November, Simenon dismissed Boule who went to live with Marc who was now married with children.

Although Simenon never divorced Denyse, he was now living with his companion Teresa and three of his children: John, Marie-Jo, and Pierre. He continued to work steadily, completing three to four books a year from 1965 to 1971, including the important works Le petit saint (The Little Saint) (1965) and Le chat (The Cat) (1967).

In February 1973, Simenon announced that he was retiring from writing. A few months later, he and Teresa moved into a small house in Lausanne. He  produced no new fiction from that date, but he dictated 21 volumes of memoirs.

In May 1978, Simenon's daughter, Marie-Jo, killed herself in Paris at the age of 25. In his final volume of memoirs, Mémoires intimes (Intimate memoirs) (1981), he wrote, "One never recovers from the loss of a daughter one has cherished. It leaves a void that nothing can fill."

Simenon underwent a brain operation in 1984, but made a full recovery. From late 1988 he was confined to a wheelchair. He died on 4 September 1989, following a fall.

Works and critical reception
Simenon's published works include 192 novels written under his own name, over 200 novels written under various pseudonyms, four autobiographies and 21 volumes of memoirs. He also wrote a large quantity of short fiction. His novels had sold over 500 million copies by the time of his death, making him one of the highest selling novelists in history.

Simenon's fiction is often classified into his early pseudonymous popular novels, the last of which was written in 1933; his fiction featuring police commissioner Jules Maigret (75 novels and 28 short stories); and his 117 literary novels which he called romans durs ("hard novels").

Maigret novels

The first Maigret novel published under Simenon's name was Pietr-le-Letton (Pietr the Latvian) which was serialised in 1930. The last Maigret novel was Maigret et M. Charles (Maigret and Monsieur Charles) published in 1972.

The early Maigret novels generally received positive reviews and were acknowledged as an attempt to raise the standard of the French crime novel. Several critics, however, made fun of the speed with which they were written. Le Canard Enchaîné told its readers, "Monsieur Georges Simenon makes his living by killing someone every month and then discovering the murderer."The Maigret stories are characterised by their short length, simple writing style and a deliberately restricted vocabulary (which Simenon estimated was limited to 2000 words). Simenon stated that his Maigret novels were designed to be read by people of average education in a single sitting.

Patrick Marnham, Scott Bradfield and others state that the early Maigrets were innovative because the detective doesn't hunt for clues or use deduction to find the guilty party, but rather immerses himself in the life and environment of the victim and suspected criminal. In most cases, Maigret seeks to understand the criminal rather than judge him.

Simenon stated that his Maigret stories often deal with more serious themes that those of his other novels. Recurrent themes include political influence over the justice system, snobbery and class divisions, and the role of social background and pure chance in determining whether an individual becomes a criminal or a respected member of society.

Marnham, Fenton Besler and others have pointed out that the plots of the Maigret novels are often implausible and internally inconsistent. However, critics have praised Simenon's ability to concisely evoke the atmosphere of a particular place and to provide insights into human psychology. Referring to The Saint-Fiacre Affair, John Banville wrote, "The story is silly, as usual, but the evocation of the little town and its people makes such considerations irrelevant."

Romans durs ("hard novels")
Simenon suspended his writing of Maigret stories in 1933 in order to concentrate on the literary novels he called romans durs. In 1937 he stated that his aim was to win the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1947.

Simenon defined the novel as, "a passion which completely possesses and enslaves the writer and permits him to exorcise his demons by giving them form and casting them out into the world." His novels were about "the naked man, the one who looks at himself in the mirror while shaving and has no illusions about himself."

Michel Lemoine has elaborated on this, stating, "There is hardly a character in all the Simenon canon who does not ask, 'Who am I? What have I done with my life?"Biographer Fenton Besler described the roman durs as "psychological thrillers...in which he explores the darkest corners of the human mind and, in tautly written prose, creates an atmosphere which is sinister and entirely his own." According to Besler, it doesn't matter whether Simenon's novels are set in France, Africa, Tahiti or America, the characters live the same traumas and despair, only "with their problems and anxieties accentuated by the local setting."

Biographer Patrick Marnham states that Simenon's earliest romans durs contain many of Simenon's typical themes: the street life of Paris, prostitution, the drudgery of domestic servants and shop assistants, police corruption and the hope of escape represented by railway stations. He compares Simenon's preoccupation with the "little people" with that of Balzac. According to Marnham, there is also a strong autobiographical strain in his fiction, where events which Simenon had experienced were lightly fictionalised and then taken to a social, criminal or psychological extreme.

Simenon's romans durs soon gained a high reputation among other writers, with Max Jacob, François Mauriac and André Gide among his admirers. Nevertheless, the academic and critical reception of his novels in France and the United States was mixed, which Ralph Ingersoll, Brendan Gill and Gilbert Sigaux have attributed to suspicion about their popularity and the speed with which they were written.

Simenon's most acclaimed novels include Monsieur Hire's Engagement (1933), The Man who Watched the Trains Go By (1938),  Monsieur Monde Vanishes (1945), Act of Passion (1947), The Snow was Dirty (1948),  Red Lights (1953), and The Little Saint (1967).

Honours and legacy

 President of the Mystery Writers of America (1952)
 Member of Royal Academy of French Language and Literature of Belgium (1952)
 Chevalier de la Légion d'honneur (1955)
 Honorary Member of American Academy of Arts and Letters (1971)

In 2003, the collection La Pléiade published 21 of Simenon's novels in two volumes. The novels were selected by Professor Jacques Dubois, President of the Centre for Georges Simenon Studies at the Université de Liège, and his assistant Benoît Denis, both experts on Simenon. A third volume of 8 novels and two autobiographical works was published in 2009.

Partial bibliography
French title and year of first publication is given first, followed by English translations where applicable. Unless otherwise specified, the sources for the French title and publication date is Patrick Marnham, and Michel Carly in Tout Maigret.The source for English translations is Patrick Marnham, Barry Forshaw, and Penguin UK.

