Oligocene and Miocene strata of the Bengal basin, Bangladesh, show significant changes in sediment composition and record sediment-input history from different sources adjacent to the basin. Oligocene Barail sands (Qt70F2L28) are quartzolithic with rare to no feldspars. Dominance of quartz, presence of some lithic fragments and paucity of feldspar suggest erosion from a low-relief area under strong chemical weathering. The source area could have been the Indian craton. Minor contribution from the Indo-Burman ranges can not also be ruled out. Miocene Surma sandstones (Qt59F23L18) are quartzolithic to quartzofeldspathic and have comparatively high feldspar and lithic contents. This change may represent the initiation of uplift and erosion of the Himalayas. Oligocene heavy minerals are dominated by opaque and ultra-stable minerals, whereas the Miocene sediments show fewer opaque grains and contain garnets. Textural and mineralogical maturity of the heavy minerals along with the presence of chrome spinel in the Oligocene sediments suggests a relatively short transport distance and a proximal source, which could be the Rajmahal Trap (located adjacent to the northwestern part of the basin). However, presence of epidote, garnet, and aluminum-silicate minerals (sillimanite) in Lower Miocene units indicate the possibility of input from an orogenic source from the eastern Himalayas and the Indo-Burman ranges. Detrital garnets in Miocene sediments are mostly almandine-rich with varied pyrope and low grossular content. These garnets indicate provenance from medium- to low-grade regionally metamorphosed rocks of the Higher Himalayas and high-grade metamorphic rocks of the Indian craton. Chrome spinel data of Oligocene sediments show that the spinels have high chromium content (average 42%) and wide range in TiO2 wt% (0.3 to 3%). These spinels might have been derived from the Alpine-type ophiolites in the Indo-Burman ranges and the Rajmahal Trap. Tourmaline and calcic amphibole data from the Bengal basin also indicate a dominantly low-grade and metasedimentary provenance with minor contribution from granitoid and pegmatitic rocks. High sedimentation rates, extremely low permeability of confining units, and very high compressibility are the main reasons for overpressure in Miocene strata at three of the studied structures (Titas, Bakhrabar, and Rashidpur). However, a combination of factors, including strong horizontal deviatoric regional stress from the advancing Indo-Burman ranges and uplift produced by fault propagation folding and concomitant shale diapirism are responsible for overpressure in the Sitakund structure of eastern fold belt. Absence of overpressure in the Oligocene strata in the Bengal basin indicates apparent lack of any significant orogeny in the east. The transition from the Oligocene to Miocene strata records changes in sediment composition and input from additional sources to the basin depocenters. The basin received sediments mostly from the Indian craton during the Oligocene time with minor input from the Rajmahal Trap to the west and distant orogenic belts to the east. At the beginning of the Miocene time, the Bengal basin moved proximal to the encroaching Himalayan and the Indo-Burman orogenic belts, and started receiving sediments from the north and the east.


New type of learning management system (LMS) that applies social and open concepts to change learning and student development.
A structured measurable professional development program that gets undergraduate students ready for the workplace.
A model and associated software for offering 100% online graduate degree programs at low cost to achieve very high retention and satisfaction.
Open: All activity is open (e.g., a new post in a course is automatically published on the Internet, a widget displays 'who is online', e-portfolios are available on the Internet).
Discovery: Tools that encourage discovery of new members, new activity, and content (e.g., community activity list, leaderboard, search, tagging, permanent URLs, PRO point calendar).
Aggregation: Activity and content is collated (e.g., sites are automatically published through RSS, badges, graduation analysis and peer comparison analysis on the PRO dashboard).
To learn more see: Mandviwalla, M., Schuff, D., Chacko, M. and Miller, L. Is That All There Is? Taking Education to New Levels in the Social Media Era. Change: The Magazine of Higher Learning, September 2013.
If you have any questions about the platform please contact Laurel Miller at Laurel.Miller@temple.edu.


text:
Exec Suite
September 15, 2015 7:46am PT by Eriq Gardner
Twitter Hit With Class Action Lawsuit for Eavesdropping on Direct Messages
The lawsuit targets algorithms that "intercept" and replace links.
To most Twitter users, URL link shorteners are a convenient way to stuff more into a 140-character message. But a proposed class action lawsuit filed on Monday alleges that the social media service is using them in violation of the Electronic Communications Privacy Act and California's privacy law.
The complaint brought in federal court in San Francisco from Wilford Raney and others similarly situated is claiming that despite Twitter's assurances that users are allowed to "talk privately" among one another, "Twitter surreptitiously eavesdrops on its users' private Direct Message communications. As soon as a user sends a Direct Message, Twitter intercepts, reads, and, at times, even alters the message."
The lawsuit uses a link to The New York Times as an example.
If a user privately tells a follower through the service to check out a story on nytimes.com, providing a full URL, Twitter will modify this into a custom link such as "http:/t.co/CL2SKBxr1s" (while still displaying the text "www.nytimes.com" to its users).
Twitter algorithms are making the change, but nevertheless, the lawsuit asserts that it's wrong. By sending users to Twitter's analytics servers before passing them on to the linked-to website, Twitter is allegedly benefiting by demonstrating to The New York Times and others where the source of the traffic is. "The end result is that Twitter can negotiate better advertising rates," says the lawsuit.
Do Twitter's practices amount to wiretapping?
Some legal scholars have argued that computers scanning communications don't amount to interception, but two years ago, Google failed to get a judge to dismiss a class action lawsuit over the Web giant's peek into user gmail for keywords so as to deliver custom advertising. In that case, the judge looked at whether the interception happened in the "ordinary course of business" — an exemption under the ECPA — and ruled that the "limitation...means that the...provider...must demonstrate that the interception facilitated the communication service or was incidental to the functioning of the...service."
Google later got a victory when a judge denied class certification.
The new lawsuit aims to represent two classes — every American on Twitter who has ever received a direct message and every American on Twitter who has ever sent a direct message. The claimed damages are as high as $100 per day for each Twitter user whose privacy was violated. Here's the full complaint.
A spokesperson for Twitter declined to comment about a lawsuit that comes right on the heels of word that the company is working with publishers including The New York Times on an "instant article" format for quicker loading of stories.
Eriq Gardner
eriq.gardner@thr.com eriqgardner

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


text:
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UGH! I couldn't believe this was real until I found numerous news reports from news papers.
This hurts my heart for so many reasons….who could be so cruel and heartless. That child is someone's baby. And I know if my child were special needs, I'd be in full mama bear mode after receiving a letter like this. Disgusting.
I read about it and I was disgusted to the person who wrote the letter. The "mom" who wrote this should be euthanize!


text:
Кунрад ван Бёнинген (;  — , Амстердам) — один из наиболее опытных дипломатов Голландской республики, бургомистр Амстердама в 1669, 1672, 1680, 1681, 1683 и 1684 годах, и с 1681 года — директор Голландской Ост-Индской компании. Предположительно страдал биполярным аффективным расстройством, которое получил после потери своего состояния в 1688 году.

Биография

Ранние годы
Кунрад был крещён дома, потому что его отец Дирк ван Бёнинген и мать Катарина Бург были ремонстрантами и не хотели создавать шумиху. Он был внуком Гёрта ван Бёнингена, а также Альберта Бурга, оба были мэрами Амстердама и активно участвовали в Голландской Ост-Индской компании. Кунрад вырос в многоконфессиональном и полиэтническом районе, по соседству с Питером Ластманом. Он обучался в латинской школе Гергарда Иоганна Фосса и Каспара Барлеуса до начала учебы в Лейденском университете в 1639 году. В 1642 году шведский посланник в Париже Гуго Гроций сделал Кунрада своим секретарем, а в 1643 году Кунрад стал городским клерком в Амстердаме, хотя он не чувствовал себя склонным к этой деятельности.

Швеция
Около 1650 года ван Бёнинген увлёкся идеями Спинозы и коллегиантов в Рейнсбурге. Он жил как можно проще, без работы, где-то в этой местности. В 1652 году он был отправлен с поручением в Швецию к королеве Кристине, которую учил греческому его школьный товарищ Исаак Восс. В 1654 году он отправился в Штаде, чтобы договориться о прекращении спора о прохождении Эресунна. Север Германии был захвачен шведами. Датчане пытались контролировать Эльбу, торговлю в Гамбурге и заняли Бремен. Ван Бёнинген заявил, что ключи от Эресунна находятся в корабельном доке Амстердама. Три года спустя, будучи посланником в Копенгагене, он почти попал в руки шведского короля Карла X Густава, но ему удалось уйти на маленькой лодке.

Посол
В 1660 году он был отправлен с миссией во Францию и Англию. Людовик XIV предложил ему должность во Франции, но он отказался. Ван Бёнинген предостерегал о империалистической и меркантилистской политике Франции и хотел перебраться в Константинополь. Его впечатлил Ян Сваммердам, который путешествовал по Франции с целью образования, и оставался его убеждённым сторонником всю оставшуюся жизнь. В том же 1664 году за договором с Францией последовали Вторая англо-голландская война и Тройственный альянс. В 1669 году он купил участок на глухой улочке в Гааге, где построил дом (Блейенбург) и украсил его картинами и турецкими коврами. Ван Бёнинген согласился с запретом на торговлю французским шёлком и на противодействие импорту французского бренди и соли. В том же году он стал мэром Амстердама. В 1672 году он был назначен преемником Яна де Витта, не являясь при этом убеждённым республиканцем. В период потери благосклонности штатгальтера Вильгельма III на его жизнь было совершено покушение; говорят, что он был шокирован и сжёг часть своей мебели. В одном из своих писем он писал о фантастическом расширении торговли и колоний в Индии и Америке. Он также заметил, что в Голландской республике за 150 лет было больше солдат, чем во всех других христианских странах вместе взятых.

Поздние годы
Ван Бёнинген стал больше интересоваться литературой, философией, теологией, историей и естественными науками. Он подробно писал о последствиях тропических ветров и течений, обсуждая их с Исааком Воссом. Он был в дружеских отношениях с Яном Сиксом и Анной Марией ван Схурман. Ван Бёнинген интересовался идеями Декарта и сочетал это с интересом к мистике, астрологии, хилиастическому толкованию сновидений и сверхъестественным явлениям. Он сочувствовал Жану Лабади и квакерам.

