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Buffy the Vampire Slayer: Season Two
The first season of Buffy boasted a mixture of imaginative storylines and tired plots, a group of characters that varied between fascinating and shallow, and special effects that were generally rather cringe worthy. The second season of Buffy, on the other hand, fixes almost every problem that marred the first. A warning before we continue, though: this review will include SPOILERs for most episodes discussed.
After all that improvement-trumpeting introduction, I'd like to say that the second season explodes out of the gate. Alas, it does not. The opening episode – When She Was Bad – seems hell bent on milking the first season's weakest aspects for all they're worth. Cheesy vampires come up with a plan to resurrect a defeated and cheesy looking villain, and the world quakes (I suppose). Buffy, newly returned from a summer vacation while all the vampires too took a break, is traumatized by the Master's death, and those around her theorize that, because of that, she's decided she has to be invincible. This would all be a lot more effective if, in the end, Buffy didn't turn out to be essentially invincible and defeat all the vampires single handedly, save for the Annointed One who scurries off to enact more dastardly schemes. Yawn.
In fact, the season doesn't really kick off until the third episode, where things go from overblown to exemplary with all the speed of a jet engine. So what changes? Spike. Played by James Marsters, Spike is a relatively young and sadistic vampire that comes to Sunnydale to wreak havoc and find a place for his injured vampiric paramour, Juliet Landau's Drussilla, to recover. Spike is like nothing that's appeared before in the show, a vampire draped in sarcasm and irreverence, as exemplified by his scorn for his fellow vampires: If every vampire who said he was at the crucifixion was actually there, it would have been like Woodstock. (School Hard) But Spike isn't just a witty monster. No, Marsters imbues the character with so much charisma that the viewer can't help but love him, and he grows more complex yet when one factors in his humanizing relationship with Drusilla. Soulless demons the two might be, but they clearly love each other all the same. As for Drusilla, Landau's portrayal of her is excellent, at once vulnerable and creepy, demented but somehow understandable. At the end of the third episode, Spike slaughters the Anointed One and takes over his lair, and the change couldn't be a more welcome one.
Much of the main plot is developed through the season's three two part episodes. The first, What's My Line, brings the main portion of Spike's storyline to a climax. In order to revive Drusilla to full health, Spike kidnaps Angel and plans to sacrifice him to her. To keep Buffy off his back while he does this, he evokes the Order of Taraka, a cult of deadly assassins. The double episode is filled with genuinely creepy moments and numerous instances of often surprising character growth, for Xander and Cordelia in particular. At the episode's conclusion, Drusilla is restored, Angel wounded, and Spike crippled. It's a mark of Marsters charisma that, even after being confined to a wheelchair, Spike still manages to steal every scene he's in.
The second group, Surprise and Innocence, contains a turning point for the season even more significant than the crippling of Spike. To celebrate Drusilla's birthday, she and Spike prepare to summon the Judge, a demon designed to cleanse the earth of humanity. The really interesting part, however, doesn't come until the very end of the first episode. After Angel and Buffy make love, the Gypsy curse mentioned in the first season causes Angel to lose his soul, turning him to Spike and Drusilla – and against Buffy and her allies.
Finally, Becoming parts one and two wrap up the season with a mixture of epic action and excellent character moments. Angel attempts to bring to life a world ending demon as Buffy and co attempt to restore his soul. In the middle of all of this, Spike has a change of heart and, after episode after episode of quarrelling with Angel, switches sides, saying to Buffy: We like to talk big, vampires do. 'I'm going to destroy the world.' That's just tough guy talk. Strutting around with your friends over a pint of blood. The truth is, I like this world. You've got... dog racing, Manchester United. And you've got people. Billions of people walking around like Happy Meals with legs. It's all right here. But then someone comes along with a vision. With a real passion for destruction. Angel could pull it off. Goodbye, Piccadilly. Farewell, Leicester Bloody Square. You know what I'm saying? (Becoming, Part Two) Of course, all that might make more sense if he hadn't summoned the Judge half a season earlier, but the twist is still fascinating, and further goes to show how different Spike is from your average vampire. Most of the climax is what you'd expect, but the exception is Angel's restoration moments before Buffy must kill him, an emotional high that's likely to leave any viewer more than a tad shellshocked.
It's in Becoming that the core of Whedon's beliefs, and the show's thematic heart, come clear. As things reach their bleakest, a demon from the sidelines tells Buffy: Bottom line is, even if you see 'em coming, you're not ready for the big moments. No one asks for their life to change, not really. But it does. So what are we, helpless? Puppets? No. The big moments are gonna come. You can't help that. It's what you do afterwards that counts. That's when you find out who you are. You'll see what I mean. (Becoming, Part One) Buffy isn't a hero because she was chosen – through no fault or desire of her own – to be the Slayer. She's instead a hero because of how she acts as a Slayer, and because of the decisions that she makes once the inevitabilities of her life have played themselves out.
As is no doubt obvious from the outlines of just those three (double) episodes, Whedon is utterly unafraid to shake up the framework he's set up, and it's from that that the show's best moments come from. It's no longer a fair assumption that all good characters are safe, and the season's evolutions are often impossible to predict. Spike, audience stealing bastard that he is, is crippled, and Angel, love interest and major character, becomes an antagonist and then dies. The uncertainty that soon sets in rapidly becomes one of the show's greatest strengths.
The side stories in season two are almost universally at the high level set by season one's best episodes. As before, the various beasties that Buffy encounters are each metaphors for an aspect of her teenage life. Reptile Boy, for instance, shows us a group of frat boys that feed female sacrifices to their god – a giant snake that lives in their basement. Go Fish deals with a swim team that takes steroids. Before long, the members are themselves turning into monstrous aquatic creatures. These storylines are well executed, but the best part of them is often their connections to the rest of the show. Lie to Me, for instance, focuses on a group of humans who've discovered the existence of vampires – and have decided to worship them. The members of the cult are expertly depicted, coming off at once as desperate, deluded, and almost understandable, and the conclusion is – like everything featuring Spike – fantastic. That being said, Whedon's attempt to add a measure of moral ambiguity by making the human villain suffer from a terminal illness falls rather flat. No, Whedon, atrocities cannot be forgiven due to one's nearness to death. Still, the episode's excellent throughout. Others, such as Halloween, Bad Eggs, and Killed by Death include the vampires in more tangential rolls, but the blurring of side and main plots serves to keep the stakes high and the world believable.
That being said, the world does have the occasional gap in troubling moment above and beyond everyone in Sunnydale's herculean ability to forget mass murder within the hour of the blood drying. Principal Snyder is as enjoyable as ever in his quest to remove the 'pal' part of his job description, but the knowing discussions he has about the vampiric problem in episodes like School Hard and Becoming raise some awkward questions. First, if Snyder's aware enough of vampires to have a "usual story" in School Hard, why did he attempt to flee right into their clutches mere moments before? And, more importantly, why is he so hellbent on tormenting the Slayer in his midst if he knows the importance of her job? Furthermore, while the area around the Hellmouth is a fairly coherent place, the rest of the world is a bit sketchier. When Spike decides to evoke the aforementioned Order of Taraka to kill Buffy, one of his henchmen asks if that isn't "overkill." Excuse me? If there's one Slayer, who's the most dangerous thing since the sun for anyone of vampiric persuasion, why on earth wouldn't they slay her as quickly and surely as possible every time?
Finally, in the episode Halloween, Buffy attempts to reconcile Angel's relationship with her to his past and decides she must be lacking in comparison with the noblewomen he no doubt lusted after in his youthful days. Well, alright, that doesn't seem too likely, but Buffy's a teenaged girl who's never met a Victorian noblewoman, so the emotions works. When Angel hears of this, however, his answer is: I hated the girls back then. Especially the noble women. […]They were just incredibly dull. Simpering morons, the lot of them. (Halloween) I appreciate the sentiment, Angel, but the idea of the nobody human Angel's shown as in Becoming's flashback ever considering noblewomen as romantic partners is a tad jarring to anybody who views the past as anything but an extended high school dance. Still, the first of my two complaints stem more from a lock of information than outright flaws, and the third is hardly major.
The show's villains are not the only recurring minor characters. A problem for me in the first season was that, aside from the show's core cast, the rest of the school essentially consisted of blank bystanders who could be counted on to be either one shot villains, dead, or both by the end of their introductory episode. It still holds true that any new character is a beasty until proven innocent, but the greater length of the season allows the writers to often show us characters and items a fair while before they grow important. The greatest example of this is Seth Green's Oz, the guitarist who begins to date Willow midway through the season. Long before the two know each other, however, the character makes appearances, and, when it's time for him to join the main characters and especially step into the spotlight for the episode Phases, he's well established and sympathetic.
Any viewer quickly comes to understand the general structure of almost any episode: there's a menace, Buffy punches the menace, the menace either flees or dies. A large part of what makes the formula work so well is the impact all of this has on Buffy's character. Her arc is still primarily concerned with her attempts to balance being a normal girl and the slayer, but the brutality of the latter has now come to affect the former, and Buffy herself has to face the consequences of the violence she uses. That leads us to Ted, the hands down best episode of the season (and the show so far). Instead of focusing on one bogey or another, Ted builds a compelling story out of Buffy's personal life. Her mother – played by Kristine Sutherland – has a boyfriend, and the two have grown close. The newcomer, Ted, wins over all of Buffy's friends, but Buffy can't get over her dislike.
As the episode progresses, Ted threatens Buffy with greater and greater punishments. What makes this so effective, especially in contrast, is that these are emotional highs achieved without any more than powerful writing. As Ted continues to harass Buffy, he eventually discovers her diary – and more than a few mentions of slaughtering creatures of the night – and says that he'll have her committed if she ever dares interfere with him. So Buffy reacts as she does throughout the season: with violence. She kills Ted, but the cheery climax of slaughtering a vampire does not follow. Instead, Buffy is ostracized and under suspicion, and she's forced to deal with the consequences of murder. Of course, this is where Whedon's fantastic ability to have his cake and eat it too comes in. After he's extracted everything he can from Ted's death, he has Ted return as a monster, exonerating Buffy from that particular transgression but very much retaining the lesson that she is capable of such things. Oh, and as if all that wasn't fantastic enough, the episode's detective and martial climaxes are some of the season's best, too.
The other main dimension of Buffy's arc is her relationship with Angel. For the most part, Sarah Michelle Geller and David Boreanaz manage to make their interactions fairly believable, if never quite heartwarming, though there is certainly the odd and painful appearance of melodrama: Angel, when I look into the future, all I see is you! All I want is you. (Bad Eggs) To be fair, one gets the sense that the over the top nature of much of her relationship with Angel is intended, as a reflection of most teenage romances. Later developments in the season, however, rely heavily on their love being true, not just a temporary fling, so the parts played for excess or laughs feel odd when located near the more touching scenes. Oddly enough, it's in the scenes where Angel's an antagonist that their former relationship is the most believable. The villainous Angel works well both due to actor David Boreanaz's skills and because he does, after all, have motivation to engage in the kind of psychological, cat and mouse battle that all of the show's antagonists have engaged in to a greater or lesser degree. For him, the roundabout methods of attack make perfect sense, and episodes like Passion and I Only Have Eyes for You do an excellent job conveying a love gone horribly wrong.
The season one character that changes the most here might be Cordelia. Before, she was a hilariously over the top school bully with the occasional glimpses of personality. Over the course of the second season, however, she becomes a character on par with the others, develops a believable relationship with Xander, and most certainly manages to maintain her core bitchiness. Giles, also, grows considerably in this season, as evidence of his darker past comes to light, first in the episode Halloween and then, later, in The Dark Ages. Though the modern incarnation of everyone's favorite Watcher is still a stark white, it's quite fascinating to see him wrestling with the consequences of his own actions. His love interest, Jenny Calendar, also becomes a far more interesting character than she was before, and the way that their relationship changes between episodes is always believable and interesting. By the time of the episodes in which she comes to the fore – Surprise/Innocence and Passion – Jenny's got as much agency and mystery as any of the show's main characters.
At the season's end, Spike's left, Drusilla's gone, Angel's dead, Jenny's been killed, and a wanted Buffy has fled Sunnydale after being kicked out of her mother's home. Perhaps the biggest change, however, is my appreciation for the show. I'll be watching season three as soon as I finish this review – not because of promises that it will get better, or because I feel obligated as a reviewer, or because I'm out to pass the time – but because I genuinely care about every one of the show's characters.
And… done. Time to get out those DVDs...
Standouts: Ted; What's my Line?; Passion; Becoming; Lie to Me
Labels: Buffy the Vampire Slayer, Horror, Joss Whedon, Review, TV, Vampire
aagblog August 9, 2011 at 11:06 PM
I'm so enjoying reading your thoughts on Buffy. I think you'll love Season Three.
Anton Gully August 10, 2011 at 8:31 AM
Second season, and particularly Spike, is when the show took off.
I was never a big fan of Buffy or Angel, and definitely not a fan of Buffy and Angel, but kept watching for Spike and the Scoobie gang.
Aeryl August 10, 2011 at 5:47 PM
A few quibbles.
I think the noblewomen Angel's referring to are not women from his human days, but from after he's been turned.
I also bought the over the top teenage romance coming from Angel, because it's truly the first time he's ever been in love while ensouled.
Ted's great, but I Only Have Eyes For You is my absolute fave.
Recurring characters, weren't you glad to see Harmony, Amy, Larry, and Jonathan again? Wait til next year.
George R.R. Martin - Fevre Dream
On Silence
Adam Nevill - The Ritual
Fantasy & Science Fiction: July/August 2011
The Metamorphosis of Jane Doe


