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Natural and sexual selection in a monogamous historical human population
Alexandre Courtiol, Jenni E. Pettay, Markus Jokela, Anna Rotkirch, and Virpi Lummaa
PNAS May 22, 2012 109 (21) 8044-8049; https://doi.org/10.1073/pnas.1118174109
Alexandre Courtiol
For correspondence: alexandre.courtiol@gmail.com
Jenni E. Pettay
Markus Jokela
Anna Rotkirch
Virpi Lummaa
Edited by Peter T. Ellison, Harvard University, Cambridge, MA, and approved March 28, 2012 (received for review November 4, 2011)
Whether and how human populations exposed to the agricultural revolution are still affected by Darwinian selection remains controversial among social scientists, biologists, and the general public. Although methods of studying selection in natural populations are well established, our understanding of selection in humans has been limited by the availability of suitable datasets. Here, we present a study comparing the maximum strengths of natural and sexual selection in humans that includes the effects of sex and wealth on different episodes of selection. Our dataset was compiled from church records of preindustrial Finnish populations characterized by socially imposed monogamy, and it contains a complete distribution of survival, mating, and reproductive success for 5,923 individuals born 1760–1849. Individual differences in early survival and fertility (natural selection) were responsible for most variation in fitness, even among wealthier individuals. Variance in mating success explained most of the higher variance in reproductive success in males compared with females, but mating success also influenced reproductive success in females, allowing for sexual selection to operate in both sexes. The detected opportunity for selection is in line with measurements for other species but higher than most previous reports for human samples. This disparity results from biological, demographic, economic, and social differences across populations as well as from failures by most previous studies to account for variation in fitness introduced by nonreproductive individuals. Our results emphasize that the demographic, cultural, and technological changes of the last 10,000 y did not preclude the potential for natural and sexual selection in our species.
Bateman gradient
Bateman principles
selection differential
mating system
Disagreement about the strength of selection affecting humans has influenced how the theory of natural and sexual selection has been perceived since Darwin (1). In particular, humans exhibit a pronounced ecological flexibility through social and cultural adaptations (2) that is often invoked to cast doubt on the continued relevance of Darwinian selection in our species. Even among those applying evolutionary theory in humans, some scientists consider recent selective pressures weak and therefore only study human adaptations in the demographic, social, and physical environments of the Pleistocene, whereas others view selection as an effective force also operating in societies affected by the agricultural revolution (3).
Darwinian selection results from variation in fitness between individuals of the same population and the evolutionary response of traits to this selection depends on the genetic covariation between traits and fitness. Such evolutionary change is traditionally approximated by multiplying heritability (the proportion of phenotypic variance in the trait attributable to genetic differences among individuals) and phenotypic selection (the covariance between the trait and relative fitness) (4). It is therefore interesting to understand which genes or traits contribute to variation in fitness (5, 6). To assess the limit to phenotypic selection, it is also important to quantify per se the amount of variation in fitness, which determines the overall opportunity for total selection at the level of the organism (7⇓⇓–10). Because the methods of studying selection in natural populations are relatively well established, our understanding of selection in human populations is now limited mainly by the lack of suitable datasets (5, 11).
Recently, the establishment of large genomic and epidemiological datasets has enabled precise measurements of selection acting on specific loci and phenotypic traits in humans (5, 6). These studies demonstrate that selection has not stopped with the advent of agriculture and can act on certain traits even within contemporary modern populations. For example, Byars et al. (12) found some traits of medical significance in the United States to be currently influenced by selection (see also ref. 13). By using summary statistics for birth and death rates in a population, it is also possible to estimate opportunity for total selection (i.e., variance in relative fitness) and its two components—opportunity for selection because of survival to reproductive age and opportunity for selection because of fertility—at the scale of the entire organism (10). Cross-sectional anthropologic and demographic surveys have been used for partial measurements of selection in human populations (e.g., ref. 14). Survival to reproductive age appears to be the largest component of variation in fitness in most populations, especially before the demographic transition. A review of 53 different populations suggests that variation in fertility explains around one-third of the variation in opportunity for total selection both within and across populations (14). However, this fertility component encompasses multiple sources of variance in reproductive success with different biological meanings, such as competition for mates and fertility per se. In addition, the relationship between life-history traits and relative fitness can depend on wealth (15, 16), but analyses at a population level preclude controlling for social structure. Consequently, our understanding of life-history traits underpinning the opportunity for total selection remains poor, despite the long-lasting interest in the question.