В 1672 году (Год бедствий) местный театр, называемый Схаубургом Ван Кампена, был закрыт во время войны с французами, англичанами и двумя немецкими епископатами Мюнстера и Кёльна. В 1677 году он вновь открылся после решительной кампании под руководством ван Бёнингена и Иоганна Худде, при условии, что ничего не будет устраиваться, что может считаться вредным как для общественной морали, так и для церкви. В 1682 году он финансировал публикацию работ мистика Якоба Бёме. В 1686 году ван Бёнинген женился на своей соседке, богатой и непристойной Якобе Виктории Бартолотти, много лет младше себя.

Ван Бёнинген требовал от Голландской Ост-Индской компании экономии, предлагая меры по внедрению более эффективного управления и требованию большего контроля и более строгому соблюдению правил компании в Азии. Время было мирным, поэтому конвои и содержание фортов компании было уже менее необходимы. Внося эти предложения, он отказался от них, но заявил, что успех компании был работой её способных администраторов в первые двадцать лет.

Ван Бёнинген потерял полмиллиона гульденов в 1688 году из-за спекуляции акциями Голландской Ост-Индской компании. Финансирование вооруженного вторжения Уильяма III в Англию вызвало финансовый кризис в Голландской республике. После того, как ван Бёнинген окончательного сошёл с ума, город Амстердам был назначен его официальным опекуном. Его быстро поместили под охраняемую опеку своих коллег, одним из которых был Иоганн Худде. Его дом в Гааге был конфискован в 1690 году Голландской Ост-Индской компанией.

В последние годы жизни Ван Бёнинген писал церковным властям письма о грядущем апокалипсисе, рисуя еврейские или каббалистические знаки в своем доме на Амстеле. Он был заперт неподалеку и умер 26 октября 1693 года в нищете, оставив «плащ и два халата», кровать, несколько стульев, письменный стол, зеркало овальной формы, четыре старых табурета и «мужской портрет» Рембрандта, стоивший тогда семь гульденов.

Примечания

Внешние ссылки
Amsterdam Municipal-archives - secret writing
 Diplomaat en belegger Coenraad van Beuningen (1622-1693) ; HN no. 3/2009; By Luc Panhuysen]

Политики Нидерландов
Бургомистры Амстердама

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


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Found on the interwebs: Are you a grouch?
Your work outlines an observational study, not an experiment. Your study lacks a hypothesis, a control variable, an experimental variable, or validated methodology. Please do not refer to it as an "experiment," crude or otherwise.
Your methods section is (as you admit) crude, but even that lacks important features.
Measurement of a inter-scream period to within hundredths of a second suggests an extremely precise analytical system, and variability could substantially alter your results. Was your timing system properly calibrated and your start/stop methodology validated?
You fail to distinguish between types of scream (happy, angry, in pain, generically loud communication), which could again substantially alter your results.
You fail to demonstrate that you were able to distinguish between screams originating from my yard and those of nearby individuals, animals, etc. I suggest you evaluate both positive and negative controls. For example, you could have someone drop a brick on your foot as a positive control for pain screams, you could have someone flip you off for angry screams, etc. I would be happy to assist in these if you require.
You link the number and duration of 'screams' (subject to the above substantial caveats) to indicating unsupervised children in distress, drawing the conclusion that my children's well being is at risk. Yet your methodology does not support such a dire conclusion; how can you distinguish between children in distress and children living a full and happy childhood?
Finally, you fail to acknowledge previous work in this area by numerous distinguished authors, including Dr. Fuckoff of MYOB University.
I cannot imagine having a neighbor like this.


text:
Bold Type Books logo Bold Type Books logo
Get News From Bold Type Books
No Justice in the Shadows
How America Criminalizes Immigrants
by Alina Das
Read by Alina Das
Read by Roxana Ortega
ON SALE: April 14th 2020
Genre: Nonfiction / Political Science / Public Policy / Immigration
ebook	Hardcover
This provocative account of our immigration system's long, racist history reveals how it has become the brutal machine that upends the lives of millions of immigrants today.
Each year in the United States, hundreds of thousands of people are arrested, imprisoned, and deported, trapped in what leading immigrant rights activist and lawyer Alina Das calls the "deportation machine." The bulk of the arrests target people who have a criminal record — so-called "criminal aliens" — the majority of whose offenses are immigration-, drug-, or traffic-related. These individuals are uprooted and banished from their homes, their families, and their communities.
Through the stories of those caught in the system, Das traces the ugly history of immigration policy to explain how the U.S. constructed the idea of the "criminal alien," effectively dividing immigrants into the categories "good" and "bad," "deserving" and "undeserving." As Das argues, we need to confront the cruelty of the machine so that we can build an inclusive immigration policy premised on human dignity and break the cycle once and for all.
"Alina Das has written a riveting account of the cruelty and inhumanity of our immigration system. You can no longer say you did not know or sit on the sidelines. This book is powerful, informative, moving, and most importantly, a call to action to protect our immigrant neighbors and commit to building a country that respects the dignity of all people."—Linda Sarsour, activist and author of We Are Not Here to Be Bystanders: A Memoir of Love and Resistance
"This insightful, accessible book from the trenches of deportation defense connects the reader deeply to the actual human beings who suffer, fight and -- win or lose -- assert their own dignity and that of all migrants. Das' breakdown of punitive 1990s policies reveals not only how harmful and discriminatory each is on its own, but also their devastating effect when stacked on top of each other. There is no victory over a racialized immigration system without challenging the hierarchy of 'good' and 'bad' immigrants, a framework that even well-meaning advocates have accepted. There is another way, if we have the courage and the vision to pursue it."—Rinku Sen, former publisher, Colorlines
"A one-stop shop for anyone who wants to know how the Age of Mass Incarceration fueled the rise of the Deportation Nation, and a stellar unmasking of how legacies of white supremacy continue to stoke the criminalization of non-white immigrants today."—Kelly Lytle Hernandez, Thomas E. Lifka Endowed Chair in History, UCLA, and author of City of Inmates: Conquest, Rebellion, and the Rise of Human Caging in Los Angeles, 1771-1965
"Alina Das' book is a necessary and compelling read to understand how the immigration system in the United States targets Black and Brown immigrants. Das writes with compassion about her clients whose lives are altered by cruel and arbitrary immigration policies that aim to exclude, ban, separate, detain and deport millions of people. Das' book urgently reminds us that ending white supremacy requires the dismantlement of the structures and policies that undergird today's immigration system."—Deepa Iyer, author of We Too Sing America: South Asian, Arab, Muslim, and Sikh Immigrants Shape Our Multiracial Future
Meet The Author: Alina Das
Alina Das is an immigrant rights activist, lawyer, and professor at New York University (NYU) School of Law. Das is the co-director of the NYU Immigrant Rights Clinic, a leading institution in national and local struggles for immigrant rights. She defends the rights of immigrants facing deportation and partners with community groups on immigrant rights campaigns. Her legal scholarship has been published by leading law journals and cited by the U.S. Supreme Court.
Das is the recipient of numerous awards for advocacy and teaching, including the Immigrant Defense Project Champion of Justice Award, the Daniel Levy Memorial Award for Outstanding Achievement in Immigration Law, the New York State Youth Leadership Council Outstanding Attorney Award, the NYU Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. Faculty Award, and the NYU Law School Podell Distinguished Teaching Award. Das is a frequent commentator on immigration law and policy for national and local media outlets. Das lives in Brooklyn, New York.


text:
Golf globalization shortchanges U.S. fans
By Gary Van Sickle
Globalization is a word with heft. It sounds important. And the phrase global golf tour sounds exciting and maybe even a little bit sexy.
The reality of golf as a global game – our reality, anyway – should be somewhat sobering: More glitzy tournaments in other parts of the world means fewer big tournaments at home in the United States. That may be good for the players, the PGA Tour and the foreign sponsors, but it won't necessarily be good for American golf fans.
Out of sight, out of mind. The PGA Tour just completed a three-week Asian Swing. There was the CIMB Classic in Malaysia, the inaugural CJ Cup in South Korea and the HSBC Champions, a World Golf Championship in China. Without looking, tell me who won any of those tournaments.
You probably can't. Sure, there was football, baseball playoffs and a World Series going on, but that may not be why you didn't notice golf. It had more to do with the location. It was on the other side of the world, and that caused you not to care that Pat Perez, Justin Thomas and Justin Rose, in chronological order, won those events.
The LPGA and the European Tour already are true global tours. The LPGA will play 18 events in the U.S. this season and 16 events elsewhere. That tour arguably is more successful now than it ever has been, just not with American fans, who may find it more difficult to root for foreign players than home-grown ones and may not be as enthralled by unfamiliar tournaments on unfamiliar courses half a world away.
The European Tour has been innovative while battling its main competitor, the PGA Tour – each tour wants the world's best golfers to play in its events, obviously. That's why the European Tour went global so early. Of 41 sanctioned or co-sanctioned events this season (not including the three majors played in the U.S. or the PGA Tour's four WGC tournaments), 22 were played in Europe. The rest covered the globe, with multiple stops in South Africa (5), United Arab Emirates (3), Australia (2) and China (2), plus events in Fiji, Hong Kong, India, Malaysia, Morocco, Qatar and Turkey. The tour concludes next week with its grand finale in the Middle East, at the DP World Tour Championship in Dubai, the final leg of the Race to Dubai.
How does that affect fan interest back in Europe? It's impossible to measure.
The tours aren't worried about that. They're simply going where the money is, where the sponsors are and where the game itself may have room to grow.
PGA Tour commissioner Jay Monahan met with media three weeks ago in South Korea during the CJ Cup and said, "If you follow the trail, you've got 3.5 million participants and 36 million rounds of golf played here and the fact that we've got such a rich number of players. We are putting so many resources into key international markets so we are prepared when an opportunity to expand presents itself."
The PGA Tour's Ty Votaw added that he was pleased with the quality of the fields that the Asian events drew and said, "We will continue to do everything we can to make sure our players support these important sponsorships."
However, the Tour faces a familiar risk with these international events. The top players aren't simply going to add three more tournaments to their playing schedule. Two or three appearances in Asia will come out of their playing schedule in the U.S. Remember, this is exactly what happened when the WGC events began in 1999. Those events took top players out of regular Tour stops, hurting the strengths of those fields. With four majors, four WGC events, Players Championship and four FedEx Cup playoff events, a top player is committed to 13 tournaments. That means the other 30-plus PGA Tour stops are fighting to be one of the five to eight other events a top player may play.
On the PGA Tour, every tournament is realistically competing with every other tournament, but with these designated bigger events, it's hardly a level playing field.
Add two or more events in Asia to the mix that the world's best players are "encouraged" to support and there's even less meat left on the bones for the other tournaments to fight over.
The expectation is that in 2019, the PGA Tour season will end sooner, perhaps with the FedEx Cup finale on Labor Day weekend, in order to get out of the way of football. To do that, some current PGA Tour stops have to cease existing or move to the fall, increasing that part of the wraparound schedule. The new Asian Swing could help make that a self-fulfilling proposition.
Whether it's globalizing golf or just retooling the tour into a more attractive, if smaller, TV package, it's wise to recognize that global golf has a downside. The main thing, no matter what some official spin doctor tries to tell you, is that less is not more. It's always less.
Gary Van Sickle has covered golf since 1980 for Sports Illustrated and Golf.com, Golf World and The Milwaukee Journal. Email: gvansick@aol.com; Twitter: @GaryVanSickle
Gary Van Sickle
Van Sickle has covered golf since 1980, following the tours to 125 men's major championships, 14 Ryder Cups and one sweet roundtrip flight on the late Concorde. Van Sickle's work appeared, in order, in The Milwaukee Journal, Golf World magazine, Sports Illustrated (20 years) and Golf.com. He is a former president of the Golf Writers Association of America. Email: gvansick@aol.com; Twitter: GaryVanSickle@Twitter.com
See stories by Gary Van Sickle