McBlogger: low-calorie but still full-flavor: Vote! Vote! Vote!
For all of you that have been holding your breath waiting for City Elections to roll around YEAH for you they are almost here. Tomorrow is E Day for Austinites! If you still have'nt decided who to vote for you can get some great information here,here,and here.
If you don't know where you should go to vote (DUH btw) you can visit this site to find out.
While you are contemplating, watch a video!


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By Ben Team
Twelve cobra species live in Asia. In contrast to African cobras, who exhibit great adaptive diversity, most Asian cobra species are similar in behavior, lifestyle and habitat preference. The prevalence of cobras in Asia is reflected by their frequent appearance in the region's religions and mythology.
Classification and Relationships
Except for the king cobra (Ophiophagus hannah), all Asian cobras belong to the genus Naja. Formerly, all Asian species of Naja were considered subspecies of a single species. This changed when researchers Wolfgang Wuster and Roger S. Thorpe began splitting the species into its current form in a 1989 paper published in the "Biological Journal of the Linnean Society." Meanwhile, king cobras form a distinct lineage, and arose independently of the "true" cobras as demonstrated again by Wuster and colleagues in a 2007 paper published in "Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution." While the study examined the mitochondrial DNA of several different cobra species, this evolutionary divergence is also reflected in morphology and diet.
King Cobras
King cobras are among the most famous snakes, and for good reason; reaching 18- eet in length, they are the longest venomous snakes in the world. Capable of raising up to a third of their bodies when hooding; really big king cobras can look a human in the eye while displaying their hood. Unlike typical cobras, which have short, wide hoods, the king cobra spreads a long narrow hood. Additionally, while some cobras, such as African black spitting cobras (N. nigricollis), do consume snakes occasionally, king cobras predate other snakes almost exclusively. King cobras do not spit venom, instead they rely on their size, cunning and deadly venom for protection from predators.
Monocled and Spectacled Cobras
Monocled (N. kauthia) and spectacled cobras (N. naja) look alike in many respects, except that their hood markings differ. Spectacled cobras -- long favorites of snake charmers -- have eyespots on the dorsal side of their hoods; meanwhile, monocled cobras have only one eyespot, on the rear of their hoods. One important difference between the two species is that the monocled cobra has morphological adaptations that allow it to spit venom accurately, while the spectacled cobra does not have the specialized fangs necessary to do so. Despite this, monocled cobras are not known to spit very frequently and are considered "non-spitters" in older literature. The spectacled cobra is found throughout the Indian subcontinent, while the monocled cobra is found to the east, as far as Thailand.
Nine other species of Asian cobra inhabit the eastern and southeastern portion of the continent. The Indochinese spitting cobra (Naja siamensis) of Thailand, Laos, Vietnam and Myanmar, is an irritable snake who readily spits at his adversaries. The Sumatran cobra (N. sumatrana) and equatorial cobra (N. sputatrix) are variably colored spitting species of the Malaysian, Javan and Sumatran rainforests. These two species were among two of the first forms to be examined and given scientific acknowledgement by Wuller in his 1989 paper. The Chinese or Taiwanese cobra (N. atra) was the focus of a snake-bite study by OF Wong and colleagues published in a 2010 "Hong Kong Medical Journal." The Philippine cobra (N. philippiensis) and the Samar cobra (N. samarensis) inhabit the forests of the Philippines, preying on rodents and amphibians. The Adaman cobra (N. sagittifera) is a lowland snake who inhabits the Adaman islands in the Bay of Bengal. The Caspian cobra (N. oxiana) is found farther west than any other species of the Asian cobra, inhabiting arid landscapes near the Caspian Sea. The Burmese spitting cobra (N. mandalayensis) is one of the smallest cobra species; adults rarely exceed 3 feet.
Cape Snake Conservation: The Ultimate Cobra Snakes Fact Guide
Zootaxa: In Praise of Subgenera: Taxonomic Status of Cobras of the Genus Naja (Serpentes: Elapidae)
Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution; The Phylogeny of Cobras Inferred From Mitochondrial DNA Sequences: Evolution of Venom Spitting and the Phylogeography of the African Spitting Cobras (Serpentes: Elapidae: Naja Nigricollis Complex)
Clinical Toxinology Resources: Naja Kaouthia
University of Michigan Animal Diversity Web: Python Regius
Herpetologica: Asiatic Cobras: Population Systematics of the Naja Naja Species Complex in India and Central Asia
Biological Journal of the Linnean Society: Population Affinities of the Asiatic (Naja Naja) Cobra Species in South-East Asia: Reliability and Random Resampling
Experientia 50: Naja Siamensis a Cryptic Species of Venomous Snake Revealed by mtDNA Sequencing
Hong Kong Medical Journal: Five-Year Experience With Chinese Cobra (Naja Atra) – Related Injuries in Two Acute Hospitals in Hong Kong
King Cobra Vs. Kingsnake
The Difference Between Gopher Snakes & Rattlesnakes
What Are the Predators of the Spitting Cobras?
Different Kinds of Venomous Snakes in Mississippi
What Countries Have Cobras?
The History of Cobra Snakes
Types of Snakes in the Philippines
The Names of Brazilian Rainforest Snakes
Venomous Snakes of Mozambique
The Difference Between a Cottonmouth & a Water Moccasin
How Long Is a Cobra?
What's the Most Venomous Snake in the Sahara Desert?
What Types of Snakes Can Flare Their Necks & Hoods?
Large Snakes of South America
What Shape Are Venomous Snakes' Eyes?