Although the theory of sexual selection drives a considerable number of studies in evolutionary psychology and human behavioral ecology, the measurement of variation in fitness caused by variation in mating success has remained surprisingly unexplored. Sexual selection theory predicts that the sex experiencing stronger sexual selection should illustrate Bateman's three 1948 principles: (i) a higher variance in reproductive success; (ii) a higher variance in mating success; and, crucially, (iii) a stronger association between mating and reproductive success, the so-called Bateman gradient (7, 17, 18). Because this latter property seems to result from primary sexual differentiation in the cost of reproduction, Bateman (17) argued that sexual selection is expected to be stronger in males than in females for many species, including mammals. Since then, several studies have stressed that differences in the strength of sexual selection between sexes can be influenced by factors other than the initial asymmetry in the cost of reproduction (19). Because human populations vary in important ways that should affect the relative strength of sexual selection between sexes (e.g., the adult sex ratio, population density, the level of paternal investment), Brown et al. (11) argued that humans are unlikely to conform to the single universal pattern proposed by Bateman. To our knowledge, only two attempts have been made to investigate in humans how variation in mating success affects variation in reproductive success in each sex (20, 21): one study focused on a colonizing population with a relatively high average fertility and the other on a population with a relatively high level of multiple mating.
Here, we present a study assessing the variance in relative lifetime reproductive success and its components in a human population with socially imposed monogamy and a low level of multiple mating (22) inhabiting an ecologically constraining environment and characterized by natural mortality and fertility rates typical of many preindustrial societies (23). Specifically, we studied the contribution to the opportunity for total selection of four different episodes of selection during the life cycle: survival to reproductive age, mate access, mating success, and fertility per mate. We take into account the effect of sex and wealth accumulation by contrasting two socio-economic classes in all analyses (landowners vs. landless). Data derived from church books maintained for tax purposes on every individual born in 18th- and 19th-century Finland (24) allowed us to compile a complete distribution of marital and reproductive success in four farming- and fishing-based populations (SI Materials and Methods). Our dataset avoids most of limitations of traditional demographic surveys while combining benefits characterizing alternative approaches: the dataset follows members of a large cohort individually from birth to death, as done in studies based on genealogic data (e.g., ref. 20), and accurately includes individuals who failed to survive to reproductive age, failed in the competition for spouses, and dispersed from their natal parish, similar to many ongoing longitudinal studies (e.g., ref. 21). Our sample is based on 5,923 individuals with complete information who were born between 1760 and 1849. It predates the demographic transition and the great famine of 1866–1868. Because extramarital relations were socially condemned (22) and extramarital births were rare, we used marriage data to infer matings.
We first found evidence of an intense opportunity for total selection in the preindustrial Finnish population (Fig. 1A). The opportunity for total selection (I) sets the upper bound on the force of selection that can act on any phenotypic character (8) and is calculated as the variance in relative fitness, i.e., the variance in absolute fitness divided by the square of the mean fitness (10). To estimate I, we computed the variance in the number of offspring produced by all born individuals (including individuals not marrying or not reproducing) divided by the square of the mean, which is equivalent to computing the variance in the relative number of offspring. During the entire study period, the mean and variance in number of offspring were relatively stable (Fig. S1), so the data were pooled over birth cohorts. The number of offspring born over a lifetime ranged from 0 to 17 with an average (±SD) for all individuals born to, respectively, landless and landowning parents of 2.03 ± 3.28 and 2.18 ± 3.40 for males and 2.19 ± 3.09 and 2.26 ± 3.25 for females. For the entire sample, I equaled 2.27 [95% confidence interval (CI95%) = 2.16–2.38], indicating that within a single generation selection could potentially induce a more than twofold increase in the mean fitness value of the population. I was 24.2% higher in males than in females (P < 0.001) and 1.6% higher in landless than in landowners (P = 0.75) (Fig. 1A). The maximum change in mean phenotype resulting from one generation of directional selection—or the maximal selection differential for a trait—can be calculated as the SD of relative fitness, i.e., I1/2 (8). We found that the mean of a trait can increase by up to 1.51 SD (CI95% = 1.47–1.54) per generation if the covariance between the trait and the relative fitness and heritability are maximal (Fig. S2). Because differential selection measurements derive directly from I, the theoretically maximal evolutionary response to selection was also stronger in males than in females and of similar magnitude between landless and landowners.