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\section*{Introduction}
\vspace{0.5cm}
When processing language, navigating in space or performing actions, the brain must be able to integrate information over time. An illustrative example is language processing, as the beginning of a sentence must remain accessible in order to correctly understand its end. One mechanism to achieve such an integration is by means of the network activity. If a signal reverberates in the network activity for the required period of time, it remains accessible for later retrieval~\cite{jaeger2001echo, cramer2020control}.
A direct approach to quantify how long a signal is maintained in the network activity has recently been introduced~\cite{murray_hierarchy_2014, wilting_inferring_2018}.
It measures the intrinsic timescale $\tau$ of a brain area as the decay in the autocorrelation function of the local spiking activity. This decay, although measured from only a tiny subset of neurons, is nonetheless representative for the local circuit~\cite{wilting_between_2019, wilting_operating_2018}.
While long $\tau$ imply that a signal persists in the system for a long period of time, short $\tau$ imply less dependence on previous activity.
\par

From a theoretical perspective, different intrinsic timescales are optimal for different functions. While short intrinsic timescales $\tau$ are considered beneficial for fast responses to stimuli and fast forgetting, long $\tau$ facilitate information storage and integration~\cite{cramer2020control, wilting_operating_2018,cavanagh_diversity_2020, golesorkhi_brain_2021}.
Thus, it has been hypothesized that, depending on functional requirements, the intrinsic timescale varies both \emph{spatially} (depending on the brain area)~\cite{murray_hierarchy_2014, wilting_inferring_2018,hasson2008hierarchy,hasson2015hierarchical, chaudhuri_large-scale_2015, gao2020neuronal, shafiei_topographic_2020}, and \emph{temporally} (depending on the current task)~\cite{meisel2017interplay,cirillo2018neural,wasmuht_intrinsic_2018,gao2020neuronal}.
These hypotheses have been investigated experimentally in different species, but results from spiking activity in humans are missing so far. \par

A \emph{spatial} organization of intrinsic timescales along the sensory processing hierarchy has been suggested conceptually and found experimentally for several mammalian species~\cite{murray_hierarchy_2014, wilting_operating_2018,hasson2008hierarchy,hasson2015hierarchical, siegle_survey_2019, chaudhuri_large-scale_2015, gao2020neuronal}:
For example, spike recordings from macaque suggest a hierarchy of intrinsic timescales that is directly related to the functional hierarchy of information processing, with shorter timescales in sensory areas and longer timescales in prefrontal areas~\cite{murray_hierarchy_2014}. In line with this finding, intrinsic timescales from spike recordings from the mouse visual system were found to increase from thalamus to early and then higher cortical visual areas, suggesting a correlation with the anatomical hierarchy~\cite{rudelt2022mouse}.
Together, these studies suggest that early or unimodal areas show short $\tau$ for fast processing, whereas higher, multimodal cortical areas show longer $\tau$ to facilitate integration of information~\cite{hasson2008hierarchy, murray_hierarchy_2014, chaudhuri_large-scale_2015, hasson2015hierarchical, gao2020neuronal}. \par

A \emph{temporal} variation of timescales is supported by spike recordings from different mammals during task conditions, as well as during different vigilance states.
Recordings from mouse frontal and parietal cortex revealed prolonged intrinsic timescales during REM sleep and shorter timescales during non-REM sleep~\cite{meisel2017interplay}.
Furthermore, evidence from dorsal premotor cortex~\cite{cirillo2018neural} and lateral prefrontal cortex~\cite{wasmuht_intrinsic_2018} of rhesus macaques during memory tasks suggest that the intrinsic timescale of individual neurons is related to the neuron's involvement in the task. In dorsal premotor cortex, neurons with longer timescales showed an increased spatial response coding in the delay period~\cite{cirillo2018neural}. In lateral prefrontal cortex, neurons with short timescales were more involved at an early stage during memory encoding, while long-timescale neurons were more involved at a later stage, dominating coding in the delay period~\cite{wasmuht_intrinsic_2018}.
Thus, it has been hypothesized that the brain is able to \emph{tune} network timescales depending on the current functional requirements~\cite{wilting_operating_2018, cramer2020control, cavanagh_diversity_2020, golesorkhi_brain_2021}.\par

Despite vast evidence from spiking activity in non-human mammals, obtaining reliable estimates of $\tau$ for humans is hindered by the invasive procedure when recording spiking activity. Therefore, intrinsic timescales, or related measures, have only been inferred from fMRI~\cite{watanabe_atypical_2019}, EEG~\cite{watanabe_atypical_2019,zilio2021intrinsic} and ECoG data~\cite{honey2012slow,gao2020neuronal} in the past. Intrinsic timescales from fMRI data revealed longer timescales in frontal and parietal cortices and shorter timescales in sensorimotor, visual, and auditory areas~\cite{watanabe_atypical_2019}. Furthermore, intrinsic timescales differed between autism patients and healthy individuals~\cite{watanabe_atypical_2019} and timescales obtained from ECoG data revealed differences between sensory regions and higher order regions~\cite{honey2012slow}.
Most recently, a hierarchy of intrinsic timescales along the anatomical hierarchy from sensory to association regions was confirmed in human ECoG data~\cite{gao2020neuronal}. This comprehensive study further demonstrated a reduction of timescales with the age of the subject, and an increasing timescale in prefrontal cortex during working memory tasks.
Lastly, human EEG data~\cite{zilio2021intrinsic} showed differences in timescale-related measures depending on the vigilance state, suggesting that timescales are prolonged during sleep, with longest timescales during sleep stage N3.
\par

While these findings from humans are qualitatively in line with findings from other mammalian species, the specific values of intrinsic timescales in humans are an order of magnitude smaller than the intrinsic timescales estimated from spiking activity of other mammals~\cite{murray_hierarchy_2014, wilting_operating_2018, wasmuht_intrinsic_2018, cirillo2018neural}.
This may be caused by the fact that human timescales were obtained from coarse data, and thus may not reflect the timescale of local spiking activity. Although~\cite{gao2020neuronal} found a significant correlation between timescales from spiking data and timescales from ECoG in macaque recordings, it remains to be assessed precisely to which extent these coarse values do indeed reflect the intrinsic timescale of local spiking activity.\par

Here, we quantified for the first time intrinsic timescales of spiking activity in humans. Using recordings from the medial temporal lobe of subjects with medically intractable focal epilepsy, we addressed three main questions:
\begin{enumerate}
    \item How long are intrinsic timescales of spiking activity in humans and how do they compare to other species?
    \item Do intrinsic timescales in humans change depending on the cognitive state, more specifically, depending on the vigilance state?
    \item Do timescales in humans differ across different subregions of medial temporal lobe (MTL)?
\end{enumerate}

To address these questions, we measured intrinsic timescales in spiking activity from 24 subjects with medically intractable focal epilepsy during rest.
Recordings spanned different subregions of MTL, with depth electrodes placed in hippocampus, amygdala, parahippocampal cortex and entorhinal cortex.
In addition, we recorded spiking data of six subjects during sleep, enabling a comparison of timescales across sleep stages including REM, N1, N2 and N3.
Finally, we put our results into relation of previous analyses of timescales in different mammalian species and across brain areas.

\begin{figure}[t!]
    \centering
    \includegraphics[width=0.999\textwidth]{Fig1_v2.pdf}
    \caption{\footnotesize{Spontaneous spiking activity in human MTL shows extended and highly diverse intrinsic timescales $\tau$. \textbf{a}, \textbf{b} Example raster plots of spike times in human MTL and the corresponding population activities $A_t$ obtained by summing spikes across all single units to 4~ms time bins. Plots show 60~s segments of two different recordings in MTL. \textbf{c},\textbf{d} Autocorrelation functions (ACFs) of population activity $A_t$. Across recordings, the ACF drops steeply from delay $\Delta t=0$ to $\Delta t \neq 0$, but the "floor", i.e. the ACF for $\Delta t > 0$, clearly decays exponentially (see magnified view in \textbf{e,f}). This exponential decay defines the intrinsic timescale $\tau$. \textbf{e,f} ACFs and fitted exponentials of the same example recordings. The two recordings have clearly different timescales $\hat{\tau}_1 = 236$~ms and $\hat{\tau}_2 = 26$~ms.
    \textbf{g} Distribution of intrinsic timescales $\hat{\tau}$ across recordings and subjects. Timescales are highly diverse, ranging from $\sim$10~ms to $\sim$700~ms (median 54~ms). See Figs.~\ref{suppfig:ACFs_first}-\ref{suppfig:ACFs_last} for individual fits.}}
    \label{Fig1}
\end{figure}

\section{Results}
\vspace{0.5cm}

To quantify the intrinsic timescale $\tau$, we estimate the autocorrelation function (ACF) of the population activity $A_t$, where $A_t$ is calculated from time-binned spike times of either all recorded neurons in a hemisphere, or the neurons of a specific MTL subregion (Fig.~\ref{Fig1}).
For activity that features even slight temporal correlations (such as
commonly found in non-human mammalian species \cite{murray_hierarchy_2014, wilting_inferring_2018, wilting_between_2019}) the ACF can decay exponentially, where the amplitude of the ACF reflects the degree to which the system was sampled~\cite{wilting_inferring_2018}, and the time constant of the decay is a subsampling-invariant estimate of the intrinsic timescale $\tau$ (Fig.~\ref{Fig1}c, d)~\cite{wilting_inferring_2018, murray_hierarchy_2014}.