Maigret novels

 Pietr-le-Letton (serialised 1930). Translations: The Strange Case of Peter the Lett. Tr. Anthony Abbot. 1933; Maigret and the Enigmatic Lett. Tr. Daphne Woodward. 1963;
 M. Gallet, décédé (1931). Translations: The Death of Monsieur Gallet. Tr. Anthony Abbot. 1932.; Maigret Stonewalled. Tr. Margaret Marshall. 1963;
 Le pendu de St Pholien (1931). Translations: The Crime of Inspector Maigret. Tr. Anthony Abbot. 1932; Maigret and the Hundred Gibbets. Tr. Tony White. 1963;
 Le charretier de La Providence (1931). Translations:  The Crime at Lock 14. Tr. Anthony Abbot. 1934; Maigret Meets a Milord. Tr. Robert Baldick. 1963; Lock 14. Tr. Robert Baldick. 2003;
 Le chien jaune (1931). Translations: A Face for a Clue. Tr. Geoffrey Sainsbury. 1939; Maigret and the Yellow Dog. Tr. Linda Asher. 1987;
 La guinguette à deux sous (1931). Translations: The Guinguette by the Seine. Tr. Geoffrey Sainsbury. 1940; The Bar on the Seine. Tr. David Watson. 2003;
 La tête d'un homme (1931). Translations: A Battle of Nerves. Tr. Geoffrey Sainsbury. 1939;
 L'affaire Saint-Fiacre (1932). Translations: Maigret and the Countess. Tr. Margaret Ludwig. 1940; Maigret Goes Home. Tr. Robert Baldick. 1967;
 Liberty Bar (1932). Translations: Liberty Bar. Tr. Geoffrey Sainsbury. 1940; Maigret on the Riviera. Tr. Geoffrey Sainsbury. 1988;
 Cécile est morte (1942). Translations: Maigret and the Spinster. Tr. Eileen Ellenbogen. 1977;
 Les caves du Majestic (1942). Translations: Maigret and the Hotel Majestic. Tr. Caroline Hillier. 1977;
 L'inspecteur Cadavre (1944). Translations: Maigret's Rival. Tr. Helen Thomson. 1979.;
 Mon ami Maigret (1949). Translations: My Friend Maigret. Tr. Nigel Ryan. 1956.;
 L'amie de Mme Maigret (1950). Translations: Madame Maigret's Own Case. Tr. Helen Sebba. 1959;
 Les mémoires de Maigret (1951). Translations: Maigret's Memoirs. Tr. Jean Stewart. 1963.;
 Maigret et l'homme du banc (1953). Translations: Maigret and the Man on the Boulevard. Tr. Eileen Ellenbogen. 1975;
 Maigret s'amuse (1957). Translations: Maigret's Little Joke. Tr. Richard Brain. 1957;
 Les scrupules de Maigret (1958). Translations: Maigret Has Scruples. Tr. Robert Eglesfield. 1959;
 Maigret aux assises (1960). Translations: Maigret in Court. Tr. Robert Brain. 1961;
 Maigret et le voleur paresseux (1961). Translations: Maigret and the Lazy Burglar. Tr. Daphne Woodward. 1963;
 Maigret et les braves gens (1962). Translations: Maigret and the Black Sheep. Tr. Helen Thomson. 1975;
 Maigret et le clochard (1963). Translations: Maigret and the Bum. Tr. Jean Stewart. 1973;
 Maigret et le fantôme (1964). Translations: Maigret and the Apparition. Tr. Eileen Ellenbogen. 1974;
 Maigret à Vichy (1968). Translations: Maigret Takes the Waters. Tr. Eileen Ellenbogen. 1969;
 L'ami d'enfance de Maigret (1968); translation: Maigret's Boyhood Friend. Tr. Eileen Ellenbogen. 1970;
 Maigret et M. Charles (1972). Translations: Maigret and Monsieur Charles. Tr. Marianne Alexandre Sinclair. 1973;

Romans durs

 Les Fiançailles de M. Hire (1933). Translations: The Engagement. Tr. Anna Moschovakis. New York Review Books (NYRB) Classics. 2007;
 L'Âne rouge (1933). Translations: The Night Club. Tr. Jean Stewart. London: Hamish Hamilton. 1979.
 Le coup de lune (1933). Translations: Tropic Moon. Tr. Stuart Gilbert. 1940; Tropic Moon. Tr. Marc Romano. NYRB Classics. 2005.
 Les gens d'en face (1933). Translations: The Window Over the Way. Tr. Robert Baldick. 1966.;
 L'homme de Londres (1933). Translations:
 Le testament Donadieu (1937). Translations: The Shadow Falls. Tr. Stuart Gilbert. London: George Routledge & Sons. 1945.
 L'homme qui regardait passer les trains (1938). Translations: The Man Who Watched the Trains Go By. Tr. Marc Romano. NYRB Classics. 2005.;
 Chez Krull (1939). Translations:
 Les inconnus dans la maison (1940). Translations: The Strangers in the House. Tr. Geoffrey Sainsbury. NYRB Classics. 2006;
 Le voyageur de la Toussaint (1941). Translations: Strange Inheritance. Tr. Geoffrey Sainsbury. London: Routledge. 1950
 La veuve Couderc (1942). Translations: The Widow. Tr. John Petrie. NYRB Classics. 2008;
 La fuite de M. Monde (1945). Translations: Monsieur Monde Vanishes. Tr. Jean Stewart. NYRB Classics. 2004.
 Trois chambres à Manhattan (1945). Translations: Three Bedrooms in Manhattan. Tr. Marc Romano and Lawrence G. Blochman, NYRB Classics. 2003;
 Lettre à mon juge (1947). Translations:
 La neige était sale (1948). Translations: Dirty Snow. Tr. Marc Romano, NYRB Classics. 2003;
 Pedigree (1948). Translations: Pedigree. Tr. Robert Baldick, NYRB Classics. 2010. .
 Le fond de la bouteille (1949). Translations: The Bottom of the Bottle. Tr. Cornelia Schaeffer, New York: Signet. 1954.; London: Hamish Hamilton. 1977.
 Les volets verts (1950). Translations: The Heart of a Man. Tr. Louise Varèse. US: Prentice Hall. 1951.
 L'enterrement de Monsieur Bouvet (1950). Translations: Inquest on Bouvet. Tr. Eugene MacCown. UK: Penguin Crime. 1958.
 Feux rouges (1953). Translations: Red Lights. Tr. Norman Denny. NYRB Classics. 2006. .
 L'horloger d'Everton (1954). Translations: The Watchmender of Everton. Tr. Norman Denny, London: Hamish Hamilton. 1955.
 Le grand Bob (1954). Translations: Big Bob. Tr. Eileen M. Lowe. London: Hamish Hamilton. 1954.
 La boule noire (1955). Translations: The Rules of the Game. Tr. Howard Curtis. London: Hamish Hamilton. 1989.
 Le petit homme d'Arkhangelsk (1956). Translations:
 Le président (1958). Translations: The Premier. UK: Penguin.1961; The President. Tr. Daphne Woodward. Melville House Publishing. 2012. )
 Le veufe (1959). Translations: The Widower. Tr. Robert Baldick, London: Hamish Hamilton. 1961.
 Betty (1961). Translations:
 Le train (1961). Translations: The Train. Tr. Robert Baldick. Melville House. 2011.
 Les anneaux de Bicêtre (1963). Translations: The Patient. Tr. Jean Stewart, London: Hamish Hamilton. 1963; The Bells of Bicêtre. US: Harcourt, Brace & World. 1964.
 Le petit saint (1965). Translations: The Little Saint. Tr. Bernard Frechtman. US: Harcourt, Brace & World, US. 1965.
 Le chat (1967). Translations: The Cat. Tr. Bernard Frechtman, London: Hamish Hamilton. 1972.
 La prison (1968). Translations: The Prison. Tr. Lyn Moir. US: Harcourt, Brace & World. 1969.
 La main (1968). Translations: The Man on the Bench in the Barn. Tr. Moura Budberg. 1969;
 La disparition d'Odile (1971). Translations: The Disappearance of Odile. Tr. Lyn Moir, London: Hamish Hamilton. 1972.