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


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Dan Peggs attorney targets ex-wife's social media posts ahead of plea hearing
Posted: Aug 20, 2021 / 08:37 AM CDT
Updated: Aug 20, 2021 / 08:37 AM CDT
ALTOONA, Wis. (WLAX/WEUX) – An attorney for former Altoona Superintendent Dan Peggs is targeting his ex-wife's social media posts ahead of a plea hearing tomorrow morning in federal court.
In a plea deal reached in July, Peggs pleaded guilty to one count of possession of child pornography. The deal dismisses his more serious charges of sex trafficking a minor and production of child pornography.
With his guilty plea, he faces a maximum of ten years in prison and a fine of up to 250 thousand dollars.
In her blog, Peggs' ex-wife Ashley has asked family and friends to write a letter to Judge James Peterson asking for the maximum sentence. Records show 25 letters have been filed so far. In a letter sent to Judge Peterson this afternoon, Peggs' attorney claims she has no right to act as a victim, in this case, writing she should air her grievances rather in state custody court.
The plea hearing is scheduled for 10:30 Friday morning.
How your Christmas lights impact your electric bill


Most of today was spent walking a section of the Cheshire Sandstone Ridge high up over Frodsham looking out over the sweep of the Mersey and in the distance the brown square of the Anglican Cathedral and the Radio City Tower of Liverpool.
We had printed the map and directions for the walk from the page on the internet and it was one of those walks where you continually misjudge how far you need to go until you get to the next direction. So along the way there were one or two wrong turnings and retracing our steps. We were consoled by two ladies who were walking in sensible shoes and a good map. For every wrong turn we took they seemed to do another so we kept doubling past each other other.
Back home I made a tub of liquorice ice cream and two dozen meringues ready for lunch tomorrow.
I should mention that the recipe for the liquorice ice cream comes courtesy of The Good Things Cafe and that we are listening to to Gladys Knight & the Pips singing Midnight Train to Georgia.


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Southern Vampire Mysteries är en bokserie av romaner av den amerikanska författaren Charlaine Harris. Serien kallas även "Sookie Stackhouse-serien" efter huvudkaraktären.
Serien handlar om den telepatiska servitrisen Sookie Stackhouse som jobbar på Merlottes och om hur vampyrerna har kommit "ut ur kistan" för ca två år sedan då japanerna skapade det syntetiska blodet som uppfyllde alla deras näringsbehov. Ända sedan Sookie var liten har folk alltid sett henne som annorlunda eftersom hon har kunnat läsa tankar. På grund av det har hon inte haft så mycket framgång med sitt kärleksliv. En dag träffar hon på Bill Compton och hon kan inte höra ett ljud av vad han tänker. Det enda problemet med det är att Bill är en vampyr och ju mer de umgås desto mer indragen blir hon i vampyrernas affärer speciellt när det gäller Bills chef vampyren Eric Northman.

Böcker i serien
I serien ingår:
 Dead Until Dark, 2001 (på svenska, Död tills mörkret faller, maj 2010)
 Living Dead In Dallas, 2001 (på svenska, Levande död i Dallas, maj 2010)
 Club Dead, 2003 (på svenska, Klubb Död, maj 2010)
 Dead To The World, 2004 (på svenska, Död i andras ögon, augusti 2010)
 Dead As A Doornail, 2005 (på svenska, Hur död som helst, augusti 2010)
 Definitely Dead, 2006 (på svenska, Stendöd, 2012)
 All Together Dead, 2007 (på svenska, Allt igenom död, 2012)
 From Dead To Worse, 2008 (på svenska, Från död till värre, 2012)
 Dead And Gone, 2009 (på svenska, Död och försvunnen, 2012)
 A Touch Of Dead (en samling med noveller om Sookie Stackhouse), 2009
 Dead In The Family (maj 2010) (på svenska, Död i familjen, 2012)
 Dead reckoning (maj 2011) (på svenska, Död räkenskap 2013)
 Deadlocked (maj 2012) (på svenska, Dödläge, 2013)
 Dead Ever After (maj 2013) (på svenska,  Död i all evighet, juli 2013)

Böcker som är Southern Vampire Mysteries-relaterade
Andra böcker av Harris som också innehåller Southern Vampire-relaterade historier:
Powers of Detection - historien "Fairy Dust"
Night's Edge - en novell
Bite - historien "One Word Answer"
My Big Fat Supernatural Wedding - historien "Tacky"
Many Bloody Returns - historien "Dracula Night"
Wolfsbane and Mistletoe - historien "Gift Wrap"
Unusual Suspects - historien "Lucky"
Bokserier
Amerikanska romaner

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


For the past year or so I've been illustrating all the covers (and some inside portraits) for American Review. It's a quarterly magazine published by the US Studies Center at the University of Sydney and deals with foreign policy. It started out as a print publication, but now is only an iPad app. I work directly with the editor, Minh Bui Jones. These are the two most recent covers.
The inevitable GOP nominee? Romney, the country club candidate.
Good job Joe! I think these are two of the hardest faces to draw --straight on with little editorial interpretation or exaggeration. Too bad Romney was cropped; I think the hand is crucial to fun of the piece. It's still good but the lush blobby painting of the jacket is very lively and acts as a foil to the polished face. And the awkward hand pose makes him more human --for better or worse and to good effect. It's funny to think of Hillary wearing a corporate t-shirt with the slogan. I know this labeling may have been an editorial suggestion (maybe not) but it kind of matches the openness of her toothsome smile. People are slowly recognizing that this is a major part of Obama's velvet glove Asia policy. It's very interesting to see it develop at this exact time. Alright, back to work!
Great fit and very clean and bright branding with your art.


If the iPad Pro adds USB-C, iOS needs to add better device support to make it work.
The rumors of new iPad Pros keep swirling. Most recently we got a report from 9to5Mac saying that the new iPads would break with past models in several ways, including support for a new Apple Pencil, removing a physical home button in favor of Face ID, replacing the Smart Connector with a new magnetic connector, and replacing Lightning with USB-C.
Would this the beginning of a transition away from Lightning? Or is it another way for Apple to reinforce that the iPad Pro is more like a computer and less like an iPhone? Moving the iPad Pro to USB-C is potentially a huge move—though it's also potentially a whole lot of nothing. Let's take a look at the possibilities.
Presumably, USB-C on the iPad Pro would mean you can use a USB-C power adapter from a MacBook or MacBook Pro.
That's a nice feature if you want to use your iPad to display a presentation on a 4K projector or show a 4K HDR video on a TV, but since iOS doesn't let you control apps on an external display (it's only available for mirroring or as a secondary display in an app like Keynote), it seems like a strange choice to break compatibility with all previous iOS accessories.
Now, for people with existing modern Mac laptops, the iPad Pro will gain compatibility. You'd presumably be able to use the same charger used for the MacBook and MacBook Pro on the iPad Pro. If you've invested in adapters and dongles for USB-C devices, those should also work on any USB-C iPad.
Also, if a different rumor is true and these new iPad Pros are also omitting a wired headphone jack, users will need to deal with an adapter to get wired headphones working.
Looking on the bright side, perhaps adding USB-C to the iPad Pro will be accompanied by expanded support for external USB devices in future versions of iOS. Right now iOS support for external devices is extremely limited when you compare it with the external devices that "real computers" like the Mac support.
Beyond support for 4K output, iOS could be improved to add more sophisticated support for external displays. These could either be touchscreens—so you could plug an iPad into a big screen and use it as an iPad—or regular screens with the addition of support for non-touch controls like trackpads and mice. That would be a huge leap for iOS today, but it looks like Apple could be headed in that direction as it begins its effort to allow the Mac and iOS to share apps.
Then there's USB storage. Right now iOS's support for external storage is extremely limited. If you attach a memory card to an iPad or iPhone using an adapter, you can see some very specific contents of that card—image files and videos. That's it, even though the Files app is an Apple-built file browser on every iOS device. You can run PowerPoint on an iPad, but if a co-worker hands you a flash drive featuring an updated presentation, you can't access it. That's unacceptable in a product with "pro" in the name, but the frustration will be magnified even more if it's a "pro" device with a standard USB port.
Apple has done a great job the last three years in differentiating the iPad line, creating the low-cost iPad for general use while giving the iPad Pro the freedom to grow (literally) and adapt to a user base that's hungry to do more.
But Apple can't just change the port and call it a day. If it's going to do this, it needs to make the effort on the software side, adding new features to iOS to allow iPad Pros to work with USB devices just like they work with Macs and PCs.


The topic of this paper is a parametric study of a cable-stayed bridge under seismic loads. The bridge modeled in this study is the Bill Emerson Bridge crossing the Mississippi River at Gape Girardeau in Missouri. A description of the development of the 3-D finite element model for both a linear and nonlinear dynamic analysis is given by using the original bridge design. Then a collection of parameters was studied as to their effect on the dynamic response. Different deck elements (e.g. girder box, slab, etc.), pylons (e.g. A-shape, H-shape, etc), cable areas, and material properties are used. Linear and nonlinear multiple, single response spectrum analyses with an emphasis on the nonlinear cable behavior are performed in this parametric study. The study showed that a composite concrete steel girder and a concrete box performed the best. Further it showed that A-shape towers stabilized the structure horizontally and increased the torsional stiffness. The doubling of the cable area decreased the vertical displacements up to 30 %. Therefore, a doubling of the cable area might be reasonable depending on the applications. The multiple response-spectrum analysis lead to higher displacements than the single response-spectrum analysis. Consequently a multiple response spectrum analysis is preferable, if multiple excitation-input data are available. The comparison between the non-linear and linear analysis demonstrated that for this bridge the non-linear effects of the cables were small and could be ignored. Nevertheless, for long span cable stayed bridges, the nonlinear effects of the cables should be considered.
Mayer, S., and McCabe, S.L., "Parametric Study of a Cable-Stayed Bridge Under Seismic Loads," SM Report No. 52, The University of Kansas Center for Research, Inc., Sept. 1998, 159 pp.