We find a broad distribution of intrinsic timescales (Fig.\ref{Fig1}\textbf{g}), with $\tau$ in the range from 10~ms to 700~ms (median $\bar{\tau}_\textrm{human}=54$~ms) and variability both, across and within subjects (see also Figs.~\ref{suppfig:ACFs_first}-\ref{suppfig:ACFs_last}).
Variability \emph{between} subjects may reflect the precise position of recording electrodes, or subject-specific differences including age, gender, or medication. Variability \emph{within} subjects over time may reflect different cognitive states at the time of recording, or small changes in the position of recording electrodes. Overall, our results suggest that intrinsic timescales in human MTL are not restricted to a single value, but range from tens to hundreds of milliseconds.
\par

To investigate whether the brain temporarily tunes the network timescale to processing requirements, we measured $\tau$ across vigilance states (Fig.~\ref{Fig2}). In total, we analyzed 6 hours of sleep recordings from $n=6$ patients (dataset 2, see table~\ref{table_sleep}). Recordings were classified into rapid eye movement sleep (REM), and sleep stages N1, N2 and N3, and $\tau$ was estimated on 90~s recording segments. We found significant differences across $\tau$ from different vigilance states (mixed effect ANOVA on the log-transformed timescales with subjectID as random effect, $F=7.5$, $p < 10^{-4}$). In particular, activity during slow wave sleep (N3) showed longer $\tau$ than activity during REM, N1 and N2 ($p\approx 6\cdot10^{-4}$, $p\approx 7\cdot10^{-3}$, $p\approx 2\cdot10^{-5}$, respectively, $\alpha = 0.05/6 \approx 8\cdot 10^{-3}$ required after Bonferroni correction).
This finding suggests that $\tau$ is not a static network property, but can vary depending on the vigilance state.

\par
\begin{figure}[h!]
    \centering
    \includegraphics[width=0.99\textwidth]{Fig2_v2.pdf}
    \caption{\footnotesize{Intrinsic timescales $\hat{\tau}$ are longest during slow wave sleep. \textbf{a} Example trace of recorded sleep stages of one subject. For each of the six subjects, we analyzed one hour of sleep. \textbf{b} All autocorrelation functions (ACF) of spiking activity in different sleep stages (REM, N1, N2, N3). While ACFs during REM sleep tend to decay rapidly, ACFs during sleep stage N3 exhibit a slower decay, i.e. spiking activity is correlated across a longer period of time. Black lines show averages across all ACFs.
    \textbf{c} Intrinsic timescales $\hat{\tau}$ differ between sleep stages (mixed effect ANOVA with subjectID as random effect, $p < 10^{-4}$). In particular, activity in sleep stage N3 (slow wave sleep) shows longer intrinsic timescales than activity in sleep stages N2, N1 and REM. Annotated values show uncorrected p-values for pairwise comparisons (pairwise mixed effect ANOVA with subjectID as random effect, $\alpha = 0.05/6 \approx 8\cdot 10^{-3}$ required after Bonferroni correction). Numbers in brackets indicate the number of 90 seconds recording segments in the respective sleep stage. Median and 95\% confidence intervals are annotated in red.
    \textbf{d} Results displayed for each individual patient. For less than 6 recording segments, we only show the observed $\tau$ as dots, not the distribution.}}
    \label{Fig2}
\end{figure}
To investigate whether different subregions of the MTL operate at different timescales, we estimated $\tau$ separately for amygdala, entorhinal cortex, parahippocampal cortex and hippocampus (Fig.~\ref{Fig3} dataset 1). We consistently found exponentially decaying ACFs in all subregions, but between subregions $\tau$ did not differ significantly (mixed effect ANOVA on the log-transformed timescales with subjectID as random effect, $F=0.62$, $p \approx 0.60$).
However, $\tau$ was highly diverse in each subregion. Thus, if there was a systematic difference between subregions of MTL, the effect size was not sufficiently large to detect it given the overall high variability.
\par

To relate the measured timescales in humans to previous results from other mammalian species, we repeated our analysis on previously published spiking data (Fig.~\ref{Fig4}a) and compared with published estimates of $\tau$, also from spiking activity (Fig.~\ref{Fig4}b).
More specifically, we evaluated spiking activity of macaque prefrontal cortex (PFC) during a memory task~\cite{pipa_performance-_2009}
and of rat hippocampus (H) during foraging \cite{rat_EC_data, mizuseki_theta_2009} using our methods, and for comparison replotted the estimates of $\tau$ from different cortical areas in macaque~\cite{murray_hierarchy_2014}.
All mammalian timescales were between tens and hundreds of milliseconds, similar to the range we estimated in humans
(Fig.~\ref{Fig4}a,b).
Interestingly, we found that both, for macaque PFC and rat EC $\tau$ was longer than in human MTL ($\bar{\tau}_{macaque}=215$~ms, $p\approx 0.0002$, and $\bar{\tau}_{rat}=553$~ms, $p\approx 0.004$; Mann Whitney-U test)
and also differed between human EC and rat EC (median $\bar{\tau}_\textrm{EC, human}=47$~ms, and $\bar{\tau}_\textrm{EC, rat}=553$~ms; $p\approx 0.004$, Mann Whitney-U test). Although the different recording conditions hinder a rigorous quantitative comparison of the species, the results indicate that intrinsic timescales can not only differ depending on brain area and task, but may also vary between species.

\begin{figure}
    \centering
    \includegraphics[width=0.8\textwidth]{Fig3_v2.pdf}
    \caption{\footnotesize{No significant difference between intrinsic timescales $\hat{\tau}$ across subregions of human medial temporal lobe (MTL).
    \textbf{a} Examples of autocorrelation functions (ACFs) of spiking activity in hippocampus (H), amygdala (A), parahippocampal cortex (PHC) and entorhinal cortex (EC). The ACF typically decays exponentially, but $\hat{\tau}$ is highly diverse within each subregion. The plot shows two exemplary ACFs per subregion. For all ACFs, see Fig.~\ref{suppfig:autocorrelations_regions}.
    \textbf{b} The intrinsic timescales $\hat{\tau}$ do not differ significantly across subregions (mixed effect ANOVA on the log-transformed timescales with subjectID as random effect, $F=0.62$, $p \approx 0.60$). Numbers in brackets indicate number of recordings in the respective subregion. Median and 95\% confidence intervals are annotated in red.}}
    \label{Fig3}
\end{figure}
\begin{figure}[h!]
    \centering
    \includegraphics[width=0.6\textwidth]{Fig4_v2.pdf}
    \caption{\footnotesize{Intrinsic timescales across different mammals. \textbf{a} Using our analysis methodology, $\hat{\tau}$ estimated for human MTL during rest, rat hippocampus (H) during foraging, and macaque prefrontal cortex (PFC) during a working memory task. Numbers in brackets indicate the respective number of analyzed recordings and Figs.~\ref{suppfig:autocorrelations_regions} and \ref{suppfig:autocorrelations_species} show the individual fits.
    \textbf{b} Timescales of various cortical areas of macaque \cite{murray_hierarchy_2014}, measured and reported by Murray et al.~\cite{murray_hierarchy_2014}.}}
    \label{Fig4}
\end{figure}

\section*{Discussion}
\vspace{0.5cm}
We found that spiking activity in human MTL shows extended and highly diverse intrinsic timescales, ranging from tens to hundreds of milliseconds. Across patients and cortical subregions, the timescales could be extracted reliably from the autocorrelation functions of spiking activity, because they were widely consistent with the expected exponential decay. Finding intrinsic timescales in this range is in line with results on various mammalian species~\cite{murray_hierarchy_2014, wasmuht_intrinsic_2018, wilting_between_2019, cirillo2018neural}, suggesting a functional advantage of maintaining signals in the network activity for extended periods of time.\par

Intrinsic timescales during slow wave sleep were longer than during other vigilance states. This supports the notion that intrinsic timescales are not a static network property, but can vary depending on the cognitive state or task requirements.
Our finding is consistent with that from earlier analyses on human LFP recordings in MTL~\cite{priesemann_neuronal_2013}. In that study, neuronal avalanches were found to be larger in SWS than in REM, indicating longer intrinsic timescales~\cite{wilting_between_2019}. Similarly, longer timescales have been also found in human EEG recordings during sleep compared to the awake state \cite{zilio2021intrinsic}.
These longer timescales and larger avalanches may facilitate integration of information across brain areas and hence support memory consolidation in deep sleep~\cite{rasch_about_2013}.
However, our findings differs from a previous study that found a disruption of long timescales during non-REM sleep (N1, N2, N3) in rat frontal and parietal cortex~\cite{meisel2017interplay}.
A possible reason is that the recordings were obtained from different species,  as well as different brain areas.