Variance in reproductive success, mating success, and their relationship in a monogamous human population. The total opportunity for selection as measured by variance in relative reproductive success (A), the opportunity for sexual selection measured by variance in relative mating success (B), and the standardized Bateman gradient measured by the slope of the regression of relative reproductive success on relative mating success (C) are all higher for men than for women but are not different between landowners (LO) and landless (LL). Error bars are bootstrap CI95% values on the means. Sample sizes are indicated inside the bars.
Second, we found that survival to adulthood and fertility were the two variance components responsible for most of the opportunity for selection (Fig. 2). The opportunity for total selection can be divided into additive components of variance in relative fitness, corresponding to multiplicative fitness components (8, 25). Here, we distinguished four episodes of selection: survival to reproductive age (w1), mate access (w2), mating success (w3), and fertility per mate (w4). The probability of surviving to reproductive age (w1) was lower in males than in females (0.54 and 0.57, respectively, logistic regression, = 6.8, P < 0.001) and similar for both social classes ( = 0.097, P = 0.75). Among individuals who survived to reproductive age (age 15 y), the probability of marrying at least once (w2) was also lower in men than in women (0.82 and 0.88, respectively, = 27.8, P < 0.001) but similar for both social classes ( = 0.014, P = 0.68). Because w1 and w2 are binary variables with values 0 or 1, the amount of variance in relative fitness induced by these two episodes of selection is directly linked to the mean. Specifically, the variance in relative fitness is equal to (1 − p)/p, where p is the probability of surviving to reproductive age (w1) or of marrying (w2). Therefore, opportunities for selection induced by survival to reproductive age (w1) and by mate access (w2) were higher in males than in females. Overall, the opportunity for selection because of survival (w1) accounted for 35.3% and mate access (w2) accounted for 7.8% of I (Table S1). In addition to the ability to marry (w2), the variance in relative fitness could also be driven by the total number of sequential marriages (w3). In preindustrial Finland, monogamy was socially imposed and divorce was forbidden, so men and women could remarry only if widowed (22), resulting in a nonextensive serially monogamous mating system in which 7.7% of all born individuals obtained several partners through remarriages (26). The probability of remarrying was higher in males than in females (19% and 14%, respectively, among married individuals, logistic regression, = 13.6, P < 0.001) and similar for both social classes ( = 0.37, P = 0.54). This finding was also true when restricting our sample to only individuals who had the possibility to remarry (i.e., whose first spouse died before them). For this episode, the variation in relative fitness was again greater in males than in females (P < 0.001) but not significantly different between the social classes (P = 0.10). This fitness component contributed 5.6% of I. Finally, among married individuals, the number of offspring produced over lifetime to landless and landowning individuals was, respectively, 4.73 ± 3.50 and 4.84 ± 3.58 for men and 4.27 ± 3.11 and 4.55 ± 3.30 for women. The opportunity for selection because of variation in average number of offspring per mate (w4) did not differ significantly between the four categories of individuals by wealth and sex (P = 0.81) and accounted for 26.8% of I. Thus, the greater I measured in men results from their greater variance in early survival, in ever marrying, and in number of marriages.
Partitioning of total opportunity for selection. Variance in relative reproductive success is divided into four fitness components or episodes of selection: survival to reproductive age (w1), mate access (w2), mating success (w3), and fertility per mate (w4). All covariance terms have been summed (cov) (see Table S1 for details). Survival and fertility account for most of the total opportunity. Diameters of pie charts are proportional to the total opportunity for selection.