Film adaptations
Simenon's work has been widely adapted to cinema and television. He is credited on at least 171 productions. Notable films include:
Night at the Crossroads (La nuit du carrefour, France, 1932), written and directed by Jean Renoir, starring Pierre Renoir as Maigret
The Yellow Dog (Le chien jaune, France, 1932), directed by Jean Tarride, starring Abel Tarride as Maigret
A Man's Neck (France, 1933), directed by Julien Duvivier, starring Harry Baur as Maigret
La Maison des sept jeunes filles (France, 1942), directed by Albert Valentin
Annette and the Blonde Woman (Annette et la dame blonde, France, 1942), adapted by Henri Decoin, directed by Jean Dréville
The Strangers in the House (Les inconnus dans la maison, France, 1942), adapted by Henri-Georges Clouzot & Henri Decoin, directed by Henri Decoin
Monsieur La Souris (France, 1942), directed by Georges Lacombe
Picpus (France, 1943), directed by Richard Pottier, starring Albert Préjean as Maigret
Strange Inheritance (Le voyageur de la Toussaint, France, 1943), adapted from Strange Inheritance, directed by Louis Daquin
The Man from London (L'Homme de Londres, France, 1943), directed by Henri Decoin
Cecile Is Dead (Cécile est morte, France 1944), adapted by Jean-Paul Le Chanois & Michel Duran, directed by Maurice Tourneur, starring Albert Préjean as Maigret
Majestic Hotel Cellars (Les caves du Majestic, France, 1945), directed by Richard Pottier, starring Albert Préjean as Maigret
Panic (Panique, France, 1946), adapted from Les fiançailles de M. Hire, directed by Julien Duvivier
Temptation Harbour (UK, 1947), adapted from L'homme de Londres (Newhaven-Dieppe), directed by Lance Comfort
Last Refuge (Dernier Refuge, France, 1947), adapted from Le locataire, directed by Marc Maurette
The Man on the Eiffel Tower (1949), adapted from La tête d'un homme, directed by Burgess Meredith, starring Charles Laughton as Maigret
La Marie du port (France, 1950), directed by Marcel Carné
Midnight Episode (UK, 1950), adapted from Monsieur La Souris, directed by Gordon Parry
La Vérité sur Bébé Donge (France, 1952), directed by Henri Decoin
 (France, 1952), anthology film, directed by Henri Verneuil, starring Michel Simon as Maigret
Forbidden Fruit (Le Fruit défendu, France, 1952), directed by Henri Verneuil
The Man Who Watched Trains Go By (UK, 1952), adapted from L'Homme qui regardait passer les trains, directed by Harold French
La neige était sale (France, 1953), directed by Luis Saslavsky
Maigret dirige l'enquête (France, 1956), adapted from Cécile est morte, directed by Stany Cordier, starring Maurice Manson as Maigret
A Life in the Balance (1955), adapted from Sept petites croix dans un carnet, directed by Harry Horner and Rafael Portillo
The Bottom of the Bottle (1956), adapted from Le fond de la bouteille, directed by Henry Hathaway
Le Sang à la tête (France, 1956), adapted from Le Fils Cardinaud, directed by Gilles Grangier and starring Jean Gabin
The Brothers Rico (1957), directed by Phil Karlson
Maigret Sets a Trap (Maigret tend un piège, France, 1958), written and directed by Jean Delannoy, starring Jean Gabin as Maigret, Edgar Award for Best Foreign Film from the Mystery Writers of America in 1959
The Stowaway (Australia, 1958), adapted from Le passager clandestin, directed by Lee Robinson and Ralph Habib
In Case of Adversity (En cas de malheur, France, 1958), directed by Claude Autant-Lara
Maigret et l'affaire Saint-Fiacre (France, 1959), written and directed by Jean Delannoy, starring Jean Gabin as Maigret
Le Baron de l'écluse (France, 1960), directed by Jean Delannoy and starring Jean Gabin
Maigret (UK, TV series, 51 episodes, 1960–1963), starring Rupert Davies as Maigret
The President (Le Président, France, 1961), directed by Henri Verneuil and starring Jean Gabin
The Passion of Slow Fire (La mort de Belle, France, 1961), directed by Édouard Molinaro
Emile's Boat (Le bateau d'Émile, France, 1962), directed by Denys de La Patellière
Maigret voit rouge (France, 1963), adapted from Maigret, Lognon et les gangsters, directed by Gilles Grangier, starring Jean Gabin as Maigret
Magnet of Doom (L'aîné des Ferchaux, France, 1963), directed by Jean-Pierre Melville
Le inchieste del commissario Maigret (Italy, TV series, 16 episodes, 1964–1972), starring Gino Cervi as Maigret
Three Rooms in Manhattan (Trois chambres à Manhattan, France, 1965), directed by Marcel Carné
 (West Germany, 1966), adapted from La Danseuse du Gai-Moulin, directed by Alfred Weidenmann, starring Heinz Rühmann as Maigret
Maigret a Pigalle (Italy, 1966), adapted from Maigret au "Picratt's", directed by Mario Landi, starring Gino Cervi as Maigret
Stranger in the House (UK, 1967), adapted from Les inconnus dans la maison, directed by Pierre Rouve
Les enquêtes du commissaire Maigret (France, TV series, 88 episodes, 1967–1990), starring Jean Richard as Maigret
Le chat (France, 1971), directed by Pierre Granier-Deferre
The Widow Couderc (La veuve Couderc, France, 1971), directed by Pierre Granier-Deferre
The Train (Le train, France, 1971), directed by Pierre Granier-Deferre
The Clockmaker (L'horloger de Saint-Paul, France, 1974), directed by Bertrand Tavernier
Armchair Cinema: The Prison (Euston Films/Thames Television, 1974), adapted from "La prison"
 (West Germany, 1979), directed by Ottokar Runze
L'Étoile du Nord (France, 1982), directed by Pierre Granier-Deferre
The Hatter's Ghost (Les Fantômes du Chapelier, France, 1982), written and directed by Claude Chabrol
Équateur (France, 1983), written and directed by Serge Gainsbourg
Monsieur Hire (France, 1989), written and directed by Patrice Leconte
Seven Days After Murder (Azerbaijan & Russia, 1991), written by Rustam Ibragimbekov, directed by Rasim Ojagov
Maigret (France, TV series, 54 episodes, 1991–2005), starring Bruno Cremer as Maigret
Betty (France, 1992), written and directed by Claude Chabrol
El pasajero clandestino (Spain, 1995), adapted from Le passager clandestin, directed by Agustí Villaronga
La Maison du canal (France and Belgium, 2003), directed by Alain Berliner
Red Lights (France, 2004), directed by Cédric Kahn
The Man from London (Hungary, 2007), written and directed by Béla Tarr
The Blue Room (France, 2014), written and directed by Mathieu Amalric
La boule Noire (France, 2014), directed by Denis Malleval
Maigret (UK, TV series, since 2016), starring Rowan Atkinson as Maigret
Maigret (France, 2022), directed by Patrice Leconte and featuring Gérard Dépardieu as Maigret

Stage adaptations
The Red Barn, written by David Hare and based on the novel La Main (English title The Man on the Bench in the Barn). Directed by Robert Icke at the Lyttelton Theatre, London, in October 2016.

References

Further reading
 Wenger, Murielle, and Stephen Trussel, Maigret's World: A Reader's Companion to Simenon's Famous Detective (McFarland, 2017).