While our results support the notion of a \emph{state-dependent} tuning of intrinsic timescales, we found no evidence for a \emph{spatial} difference across subregions of MTL. This could be explained by the fact that all analyzed subregions were within MTL, high in the hierarchy of information processing. Systematic differences, if present, are therefore likely to be smaller than the differences between sensory areas (low-level) and prefrontal areas (high-level), which have been observed in previous studies~\cite{murray_hierarchy_2014, hasson2008hierarchy}. Therefore, our results do not contradict the existing studies that suggest a hierarchy of timescales.
\par

Compared to macaque prefrontal cortex and rat hippocampus, timescales in human MTL were comparatively short (medians $\bar{\tau}_{\text{human}}=54$~ms, $\bar{\tau}_{\text{macaque}}=215$~ms, $\bar{\tau}_{\text{rat}}=553$~ms). This might reflect a general difference between the species, but it might also be related to different recording conditions and cognitive states. The comparatively short timescales in humans may e.g. reflect that they were recorded at rest, whereas most of the recordings in other species were performed in a task context (memory  or foraging tasks). Moreover, human recordings were obtained from epilepsy patients, who typically receive anti-epileptic drugs. In most cases, these drugs reduce the excitability of neurons and might induce more subcritical dynamics, corresponding to shorter intrinsic timescales \cite{meisel2015intrinsic, meisel_antiepileptic_2019}. \par

Although we evaluated seizure-free activity only, dynamics were likely affected by medication and epilepsy, which could limit the generalizability of our findings to healthy humans. Excluding data from the ipsilateral hemisphere of patients with identified seizure onset zone reduces the observed differences between sleep stages (see Fig~\ref{suppfig:only_contra}). Although this may be caused by the mere reduction in recording numbers, and the resulting higher uncertainty of ensemble averages, it cannot be excluded that the increased timescale during N3 is related to or caused by epilepsy.

In principle, estimating the intrinsic timescale $\tau$ from spiking activity is straight-forward, but the technical details across different studies differ.
Our analysis relied on the population activity, measuring the autocorrelation function of all spikes that were recorded in a specific brain area. Alternatively, one can separately evaluate the ACF of each single neuron \cite{wasmuht_intrinsic_2018, cirillo2018neural} and subsequently average over all neurons to obtain an estimate for the population~\cite{murray_hierarchy_2014, cirillo2018neural}. Furthermore, time can be discretized (binned) at around 4~ms~\cite{wilting_between_2019}, reflecting the time of causal spike propagation, or at around 50~ms~\cite{murray_hierarchy_2014, cirillo2018neural}. Likewise, the intrinsic timescales obtained from coarse-sampled-data, like LFP, EEG or BOLD signals, might not be directly comparable (e.g.~\cite{gao2020neuronal}) because of the additional filtering and spatial averaging. Such coarse-graining is known to heavily affect other dynamical measures \cite{neto_unified_2020}.
All these choices may influence the absolute values of the intrinsic timescale that are obtained.

The diverse intrinsic timescales we observed might reflect various mechanisms. They might reflect cellular or synaptic dynamics of individual neurons, the statistics of the external input, or they may arise as an emergent network property~\cite{huang_once_2017}.
However, from observations alone, these causes are difficult to distinguish.
For example, long timescales can be generated on the single-neuron level by spike-rate adaptation or facilitation, mediated e.g. by the slow dynamics of calcium and the vesicle cycle.
Alternatively, on the level of the input, signals from the external world clearly show temporal structure (including long timescales), which might be reflected in the measured timescale.
On the network level, recurrent excitatory connections are decisive for signals to reverberate in the network, giving rise to long intrinsic timescales~\cite{wilting_between_2019,cramer2020control}. This mechanism is harnessed in artificial networks for information integration~\cite{maass2002real,jaeger2001echo,loidolt_sequence_2020,cramer2020control}.
Finding such long intrinsic timescales in high cortical areas, far from the sensory input, could indicate that they are not actively cancelled across the hierarchy, but are maintained or even prolonged, which stresses their role for information processing.

Overall, these first measurements of intrinsic timescales of spiking activity in humans support the notion that intrinsic timescales are not a static, homogeneous network property. They are highly diverse within cortical areas, and apparently change with sleep stages, demonstrating that timescales can vary systematically depending on the cognitive state.

\section*{Methods}

\subsubsection*{Acquisition and pre-processing of intracranial recordings}
We analyzed intracranial recordings from $n=24$ patients with medically intractable focal epilepsy\footnote{The dataset is partially equal to the dataset used in~\cite{hagemann2021assessing}. Therefore, the methods sections partially overlap.}. The data was recorded at the Department of Epileptology at the University of Bonn Medical Center. For pre-surgical evaluation, patients were implanted with depth electrodes in different regions of the medial temporal lobe, including hippocampus (H), amygdala (A), parahippocampal cortex (PHC) and entorhinal cortex (EC). Three electrodes were placed in hippocampus and one electrode in each of the other subregions. The location of microwires was verified using post-implantational CT scans co-registered to pre-implantational MRI scans. All wire bundles were confirmed to be located in the designated target regions in each patient.
Each electrode contained 8 microwires, with which single-unit recordings could be performed. All patients had given written informed consent to participate in this study, which was approved by the Medical Institutional Review Board in Bonn. Recordings were performed continuously for pre-surgical monitoring for a typical duration of 7-14 days.
Data was sampled at 32 kHz and filtered between 0.1 and 9000 Hz. Spike sorting was performed using the Combinato package~\cite{niediek_reliable_2016}, using the standard parameters proposed by the authors. Sorted units were classified manually as single units, multi-units, or artifacts, using the Combinato GUI~\cite{niediek_reliable_2016}. The main classification criterion for putative units was the signal's shape, but also the amplitude and distribution of inter-spike-intervals, which allows excluding artifacts due to e.g. supply voltage. For further analysis, we only used spikes of identified single units and excluded artifacts and multi-units. Thereby, we minimized the number of artifacts, which can potentially impact subsequent analyses (multi-units typically contain more artifacts than identified single units). We analyzed two different datasets:\\

\textbf{Dataset 1: Awake 10-minute recordings from $n=20$ patients.}
For each of the patients, we analyzed one 10-minute reference recording, obtained in a seizure-free interval after the surgery, as well as several pre-ictal recordings, spanning 10 minutes prior to seizure onset.
Table~\ref{tab:rec_overview} summarizes the analyzed patients and recordings. \\

\textbf{Dataset 2: 1-hour sleep recordings from $n=6$ patients.}
We analyzed a total of 6 hours sleep from $n=6$ patients. For each patient, one hour of sleep was recorded and the sleep stage was classified to rapid eye movement sleep (REM), and sleep stages N1, N2, N3. Sleep staging was performed for each patient on the entire night of sleep by an experienced rater based on surface EEG (C3, C4, Cb1, Cb2, F3, F4, O1, O2), EOG as well as chin EMG.
Table \ref{table_sleep} summarizes the analyzed patients and recordings.

\subsubsection*{Definition of the activity $A_t$}
The activity $A_t$ is defined as the number of active neurons in discrete time bins $\delta t$. Implanted depth electrodes can, however, only record a tiny fraction of all neurons, and hence one only observes a subset of the activity $A_t$. In general, such spatial subsampling can lead to strong biases in inferred system properties~\cite{priesemann2009subsampling,priesemann_spike_2014,levina_subsampling_2017,Wilting2019_25}.
The intrinsic timescale $\tau$, however, is invariant under spatial subsampling~\cite{wilting_inferring_2018}. \\
In the following, we thus also denote the \textit{sampled} activity by $A_t$. It is defined as the number of \textit{sampled} active neurons at time $t$. To obtain $A_t$ from recorded spike times, all spikes recorded in one brain area are pooled and binned to $\delta t = 4$~ms time bins. The time step $\delta t$ was chosen to reflect the typical propagation time of spikes between neurons.

\subsubsection*{Definition of the autocorrelation}
Given the recorded activity $A_t$, we define the autocorrelation at time lag $\Delta t$ as
\begin{align}
    \textstyle C(\Delta t) &=\frac{\textrm{Cov}[A_t,A_{t+\Delta t}]}{\textrm{Var}[A_t] } \nonumber \\
     \textstyle &= \frac{\sum_{t=0}^{T-\Delta t} (A_t-\bar{A}_t)(A_{t+\Delta t}-\bar{A}_{t+\Delta t})}{\sum_{t=0}^{T-\Delta t} (A_t - \bar{A}_t)^2},
     \label{eq:ACF}
\end{align}
where $\bar{A}_t$ and $\bar{A}_{t+\Delta t}$ denote the mean activity of the original and the delayed time series, respectively, and $T$ the duration of the recording. This definition of the autocorrelation function $C(\Delta t)$ is equivalent to the standard definition of the Pearson correlation coefficient $\rho_{A_t, A_{t+\Delta t}} =\frac{\textrm{Cov}[A_t,A_{t+\Delta t}]}{\sigma_{A_t}\sigma_{A_{t+\Delta t}}  }$, with standard deviations $\sigma_{A_t}$, $\sigma_{A_{t+\Delta t}}$, as long as $\{A_t\}_{t=0}^T$ is a stationary process and thereby $\sigma_{A_{t}}=\sigma_{A_{t+\Delta t}} $.

\subsubsection*{Estimation of the intrinsic timescale}
The intrinsic timescale $\tau$ is defined as the decay time of the autocorrelation function $C(\Delta t)$ of spiking activity. It can therefore be estimated by fitting an exponential decay
\begin{align}
f(\Delta t)=A \exp{(-\Delta t/\hat{\tau})}+B
\end{align}
to the measured autocorrelation $C(\Delta t)$. The additional offset $B$ in the fit function $f(\Delta t)$ accounts for contributions with long timescales that do not decay substantially within the recording time, and it compensates for small non-stationarities in $A_t$~\cite{murray_hierarchy_2014}.\\
In total, given the activity $A_t$, estimation is performed in two steps \cite{wilting_inferring_2018}:
\begin{enumerate}
    \item Compute the autocorrelation function $C(\Delta t)$ for different time delays $\Delta t$ (equation \ref{eq:ACF}).
    \item Fit an exponential decay $f(\Delta t)=A \exp{(-\Delta t/\hat{\tau})}+B$ to the autocorrelation function to obtain an estimate for the intrinsic timescale $\tau$.
\end{enumerate}
All analyses were performed using the Python toolbox of the MR estimator \cite{spitzner2021mr}. For human recordings, we used time delays $\Delta t \in [4 \text{ ms}, 1600 \text{ ms}]$, which is on the order of several autocorrelation times of our data.
Confidence intervals of estimates for single recordings were obtained via a block bootstrap procedure: recordings were divided into segments of 20~s length and estimation was performed on random subsets of segments (see \emph{stationarymean} method in~\cite{spitzner2021mr}).