World J Methodol. 2016 Mar 26;6(1):112-7. doi: 10.5662/wjm.v6.i1.112. eCollection 2016 Mar 26.
Potential effects of curcumin on peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ in vitro and in vivo.
Mazidi M1, Karimi E1, Meydani M1, Ghayour-Mobarhan M1, Ferns GA1.
Mohsen Mazidi, Key State Laboratory of Molecular Developmental Biology, Institute of Genetics and Developmental Biology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China.
Natural peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ (PPAR-γ) agonists are found in food and may be important for health through their anti-inflammatory properties. Curcumin (Cur) is a bright yellow spice, derived from the rhizome of Curcuma longa Linn. It has been shown to have many biological properties that appear to operate through diverse mechanisms. Some of these potentially beneficial effects of Cur are due to activation of the nuclear transcription factor PPAR-γ. It is reported (using in vitro and in vivo models) that Cur plays a potential role against several diseases. In this review article, we present the current literature on the effects of Cur on the modulation of inflammatory processes that are mediated through PPAR-γ.
Possible mechanisms, primarily the inhibition of hepatic stellate cell activation by peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ after modulation with curcumin. PPAR-γ: Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ; HSC: Hepatic stellate cell; TGF: Transforming growth factor; Cur: Curcumin; ECM: Extracellular matrix.
World J Methodol. 2016 Mar 26;6(1):112-117.
Liver fibrosis creation followed down-regulating of peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ after liver injury. As shown, decrease in PPAR-γ expression after liver injury causes an increase in HSC DNA expression and HSC activation. This regulation also results in increased expression of α-SMA, collagen, ECM and TGF-β and induces liver fibrosis. PPAR-γ: Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ; HSC: Hepatic stellate cell; TGF: Transforming growth factor; ECM: Extracellular matrix; α-SMA: α-smooth muscle actin.
Mechanisms of anti-inflammatory properties of curcumin in vivo. Curcumin (Cur) down-regulates some of the factors involved in inflammation, inhibiting NF-κB activation and causing its anti-inflammatory effects. Also, Cur with increasing PPAR-γ expression directly inhibits NF-κB activation. NF-κB: Nuclear factor kappa B; TNF: Tumor necrosis factors; MCP-1: Monocyte chemoattractant protein-1; IL: Interleukins; LOX: Lipoxygenase; COX: Cyclooxygenase; iNOS: Inducible nitric oxide synthase; STAT3: Signal transducer and activator of transcription 3; PPAR-γ: Peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-γ; XO: Xanthine oxidase.


On a lazy rainy day, what is there better to do, then to watch some movies about SHTF situations. My personal favorites movies are kept separate from the rest of the families movies – this make them easier to find and keep track of.
Book of Eli – starring Denzel Washington, Gary Oldman, Mila Kunis, Ray Stevenson and Jennifer Beals. Released in 2010, Book of Eli is about a man sent by GOD to deliver a Bible. The film touches on important issues, such as scarcity of resources, safe drinking water, gang violence, religion and rebuilding post-SHTF.
When the old woman played by Frances de la Tour brings out some tea, and her husband puts on some music.
When the bad guys outside the house are firing their weapons, and out rolls the gatling gun.
The printing press is cranking out pages of the Bible.