Biographies

External links

Centre d'études Georges Simenon et Fonds Simenon de l'Université de Liège

Simenon's Inspector Maigret - Includes complete bibliography and English translation checklist
Simenon at New York Review of Books
Simenon's Estate at Peters Fraser & Dunlop
Simenon - All Works (french)
Georges Simenon UK - official author website

1903 births
1989 deaths
Writers from Liège
Belgian mystery writers
Belgian writers in French
Edgar Award winners
Belgian crime fiction writers
20th-century Belgian novelists
Belgian male novelists
Psychological fiction writers
Belgian people of Dutch descent
Belgian people of German descent
People from Lakeville, Connecticut
Members of the Académie royale de langue et de littérature françaises de Belgique

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


Tomorrow is my first day of school. I feel like summer vacation passed so quickly. Over summer vacation my family went to Camp Seafarer. I really miss the combination that first grade had. My teacher is Ms. Vevjoda. I'm really excited about going into second grade. I can't believe that this is the fourth school I've been to. I really miss the traditional classrooms. I really hope that I get work that's on my level at least once or twice. I hardly got any work on my level last time I was in montessori. In your class, a lot more work was at my level than in montessori.
Mr. Dodyk answered him later in the evening.
It is so wonderful to hear from you. I always appreciate when students reach out to say hello! I wish you the best of luck on your first day tomorrow. I know how scary it can be starting at a new school, but you are lucky to have some good friends in your class. Working together with classmates and sharing ideas is a wonderful way for you to challenge yourself and discover wonderful new ideas that you would like to learn about. Sometimes, when you tell your teacher what you would like to do, she can make that come true. Thank you again for contacting me and I know you will do great this year!
John is going to second grade. He has lots of friends in his class – Elijah, Webb, and August. "This is my fourth school in four years," he told us. That is true. He went to Beth-El for three years, but since then, we've moved him twice. I'm hoping that he is at Watts for the rest of elementary school. It just depends on how he handles the Montessori curriculum. Montessori gives students more freedom. This is a public school, so they still have to meet the NCLB standards, but there is still plenty of latitude. This is also going to be a classroom where he'll have plenty of competition.
John came home happy. Susie asked him to rank his day, 1 to 100. "It was a 99 1/2," he said. The subject today was finding a Peace Arrangement. John suggested two rules: have respect for other people's ideas, and have respect for other people's bodies. Other rules were also put forward: no kissing, and everybody should share. When I was putting him down for bed, he said "I really like my school. I really like my room." Good.
Rosie was mixed. I often think she puts on a face when she's feeling insecure. She furrows her brow, makes a fist, and stamps her feet. It's a big show for a little girl. I know Rosie is going to love school. School is meant for people like her – careful, deliberate, purposeful.
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We have seen Kim Ottolenghi, PNP since our youngest was born 3 years ago. She has always been caring and compassionate, thorough and full of knowledge. She goes the extra mile to answer any and all questions. She has years of experience and it shows in everything she does. She remembers details about our family and is genuinely interested in supporting us as we journey through parenting. We often recommend her to our family and friends and we hope to share many more years with her as our kids continue to grow. We also feel like the front desk and back office staff is warm and welcoming.The office is small enough that you feel like you know everyone that works there. We would highly recommend this practice.


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Category: Preparedness
Tornado Preparedness? In December? Yep!
Hi friends. For those who might not be aware, the STM team is actually now based in two different areas – the Northeast, where we were founded, and the Southeast, where one of our team members now lives! Unsurprisingly, we now deal with very different weather-related issues. For example, at the time of this writing, I know that those of you living in New York are dealing with a winter storm all day today (December 17). On the other hand, yesterday I was able to go for a run in a tank top because the high temperature in my town was 75 degrees! Unfortunately, no location is perfect, and the southeast is known for it's secondary severe weather season beginning in the late fall, sometimes lasting through early winter. In fact, on December 16, 2000, a powerful EF-4 tornado tore through Tuscaloosa County, killing 11 and injuring over 100. The tornado was on the ground for 18 miles, all within Tuscaloosa County. The tornado path was estimated to be 750 yards wide at its maximum intensity. Although the warnings were excellent for this tornado, the public perception still wasn't where it should be.
Damage to houses from the December 16, 2000 tornado.
Continue reading "Tornado Preparedness? In December? Yep!"
This week has been designated as Winter Weather Awareness Week in New York, and several other states across the country. Some states, such as Colorado, have already had their campaign for winter weather, while other states – such as Alabama, have a few weeks to go before their campaign kicks off. However, this is a great refresher for anyone to prepare for the upcoming season!
Continue reading "Winter Weather Preparedness"
This is it. We are in the peak of hurricane season. So far, we have had 12 named storms. We all know to prepare for and be wary of strong hurricanes, but even "weak" tropical systems can wreak just as much havoc. It's important to remember that a tropical system's strength is categorized solely by wind speed, but that flooding associated with a system (regardless of winds) can cause catastrophic impacts as well.
Continue reading "Turn Around, Don't Drown"
Fall Weather Safety
At the time of this writing, I am enjoying a beautiful train ride along the Hudson River between New York City and Albany. Although the sun is shining and temperatures are in the 70s, some early hints of fall color are showing up on the Catskills to the west. Fall typically is not a time when most of us have 'hazardous weather' on our minds, especially here in the northeast U.S. where fall can be one of the most idyllic times of year. However, weather hazards can present themselves in any season, and fall is no exception.
Continue reading "Fall Weather Safety"
Hurricane Dorian: A study in hurricane impacts
At the time of this writing on Tuesday, September 2, Hurricane Dorian is currently bringing heavy rain, winds and storm surge to the Bahamas as it makes its slow trek towards the eastern U.S. coastline. This storm has proven to be very difficult to forecast, in part because of its rapid intensification and slow speed. Let's look back and see how this dangerous situation evolved and where the forecast impacts are expected in the next 3-5 days.
Satellite imagery of Hurricane Dorian over the Bahamas, September 1, 2019.
Continue reading "Hurricane Dorian: A study in hurricane impacts"
National Parks and Severe Weather
At this point in midsummer, it is hard NOT to have the outdoor bug, and many of us in the U.S. will head to our National Parks to enjoy the outdoors in a variety of ways. Did you know that Yellowstone was the first National Park, established in 1872? President Theodore Roosevelt (1901-1909) is possibly the most well-known supporter of the development of the National Park System; during his terms in office, the number of National Parks doubled. The legislation known as the Antiquities Act, which he signed into law, gave him and future presidents the ability to declare historic landmarks and national monuments, many of which are part of the National Park System today. At our wide array of National Parks, Seashores, Reserves, Battlefields, Monuments, and Historic Sites, visitors can learn about the history and culture of our country, as well as enjoy and appreciate the huge variety of climates and beautiful scenery that exist in the United States.
Canyonlands National Park. Credit: NPS/Neal Herbert.
Continue reading "National Parks and Severe Weather"
Gulf of Mexico Tropical Disturbance/DC Floods/Flood Safety
You may have heard on the news this week that there is a potential tropical system which is forecast to form in the Gulf of Mexico over the next day or two. Satellite imagery shows a broad area of convection over the Florida panhandle and southern Alabama. This convection will be drifting slowly westward over the northern Gulf of Mexico.
Continue reading "Gulf of Mexico Tropical Disturbance/DC Floods/Flood Safety"
This Week's Roundup of Interesting Weather Stories
A massive plume of dust from the Sahara Desert has made its way all the way across the Atlantic Ocean into the Caribbean and the southeast United States! Known as the Saharan Air Layer (SAL), this very dry mass of dusty air normally forms over the Sahara Desert between late spring through early fall and moves out over the North Atlantic Ocean every 3-5 days. The SAL can cover an area as large as the size of the continental United States (!), and extends between ~5,000-20,000 feet in the atmosphere.
This geocolor enhanced imagery was created by NOAA's partners at the Cooperative Institute for Research in the Atmosphere. Its multi-band imaging capabilities provide high-resolution visible and infrared imaging of atmospheric aerosols, such as dust and sand. Photo courtesy NOAA Environmental Visualization Laboratory.
Continue reading "This Week's Roundup of Interesting Weather Stories"
NOAA: Building A Better Future
Did you know that The National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration (NOAA) does more than forecast the weather? NOAA is a scientific agency that observes and predicts conditions in our ocean and atmosphere. From daily weather forecasts to long-term climate monitoring and from fisheries management to marine commerce, NOAA provides communities, decision-makers, and people across the country with the information they need when they need it. NOAA also understands that the agency must do more than study the ocean and atmosphere; they need to take what they learn and educate individuals, so that citizens are empowered to support their own economies by building resilient communities and healthy ecosystems. An informed society has access to, interest in, and understanding of NOAA-related sciences and their implications for current and future events.
NOAA Marine Debris Program Outreach and Communications Specialist, Asma Mahdi, shows curious zoo-visitor microplastics and explains how animals can easily mistake it for food at the Smithsonian National Zoo's World Ocean Day event. (NOAA)
Continue reading "NOAA: Building A Better Future"
Lightning Science and Safety
Did you know that Benjamin Franklin conducted his famous experiment in which he flew a kite during a thunderstorm during this week in 1752? Benjamin Franklin was looking to demonstrate the connection between lightning and electricity. In fact, we know today that lightning is a discharge of static electricity from the atmosphere. Lightning can strike from cloud-to-cloud, cloud-to-ground, and even intra-cloud (inside one cloud) discharges can occur. Let's look back into history to see how this experiment worked…
Courtesy: Franklin Institute.
Continue reading "Lightning Science and Safety"