\subsubsection*{Exclusion criteria for intrinsic timescale estimation}
For the reliable estimation of the intrinsic timescale, the autocorrelation $C(\Delta t)$ must be consistent with an exponential decay. Furthermore, reliable estimation requires a minimum number of recorded spikes because the variance in estimates increases with decreasing number of non-zero activity entries~\cite{wilting_inferring_2018}.
To ensure that a given time series fulfills the requirements for reliable estimation, we implemented three consistency checks:
\begin{enumerate}
 \item Number of non-zero time bins must be at least $n_{A_t\neq 0}=1000$.
  \item Estimated timescales must be larger than a single time bin, i.e. $\hat{\tau} > \delta t$.
 \item The exponential decay must fit the autocorrelation better than a linear function $f(\Delta t)=A\cdot\Delta t+b$, as measured by the adjusted $R^2$ of both fits.
\end{enumerate}
If a recording was not consistent with either of these requirements, it was excluded from the analysis.

\subsubsection*{Comparison with other species}
To compare the results from human MTL with other species, we re-evaluated in vivo spiking activity from macaque prefrontal cortex during a short-term memory task ($n=12$ recordings from $n=3$ macaques~\cite{pipa_performance-_2009}), and rat CA1 of the right dorsal hippocampus during a foraging task ($n=8$ recordings from $n=3$ rats \cite{rat_EC_data, mizuseki_theta_2009}). \\
The recordings from rats were obtained from the CRCNS data sharing website.
The rat experimental protocols were approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee of Rutgers University~\cite{rat_EC_data, mizuseki_theta_2009}. The macaque experiments were performed according to the German Law for the Protection of Experimental Animals, and were approved by the Regierungspräsidium Darmstadt~\cite{pipa_performance-_2009}. The procedures also conformed to the regulations issued by the NIH and the Society for Neuroscience~\cite{pipa_performance-_2009}.\\
For all spike recordings, we used a bin size $\delta t=4$~ms. The maximum time delay $\Delta t_{\text{max}}$ of the autocorrelation function was chosen separately for each species, assuring that $\Delta t_{\text{max}}$ was always in the order of multiple intrinsic network timescales ($\Delta t_{\text{max}}(\text{macaque})=2000$~ms, $\Delta t_{\text{max}}(\text{rat})=3200$~ms). We compared intrinsic timescales of humans to those of rat and macaque using the Mann-Whitney-U test. The published intrinsic timescales of the different areas in macaque~\cite{murray_hierarchy_2014} were obtained from the table provided in the paper.\\

\subsubsection*{Comparison of sleep stages}
For each patient, we analyzed one hour of sleep, where each 30-second-segment had been assigned a sleep stage. To obtain recordings of equal and sufficient length, we estimated intrinsic timescales $\hat{\tau}$ on blocks of three subsequent 30-second-segments that have been classified to the same sleep stage. This corresponds to recording segments of 90~seconds. \\
Intrinsic timescales of different sleep stages were compared using a mixed effect ANOVA with subjectID as random effect. As the distribution of $\tau$ was not consistent with a normal distribution, but rather resembled a lognormal distribution, we performed the ANOVAs on the log-transformed timescales. Specifically, we used the python interface \emph{pymer4}~\cite{jolly2018pymer4} to the R-function \emph{lmer}~\cite{bates2014fitting}, with model specification $\log{\tau} \sim  \mathrm{sleep stage}  + (1|\mathrm{subjectID})$.

\subsubsection*{Comparison of brain areas}
Intracranial recordings span hippocampus (H), amygdala (A), parahippocampal cortex (PHC) and entorhinal cortex (EC). To compare intrinsic timescales of the subregions, all spikes recorded in one subregion were combined and binned, yielding the activity in the respective subregion. Intrinsic timescales were estimated separately for each recording and subregion. Intrinsic timescales of different subregions were compared using using a mixed effect ANOVA with subjectID as random effect, using the log-transformed timescales. Specifically, we again used the python interface \emph{pymer4}~\cite{jolly2018pymer4} to the R-function \emph{lmer}~\cite{bates2014fitting}, with model specification $\log{\tau} \sim  \mathrm{subregion}  + (1|\mathrm{subjectID})$.

\clearpage

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaArXiv


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text:
I Black Eyed Peas (noti per un periodo anche come The Black Eyed Peas) sono un gruppo musicale alternative hip hop statunitense, formatosi nel 1995 a Los Angeles (California) per iniziativa dei rapper apl.de.ap, will.i.am (già compagni di liceo) e Taboo. Nel corso della loro carriera ne hanno fatto parte anche la corista Kim Hill, la cantante Fergie e la cantante J. Rey Soul.

Il loro album di debutto fu Behind the Front, pubblicato nel 1998. Nel 2000 il gruppo pubblicò il secondo album, Bridging the Gap. Il successo giunse nel 2003 con il terzo album Elephunk, il primo inciso con Fergie: da esso furono estratti i singoli Where Is the Love?, Shut Up, Hey Mama e Let's Get It Started. Nel 2005 il quartetto pubblicò il quarto album Monkey Business, promosso dai singoli Don't Phunk with My Heart, Don't Lie, My Humps e Pump It. Nello stesso anno il gruppo collaborò in vari duetti, come nel singolo di Sérgio Mendes Mas que nada. Dopo oltre tre anni di pausa, nel 2009 il gruppo tornò sulle scene musicali con The E.N.D., album che segnò la loro svolta dance pop e che fu promosso da sei singoli, tra cui le hit Boom Boom Pow e I Gotta Feeling; due anni più tardi fu la volta di The Beginning, da cui vennero estratti The Time (Dirty Bit), Just Can't Get Enough e Don't Stop the Party. Nel 2018 sono tornati sulle scene musicali con l'album Masters of the Sun Vol. 1, che ha segnato il ritorno verso l'hip hop nonché il primo uscito dopo l'abbandono di Fergie avvenuto l'anno prima. Nel 2020 è stato pubblicato Translation, frutto della collaborazione del trio con svariati esponenti della scena pop latina e che ha riportato il trio al successo commerciale grazie ai singoli Ritmo (Bad Boys for Life) e Mamacita.

Al 2010 i Black Eyed Peas hanno venduto 35 milioni di album e 41 milioni di singoli.

Storia del gruppo

Primi anni (1995-1997)
Due dei componenti stringono amicizia al liceo. will.i.am e apl.de.ap fanno parte della crew di breakers Tribal Nation, successivamente decidono di dedicarsi alla produzione musicale e fondano la crew Atban Klann, acronimo di A Tribe Beyond A Nation. La Ruthless Records, del rapper Eazy-E, mette sotto contratto il duo nel 1992; viene registrato un album che però l'etichetta non pubblica: il prodotto non rispecchia la sua linea gangsta. Infatti, a partire dai primi anni novanta il concetto di pacifismo nell'hip hop è stato messo in ombra dalla filosofia gangsta rap e da gruppi West Coast come gli N.W.A, da cui Eazy-E proviene. La morte di Eazy-E nel 1995 segna la rottura del duo con la Ruthless. In seguito alla pessima esperienza, i due incontrarono Taboo e insieme cambiarono il nome del gruppo in "Black Eyed Peas", iniziando ad esibirsi nella zona di Los Angeles.

Behind the Front e Bridging the Gap (1998-2002)

Il 30 giugno 1998 i Black Eyed Peas pubblicarono il primo album in studio, Behind the Front. L'album ricevette ottime critiche. Dall'album furono estratti tre singoli, Fallin' Up/¿Que Dices?, Joints & Jam e Karma, che riscossero un lieve successo negli Stati Uniti. La corista Kim Hill in questi brani è sempre in primo piano, anche nei video musicali. Nel 1999 collaborano anche con il cantante Redfoo, producendo Duet.

Due anni dopo il primo album il gruppo pubblicò un secondo album Bridging the Gap, da cui furono estratti i singoli BEP Empire/Get Original, Weekends (realizzato con Esthero) e Request + Line, che vede invece la partecipazione di Macy Gray. In questo album la corista Kim Hill è poco presente e pochi mesi più tardi abbandonerà il gruppo.

Ingresso di Fergie, Elephunk (2003-2004)
Il 24 giugno 2003 il gruppo pubblica il terzo album Elephunk. Si tratta del primo album con la cantante Fergie ed il primo realizzato come The Black Eyed Peas. Durante le registrazioni del disco, i tre membri si accorsero che serviva una voce femminile, più permanente ed imponente, soprattutto per la registrazione del brano Shut Up. La prima proposta venne fatta a Nicole Scherzinger, cantante delle Pussycat Dolls, la quale fu costretta a rifiutare, ma subito dopo scelsero per l'appunto Fergie, proveniente dalle Wild Orchid, che accettò. Rispetto ai precedenti album, Elephunk presenta sonorità più pop ed orecchiabili, realizzate per attrarre un pubblico di massa.

Il primo singolo estratto fu Where Is the Love?, realizzato in collaborazione con Justin Timberlake, che divenne la prima hit di successo del gruppo, ottenendo ottimi risultati in tutto il mondo. Il singolo divenne uno dei singoli di maggior successo nel mondo, e in America ottenne eccellenti risultati nella Billboard Hot 100, piazzandosi alla ottava posizione. Anche nel resto del mondo ottenne ottimi risultati, conquistando la prima posizione in Gran Bretagna e in Australia. Come secondo singolo fu estratto Shut Up, che divenne un successo mondiale, nonostante non fosse stata pubblicata negli Stati Uniti. Il singolo come il precedente non passò indifferente e in Europa divenne uno dei maggiori successi del gruppo e dell'anno. Shut Up inoltre si posizionò alla seconda posizione in Regno Unito e fu certificato disco di oro e di platino negli Stati Uniti, in Gran Bretagna ed altri paesi europei come la Germania. Il terzo singolo estratto fu Hey Mama, pubblicata nel 2004. Il brano è stato utilizzato per la canzone pubblicitaria dell'iPod e nel film d'animazione Garfield - Il film. Pur avendo un discreto successo non arrivò al livello dei precedenti singoli, ma comunque non passò inosservata e divenne uno dei maggiori successi del gruppo (dai fan viene considerata la migliore nella storia della band). Il singolo si è classificato bene nelle classifiche debuttando nella top 30 nella Billboard Hot 100 ed ha riscosso successo anche in parecchi paesi europei. La canzone Let's Get It Started fu scelta come quarto ed ultimo singolo estratto da Elephunk, ottenendo un successo mondiale; inoltre fu utilizzato per gli NBA Playoffs 2004 e in vari film come La bottega del barbiere 2, White Chicks e American Trip - Il primo viaggio non si scorda mai. Il singolo ha vinto Un Grammy come Best Rap Performance nel 2005. Elephunk in tutto vendette circa 2.000.000 di copie in Europa e poco più negli Stati Uniti. In Gran Bretagna vendette 1.300.000 copie. In tutto tocca quasi le 7 milioni di copie mondiali. Con questo album si consacra la band, divenendo famosa in tutto il mondo.