text:
Molniya orbit
For other uses, see Molniya (disambiguation).
A Molniya orbit (Russian: Молния, IPA: [ˈmolnʲɪjə] ( listen), "Lightning") is a type of satellite orbit designed to provide communications and remote sensing coverage over high latitudes. It is a highly elliptical orbit with an inclination of 63.4 degrees, an argument of perigee of 270 degrees, and an orbital period of approximately half a sidereal day.[1] The name comes from the Molniya satellites, a series of Soviet/Russian civilian and military communications satellites which have used this type of orbit since the mid-1960s.
Figure 1: The Molniya orbit. Usually the period from perigee +2 hours to perigee +10 hours is used to transmit to the northern hemisphere.
Figure 2: The SDS constellation, which uses satellites in a mixture of geostationary and Molniya orbits. The constellation of Molniya-orbiting satellites uses three satellites on different orbital planes, with apogees comparable to those of the geostationary satellites.
The Molniya orbit has a long dwell time over the hemisphere of interest, while moving very quickly over the other. In practice, this places it over either Russia or Canada for the majority of its orbit, providing a high angle of view to communications and monitoring satellites covering these high-latitude areas. Geostationary orbits, which are necessarily inclined over the equator, can only view these regions from a low angle, hampering performance. In practice, a satellite in a Molniya orbit serves the same purpose for high latitudes as a geostationary satellite does for equatorial regions, except that multiple satellites are required for continuous coverage.[2]
Satellites placed in Molniya orbits have been used for television broadcasting, telecommunications, military communications, relaying, weather monitoring, early-warning systems and some classified purposes.
2.1 Southern hemisphere proposals
2.2 Molniya constellations
2.3 Diagrams
3.1 Argument of perigee
3.2 Orbital inclination
3.3 Orbital period
3.4 Eccentricity
3.5 Semi-major axis
The Molniya orbit was discovered by Soviet scientists in the 1960s as a high-latitude communications alternative to geostationary orbits, which require large launch energies to achieve a high perigee and to change inclination to orbit over the equator (especially when launched from Russian latitudes). As a result, OKB-1 sought a less energy-demanding orbit.[3] Studies found that this could be achieved using a highly elliptical orbit with an apogee over Russian territory.[4] The orbit's name refers to the "lightning" speed with which the satellite passes through the perigee.[5]
The first use of the Molniya orbit was by the communications satellite series of the same name. After two launch failures, and one satellite failure in 1964, the first successful satellite to use this orbit, Molniya 1-1, launched on 23 April 1965.[4][6] The early Molniya-1 satellites were used for civilian television, telecommunication and long-range military communications, but they were also fitted with cameras used for weather monitoring, and possibly for assessing clear areas for Zenit spy satellites.[3][7] The original Molniya satellites had a lifespan of approximately 1.5 years, as their orbits were disrupted by perturbations, and they had to be constantly replaced.[1]
The succeeding series, the Molniya-2, provided both military and civilian broadcasting and was used to create the Orbita television network, spanning the Soviet Union. These were in turn replaced by the Molniya-3 design.[4] A satellite called Mayak was designed to supplement and replace the Molniya satellites in 1997, but the project was cancelled,[8] and the Molniya-3 was replaced by the Meridian satellites, the first of which launched in 2006.[9] The Soviet US-K early-warning satellites, which watch for American rocket launches, were launched in Molniya orbits from 1967, as part of the Oko system.[10][11][12]
From 1971, the American Jumpseat and Trumpet military satellites were launched into Molniya orbits (and possibly used to intercept Soviet communications from the Molniya satellites). Detailed information about both projects remains classified as of 2019[update].[13] This was followed by the American SDS constellation, which operates with a mixture of Molniya and geostationary orbits. These satellites are used to relay signals from lower flying satellites back to ground stations in the United States and have been active in some capacity since 1976.[14] A Russian satellite constellation called Tyulpan was designed in 1994 to support communications at high latitudes, but it did not progress past the planning phase.[8]
In 2015 and 2017 Russia launched two Tundra satellites into a Molniya orbit, despite their name, as part of its EKS early warning system.[15][16][17]
Animation of EKS
Equatorial view
Polar view
Earth fixed frame, front view
Earth fixed frame, side view
Kosmos 2510 · Kosmos 2518 · Kosmos 2541 · Kosmos 2546 · Earth
UsesEdit
Figure 3: Groundtrack of a Molniya orbit. In the operational part of the orbit (four hours on each side of apogee), the satellite is north of 55.5° N (latitude of, for example, central Scotland, Moscow and southern part of Hudson Bay). A satellite in this orbits spends most of its time over the northern hemisphere and passes quickly over the southern hemisphere.
Much of the area of the former Soviet Union, and Russia in particular, is located at high northern latitudes. To broadcast to these latitudes from a geostationary orbit (above the Earth's equator) requires considerable power due to the low elevation angles, and the extra distance and atmospheric attenuation that comes with it. Sites located above 81° latitude are unable to view geostationary satellites at all, and as a rule of thumb, elevation angles of less than 10° can cause problems, depending on the communications frequency.[2]:499[18]
A satellite in a Molniya orbit is better suited to communications in these regions, because it looks more directly down on them during large portions of its orbit. With an apogee altitude as high as 40,000 kilometres (25,000 mi) and an apogee sub-satellite point of 63.4 degrees north, it spends a considerable portion of its orbit with excellent visibility in the northern hemisphere, from Russia as well as from northern Europe, Greenland and Canada.[2]
While satellites in Molniya orbits require considerably less launch energy than those in geostationary orbits (especially launching from high latitudes),[4] their ground stations need steerable antennas to track the spacecraft, links must be switched between satellites in a constellation and range changes cause variations in signal amplitude. Additionally, there is a greater need for station-keeping,[19][20][21] and the spacecraft will pass through the Van Allen radiation belt four times per day.[22]
Southern hemisphere proposalsEdit
Similar orbits with an argument of perigee of 90° could allow high-latitude coverage in the southern hemisphere. A proposed constellation, the Antarctic Broadband Program, would have used satellites in an inverted Molniya orbit to provide broadband internet service to facilities in Antarctica.[23][24] Initially funded by the now defunct Australian Space Research Program, it did not progress beyond initial development.[25][26]
Molniya constellationsEdit
Permanent high-elevation coverage of a large area of Earth (like the whole of Russia, where some parts are as far south as 45° N) requires a constellation of at least three spacecraft in Molniya orbits. If three spacecraft are used, then each spacecraft will be active for a period of eight hours per orbit, centered around apogee,[2] as illustrated in figure 4. Figure 5 shows the satellite's field of view around the apogee.
The Earth completes half a rotation in twelve hours, so the apogees of successive Molniya orbits will alternate between one half of the northern hemisphere and the other. For the original Molniya orbit, the apogees were placed over Russia and North America, but by changing the right ascension of the ascending node this can be varied.[19] The coverage from a satellite in a Molniya orbit over Russia is shown in figures 6 to 8, and over North America in figures 9 to 11.
The orbits of the three spacecraft should then have the same orbital parameters, but different right ascensions of the ascending nodes, with their passes over the apogees separated by 7.97 hours.[2][27] Since each satellite has an operational period of approximately eight hours, when one spacecraft travels four hours after its apogee passage (see figure 8 or figure 11), then the next satellite will enter its operational period, with the view of the earth shown in figure 6 (or figure 9), and the switch-over can take place. Note that the two spacecraft at the time of switch-over are separated by about 1,500 kilometres (930 mi), so that the ground stations only have to move their antennas a few degrees to acquire the new spacecraft.[28]
DiagramsEdit
Figure 4: A constellation of three Molniya spacecraft providing service for the Northern hemisphere. P is the orbital period. A green line corresponds to service for Asia and Europe with the visibility of figures 6–8. A red line corresponds to service for North America with the visibility of figures 9–11.
Figure 5: Illumination zones (at least 10° elevation) from a Molniya orbit. At apogee, the green illumination zone applies. At three hours before or after apogee, the red zone applies. At four hours before or after apogee, the blue zone applies. The plane of the figure is the longitudinal plane of apogee rotating with the Earth. In the eight-hour period centered at the apogee passage, the longitudinal plane is almost fixed, the longitude of the satellite varies by only ±2.7°. The views of the Earth from these three points are displayed in figures 6–11.
Figure 6: View of the Earth four hours before apogee from a Molniya orbit under the assumption that the longitude of the apogee is 90° E. The spacecraft is at an altitude of 24,043 km over the point 92.65° E 47.04° N.
Figure 7: View of the Earth from the apogee of a Molniya orbit under the assumption that the longitude of the apogee is 90° E. The spacecraft is at an altitude of 39,867 km over the point 90° E 63.43° N.
Figure 8: View of the Earth four hours after apogee from a Molniya orbit under the assumption that the longitude of the apogee is 90° E. The spacecraft is at an altitude of 24,043 km over the point 87.35° E 47.04° N
Figure 9: View of the Earth four hours before apogee from a Molniya orbit under the assumption that the longitude of the apogee is 90° W. The spacecraft is at an altitude of 24,043 km over the point 87.35° W 47.04° N.
Figure 10: View of the Earth from the apogee of a Molniya orbit under the assumption that the longitude of the apogee is 90° W. The spacecraft is at an altitude of 39,867 km over the point 90° W 63.43° N.
Figure 11: View of the Earth 4 hours after apogee from a Molniya orbit under the assumption that the longitude of the apogee is 90° W. The spacecraft is at an altitude of 24,043 km over the point 92.65° W 47.04° N.
Comparison of Tundra orbit, QZSS orbit and Molniya orbit - equatorial view
Tundra orbit · QZSS orbit · Molniya orbit · Earth
PropertiesEdit
A typical Molniya orbit has the following properties:
Argument of perigee: 270°
Inclination: 63.4°[20]
Period: 718 minutes[1]
Eccentricity: 0.74
Semi-major axis: 26,600 km (16,500 mi)
Argument of perigeeEdit
The argument of perigee is set at 270°, causing the satellite to experience apogee at the most northerly point of its orbit. For any future applications over the southern hemisphere, it would instead be set at 90°.[24]
Orbital inclinationEdit
In general, the oblateness of the Earth perturbs the argument of perigee ( ω {\displaystyle \omega }
), so that it gradually changes with time. If we only consider the first-order coefficient J 2 {\displaystyle J_{2}}
, the perigee will change according to equation 1, unless it is constantly corrected with station-keeping thruster burns.
ω ˙ = 3 4 ⋅ n J 2 ⋅ ( R E a ) 2 4 − 5 sin 2  i ( 1 − e 2 ) 2 {\displaystyle {\dot {\omega }}={\frac {3}{4}}\cdot nJ_{2}\cdot \left({\frac {R_{E}}{a}}\right)^{2}{\frac {4-5\sin ^{2}{i}}{(1-e^{2})^{2}}}}
where i {\displaystyle i}
is the orbital inclination, e {\displaystyle e}
is the eccentricity, n {\displaystyle n}
is mean motion in degrees per day, J 2 {\displaystyle J_{2}}
is the perturbing factor, R E {\displaystyle R_{E}}
is the radius of the earth, a {\displaystyle a}
is the semimajor axis, and ω ˙ {\displaystyle {\dot {\omega }}}
is in degrees per day.
To avoid this expenditure of fuel, the Molniya orbit uses an inclination of 63.4°, for which the factor 4 − 5 sin 2  i {\displaystyle 4-5\sin ^{2}{i}}
is zero, so that there is no change in the position of perigee over time.[20][19]:143 An orbit designed in this manner is called a frozen orbit.
Orbital periodEdit
To ensure the geometry relative to the ground stations repeats every 24 hours, the period should be about half a sidereal day, keeping the longitudes of the apogees constant.
However, the oblateness of the Earth also perturbs the right ascension of the ascending node ( Ω {\displaystyle \Omega }
), changing the nodal period and causing the ground track to drift over time at the rate shown in equation 2.
Ω ˙ = − 3 2 ⋅ n J 2 ⋅ ( R E a ) 2 cos  i ( 1 − e 2 ) 2 {\displaystyle {\dot {\Omega }}=-{\frac {3}{2}}\cdot nJ_{2}\cdot \left({\frac {R_{E}}{a}}\right)^{2}{\frac {\cos {i}}{(1-e^{2})^{2}}}}
where Ω ˙ {\displaystyle {\dot {\Omega }}}
is in degrees per day.[19]:143
Since the inclination of a Molniya orbit is fixed (as above), this perturbation is Ω ˙ = − 0.3 {\displaystyle {\dot {\Omega }}=-0.3}
degrees per day. To compensate, the orbital period is adjusted so that the longitude of the apogee changes enough to cancel out this effect.[20]
EccentricityEdit
The eccentricity of the orbit is based on the differences in altitudes of its apogee and perigee. To maximise the amount of time that the satellite spends over the apogee, the eccentricity should be set as high as possible. However, the perigee needs to be high enough to keep the satellite substantially above the atmosphere to minimize drag (~600km), and the orbital period needs to be kept to approximately half a sidereal day (as above). These two factors constrain the eccentricity, which becomes approximately 0.737.[20]
Semi-major axisEdit
The exact height of a satellite in a Molniya orbit varies between missions, but a typical orbit will have a perigee of approximately 600 kilometres (370 mi) and an apogee of 39,700 kilometres (24,700 mi), for a semi-major axis of 26,600 kilometres (16,500 mi).[20]
ModellingEdit
To track satellites using Molniya orbits, scientists use the SDP4 simplified perturbations model, which calculates the location of a satellite based on orbital shape, drag, radiation, gravitation effects from the sun and moon, and earth resonance terms.[29]
List of orbits
Tundra orbit
^ a b c Kolyuka, Yu. F.; Ivanov, N.M.; Afanasieva, T.I.; Gridchina, T.A. (28 September 2009). Examination of the Lifetime, Evolution and Re-Entry Features for the "Molniya" Type Orbits (PDF). 21st International Symposium of Space Flight Dynamics. Toulouse, France: Mission Control Center 4, Korolev, Moscow. p. 2. Retrieved 22 May 2018.
^ a b c d e Ilčev, Stojče Dimov (2017). Global Satellite Meteorological Observation (GSMO) Theory. 1. Springer International Publishing. p. 57. ISBN 978-3-319-67119-2. Retrieved 16 April 2019.
^ a b History Committee of the American Astronautical Society (23 August 2010). Johnson, Stephen B. (ed.). Space Exploration and Humanity: A Historical Encyclopedia. 1. Greenwood Publishing Group. p. 416. ISBN 978-1-85109-514-8. Retrieved 17 April 2019.
^ a b c d Martin, Donald H. (2000). Communication Satellites (4 ed.). American Institute of Aeronautics and Astronautics. pp. 215–232. ISBN 978-1-884989-09-4. Retrieved 17 April 2019.
^ Capderou, Michel (23 April 2014). Handbook of Satellite Orbits: From Kepler to GPS. Springer Science & Business. p. 393. Bibcode:2014hso..book.....C. ISBN 978-3-319-03416-4. Retrieved 16 April 2019.
^ Preliminary Analysis of the First Successful Soviet Communications Satellite (PDF) (Report). CIA: Office of Scientific Intelligence. 12 December 2003. p. 3. Retrieved 16 April 2016.
^ Hendrickx, Bart (2004). "A History of Soviet/Russian Meteorological Satellites" (PDF). Journal of the British Interplanetary Society. 57 (Suppl. 1): 66.
^ a b Heyman, Jos (December 2015). Heyman, Jos (ed.). Cancelled projects: Russian comsats (PDF) (Report). 41. IAC 2017: Tiros Space Information News Bulletin. p. 4. Archived from the original (PDF) on 5 March 2019. Retrieved 16 April 2019. CS1 maint: location (link)
^ Graham, William (4 May 2011). "Soyuz 2-1a launches with Russian Meridian 4 military satellite". NASASpaceflight.com. Retrieved 16 April 2019.
^ Forden, Geoffrey (May 3, 2001). "Reducing a Common Danger: Improving Russia's Early-Warning System" (PDF). Cato Policy Analysis No. 399: 5. Retrieved 16 April 2019.
^ Podvig, Pavel (2002). "History and the Current Status of the Russian Early-Warning System" (PDF). Science and Global Security. 10 (1): 21–60. Bibcode:2002S&GS...10...21P. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.692.6127. doi:10.1080/08929880212328. ISSN 0892-9882. S2CID 122901563. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-03-15.
^ "Russia blinded by loss of missile detection satellite". Moscow Times. 26 June 2014. Retrieved 16 April 2019.
^ Graham, William (23 September 2017). "Atlas V launches NROL-42 spy satellite". NASASpaceflight.com. Retrieved 16 April 2019.
^ Richelson, Jeffrey T (2002). The Wizards of Langley. Inside the CIA's Directorate of Science and Technology. Boulder: Westview Press. ISBN 978-0-8133-4059-3. Retrieved 17 April 2019.
^ Tomasz Nowakowski (November 17, 2015). "Russian Soyuz-2.1b rocket successfully launches Tundra satellite". Spaceflight Insider.
^ Curt Godwin (May 25, 2017). "Soyuz rocket successfully delivers EKS-2 early-warning satellite to rare orbit". Spaceflight Insider.
^ Clark, Stephen (25 May 2017). "Russia sends military satellite into orbit for missile warnings – Spaceflight Now".
^ Soler, Tomás; Eisemann, David W. (August 1994). "Determination of Look Angles To Geostationary Communication Satellites" (PDF). Journal of Surveying Engineering. 120 (3): 123. doi:10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9453(1994)120:3(115). ISSN 0733-9453. Retrieved 16 April 2019.
^ a b c d Wertz, James Richard; Larson, Wiley J. (1999). Larson, Wiley J.; Wertz, James R. (eds.). Space Mission Analysis and Design. Microcosm Press and Kluwer Academic Publishers. Bibcode:1999smad.book.....W. ISBN 1-881883-10-8.
^ a b c d e f Kidder, Stanley Q.; Vonder Haar, Thomas H. (18 August 1989). "On the Use of Satellites in Molniya Orbits of Meteorological Observation of Middle and High Latitudes". Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology. 7 (3): 517. doi:10.1175/1520-0426(1990)007<0517:OTUOSI>2.0.CO;2.
^ King-Hele, D. G. (January 1975). "The Orbital Lifetime of Molniya Satellites". Journal of the British Interplanetary Society. 28: 783–796. Bibcode:1975JBIS...28..783K.
^ van der Ha, Jozef C., ed. (November 1997). Mission Design & Implementation of Satellite Constellations: Proceedings of an International Workshop held in Toulouse, France. Springer-Science. p. 67. ISBN 9401061378. Retrieved 16 April 2019.
^ "Antarctic Broadband program". rsaa.anu.edu.au. Australian National University. Retrieved 12 April 2019.
^ a b Bonin, Grant; Zee, Robert; Brett, Michael; King, Jan; Faber, Daniel (October 2012). Antarctic Broadband: Fast Internet for the Bottom of the Earth. IAC 2012. Retrieved 12 April 2019.
^ Bird, Cameron, ed. (17 November 2015). Final evaluation of the Australian Space Research Program (PDF) (Report). Department of Industry, Innovation and Science. Retrieved 12 April 2019.
^ Dempster, Andrew. "As the details emerge on Australia's new space agency, we (might) finally have lift-off". The Conversation. Retrieved 12 April 2019.
^ Kidder, Stanley Q.; Vonder Haar, Thomas H. (June 1990). "On the Use of Satellites in Molniya Orbits for Meteorological Observation of Middle and High Latitudes". Journal of Atmospheric and Oceanic Technology. 7 (3): 519. Bibcode:1990JAtOT...7..517K. doi:10.1175/1520-0426(1990)007<0517:OTUOSI>2.0.CO;2.
^ Sturdivant, R. L.; Chon, E. K. P. (2016). "Systems Engineering of a Terabit Elliptic Orbit Satellite and Phased Array Ground Station for IoT Connectivity and Consumer Internet Access". IEEE Access. 4: 9947. doi:10.1109/ACCESS.2016.2608929.
^ Hoots, Felix R.; Roehrich, Ronald L. (31 December 1988). Models for Propagation of NORAD Element Sets (PDF) (Report). United States Department of Defense Spacetrack Report. Retrieved 16 June 2010.
Illustration of the communication geometry provided by satellites in 12-hour Molniya orbits (video)
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Molniya_orbit&oldid=998808041"