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


text:
Visions of Vanished Worlds
Archaeological Institute of America – South FL Chapter
One of the world's most distinguished and widely distributed journals devoted to archaeology, the AJA has set the standard for archaeological scholarship since 1885.
The First Floridians:
Early Humans on the Submerged Gulf Coast of Florida
Dr. James M. Adovasio
Weaving as Worship
Reconstructing Ritual at the Etruscan Site of Poggio Colla (Vicchio)
Dr. Gretchen E. Meyers
The Da Vinci Code, Templars, and Archaeology
Dr. Michael Fuller
Out of the Dark:
Lefkandi in Euboea 1200 BC
Dr. Irene Lemos
"To strive, to seek, to find, and not to yield": Preservation of the Early Explorer's Bases in the Ross Sea Region of Antarctica
Susanne Grieve
Welcome to the South Florida Chapter of the
Archaeological Institute of America
The Archaeological Institute of America (AIA) is North America's oldest and largest organization devoted to the world of archaeology. The Institute is a nonprofit group founded in 1879 and chartered by the United States Congress in 1906. Today, the AIA has nearly 210,000 Members and more than 100 Local Societies in the United States, Canada, and overseas. AIA South Florida is one of four chapters in the state of Florida. Our members include professional archaeologists, corresponding members, students, and enthusiasts, all united by a shared passion for archaeology and its role in furthering human knowledge.
Snake Queens of Waka:
Royal Women Of The Snake Realm
Dr.Olivia C. Navarro-Farr
Associate Professor of Anthropology and Archaeology
Friday 8 PM, October 21, 2022
10300 Forest Hill Blvd., Suite 172, Wellington FL 33414
"My talk focuses on the symbolic significance of Classic Maya royal queens of the snake realm and their political power which rose prominently during the Late Classic under the auspices of that regime. Their hypogamous marriages to subordinate vassal polities throughout the southern Maya lowlands created a network of alliances that elevated the snake realm's hegemony. Utilizing the Indigenous ontology of gender complementarity as a foundational creation principle, I argue the power of these snake Queens was grounded not just in their association with that regime, but as women with the attendant implications of fecundity and reproductive power as central to their political cachet. These power domains, steeped in the potent magic of fertility, were also central to their rule as conjurers and diviners, acts of sorcery themselves metaphorically linked to birth and birth work. Orienting my position from the ancient city of Waka', I review the substantial archaeological and epigraphic data surrounding two such queens who ruled during the 6th and 7th centuries, respectively. I evaluate how these lines of evidence permit keen understanding of their governing strategies, their wielding of sacred power, and how the people they ruled ancestralized them in memory for generations to follow, cementing their legacy within Waka's social and political landscape and beyond."
Dr. Olivia C. Navarro-Farr is Associate Professor of Anthropology and Archaeology in the Department of Sociology and Anthropology and Chair of the Program in Archaeology at the College of Wooster. She teaches courses in archaeology, anthropology, and ancient Mesoamerica. She has worked in the Maya area since 1997 on projects in Belize, Mexico, and Guatemala and she currently directs research at the Proyecto Arqueológico Waka' (PAW) with Juan Carlos Pérez Calderón of San Carlos University of Guatemala and Damien Marken of Bloomsburg University of Pennsylvania. She has published in Latin American Antiquity, Feminist Anthropology, and in numerous chapters in various edited volumes. She is also co-editor (with Michelle Rich) of Archaeology at El Perú -Waka': Performances of Ritual, Memory, and Power detailing research at ancient El Perú -Waka'. She has directed investigations at Waka's primary civic-ceremonial structure (M13-1) since 2003. Her interests include the archaeology of ritual, monumental architecture, site abandonment processes, Classic Period Politics, and the role of royal women in Classic Maya statecraft.
If you would like to become a member of AIA South Florida, or just want to be notified about upcoming meetings, please send us an email through the Museum's Contact page. Not a member yet? Come join us for the 2017-18 lecture series as our guest, you are welcome!
Our award-winning popular magazine enters its seventh decade of publication committed to bringing the excitement of archaeological discovery to a popular audience.
Early Humans in the Americas:
When Did They Arrive and
Where Did They Come From?
Dr. Steven R. Holen
Atlantic Ais in the Later 17th Century: English Buccaneers, Spanish Silver, and Indigenous Divers from Florida
Endgame: The Siege of Masada
From The Roman Perspective
Dr. Gwyn Davies
The Dragons of Ancient Mexico
Dr. John Pohl
Archaeology in Palestine:
New insights into Biblical Archaeology – a view from ancient Jericho
Dr. Lorenzo Nigro
Rebooting Antiquity: How Holy Wars, Media Hype, and Digital Technologies are Changing the Face of 21st Century Archaeology
Dr. Neil Silberman
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text:
The White House, Lafayette Square and African Americans
From slavery to sit-ins
To imagine what it was like here when the White House was being constructed in the 1790s, erase everything else you see now on and around Lafayette Square. The park was a field—muddy or dusty, depending on the weather. Enslaved workers who were building the White House were housed in temporary shelters—each about 10 feet wide and 10 feet long—lined up in rows on the east and west sides of the field. Like so many buildings in early Washington, the President's House would have been very difficult to construct without enslaved labor, as the city was very sparsely populated and workers were in great demand.
The payroll to slave owners shows that the government did not own slaves, but that it did hire them from their masters. Slave carpenters Ben, Daniel, and Peter were noted as owned by James Hoban.
Some early Presidents, including Thomas Jefferson, James Madison, Andrew Jackson and James Polk, brought enslaved domestics to the White House, where they almost always lived in basement rooms. These domestics were essential to running the White House. Paul Jennings, an enslaved domestic working in the Madison household would chronicle his time in the White House in his memoir. He also helped Dolley Madison rescue the Gilbert Stuart's famous "Lansdowne portrait" of George Washington and other the valuables before the British burned the White House in 1814. By the 1850s Paul Jennings was a free man and in the 1860s was a government employee at the pension office. On August 14, 1862, Abraham Lincoln received the first group of African American leaders to visit the executive mansion. Lincoln also met with Frederick Douglass and Sojourner Truth during his time in office.