Monkey Business (2005-2006)
I Black Eyed Peas hanno partecipato anche ad un album in onore di John Lennon, con una cover di una sua canzone. Altri artisti che hanno partecipato sono Avril Lavigne, i Sum 41, i Deftones e i Duran Duran. I proventi della vendita di quell'album andarono ad Amnesty International. L'album è stato registrato durante il 2004 ed è stato distribuito il 7 giugno 2005. Il quarto album della band si intitola Monkey Business. Il primo singolo Don't Phunk with My Heart riscosse un discreto successo e fece vincere alla band il premio come migliore esecutore rap di gruppo ai Grammy Awards del 2006. Don't Phunk with My Heart ha raggiunto la top 5 in Canada e Gran Bretagna ed è rimasta in vetta a classifiche asiatiche e in Australia. Don't Lie fu scelto come secondo singolo nel 2005 ottenendo un successo molto inferiore delle aspettative, risultando un flop. La canzone fu originariamente scritta da Fergie prima che entrasse a far parte del gruppo. Fu poi revisionata e modificata insieme al gruppo. In Europa il singolo non è spiccato molto, a differenza dei precedenti, ma nella Billboard Hot 100 si è piazzato alla 14, e in alcuni paesi europei, ed Australia ha raggiunto la top ten.

Come terzo singolo fu scelto My Humps, che fece guadagnare ai Black Eyed Peas il premio come miglior esecutore rap di gruppo anche ai Grammy Awards 2007. Il singolo ebbe successo, ma comunque non diventò uno dei pezzi più noti del gruppo. L'ultimo pezzo estratto dall'album fu Pump It. La canzone fu utilizzata nello spot della Pepsi-Cola e nei film Missione tata, Quel nano infame, Cars - Motori ruggenti e Garfield 2. La canzone è diventata una hit soprattutto in Australia, non avendo molta luce negli Stati Uniti. In Europa, non è diventata molto nota, anche se alcuni paesi quali Germania, Regno Unito e Italia l'hanno accolta meglio. Nello stesso periodo i Black Eyed Peas duettano con il cantante brasiliano Sérgio Mendes al singolo Mas que nada, incluso successivamente nell'album Timeless di quest'ultimo. Nel 2005 il gruppo ha inoltre intrapreso un tour in Europa e lo stesso anno ha pubblicato una playlist su iTunes dei loro più grandi successi. Monkey Business in tutto arriva a buoni risultati di vendite. Nello stesso anno esce un album, versione remix prevalentemente dei singoli di Monkey Business. Nel 2006 intraprendono un nuovo tour, visitando più di venti paesi.

Terminata la tournée il gruppo è entrato in un periodo di pausa, durante il quale Fergie ha inciso l'album di debutto The Dutchess e will.i.am ha intrapreso collaborazioni con artisti come Michael Jackson, Justin Timberlake, Nelly Furtado, Kelis, John Legend, Cheryl, Sérgio Mendes, e Carlos Santana.

The E.N.D. (2009-2010)

Dopo oltre tre anni di assenza, il 9 giugno 2009 il gruppo è tornato sulle scene musicali con il quinto album The E.N.D.. Registrato tra il 2008 ed il 2009, il disco ha rappresentato un distacco netto dalle precedenti pubblicazioni, caratterizzandosi per un massiccio uso dell'Auto-Tune e per le sonorità marcatamente house. Il primo singolo estratto dall'album è Boom Boom Pow, che è rimasto in vetta alla classifica Billboard Hot 100 per 12 settimane, ed è rimasto in classifica per più di un anno, diventando così il loro maggior successo nonché uno dei brani più popolari dell'anno. Il secondo singolo estratto è stato I Gotta Feeling, anch'esso rimasto in vetta alla Billboard Hot 100, totalizzando 13 settimane; il gruppo ha dominato così la classifica per ben 28 settimane, tra i due singoli, stabilendo un record per la Billboard Hot 100. Il singolo, insieme al precedente, è uno dei maggior successi negli Stati Uniti d'America del 2009 e nella Billboard Hot 100 ha segnato un'epoca, diventando uno dei maggior successi della classifica da sempre, ed ha in questa classifica una permanenza tale da segnare un record: è stata nella classifica per quasi due anni.

Nell'ottobre 2009 il quartetto ha lanciato il terzo singolo Meet Me Halfway, che ha ottenuto un buon successo in Europa, dove ha raggiunto la seconda posizione della Top Singoli. In tutto il 2009 l'album ha venduto 4.250.000 copie ed è stato il secondo più venduto dell'anno dopo I Dreamed a Dream di Susan Boyle. Il 15 dicembre le radio statunitensi hanno trasmesso il quarto singolo, Imma Be, destinato al solo mercato statunitense. Nel mercato statunitense ha ricevuto ottime critiche, ma non ha raggiunto alcun successo. Rock That Body sarà invece il quarto singolo per il resto del mondo. Il singolo non avrà un buon successo, ma raggiungerà la notorietà negli Stati Uniti d'America. Nell'estate 2009 i Black Eyed Peas hanno iniziato la prima parte del loro The E.N.D. World Tour partendo dal Giappone, per visitare poi l'Australia e alcuni stati dell'America come artisti di supporto degli U2, raggiungendo altre parti del mondo. A dicembre il gruppo ha ufficializzato sul proprio sito web la seconda parte del tour, iniziato a febbraio 2010 e toccando molte città degli Stati Uniti d'America per poi arrivare a maggio in Europa. Il tour è stato composto in totale da 55 concerti.

Il 10 giugno 2010 i Black Eyed Peas hanno preso parte al concerto di apertura del campionato mondiale di calcio in Sudafrica dove, oltre a eseguire i loro migliori successi, si sono esibiti insieme a vari artisti, tra cui Shakira, Alicia Keys e K'naan.

The Beginning (2010-2011)

The Beginning è il sesto album dei Black Eyed Peas, che è stato pubblicato il 30 novembre 2010 in gran parte del mondo. Il membro del gruppo apl.de.ap ha affermato che l'album è come una continuazione del precedente lavoro The E.N.D.. Nell'agosto del 2010 è stato fatto sapere il nome dell'album. Il 22 ottobre will.i.am ha pubblicato sul web il primo singolo The Time (Dirty Bit) che campiona il celebre brano (I've Had) The Time of My Life, colonna sonora del celeberrimo film degli anni ottanta Dirty Dancing - Balli proibiti. Il singolo otterrà molto meno successo di quanto sperato, tuttavia nella settimana di debutto nel mondo l'album vendette attorno alle 200,000 copie. A seguito della pubblicazione dell'album la band viene intervistata più volte in Inghilterra ed America, spesso anche per promuovere il lavoro, e per mostrare al pubblico la qualità e il progetto. Questo singolo ha ricevuto molta programmazione radiofonica in Asia e in Europa, infatti ha avuto successo nella stagione autunnale del 2010 in Italia, pur comunque ottenendo meno risultati a livello internazionale dei singoli del precedente album The E.N.D., ma nonostante ciò non è diventato un album scarso a livello di vendite. Parallelamente alla pubblicazione dell'album, la voce rapper maschile del gruppo will.i.am , insegue, inoltre in molti duetti con molti altri artisti anche al di fuori della sfera rap, come aveva già in gran lunga fatto nella momentanea pausa che aveva avuto nella seconda metà degli anni duemila, con la band sottoscritta.

Il 21 novembre 2010 il gruppo è stato premiato come miglior gruppo agli American Music Awards, vincendo per la terza volta questa categoria.
In tutto in circa 4 mesi dall'inizio delle vendite, l'album ha dei risultati un po' scadenti a seguito dell'importanza della band, rispetto a quelli sperati e quelli degli album precedenti dopo il nuovo millennio, pur ricevendo una buona promozione. Il secondo singolo estratto è Just Can't Get Enough, il cui video è stato pubblicato il 16 marzo 2011 ed è stato girato in Giappone una settimana prima che questa regione fosse colpita da un potente terremoto, motivo per cui il video stesso è stato dedicato al popolo Giapponese. Sempre per aiutare il Giappone partecipano alla compilation Songs For Japan donando la canzone One Tribe. A maggio viene commercializzato il video del terzo singolo, Don't Stop the Party. Lo stesso mese partecipano ai Billboard Music Awards dove si esibiscono e vincono nella categoria Miglior gruppo. Dopo i Billboard Music Award Fergie ha annunciato in un'intervista che il gruppo si sarebbe preso una pausa dal business per occuparsi delle rispettive vite private e artistiche.

Per cancellare le voci che dicevano che il gruppo stava attraversando un brutto periodo e che si sarebbe sciolto, il 12 ottobre è uscito il video del brano XOXOXO interpretato interamente dai Baby Peas, personaggi stilizzati ispirati al gruppo. A giugno parte il tour che ha portato la band in Europa e poi negli Stati Uniti d'America.

Abbandono di Fergie, Masters of the Sun Vol. 1 (2013-2018)
In un'intervista, will.i.am ha affermato che il gruppo avrebbe iniziato le registrazioni per il settimo album nel 2013. Due anni più tardi si sono esibiti al Coachella Valley Music and Arts Festival, presentando per l'occasione il brano inedito This Is Awesome, prodotto da David Guetta.

Nel settembre 2016 il gruppo ha pubblicato una nuova versione di Where Is the Love?, intitolata #WHERESTHELOVE e caratterizzata dalla partecipazione vocale di svariati artisti come Jamie Foxx, Mary J. Blige, The Game, Jessie J e Nicole Scherzinger, oltre a un coro di 40 bambini. La pubblicazione ha segnato anche il ritorno al nome originario Black Eyed Peas.

Il 1º giugno 2017 will.i.am ha rivelato l'abbandono di Fergie dalla formazione, ritornata a tre elementi. Due giorni più tardi si sono esibiti a Cardiff in occasione della finale di Uefa Champions League. Il giorno seguente prendono parte al One Love Manchester, concerto di beneficenza organizzato dalla cantante Ariana Grande in seguito all'attentato del 22 maggio 2017. In questa occasione si sono esibiti con il brano Where Is the Love? con la partecipazione della stessa Grande.