text:
'Cash is literally useless' - Dollars and pounds attacked at crypto conference as inflation spikes
It's estimated that 150 million people worldwide now own Bitcoin - and the cryptocurrency's supporters argue that this digital asset is maturing fast.
It's a dramatic sight.
At the heart of a bustling conference hall, steam billows from a replica volcano emblazoned with Bitcoin 2022's logo.
For attendees, it's a symbol of the cryptocurrency's future ambitions - and shows how far Bitcoin has come since it launched in 2009.
A 3,000lb statue of a bull was unveiled on the first day of the conference.
Early conferences only attracted dozens of people, mainly cryptographers.
Bitcoin 2022 is different. Organisers say more than 25,000 people turned up each day - with thousands more watching online.
This doesn't feel like an exaggeration. The Miami Beach Convention Centre is cavernous - it takes 20 minutes to walk from one side to another.
Ten years ago, whole Bitcoins were given away for free… and some even went unclaimed.
But this week, enthusiasts were battling it out for the chance to win crypto. Queues formed at a mechanical bull - and the competitor who stayed on the longest would be rewarded with 1 BTC.
That's about £33,000 at the time of writing. In case you're wondering: yes, I did go on it. And yes, I lasted two-and-a-half seconds. (The winner held on for two-and-a-half minutes.)
Riding the mechanical bull was even harder than it looks... and it looked difficult
Bitcoin's a teenager now
An American senator was among the speakers on the main stage, which was named after Bitcoin's pseudonymous inventor Satoshi Nakamoto.
Serena Williams also proclaimed her love for Bitcoin, with the tennis champion investing in a multitude of crypto startups.
Tennis star Serena Williams thinks Bitcoin is ace - and spoke at the conference
Prior to the event, there was palpable excitement over what would be announced at Bitcoin 2022.
At last year's conference, El Salvador surprised attendees - and the world - by announcing that it planned to adopt Bitcoin as legal tender, elevating it to the same status as the US dollar.
President Nayib Bukele's policy went into force three months later… and this speed caused problems of its own. There were anti-Bitcoin protests on the streets, huge technical hiccups as Salvadorans attempted to claim the free $30 in BTC they were entitled to, and warnings from the International Monetary Fund that this was a very bad idea. (A recent poll by the country's Chamber of Commerce also revealed that 91% of businesses said the Bitcoin Law had no material impact on their sales.)
Indeed, the volcano in the conference hall is a tribute to El Salvador. Mr Bukele recently announced plans to create "Bitcoin City" - a metropolis devoted to the cryptocurrency that would be built at the base of a volcano. The president was meant to deliver a keynote speech at this year's event, but had to cancel due to "unforeseen circumstances". His country recently declared a state of emergency after a spike in gang-related killings.
An estimated 25,000 people attended each day of Bitcoin 2022's main conference
Bitcoin 2022 announcements
When it came to this year's announcements, the rumour mill was in overdrive. Would Apple embrace crypto? Would another country embrace Bitcoin as legal tender?
The answer to both questions was no. Instead, the focus was on making BTC more practical as an everyday payment method.
Right now, the Bitcoin network can take anywhere from 10 minutes to an hour to confirm a transaction. The average fee comes in at £1.44. And while Visa can handle about 1,700 transactions per second, Bitcoin's blockchain can only process seven.
The main announcements centred on technology known as Lightning. It promises to make Bitcoin payments instantaneous, complete with "exceptionally low fees". Crucially, it's claimed that this network can scale to millions or billions of transactions per second if necessary. A string of companies - including Cash App and Robinhood - unveiled support for Lightning at the conference.
Strike CEO Jack Mallers accused the likes of Visa and Mastercard for failing to innovate over the past 50 years.
Jack Mallers, the CEO of the crypto company Strike, also revealed he was building a cheap, Bitcoin-based payments network designed to rival credit card giants. Through a number of partnerships, including with the world's biggest supplier of point-of-sale devices, he vowed to ensure Bitcoin can be used as a payment method in "millions" of American stores - including McDonald's, Walmart, Whole Foods and Starbucks.
The entrepreneur accused legacy payment networks - including Visa and Mastercard - of failing to innovate for more than 50 years. Both of these brands have been embracing cryptocurrency over the past year or two. Mastercard's head of crypto, Raj Dhamodharan, pushed back against these claims - telling me that the company is "constantly adding value".
While Strike's announcement was a big deal for the US, you could argue that international attendees didn't get that "rabbit out of the hat" moment.
The city of Prospera in Honduras - and Madeira in Portugal - did reveal that they're planning to adopt Bitcoin. But Samson Mow, an entrepreneur who is devoting his time to helping nation-states embrace this cryptocurrency, told me on CoinMarketCap's podcast that it's "difficult" for most countries to take the plunge like El Salvador did because their presidents and prime ministers lack influence. (President Nayib Bukele once described himself as "the coolest dictator in the world".)
A Bitcoiner wears a T-shirt that says 'HODL' - encouraging people to hold on to their crypto. The slogan's inspired by a typo made on a Bitcoin forum years ago
Cash 'is literally useless'
At times, the speakers on stage at Bitcoin 2022 did sound a little cultish - with some downright scaring people by claiming major currencies like the US dollar will implode in a matter of years.
Mexican billionaire Ricardo Salinas brandished a banknote and said: "This thing is literally useless... it's not even good for toilet paper."
Bitcoin has a fixed supply of 21 million coins, and because of this, its supporters firmly believe that the cryptocurrency protects investors against inflation. Many in the industry have been fiercely critical of central banks for increasing the amount of money in circulation, and warn that consumers are only going to see their spending power erode further in years to come.
There was also fierce criticism of central bank digital currencies (CBDCs) - with the Bank of England and the US Federal Reserve weighing up plans to build digital pounds and dollars respectively. Bitcoiners hate these proposals, and claim they have the potential to be even worse than cash. Mr Salinas suggested CBDCs could give banks unprecedented control - and even stop people from buying cigars or staying out past 2am.
"They think it's a bad idea? They close your capacity to spend your money. They'll be tracking 100% of your spending - what you spent, and how you spent it," he warned.
Bitcoin ATMs allow users to convert physical cash into crypto - but they recently disappeared in the UK over fears they could facilitate money laundering
Talk on stage also regularly turned to "orange pilling" - the term that's used to describe encouraging people to invest in Bitcoin for the first time. Although such talk is perfectly normal in the (rather macho) world of crypto, it might be extremely off-putting to everyday consumers.
Bitcoin has faced a barrage of criticism from the likes of Bill Gates and Warren Buffett, with the latter famously describing it as "rat poison squared". But speakers passionately argued that these men come from a position of financial privilege - and live in advanced economies with free speech and relatively stable countries.
One panel led by the Human Rights Foundation claimed Bitcoin is viewed differently in nations ravaged by war, weak currencies, hyperinflation or authoritarian regimes. Indeed, the US Senate recently heard evidence from one Ukrainian refugee who said they preferred to receive Bitcoin over international cash transfers because it could be used immediately.
Bitcoin miners pushed back against criticism over how much energy the cryptocurrency's blockchain uses
Bitcoin's climate impact
The Bitcoin blockchain's energy usage is regularly cited as a cause for concern - and rightly so. The process of verifying transactions and minting new coins, known as mining, gobbles up a lot of computing power.
But many of the speakers at this conference were dismissive of the network's carbon footprint, with some advocating for Bitcoin to use even more energy. In their eyes, the electricity that's used to power the thousands of machines that keep this network going is essential because of the benefits that the blockchain delivers. They question estimates that suggest Bitcoin has a bigger carbon footprint than a small country, and say previous forecasts about its future energy use have been well off the mark.
The CEO of the Bitcoin mining company Core Scientific, Darin Feinstein, pointed to an article written by the World Economic Forum in 2017 predicting that - by 2020 - "Bitcoin mining could be consuming the same amount of electricity every year as is currently used by the entire world".
He said: "We know they were wrong, the lights are still on."
Mr Feinstein went on to claim Bitcoin's energy use is "inconsequential" and is a "fraction of a fraction of a percent" of what the world consumes.
A bold claim for sure - but a word of caution: getting accurate data on this is far easier said than done.
Many Bitcoin miners also claim that they are intensive users of green energy - and they're actually helping drive innovation in renewables. The Bitcoin Mining Council, which aims to deliver "transparency" in energy use, estimates that 58.5% of the electricity used by miners worldwide came from sustainable sources in the fourth quarter of 2021. But just 46% of the global Bitcoin network are members of this council, meaning there's a lot of extrapolation going on here.
Supporters say Bitcoin is built on strong foundations - critics warn the cryptocurrency is a Jenga tower that could collapse at any moment
Challenges ahead
London and Washington have both softened their tone on cryptocurrencies lately. While Chancellor Rishi Sunak wants to make the UK "a global cryptoasset hub", US President Joe Biden has signed an executive order calling on his government to examine the risks and benefits of digital assets.
This doesn't mean Bitcoin is out of the woods. Huge question marks remain over its energy use. And while many transactions can be traced on the blockchain, there are fears BTC can be used anonymously for money laundering, sanctions evasion and the financing of terrorism. The full force of regulation is yet to be felt - and while Bitcoin is unlikely to be banned altogether, tough rules could make it very difficult for people to own... and hard for crypto businesses to operate.
As of the time of writing, the total value of all Bitcoin in circulation stands at about £614bn. Despite the fact that it's still a minnow on the world's financial scene, its supporters are adamant that big things lie ahead.
One crypto CEO, Fred Thiel, said during the conference: "Bitcoin is going to evolve into something much bigger than I think most of us have envisioned. Its adoption is going to creep into every aspect of trade, every aspect of commerce, finance, saving, investing."
Given Bitcoin's current size, this almost feels like declaring a nine-year-old footballer will one day become the world's best striker. Sure, there's some promise... but isn't it too early to tell?
Bitcoin ads appear to be everywhere these days - especially in Miami.
With 150 million users out of a population of eight billion, Bitcoin has a long way to go if it wants to achieve global adoption. Buying this cryptocurrency remains a fiddly, convoluted process for those who aren't technically minded, but it is getting easier. There are also worries about BTC's volatility, scams, and the prospect that it can be stolen - with no customer service number to call.
But those in the Bitcoin world are aware of all these challenges - and say they're determined to tackle them. The cryptocurrency's demise has been predicted hundreds of times over the years, and it has a reputation for proving naysayers wrong. Banks who once poured scorn on Bitcoin now predict it could be worth hundreds of thousands of dollars one day.
If this year's conference is anything to go by, Bitcoin 2023 will be even bigger.
#Bill Gates #Joe Biden