Third, we detected an opportunity for sexual selection (Fig. 1B) even if natural selection exceeded selection triggered by competition for mates. The opportunity for sexual selection (IS) sets the upper bound on the force of sexual selection that can act on any phenotypic character and can be measured as the variance in relative mating success, i.e., the variance in absolute number of mates divided by the square of the mean number of mates (27). In our sample, it can be computed directly, either as the variance in relative number of marriages for the subsample of individuals who survived to age 15 y (to exclude variation in mating success because of death before reproductive age) or by investigating the proportion of variation in fitness captured by the combination of episodes w2 and w3 (w2w3). Both methods led to similar estimates with IS equaled 0.33 (CI95% = 0.30–0.35), representing 14.5% of I. This variance in relative mating success was 62.0% higher in males than in females (P < 0.001) and was not significantly influenced by social class (P = 0.52).
Fourth, we studied the relationship between mating and reproductive success and found that variation in mating success contributed more to reproductive success in males than in females (Fig. 3). We quantified the influence of mating success on reproductive fitness with the Bateman gradient, measured here in its standardized version as the slope of the least-squares regression of the relative reproductive success on the relative mating success (βSS) (9, 18). To remove variation attributable to early death, we only included individuals surviving to reproductive age. The overall βSS equaled 0.65 (CI95% = 0.61–0.70), indicating that improved mating success increased reproductive success. The gradient value was 23.9% higher for males than for females (P = 0.002), suggesting that mating success improved reproductive success more in men than in women. There was no significant difference in gradient values between the social classes (P = 0.39). For all categories of individuals, mating success influenced reproductive success as indicated by nonzero βSS (Fig. 1C). To study the influence of mating with several partners, we also analyzed the relationship between mating and reproductive success in a subsample of individuals who married at least once (Fig. 3). The results show that this derivation of the standardized Bateman gradient (βSS′) is positive for males (βSS′ = 0.34, CI95% = 0.22–0.46), potentially zero for females (βSS′ = 0.07, CI95% = −0.04–0.20), and does not significantly differ between social classes (P = 0.66; Fig. S3). The fact that only men benefited from mating successively with different partners followed from the age difference between remarried women and the wives of remarried men: whereas 42.1% of women remarrying were already older at the time of their second marriage than the median age of female reproductive cessation at 41 y (28), only 19.9% of men married a second spouse older than 41 y (26).
Relationship between number of marriages and number of children in males (Left) and females (Right). Lines represent regression lines including all individuals surviving to reproductive age (continuous line) or only those married at least once (dashed line). The diameters of circles are proportional to the logarithm of the number of individuals.
Finally, using our estimates of the opportunity for sexual selection and the Bateman gradients, we computed the maximal selection differential caused by sexual selection (S′max) (9) and found that sexual selection could have exerted important evolutionary changes in this population (Fig. S2). The magnitude of S′max is given by the product of IS1/2 and βSS (9). Our data show that sexual selection alone could have triggered a shift in the average value of a trait corresponding to up to 0.37 SD (CI95% = 0.34–0.40) after a single generation of directional selection. It therefore represents 24.8% of the maximal magnitude of the shift engendered by total selection. S′max was 57.8% higher in males than in females (P < 0.001) and of similar magnitude in both social classes (P = 0.65).
We investigated the variance in relative lifetime reproductive success (i.e., the opportunity for total selection) and its components in a historical monogamous human population. We showed that the intensity of Darwinian selection in this population was in line with empirical measurements of the opportunity for selection reported for other species (e.g., refs. 9 and 29⇓⇓⇓⇓–33). The important demographic, cultural, and technological changes that have occurred during the Holocene (the last 10,000 y) have not prevented the opportunity for selection and the potential for evolution in our species. This result contrasts with the traditional view of evolutionary psychologists and social scientists but is consistent with recent findings from a number of disciplines (34). We also demonstrate that, even when the marriage system is strictly monogamous with limited serial monogamy, all requirements for sexual selection to operate can be met (9). Importantly, our findings are likely to be conservative with respect to unmeasured but usually rare extrapair paternity events (35) because they increase the opportunity for sexual selection in monogamous populations when mated males are responsible for these paternities (36). Consequently, although the practice of nonextensive serial monogamy and the advent of agriculture may have constrained the opportunity for selection, our study shows that there is still room for substantial selection in such populations.