Elizabeth Hobbes Keckly, a former slave who had become a successful businesswoman in Washington and the dressmaker and confidante of First Lady Mary Todd Lincoln, also spent time in the White House during the Lincoln Presidency. Keckly described her experiences in an 1868 memoir Behind the Scenes: Thirty Years a Slave and Four Years in the White House. African Americans also came to the White House as artists and musicians. Ten-year old piano prodigy and composer Thomas Greene Bethune is believed to have been the first African American artist to perform at the White House when he played for President James Buchanan in 1860. The Fisk University Jubilee Singers were the first African American choir to sing at the White House, performing for President Chester A. Arthur in February 1882. Their program included "Safe in the Arms of Jesus," which newspaper accounts said brought the President to tears.
On October 16, 1901, Booker T. Washington was the first African American invited to dine with a President at the White House, but racial segregation was also a part of life in the White House well into the 20th century. Alonzo Fields, who worked in the White House from 1931 to 1952, experienced it first-hand. In an oral history project produced by the Smithsonian Center for Folklife and Cultural Heritage called "Workers at the White House," Fields commented on what this was like.
Jessie DePriest, 1929.
Barbara DePriest
He noted, "They had separate dining rooms – Black and White. We all worked together, but we couldn't eat together… Here in the White House, I'm working for the President. This is the home of the democracy of the world and I'm good enough to handle the President's food – to handle the President's food and do everything – but I cannot eat with the help." Another guest of honor at the White House who caused a huge uproar was Jessie DePriest, the wife of Oscar DePriest of Illinois, who in 1928 became the first African American elected to the U.S. House of Representatives in 30 years. Despite Jessie DePriest's grace and poise, many southerners objected to her presence at a White House tea hosted for the wives of congressmen. Lou Hoover also received immense criticism for her decision to invite Ms. DePriest. However, there was an outpouring of support from African American and northern newspapers who saw this simple act as an important measure of progress and the breaking of racial barriers. The Hoovers also hosted integrated garden parties for disabled veterans, which surprisingly caused little fanfare.
As the nation struggled with issues of segregation and discrimination, African American leaders including Mary McLeod Bethune, James Farmer, Dorothy Height, John Lewis, Martin Luther King, Jr. and A. Phillip Randolph, became advisers to the American Presidents.
A photograph of Civil Rights Leaders meeting with President Kennedy in the Oval Office, 1963.
John F. Kennedy Presidential Library
In July 1955, E. Frederic Morrow officially assumed the position of Administrator of Special Projects on the staff of President Dwight Eisenhower and dealt with a tidal wave of change as the civil rights movement started.
In 1964, little more than a century after Lincoln received the first group of African Americans visitors to the White House, Martin Luther King, Jr. and other African American leaders came to the White House to see President Lyndon Johnson sign the Civil Rights Act guaranteeing equal access to public places and outlawing discrimination.
The 1960s also saw important civil rights protests in and around Lafayette Square. On March 11, 1965, following brutal attacks on demonstrators in Selma, Alabama four days earlier, protesters stopped traffic in front of the White House by lying down across Pennsylvania Avenue and at least two small sit-ins by protesters took place inside the White House.
Twelve protesters stage a civil rights sit-in at the White House on March 11, 1965.
LBJ Library photo by Cecil Stoughton
The post-civil rights era saw more political appointments and greater access to the White House for African Americans as the joined as prominent members of the President's staff. Robert C. Weaver, a veteran of the civil rights movement and a former member of President Franklin Roosevelt's "Black Cabinet" (an informal group of African American public policy advisers), became the first secretary of housing and development in January 1966 and was the first African American to serve in a cabinet position.
Robert J. Brown, a White House staff member, worked closely with President Nixon to address racial inequities by strengthening anti-discriminatory laws and promoting historically black colleges and universities. During the administration of George W. Bush, Colin Powell became the first African American to become secretary of state and Condoleezza Rice and became the first African American woman to hold the position.
On January 20, 2009, Barack Obama became the first African American President and was re-elected in 2012. Desiree Rogers joined First Lady Michelle Obama's staff as first African American woman to be social secretary, and Angela Reid became the second African American to work as Chief Usher, after Rear Admiral Stephen Rochon's service as Chief Usher during the George W. Bush administration.
Booker T. Washington Dines with President Theodore Roosevelt
President Eisenhower's Meeting with Civil Rights Leaders
Fisk Jubilee Singers Perform at the White House
Piano Prodigy Thomas "Blind Tom" Greene Bethune's Performance
Next Protest at the People's House
Collection Protest at the People's House
For more than a century, thousands of Americans have gathered in Lafayette Park across from the White House to exercise...
Podcast Our Work and Recent Events: A Q&A with David M. Rubenstein
In this special episode of The 1600 Sessions, financier and philanthropist David Rubenstein interviews White House Historical Association President Stewart McLaurin...
Collection The Working White House
For more than two centuries, the White House has been the home of American presidents. A powerful symbol of the...
Podcast Life on Lafayette Square
For more than two hundred years, Lafayette Square has been home to a wide variety of historical figures, from diplomats...
Collection Eleanor Roosevelt's "My Day"
The White House Historical Association and the Eleanor Roosevelt Papers Project present this collaboration in an effort to open a...
Collection The President's Neighborhood
Since the White House was first occupied by President John Adams in 1800, influential people and organizations—or those who hoped to...
Collection An Artist Visits the White House Past
From its construction in 1792, until the 1902 renovation that shaped the modern identity and functions of the interior of the White...
Collection The Historic Stephen Decatur House
In 1816, Commodore Stephen Decatur, Jr. and his wife Susan moved to the nascent capital city of Washington, D.C. With...
Collection Holiday Cheer at the White House
The White House observance of Christmas before the twentieth century was not an official event. First families decorated the house...
Podcast Decatur House, the President's Neighbor
For two hundred years, Decatur House has stood as a near neighbor to the White House across Lafayette Square. Stewart...
Collection Women and the White House
While there has yet to be a female president, women have played an integral role in shaping the White House...