Happy In Quilting: All done….
but I am super happy….
Looks great! ! What's not to love?
It really is a great choice of fabric and I like the way the black border sets it off so weel. Great to have such a bright backing, too.
Adorable - and I love the quilting!
Love it! The borders really make the quilt pop.
Great quilt for your little sweetheart.
This is lovely, maybe not the correct word for a boys quilt! Think I will make somethjng like this for my new grandbaby, due early August. Don't know if it is a boy or girl, or dinosaur as thd 6 year old me!
Love the contrasting dark on the border .
I really love how this one turned out..the colours just "pop".


Free Lenormand and tarot reading.
Re: Free Lenormand and tarot reading.
I think you are writing in the wrong thread.
Also, I do not know the answer to your question, try in astrology sections.
I want relationship adivce from you.i want to know my boyfriend(6 years together in longdistance relationship) is cheating me.i have feeling that he got married and not telling me.can you help me?
Hope to get reply from you as i am quite depressed with the feeling of being cheated.
Please give me few days,I will answer asap.
Is Lenormand and tarot are same? which card give very clear readings and are better at everyday life and predictive readings?
I got the hanged man - the hierophant - 3 of wands.
On the bottom of the deck is 5 of pentacles and king of wands.
First I must say I do not see romance here, nor really any big passion.
There is a slight indication that someone here IS married, but from all that I see there is lots of stagnation in this relationship.
It feels as almost he sees you more as a friend then a love partner.
I think that someone is left out on the cold here, someone kind of just walked away.
I see this man is turned to himself, making his everyday life comfortable, not really making an effort here.
I just do not see any big interest or rather to say passion from his side. More like calm friendly vibes towards you, but that's it.
I hope this helps, if you have any additional questions feel free to ask.
I would say tarot is better for looking at a bigger picture, gives more details.
Lenormand is more specific and to the point. I wouldn't use Lenormand for long term or any big predictions, although I must say that both tarot and Lenormand are more then suitable for any kind of readings.
I am offering free tarot or/and Lenormand readings, if interested please ask here.
Hello Sir, my mother is sick from last 3.5 years. Please let me know when she will get well ?


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Lawnchair Spec

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Originally known as the IMC (Instrument Meteorological Course) the IR(R) course consists of a minimum of 15 hours dual. The basic instrument flying techniques demonstrated during the PPL will be revised and improved, introducing more advanced instrument flying skills.
The EASA IR(R) rating is designed as a 'get you out of trouble' qualification and not as a replacement for the IR. This qualification is ideal for the changeable Scottish weather around Inverness and very good introduction if your intention is to proceed to the IR eventually.
The rating entitles the holder to fly in IFR/IMC weather conditions, VFR on top of cloud and also to undertake instrument approaches such as the ILS, VOR and Surveillance Radar (SRA) procedures. The rating only allows the full privileges outside of class 'A' airspace but just the same increases the SVFR privileges within class A. Class A airspace is confined to only a few areas of the UK; airways, the London Control zone and a number of TMAs including the Channel Islands TMA. Therefore the full privileges of the rating can be used extensively within the UK.
Not less than 10 hours of the course must be flown with sole reference to the instruments.
A written paper consisting of 25 multi-choice questions covering the IMC theoretical knowledge training. The pass mark is 72%. The examination must be passed within 12 months preceding the date of application. It can be taken before or after the flight test.
Renewal and revalidation require training if/as required and a proficiency test. The proficiency test including Limited Panel Instrument flying, Let-down and Approach procedures and Bad weather circuits.
You need to demonstrate logbook evidence showing that in the period since the previous flight Test/Check you've successfully completed a let-down and approach to DH/MDH, a go-around and a missed approach procedure, using an aid of a different type from that used during the Let-down and Approach Procedures of your initial flight test. Alternatively you may carry out two approach procedures using different aids.