Most of the variation in relative fitness resulted from two episodes of selection that correspond to natural selection: survival to adulthood and fertility. Nonetheless, sexual selection was also potentially effective; this was true even among women who, in sharp contrast with men, did not benefit from multiple pairings. The variance in reproductive success was largely determined by the fitness difference between mating and nonmating individuals in both sexes. In our historical population, the maximal selection differential that sexual selection could induce was around one-quarter of that induced by total selection, which is in line with results reported by Moorad et al. (20) for a historical frontier population in Utah for a period when polygyny had vanished (early 1890s). Because historical Finland was characterized by nonextensive serial monogamy and high infant and child mortality, our estimates are conservative concerning the relative role of sexual vs. natural selection. Thus, even though socially imposed monogamy can reduce the relative role of sexual selection (20), by demonstrating that all requirements for sexual selection to operate can be met with the opportunity for total selection, the opportunity for sexual selection, and the Bateman gradient all being positive, our findings extend those recently published for the Utah frontier population (20) and suggest that sexual selection can still have a substantial role for the evolution of monogamous human populations with low levels of multiple matings.
We observed considerable differences between the sexes in the maximum strength of both natural and sexual selection. Concerning natural selection, a higher early-mortality rate contributed to the higher opportunity for selection in males. Because sex differences in early mortality may be common, isolating the variance in relative fitness induced by this episode of selection allowed us to exclude from sexual selection estimates variation not caused by the competition for mates. Nevertheless, our results show that sexual selection was the main source of the difference in opportunity for total selection between the sexes, in accordance with Bateman's 1948 principles (7, 17). At a proximal level, we cannot exclude that sex differences in the opportunities for sexual selection could result from sex differences in survival in adulthood allowing more remarriage opportunities for males than for females (26, 37). Nonetheless, differences in the opportunities for sexual selection are also likely to result from lactational amenorrhea and female menopause (28), which led males to experience a longer reproductive life than females did despite a slightly female-biased adult sex ratio in this population (51.1% of females at age 15 y; see also ref. 38). Indeed, the longer reproductive lifetime of males can explain the stronger variance in male mating and reproductive success because (i) the greater number of males than females available for reproduction increased intrasexual competition for mates among males; (ii) it created a greater remarriage probability among men than among women; and (iii) multiple marriages increased male fitness because men could have additional children with their younger new spouse, whereas women who were remarrying were usually too old to produce more offspring. Our results therefore stress the importance of using methods that allow the isolation of sex differences caused by natural selection from sexual selection estimates and using data covering the full lifespan of individuals to capture reproductive events at old ages in men, to thus provide an unbiased estimate of the opportunity for sexual selection.
In sharp contrast to the sex differences, social class did not influence our measures of selection. Our results were similar for the two social classes representing one group of individuals with parents whose subsistence did not rely on wealth inheritance practices (landless) and another group of individuals from parents whose subsistence relied on transmitted wealth (landowners). We used parental rather than offspring social class to be able to attribute a social class to each individual, including those who died young. It is therefore possible that changes in social class between generations reduced the social class differences in opportunity for selection in our analysis. However, parents influenced the marriages of their children, and the inheritance of social class was moderately high in the studied populations (39), suggesting that the undetected social differences, if real, cannot be large. Many theoretical studies assume that resource accumulation is crucial for selection affecting humans (37), and phenotypic selection has been shown to be related to male wealth (15). Compared with other historical populations in Europe, variation in socio-economic status within the studied rural population was low (16). Our results therefore suggest that the degree of wealth accumulation needed to shape selection may be substantial and achieved only under conditions of strong social stratification. Further studies are needed to determine the generality of this finding in different socio-ecological environments.