Nel 2018 i Black Eyed Peas hanno fatto il loro ritorno sulle scene musicali pubblicando ad inizio gennaio il singolo Street Livin', accompagnato da un videoclip ricco di immagini collegate al razzismo e con un testo che condanna diverse piaghe sociali. Pochi mesi dopo è uscito il singolo Ring the Alarm Pt. 1, Pt. 2, Pt. 3, scelto come apripista per il settimo album in studio Masters of the Sun Vol. 1. Uscito il 26 ottobre dello stesso anno, il disco si compone di dodici brani ed è stato promosso anche dai singoli Constant Pt. 1 Pt. 2, Big Love e Dopeness.

Translation (2019-2022)
Nel 2019 il gruppo intraprende una nuova tournée mondiale, durante la quale sono stati accompagnati dalla cantante filippina J. Rey Soul, già presente come ospite in alcuni dei brani di Masters of the Sun Vol. 1. Nello stesso anno hanno pubblicato il singolo Ritmo (Bad Boys for Life), realizzato in collaborazione con il cantante colombiano J Balvin e incluso nella colonna sonora del film Bad Boys for Life, del quale costituisce il tema principale.

Nell'aprile 2020 il trio ha pubblicato il singolo Mamacita, realizzato insieme a Ozuna e J. Rey Soul, quest'ultima divenuta componente stabile nella formazione dal vivo il mese seguente. Il 12 giugno 2020 è stato presentato il singolo No mañana con El Alfa e annunciato l'ottavo album Translation, pubblicato la settimana successiva. Nel disco vengono inserite collaborazioni con superstar della musica latina come Maluma, Shakira, Becky G e Nicky Jam.

Elevation (2022-presente)
L'11 novembre 2022 viene pubblicato il nono album Elevation, anticipato durante l'anno dai singoli Don't You Worry, realizzato insieme a Shakira e David Guetta, e Simply the Best.

Successivamente sono stati ospiti al Festival di Sanremo 2023, dove hanno portato un medley di Mamacita, Don't You Worry e I Gotta Feeling, seguito infine da Simply the Best.

Formazione
Attuale
 will.i.am – voce, programmazione, sintetizzatore (1995-presente)
 apl.de.ap – voce, giradischi, tastiera, programmazione, sintetizzatore, chitarra (1995-presente)
 Taboo – voce (1995-presente)

Turnisti
 J. Rey Soul – voce (2020-presente)

Ex-componenti
 Kim Hill – cori (1998-2002)
 Fergie – voce (2002-2017)

Discografia

 1998 – Behind the Front
 2000 – Bridging the Gap
 2003 – Elephunk
 2005 – Monkey Business
 2009 – The E.N.D.
 2010 – The Beginning
 2018 – Masters of the Sun Vol. 1
 2020 – Translation
 2022 – Elevation

Tournée
 1999 – The Smokin' Grooves Tour
 1999 – Van's Warped Tour
 2004 – Elephunk Tour
 2006 – Honda Civic Tour
 2006 – Monkey Business World Tour
 2007 – Black Blue & You World Tour
 2009/2010 – The E.N.D. World Tour
 2011 – The Beginning Massive Stadium Tour
 2018 – The Masters of the Sun Tour

Riconoscimenti

Grammy Award

Note

Voci correlate
 apl.de.ap
 Fergie
 Taboo (rapper)
 will.i.am

Altri progetti

Collegamenti esterni

Artisti alla posizione numero 1 della classifica singoli italiana

Vincitori di Grammy
Vincitori di MTV Europe Music Award
Vincitori di MTV Video Music Award


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Description of Services: State Certified Appraisal Company servicing Madison, Morgan and Limestone Counties of North Alabama. We provide various types of appraisals including Residential, Land, FHA,Rural Housing,Conventional Loans, Relocation, Investment Property, Divorce, REO. etc. 16 years of coverage area experience.


At Johnson and Sullivan Ltd., we are dedicated to providing personalized, thorough, and responsive legal representation. Our attorneys have years of experience crafting practical and efficient solutions for individuals and businesses, including a particular emphasis on real estate acquisitions and sales, commercial and residential leasing, evictions and other landlord-tenant matters, mechanic's lien foreclosures, and real estate-related litigation.
What sets Johnson and Sullivan Ltd. apart from competitors is our commitment to our clients. We understand that choosing a lawyer can be a daunting task, and we strive to go above and beyond the expected level of service for every client. We tailor our services to meet the particular needs of each client with a flexibility and creativity that is difficult to find at other firms.
To schedule an intial consultation, call our offices at (312) 396-8000.
The purchase of real estate in Illinois can be complicated. Before you even sign a contract, we are available to advise you about common legal issues which arise with different types of real estate transactions, like new construction, foreclosures, short sales, renovations, for sale by owner, and others. Once you have entered into a real estate contract, our job is to protect your earnest money, answer your questions about your contract, raise inspection issues, and to make necessary modifications to the contract. Our representation does not end at the closing: we can represent you through to post-closing matters, such as warranty claims, punch list items and property tax matters. Click here for more information.
When the landlord-tenant relationship breaks down, legal action is often necessary. Johnson and Sullivan Ltd. litigates more evictions ("forcible entry and detainer" lawsuits) than almost any law firm in Chicago. We represent some of Chicago's largest management companies as well as individual landlords in their residential and commercial landlord-tenant disputes and provide a level of quality and service that consistently exceeds expectations. If you have a problem tenant and are wondering what your options may be, Johnson and Sullivan Ltd. can advise you on your legal rights and assist in deciding the best course of action. Additionally, we can advise you on your statutory obligations as a landlord. Click here for more information.
Our attorneys have years of experience litigating complex real estate lawsuits. We represent condominium associations and individuals in actions against developers for breach of warranty, breach of contract, and fraud, including under the Illinois Consumer Fraud and Deceptive Practices Act. We assist purchasers of real estate in obtaining refunds of their earnest money and in suits for specific performance. Our extensive experience in both the transactional and litigation aspects of real estate from the perspective of both buyer and seller, plaintiff and defendant, allow us to assist clients in any type of real estate dispute with practical, efficient, personalized advice. Click here for more information.
The Johnson and Sullivan Ltd. represents Chicagoland laborers, carpenters, electricians, mechanical/HVAC contractors, plumbers, and other home improvement contractors and subcontractors in the filing of mechanic's liens and enforcement of mechanic's liens through foreclosure. The Illinois Mechanic's Lien Act provides protection for contractors against their customer's failure or refusal to pay. Our attorneys can help you recover payment for your services. We also represent our clients in investigations and complaints made by customers to the Illinois Attorney General and others. Click here for more information.
© 2013 Johnson and Sullivan Ltd.


My laptop won't come on i don't know what's wrong with it.
Review #1451342 is a subjective opinion of poster.
The laptop is not working properly.
All functioning are failing. Neither the touchpad is working properly not the softwares are working, even there is a problem in connecting to net.
wifi connections are giving troubles. It is also not allowing apps to work and even downloading.
Review #1446628 is a subjective opinion of poster.
Review #1411658 is a subjective opinion of poster.
I bought 5 laptops that were supposed to be complete and a couple working. When I got home they are all missing hard drives and 3 have broken screens. Now the seller ignores me and won't refund my money after sending me a text telling to come get my money back.
Review #1382173 is a subjective opinion of poster.
I bought a laptop from a seller and he told me all the specifications. I was very specific with my questions.
I met him in public on 9/26 and he gave me the laptop in the case, i looked it over, gave him the money and i left. When i got home i realized he gave me the wrong charger so i went to message him and he blocked me. I took it to a computer expert and everything the seller told me was a lie! I have reported this seller however nothing is being done!
I want my money back! If something is not done I will never use let go again! I want this resolved.
I also believe it was a stolen computer if so the police will be involved. This seller messed with the wrong woman!!!!
Review #1367600 is a subjective opinion of poster.
Lazada Philippines - Laptop Worth 49K NAGING RECORD BOOK?1?1?
I received my package today, which was unusually thin and light, considering that what I ordered was a 15.6" laptop. Good thing nandun pa yung courier.
Binuksan ko sa harap nila then it turned out to be TWO RECORD BOOKS. They assisted me with how to return the item and have a refund be processed. Bakit, hindi ba pwede nilang dalhin pabalik yung item even though super obvious naman na wrong item? What the *** ilang buwan kong pinag-ipunan yung pera tapos gagawin nyo ito sa akin?
I've had multiple successful Lazada orders tapos ngayon lang nangyari SA PINAKAMAHAL pa na order ko?
Wow, I am returning the "Laptop" which is basically two Valiant Brand Record Books taped together first thing in the morning. Please do the right thing Lazada and Blacklist the seller "COMPLINK" and issue me a refund.
Hi FoamyBeetle, we understand your disappointments and we appreciate that you reached out to us. For us to settle this matter the soonest, may we know the order number that is associated with your concern?
Review #1347201 is a subjective opinion of poster.
Review #1345467 is a subjective opinion of poster.
Review #1342578 is a subjective opinion of poster.
i bought a laptop, when charge it, it heats up so much i cant unplug with bare hand, i rewuedted a new chager so far all i get is rewuest for pictures i sent them all , ok do whats YOUR next step..been over a month still nothing done..very unhappy with wish at this time .HELP ,i have a laptop i cant use.4rh time contacting customer servive i try calling ,no real person.
Review #1335118 is a subjective opinion of poster.
I brought 2 laptops in 2 years both went bad within 1 year or less brought them back within the 14 day period for a new ones and was refused wrote to the ceo and area manager they offered to send them out ,1 was send out for repairs and went down in 6 months im the only one using them , lost over $750.00 and both got kick out in the garbage ! Very Very bad consumer service , never go back to bestbuy to buy anything, you sure not buy from them too !!!
Review #1329226 is a subjective opinion of PissedConsumer1329226.


Located in Portout, France, this fishing trip is excellent for you and your family or friends. Everything is on board to enjoy a wonderful day light tackle fishing in the Lake Bourget. Everyone is welcome - from novice to experienced anglers, to corporate groups and families. Book this boat now and enjoy a great day fishing in the Lake Bourget!
Captain, fuel, all the fishing tackle, bait, drinks and meals.