When Isaac was old and his eyes were so weak that he was almost blind, he called his older son Esau and said to him, "My son!" "Here I am!" Esau replied.
And on the vine were three branches. Then it was as though it budded; its blossoms burst forth and the clusters of them brought forth ripe grapes [almost all at once].
When Israel [almost blind] saw Joseph's sons, he said, Who are these?
Along the way at a [resting-] place, the Lord met [Moses] and sought to kill him [made him acutely and almost fatally ill].
And the flax and the barley were damaged, for the barley was almost ready to be cut and the flax was in flower.
Say to the Israelites, On the first day of the seventh month [almost October], you shall observe a day of solemn [sabbatical] rest, a memorial day announced by blowing of trumpets, a holy [called] assembly.
Then you shall sound abroad the loud trumpet on the tenth day of the seventh month [almost October]; on the Day of Atonement blow the trumpet in all your land.
And there went forth a wind from the LORD and brought quail from the sea and left them upon the camp, a day's journey on this side and a day's journey on the other side, round about the camp and almost two cubits high upon the face of the earth.
She cried on his shoulder until the party was almost over. Finally, on the seventh day, he told her because she had nagged him so much. Then she told the young men the solution to the riddle.
The man got up to go with his concubine and his servant, when his father-in-law, the girl's father, said to him, "Look, night is coming. Please spend the night. See, the day is almost over. Spend the night here, enjoy yourself, then you can get up early tomorrow for your journey and go home."
And when they were come almost out of the town, Samuel said to Saul, "Bid the lad go before us," - and he went - "but stand thou still a while even now, that I may show thee what God sayeth."
And a champion went out of the camp of the Philistines named Goliath of Gath, whose height was six cubits and a span [almost ten feet].
Now on the ninth day of the fourth month, the store of food in the town was almost gone, so that there was no food for the people of the land.
My stomach is like wine which is unable to get out; like skins full of new wine, it is almost burst.
My life goes on in sorrow, and my years in weeping; my strength is almost gone because of my sin, and my bones are wasted away.
Yea, I had almost also said even as they do; but lo, then should I have condemned the generation of thy children.
Hyenas will howl in the fortresses, and jackals, in the luxurious palaces. Babylon's time is almost up; her days are almost over.
They will say, 'Prepare to do battle against it! Come on! Let's attack it at noon!' But later they will say, 'Oh, oh! Too bad! The day is almost over and the shadows of evening are getting long.
The Lord's great day of judgment is almost here; it is approaching very rapidly! There will be a bitter sound on the Lord's day of judgment; at that time warriors will cry out in battle.
And, lo! a great tempest arose on the lake, so that the boat was almost covered by the waves; but he was sleeping.
For to the person who [already] has something, [more] will be given, so he will have a larger amount [i.e., of understanding], but from the person who has [almost] nothing, even [the little] he has will be taken away from him.
When they had almost reached Jerusalem, having come as far as Bethphage, on the Mount of Olives, Jesus sent on two disciples.
And he said, "Go into the city, unto such a man, and say to him, The master saith, my time is almost at hand: I will keep mine Easter at thy house with my disciples."
for fear of whom the keepers shook, and were almost struck dead.
And they were all so amazed and almost terrified that they kept questioning and demanding one of another, saying, What is this? What new (fresh) teaching! With authority He gives orders even to the unclean spirits and they obey Him!
For to the person who [already] has something, [more] will be given, and from the person who has [almost] nothing, even what [little] he has will be taken away from him."
And there arose a great storm of wind, and the waves beat into the ship, so that it was now almost full.
And Jesus went with him; and a great crowd kept following Him and pressed Him from all sides [so as almost to suffocate Him].
When He saw how distressed His disciples were, rowing against an opposing wind, Jesus came to them between three and six o'clock in the morning, walking on the water, and almost walked past them.
So they signalled to their partners in the other boat to come and help them; they came, and they filled both the boats so that they almost sank.
A Captain in the Roman army had a slave whom he valued, and who was seriously ill--almost at the point of death.
For he had an only daughter, about twelve years of age, and she was dying. As [Jesus] went, the people pressed together around Him [almost suffocating Him].
Now when the time was almost come for Jesus to be received up [to heaven], He steadfastly and determinedly set His face to go to Jerusalem.
[So the gentleman concluded], 'I tell you, to every person who [already] has something, [more] will be given, but from that person who has [almost] nothing, even [the little] he has will be taken away from him.
It was when Jesus had almost reached Bethphage and Bethany, near the Mount of Olives, that he sent on two of the disciples.
But they urged Him: "Stay with us, because it's almost evening, and now the day is almost over." So He went in to stay with them.
Now it was almost time for the Jewish Festival of Tabernacles [Note: This was also called "Festival of Shelters," and was one of three principal, annual Jewish festivals and commemorated the occasion of the Israelites living in tents or shelters during their forty year wandering in the desert].
But when he was almost forty years old, it came into his heart to go and see his brothers, the children of Israel.
When they knew that he was a Jew, there arose a shout almost for the space of two hours of all men crying, "Great is Diana of the Ephesians."
This man [i.e., Paul] was grabbed by the Jews and almost killed by them when I discovered what they were doing and rescued him, after learning that he was a Roman citizen.
Abraham's faith did not become weak [even though] he was about one hundred years old and considered his body almost dead and Sarah's womb incapable of conceiving a child.
I almost wish that these men who are upsetting you would go all the way, and have themselves mutilated.
For in fact he was ill almost to death: but God had mercy on him; and not only on him but on me, so that I might not have grief on grief.
since it was because of the work of Christ that he almost died. He risked his life so that he could make up for your inability to serve me.
Now when he speaks of a new agreement, he is treating the first one as obsolete; but whatever is obsolete and antiquated is almost ready to disappear.
Then the winepress was stomped outside the city, and blood poured out of the winepress up to the height of horses' bridles for a distance of almost two hundred miles.


text:
NASA's Perseverance rover launches on mission to Mars
The Mars 2020 mission is underway following the launch of NASA's newest Mars rover, Perseverance.
NASA's newest Mars rover, Perseverance, has successfully launched on its journey to the Red Planet, where it will search for signs of ancient life.
Perseverance will explore the Martian landscape, looking for signs that life may once have existed on the planet back when it was warm and and wet. The rover will also examine the geology at Jezero Crater on Mars and help NASA understand more about rover technologies.
The rover was accompanied on its launch by the Ingenuity Mars Helicopter, which will explore the Red Planet from above ground. Both lifted off at 11:50 UTC, 30 July 2020, on an Atlas V rocket from Cape Canaveral Air Force Station in Florida.
The Mars 2020 mission payload sent its first signal to NASA ground control at 13:15 UTC, confirming all was well with the launch.
Mars 2020: the new missions heading for the Red Planet
How ExoMars 2020 will search for signs of life on the Red Planet
What did astronomers believe about Mars before the Space Age?
An artist's impression of the Perseverance Rover. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech
"With the launch of Perseverance, we begin another historic mission of exploration," says NASA Administrator Jim Bridenstine.
"This amazing explorer's journey has already required the very best from all of us to get it to launch through these challenging times. Now we can look forward to its incredible science and to bringing samples of Mars home even as we advance human missions to the Red Planet. As a mission, as an agency, and as a country, we will persevere."
Perseverance's mission is to seek out signs that Mars may once have hosted any kind of life throughout its ancient history. It is also able to collect geological samples for future missions to collect and return to Earth.
There is about 290 million miles between us and Mars. But if there was ever a team that could make it happen, it is this one. We are going to Jezero Crater. We will see you there Feb. 18, 2021.
John McNamee, Mars 2020 project manager, NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory.
This would enable the samples to be analysed using technology too unwieldy to send to Mars for in-situ analysis.
"Jezero Crater is the perfect place to search for signs of ancient life," says Thomas Zurbuchen, associate administrator for NASA's Science Mission Directorate.
"Perseverance is going to make discoveries that cause us to rethink our questions about what Mars was like and how we understand it today.
"As our instruments investigate rocks along an ancient lake bottom and select samples to return to Earth, we may very well be reaching back in time to get the information scientists need to say that life has existed elsewhere in the universe."
Breathing in the Martian air?
Perseverance is fitted with an instrument called MOXIE (Mars Oxygen In-Situ Resource Utilization Experiment), which will be testing whether it's possible to convert Martian carbon dioxide into oxygen.
If successful, it could provide scientists with a information about how to convert CO2 into breathable oxygen for future Martian astronauts and fuel for spacecraft.
The other fascinating aspect of the Mars 2020 payload is the Ingenuity Mars Helicopter, which will remain attached to Perseverance throughout the journey to Mars and also for the first 60 days the rover spends on the surface of the Red Planet. Its purpose is as a flight test, as the helicopter carries no science instruments.
The helicopter will attempt up to 5 flights throughout the mission, which will provide data for engineers to begin planning the next generation of Mars helicopters that could search for rovers and human crews, transport payloads or investigate hard-to-reach locations.
Artist's impression of NASA's Ingenuity Mars Helicopter flying through Martian sky. Credit: NASA/JPL-Caltech
"Perseverance is the most capable rover in history because it is standing on the shoulders of our pioneers Sojourner, Spirit, Opportunity, and Curiosity," says Michael Watkins, director of NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory in Southern California.
"In the same way, the descendants of Ingenuity and MOXIE will become valuable tools for future explorers to the Red Planet and beyond."
"There is still a lot of road between us and Mars," says John McNamee, Mars 2020 project manager at JPL.
"About 290 million miles of them. But if there was ever a team that could make it happen, it is this one. We are going to Jezero Crater. We will see you there Feb. 18, 2021."
Find out more about the mission via the NASA Mars 2020 website. Iain Todd is BBC Sky at Night Magazine's Staff Writer.
Science instruments installed on UK-built Mars rover Rosalind Franklin
Perfect storm brewing on Mars
Interview How the ExoMars 2020 rover will search for signs of life on the Red Planet
NASA's VIPER rover to seek water ice at Moon's south pole


We produce a wide range of portfolios, display bindings and albums both sewn and screw-post, for artists, designers, students, photographers, calligraphers and collectors.
These are individually designed and made, in any size or colour and can be blocked, hand-tooled or personalised to your own requirements.
We offer a wide range of high quality materials, including; leather, cloth and archive-quality papers. In addition we can supply slip-cases, boxes and folders, if required.