Compared with results reported for other human populations, our estimate for the opportunity for total selection appears high (∼2.3, sexes pooled). For example, similar values in a review of 18 populations ranged from 0.10 to 2.15 (11) and equaled 0.65 for Utah in the early 1890s (20) and 0.55 for contemporary United States (21). The main reason for the relatively high opportunity for total selection in Finland comes from a large (∼60%) nulliparous fraction of each birth cohort. Previous studies measuring the opportunity for selection in humans report lower values for the total opportunity for selection for two main reasons. First, most previous studies relied on data only from adults and/or married individuals and/or parents instead of including all born individuals and therefore excluded nulliparous individuals from their samples (e.g., in ref. 11). Such a practice can lead to an underestimation of the variation in relative fitness. Indeed, remeasuring the opportunity for total selection in our dataset but considering only parents led to a drastic estimate reduction (from 2.52 to 0.31 for males and from 2.03 to 0.32 for females). Moreover, because the proportion of nulliparous individuals can differ between the sexes, such methodological artifacts could also explain the absence of differences in the opportunity for total selection between the sexes reported for several populations (11). For example, Brown et al. (11) reported for Finns no evidence of higher variance in reproductive success of males compared with females when using a sample of parents only (from study in ref. 40). However, as shown above, we too find no differences between the sexes if we exclude the nulliparous individuals from the sample, although such differences are present for the entire cohort.
Second, real differences in the proportion of nulliparous individual can also occur naturally across human populations. For example, although the absolute variance in reproductive success is very similar in Utah and Finland (10.4 vs. 10.6), the large discrepancy in nulliparity between the populations (∼19% vs. 60%) induced an important difference in the average fertility of all born individuals (3.6 vs. ∼2.16). Consequently, Moorad et al. (20) reported a much lower opportunity for total selection than we do, despite considering the nulliparous class of individuals in their analyses. The difference in average fertility between these historical populations appears to have mainly originated from differences in child mortality rate as well as differences in fertility rates between mothers. Although more than 80% of all born Utahns survived to 16 y old in the 1890s (41), Finland was characterized by ∼60% of individuals surviving to 15 y old and therefore presented an early-mortality rate much closer to values reported for contemporary hunter-gatherer populations (42). Consequently, when measuring the opportunity for total selection in our dataset only on individuals surviving to the reproductive age, we obtained an estimate of 0.82 (sexes pooled) more similar to the one reported for Utah. By lowering the competition for resources and so prereproductive mortality, colonizing human populations might undergo a reduction in selection. This finding should be considered, together with founder effects, to understand the evolution of genetic diversity in such pioneer populations. Concerning differences in fertility rates, Utahn mothers had ∼5.0 children in their lifetime, compared with 4.4 for Finns. In addition to the demographic and environmental characteristics of pioneer populations, economic returns to land are usually low relative to labor in frontier environments (43) and could have contributed to the socially supported desire for high family size of these Mormons. All in all, comparing Bateman principles across populations as suggested by Brown et al. (11), or more generally the contribution of the different episodes of selection on the opportunity for selection as introduced here (8, 25), can shed light on the causes and consequences of human diversity. For such efforts, ensuring that the estimates from different populations accurately reflect differences in phenotypic selection rather than methodological discrepancies is crucial (see also ref. 44).
We recall that measuring the opportunity for selection does not necessarily equal measurements of actual selection acting on traits other than fitness. Variation in fitness is caused by several traits that are not all independent (e.g., tradeoffs, pleiotropy), and some variation in reproductive or mating success is unrelated to the phenotype and genotype of an individual. This fact has triggered criticisms of the relevance of global measurements of selection at the phenotypic level, such as the opportunity for selection (e.g., refs. 45, 46). Despite these criticisms and the inherent limitations shared by any phenotypic approach to selection, there are at least five reasons why much can be learned by global measurements of selection. First, measurements of opportunity for selection are necessary for identifying whether natural and sexual selection can operate at all (47). For example, we showed that sexual selection can act in both sexes despite socially constrained monogamy. Second, from the opportunity for selection we can derive the maximum evolutionary rate for any trait, given the proportion of variation in fitness transmitted to the next generation that this trait can explain (8, 9). For example, our analysis shows that a hypothetical trait explaining 5% of transmitted variation in fitness may have evolved up to 0.08 SD per generation of directional selection. Such estimates provide guidance for discussing the possible scope and limits of phenotypic evolution, which is especially relevant for historical populations among which most phenotypic characteristics are no longer accessible. Third, global measurements of selection allow us to decompose the variance in fitness into episodes of selection, indicating where selection has the greatest potential to act (8, 47). Our results suggest that traits influencing survival and fertility were likely to be under stronger selection than those influencing mate choice in agrarian Finland. Fourth, measurement of the opportunity for selection allows comparison across classes of individuals. We showed that possession of wealth does not necessarily constrain selection and that competition for mates is likely to be a stronger selective pressure for males than for females. Finally, we also demonstrated the benefit of comparing measurements performed in different populations by illustrating that differences in environmental and social constraints might explain differences in opportunity for selection between preindustrial Finland and Utah. We therefore subscribe to the view of Krakauer et al. (47), who see approaches relying on opportunity for selection as a complementary approach to that focusing on phenotypic measurements of selection at the level of specific traits.