A Bride for the Season releases November 25, and I'm celebrating all week! I'll be stopping by the blogs listed below, sharing book excerpts, answering your questions, and giving away lots of books.
An Indie Adventure – Spilling the beans on 5 secrets about A Bride for the Season!
Posted in Uncategorized | Comments Off on It's Finally Here!
I'm giving away 10 autographed copies of A Lady Most Lovely on Goodreads. Enter before October 1. Enjoy!
Giveaway ends October 01, 2014.
Posted in Uncategorized | Comments Off on Another Giveaway!


A Bitcoin (virtual currency) paper wallet with QR codes and a coin are seen in an illustration picture taken at La Maison du Bitcoin in Paris, France May 27, 2015.
Bitcoin is in the news again after Friday's worldwide ransomware attack. The malicious software locks down victims' computers and refuses to grant them access to their files unless they agree to pay at least $300 in bitcoin. Which may have you wondering: What is bitcoin? And why do the attackers want payment in that currency?
Here's a refresher on bitcoin and how it's connected to the ongoing security issue.
A: Bitcoin is a kind of digital currency. You can buy it with dollars and euros, just like you can trade any other currency. You store it in an online "wallet." And with that wallet, you can spend bitcoin online and in the physical world for goods and services. Even PayPal supports bitcoin.
And, of course, bitcoin has a valuation, which you may have heard about because bitcoin's price has fluctuated up and down.
Q: What's different about bitcoin?
A: Usually if you pay for something on the internet, you use a credit or debit card. That card is connected to information about you, such as your name and billing address.
You can use bitcoin the same way, but unlike a credit card, the transactions you make using the currency are completely anonymous. They can't be used to identify you personally. Instead, whenever you trade in bitcoin, you use a so-called private key associated with your wallet to generate a bit of code — called an address — that is then publicly associated with your transaction but with no personal identifying information. And in that way, every transaction is recorded and securely signed in an open ledger that anyone can read and double-check.
Q: So you can use bitcoin to protect your privacy. Is that why the WannaCry attackers picked bitcoin as a form of payment?
A: Possibly. Bitcoin has certainly gained prominence in the press as a technology that can facilitate crime. But just because the identities of people in a bitcoin transaction may be hidden, the public ledger has increasingly helped law enforcement trace the movement of bitcoins from place to place.
The Justice Department has successfully prosecuted online criminal operations that used bitcoin. In 2013, the U.S. government arrested Ross Ulbricht, the founder of a major underground drug market, and seized more than $3.5 million worth of bitcoin. Two undercover FBI agents associated with the investigation were later accused of stealing some of that currency.
Q: Could law enforcement wind up doing something similar with WannaCry?
Q: How much money have the attackers collected?
A: So far, it looks to be about $55,000, according to a bot designed by the news site Quartz that is tracking the amount of money in the attackers' wallets.
Considering that Europol, the European Union law enforcement agency, has said that more than 200,000 computers have been infected with the malware, that doesn't seem like a lot of money. Still, the value of a single bitcoin has risen steadily in recent years. Hours before WannaCry began spreading last week, the price of one bitcoin hit an all-time high of $1,830. Some analysts predict that it could break $3,000 by year's end — though the price fell by $200 after the attack was revealed.
In light of how cheaply and easily hackers can push out ransomware, winning even a handful of bitcoins and holding onto them for a while could make the cyberthieves a large sum of money.


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Q: Array in an Enumeration I am wondering if it is possible to have a dynamic enumeration.
Explanation: I have a function to add errors to an error log in ms access. The categories in my Enum variable are all in a table. If I use the function and enum as depicted below, it works just fine. The problem is however, that there is a possibility that the categories will change with time.
Enum category
    Category1 = 1
    Category2 = 2
    etc...    = n
End Enum

Public Function AddError(Current_order_ID As Long, Optional Error_Category As category)
'Add the error to the log
End Function

I have noticed that using DLookups and recordsets and actually everything in general will not work. While compiling, it throws an 'Invalid inside Enum'. Consulting MSDN gives me the following information: You tried to specify a string or some other invalid type as the value of an Enum member. The constant expression used to specify an Enum member must evaluate to type Long or another Enum type.
This tells me that an enum can hold only long types, hence the numbers, but also other Enum types.
What I am looking for: Is there some workaround, or method, to loop through a recordset or query and pass the values on to an array, and dynamically assign these values to an enumeration. Or perhaps it can be done by changing the source code/vba text itself?
Note: I know that there are a lot of other ways to add my errors to a log and I am able to do so, but for know I am just wondering if this is even possible to do.
I am looking forward to your reactions.

A: The Recordset loops through a table containing the Enum types.  Basically this is editing a modules VBA code.
Public Function CreateEnum()
    Dim db As Database
    Dim rs As Recordset

    Set db = CurrentDb
    Set rs = db.OpenRecordset("MYENUMS", dbOpenSnapshot)

    Dim m As Module
    Dim s As String
    Set m = Modules("myEnumsModule")

    s = "Option Compare Database"
    s = s & vbNewLine & "Option Explicit"
    s = s & vbNewLine
    s = s & vbNewLine & "Public Enum MyEnums"
    With rs
        Do Until .EOF
            s = s & vbNewLine & vbTab & .Fields("MYENUM") & " = " & rs.Fields("MYENUM_ID")
            .MoveNext
        Loop
    End With
    s = s & vbNewLine & "End Enum"

    Call m.DeleteLines(1, m.CountOfLines)
    Call m.AddFromString(s)
End Function

A: While an Enum type cannot be changed at runtime, a variable of that type can actually store any Long value.
Enum category
    Category1 = 1
    Category2 = 2
End Enum

Sub error(err As category)
    Debug.Print err
End Sub

Sub test()
    Dim category3 As Long: category3 = 3
    Call error(category3) ' prints "3"
End Sub

But no, you cannot declare or update an Enum at runtime, nor convert an array to an Enum.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


Britain's global power rested on her ability to move effective forces to different parts of the globe. Seapower was at the core of this, but it also required expeditionary armies to establish British power on land in a more permanent fashion. During the Seven Years War (1756-63) Britain proved that she possessed this global power and that it was an extremely effective diplomatic weapon. The factors that contributed to this global capability were many and developed during the decades prior to 1756. One of those factors was the mobilisation of American manpower. This paper examines the contribution of the American Regiment raised in 1740 to serve with British expeditionary forces in the West Indies. Although the operation was a disaster, the experience of raising the troops and employing them was an important step in clarifying the manner in which American manpower could best be tapped for war in the Americas.


Pain : This is characteristically intermittent in nature and associated with activities such as stair climbing or running. Patients will of ten complain of an inability to fully squat. Patients will also exhibit tenderness along the joint line of the affected knee.
Clicking : Patients will of ten complain of , and sometimes be able to reproduce clicking. This is a palpable demonstration of the ongoing damage that is being caused by the displaced meniscal fragment. The description patients find most easy to understand is of a broken tooth within a gear box jamming the machinery.