To conclude, monogamy may have limited the potential for selection to operate in agricultural human populations (20). Nonetheless, such a change did not introduce insurmountable constraint on the variation in fitness, implying that there is still room for relatively strong selection to operate in preindustrial Finland. Whether this finding is general among all populations with enforced monogamy remains an open question because other factors can also influence sex roles (11). This question calls for replications of measurements of the different components of the opportunity for selection using either samples from other populations that are not biased toward individuals with offspring or methods allowing correction for potential bias (see ref. 20). Our results stress that it is misleading to assume that all human populations have remained unaffected by selection for the last few millennia. In addition to genetic studies and phenotypic studies focusing on particular traits, global measurements of selection advance our understanding of human evolution, and studies focusing on evolutionary changes in both historical and current populations should be encouraged.
Demographic Data.
We used demographic data (n = 5,923) collected by the Lutheran Church from four geographically separate populations in Finland, one inland parish (Ikaalinen) and three coastal parishes (Hiittinen, Kustavi, and Rymättylä), for individuals born between 1760 and 1849. For more details on all methods, see SI Materials and Methods.
We used marriage number as a proxy to measure mating success because the number of mating partners before marriage was low (22) and because it is unlikely that extrapair paternities would have exceeded the current worldwide estimate of 3% for populations with high paternity certainty (35). We measured reproductive success as the lifetime number of children of all born individuals. This measurement includes survival and fertility components and therefore corresponds to an estimate of the lifetime reproductive success. We grouped individuals into two social classes depending on their father's occupation (landowners vs. landless). Although parental and offspring social class could differ, inheritance of social class was moderately high (39). This classification enabled us to attribute a social class to all individuals, including those who died before adulthood, and to compare opportunities for selection between social classes throughout successive episodes of selections occurring during the life cycle.
Statistics.
To divide the opportunity for total selection into different episodes of selection, we used methods described in refs. 8 and 25. Opportunity for selection, Bateman gradients, and maximum selection differential were computed following ref. 9. P values with no statistics were computed by using permutation tests. CI95% values were obtained from bootstraps. Each permutation test and bootstrap involved 10,000 data shufflings. Analyses were performed with R 2.10.
We thank K. Pokkinen, A. Siitonen, L. Iso-Iivari, and V. P. Toropainen for data collection as well as M. Borgerhoff-Mulder, P. David, A. Jones, J. Moorad, I. Rickard, and anonymous referees for comments on the manuscript. We also thank Wissenschaftskolleg zu Berlin, the Kone Foundation, the Royal Society, and the European Research Council for funding.
↵1A.C. and J.E.P. contributed equally to this work.
↵2To whom correspondence should be addressed. E-mail: alexandre.courtiol{at}gmail.com.
Author contributions: A.C., J.E.P., M.J., A.R., and V.L. designed research; A.C., J.E.P., and V.L. performed research; A.C. and J.E.P. analyzed data; and A.C., J.E.P., M.J., A.R., and V.L. wrote the paper.
The authors declare no conflict of interest.
This article is a PNAS Direct Submission.
This article contains supporting information online at www.pnas.org/lookup/suppl/doi:10.1073/pnas.1118174109/-/DCSupplemental.
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You are going to email the following Natural and sexual selection in a monogamous historical human population
Opportunity for selection in humans
Alexandre Courtiol, Jenni E. Pettay, Markus Jokela, Anna Rotkirch, Virpi Lummaa
Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences May 2012, 109 (21) 8044-8049; DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1118174109
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Lake Jackson Intermediate » Our School
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text:
Report by Commander Richard T. Down, 7/22/1917
Report by Commander Richard T. Down
Date 20th August 1917.