Over the past four decades, American and Soviet/Russian leaders have used a progression of bilateral agreements and other measures to limit and reduce their substantial nuclear warhead and strategic missile and bomber arsenals. The following is a brief summary.
Begun in November 1969, by May 1972, the Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) had produced both the Anti-Ballistic Missile (ABM) Treaty, which limited strategic missile defenses to 200 (later 100) interceptors each, and the Interim Agreement, an executive agreement that capped U.S. and Soviet intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBM) and submarine-launched ballistic missile (SLBM) forces. Under the Interim Agreement, both sides pledged not to construct new ICBM silos, not to increase the size of existing ICBM silos "significantly," and capped the number of SLBM launch tubes and SLBM-carrying submarines. The agreement ignored strategic bombers and did not address warhead numbers, leaving both sides free to enlarge their forces by deploying multiple warheads (MIRVs) onto their ICBMs and SLBMs and increasing their bomber-based forces. The agreement limited the United States to 1,054 ICBM silos and 656 SLBM launch tubes. The Soviet Union was limited to 1,607 ICBM silos and 740 SLBM launch tubes. In June 2002, the United States unilaterally withdrew from the ABM treaty.
The Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty (START I), first proposed in the early 1980s by President Ronald Reagan and finally signed in July 1991, required the United States and the Soviet Union to reduce their deployed strategic arsenals to 1,600 delivery vehicles, carrying no more than 6,000 warheads as counted using the agreement's rules. The agreement required the destruction of excess delivery vehicles which was verified using an intrusive verification regime that involved on-site inspections, the regular exchange of information, including telemetry, and the use of national technical means (i.e., satellites). The agreement's entry into force was delayed for several years because of the collapse of the Soviet Union and ensuing efforts to denuclearize Ukraine, Kazakhstan, and Belarus by returning their nuclear weapons to Russia and making them parties to the nuclear Nonproliferation Treaty (NPT) and START I agreements. START I reductions were completed in December 2001 and the treaty expired on Dec. 5, 2009.
In June 1992, Presidents George H. W. Bush and Boris Yeltsin agreed to pursue a follow-on accord to START I. START II, signed in January 1993, called for reducing deployed strategic arsenals to 3,000-3,500 warheads and banned the deployment of destabilizing multiple-warhead land-based missiles. START II would have counted warheads in roughly the same fashion as START I and, also like its predecessor, would have required the destruction of delivery vehicles but not warheads. The agreement's original implementation deadline was January 2003, ten years after signature, but a 1997 protocol moved this deadline to December 2007 because of the extended delay in ratification. Both the Senate and the Duma approved START II, but the treaty did not take effect because the Senate did not ratify the 1997 protocol and several ABM Treaty amendments, whose passage the Duma established as a condition for START II's entry into force. START II was effectively shelved as a result of the 2002 U.S. withdrawal from the ABM treaty.
In March 1997, Presidents Bill Clinton and Boris Yeltsin agreed to a framework for START III negotiations that included a reduction in deployed strategic warheads to 2,000-2,500. Significantly, in addition to requiring the destruction of delivery vehicles, START III negotiations were to address "the destruction of strategic nuclear warheads…to promote the irreversibility of deep reductions including prevention of a rapid increase in the number of warheads." Negotiations were supposed to begin after START II entered into force, which never happened.
On May 24, 2002, Presidents George W. Bush and Vladimir Putin signed the Strategic Offensive Reductions Treaty (SORT or Moscow Treaty) under which the United States and Russia reduced their strategic arsenals to 1,700-2,200 warheads each. The warhead limit took effect and expired on the same day, Dec. 31, 2012. Although the two sides did not agree on specific counting rules, the Bush administration asserted that the United States would reduce only warheads deployed on strategic delivery vehicles in active service, i.e., "operationally deployed" warheads, and would not count warheads removed from service and placed in storage or warheads on delivery vehicles undergoing overhaul or repair. The agreement's limits are similar to those envisioned for START III, but the treaty did not require the destruction of delivery vehicles, as START I and II did, or the destruction of warheads, as had been envisioned for START III. The treaty was approved by the Senate and Duma and entered into force on June 1, 2003. SORT was replaced by New START on February 5, 2011.
On April 8, 2010, the United States and Russia signed New START, a legally binding, verifiable agreement that limits each side to 1,550 strategic nuclear warheads deployed on 700 strategic delivery systems (ICBMs, SLBMs and heavy bombers), and limits deployed and nondeployed launchers to 800. The treaty-accountable warhead limit is 30 percent lower than the 2,200 upper limit of SORT, and the delivery vehicle limit is 50 percent lower than the 1,600 allowed in START I. The treaty has a verification regime that combines elements of START I with new elements tailored to New START. Measures under the treaty include on-site inspections and exhibitions, data exchanges and notifications related to strategic offensive arms and facilities covered by the treaty, and provisions to facilitate the use of national technical means for treaty monitoring. The treaty also provides for the continued exchange of telemetry (missile flight-test data on up to five tests per year) and does not meaningfully limit missile defenses or long-range conventional strike capabilities. The U.S. Senate approved New START on Dec. 22, 2010. The approval process of the Russian parliament (passage by both the State Duma and Federation Council) was completed Jan. 26, 2011. The treaty entered into force on Feb. 5, 2011 and will expire in 2021, though both parties may agree to extend the treaty for a period of up to five years. Both parties met the treaty's central limits by the Feb. 4, 2018 deadline for implementation.
*On Feb. 2, 2019, both the United States and Russia announced they were suspending their obligations to the treaty.
**New START allows for the option to extend the treaty beyond 2021 for a period of up to five years.
Signed Dec. 8, 1987, the INF Treaty required the United States and the Soviet Union to verifiably eliminate all ground-launched ballistic and cruise missiles with ranges between 500 and 5,500 kilometers. Distinguished by its unprecedented, intrusive inspection regime, including on-site inspections, the INF Treaty laid the groundwork for verification of the subsequent START I. The INF Treaty entered into force June 1, 1988, and the two sides completed their reductions by June 1, 1991, destroying a total of 2,692 missiles. The agreement was multilateralized after the breakup of the Soviet Union, and current active participants in the agreement include the United States, Russia, Belarus, Kazakhstan, and Ukraine. Turkmenistan and Uzbekistan are also parties to the agreement but do not participate in treaty meetings or on-site inspections. The ban on intermediate-range missiles is of unlimited duration.
Both the United States and Russia have raised concerns about the other side's compliance with the INF Treaty. The United States first publicly charged Russia with developing and testing a ground-launched cruise with a range that meets the INF Treaty definition of a ground-launched cruise missile with a range capability of 500 km to 5,500 km in 2014.
Russia denies that it is breaching the agreement and has raised its own concerns about Washington's compliance. Moscow is charging that the United States is placing a missile defense launch system in Europe that can also be used to fire cruise missiles, using targets for missile defense tests with similar characteristics to INF Treaty-prohibited intermediate-range missiles, and is making armed drones that are equivalent to ground-launched cruise missiles. On Oct. 20, 2018 President Donald Trump announced his intention to "terminate" the agreement citing Russian noncompliance and concerns about China's missiles, and on Dec. 4, Secretary of State Mike Pompeo declared Russia in "material breach" of the treaty. The Trump administration provided official notice to the other treaty states-parties on Feb. 2, that it would both suspend its obligations to the treaty and withdraw from the agreement in six months—per the treaty's terms—and "terminate" the agreement. The administration has stated that it may reverse the withdrawal if Russia returns to compliance by eliminating its ground-launched 9M729 missile, which the United States alleges is the noncompliant missile which can fly beyond the 500-kilometer range limit set by the treaty.
On Sept. 27, 1991, President George H. W. Bush announced that the United States would remove almost all U.S. tactical (nonstrategic) nuclear forces from deployment so that Russia could undertake similar actions, reducing the risk of nuclear proliferation as the Soviet Union dissolved. Specifically, Bush said the United States would eliminate all its nuclear artillery shells and short-range nuclear ballistic missile warheads and remove all nonstrategic nuclear warheads from surface ships, attack submarines, and land-based naval aircraft. Soviet leader Mikhail Gorbachev reciprocated on Oct. 5, pledging to eliminate all nuclear artillery munitions, nuclear warheads for tactical missiles, and nuclear landmines. He also pledged to withdraw all Soviet tactical naval nuclear weapons from deployment. Under these initiatives, the United States and Russia reduced their deployed nonstrategic stockpiles by an estimated 5,000 and 13,000 warheads, respectively. However, significant questions remain about Russian implementation of its pledges, and there is considerable uncertainty about the current state of Russia's tactical nuclear forces. The Defense Department estimates that Russia possess roughly 2,000 non-strategic nuclear weapons and the numbers are expanding. The United States maintains several hundred nonstrategic B61 gravity bombs for delivery by short-range fighter aircraft.


The Xen45 implant was launched in Malaysia by Allergan at the Conexxion@Nexus in Kuala Lumpur on 22nd September 2016.
This Xen45 is designed as a simple Minimally Invasive Glaucoma Surgery (MIGS) implant for mild to moderate glaucomas.
Inserted through the cornea, the tube is injected to lie between the anterior chamber and subconjunctival space, where it drains aqueous.
Although the procedure looks simple, there seems to be a learning curve involved.
It is also not clear what complications commonly occur and of course, the long term results are yet to be known.
According to Dr Chelvin Sng, nearly 20% of the cases require needling at some stage.
It can be done during phacoemulsification as a one step procedure.
The Xen45 will be available in the Malaysian market by next year.


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