CONFIDENTIAL. SUBJECT.
Report by Commander Down.
FORMER.
C-in-C's.....372./G/21 of 5th July 1917.1
Commander Down.......22nd July 1917.
of the Admiralty.2
REPORT OR SUBMISSION.
Submitted for the information of Their Lordships, in continuation of the report forwarded with my submission No.372/G/21 of 5th July 1917. Commander Down's report again contains much information of interest.
M.E.Browning
VICE-ADMIRAL,
Commander-in-Chief,
North America and West Indies.
[Enclosure]
22nd. July, 1917.
In continuation of my report of the 27th. June, 1917, relative to my proceedings during my residence in the United States, I have the honour to further submit as follows:-
Since my leaving Washington on the 28th. June to report at Hampton Roads to the Commander-in-Chief, North America and West Indies, up to my departure for Halifax on the 22nd. July for the same purpose, I have been living in the United States Fleet and have also paid a short visit to New York to see over the Works of Messrs. Sperry and Ford,3 and the U.S.S. "New York" in Dockyard hands at that Port.
Whilst resident in the Fleet I have visited some 14 Battleships, talked to a large number of Officers, and have had the opportunity of becoming fairly conversant with the lines on which they are working and with the efficiency and general condition of the Fleet.
GENERAL. (1) It has been somewhat gratifying to observe that many of the suggestions for improvement, based on our experience, which I had Made, have already borne fruit and are being put into practical effect. To quote but one example, the question of watertightness of bulkhead and hatches is engaging their serious attention and I understand, in all ships, with results fully justifying the emphasis I laid upon it.
(2) I gather that Long Island Sound is to be the base of the Main Fleet in the immediate future, and is being protected accordingly. It has many advantages over harbours in Chesapeake Bay, which latter is all pilotage water and too shallow for free navigation. Practices in this Bay are therefore necessarily proscribed and the maximum range obtainable small. Moreover, it is rarely if ever possible to obtain motion on large ships sufficient to afford good practice to Gunlayers. The conditions of the North Sea are more closely approximated in Long Island Sound, and the sole objection to the Harbour is the traffic, which will have to be regulated, if practices are to be carried out without frequent interferences.
(3) Rehearsals, as stated in my previous report, are an important and invariable feature of all Gunnery exercises. Having seen more of them, I am still further convinced that, as carried out, they are a mistake. The advantage claimed, that they will prevent a ship doing a practice before she is fully ready for it and thus wasting ammunition, is outweighed by the fact that the many difficulties resulting from unknown or surprise conditions are never simulated.
(4) Practically all Dreadnaught ships are fitted with an admirably equipped laundry, Barber's Shop, Post Office and Printing Office. The former does the washing of the entire Ship's Company, days being set apart, proportionately, for Officers and Men.
TRAINING. (5) The 8 pre-Dreadnaught ships comprising the 1st. Squadron are exclusively engaged in training the engine-room complement destined for new construction and armed ex-German merchant vessels. The men are drafted straight from shore life, after being kitted up at a Naval Shore Establishment, and are given a course of 6 weeks, which is divided up into two periods of 3 each. A fortnight in each period is spent at sea and one week in harbour for instruction in repair and overhaul, etc. The men are divided up into sections of 8. A capable Chief Petty Officer is detailed to each section and lives and has to do with them exclusively during their period of training. At the end of this period the men are selected for the various Engine Room grades, according to their abilities, which latter are of course considerably dependent on their previous employment in shore life. About 1000 trained men are turned out by this squadron for service every 6 weeks, or some 8000 yearly. All the remaining 3 squadrons have been engaged since the commencement of hostilities in training and sending out guns crews for armed Merchant Vessels, Patrols, etc. On an average, in 2 months, i.e. since the beginning of May, each ship has trained some 30 crews of 5 men, and sent out about 20. Some ships have in the same period trained as many as 50 and sent out 30. It is intended that a portion of the crews should return after 2 cruises or so and be replaced by others, with the hope that the ill effect on the Battle efficiency, which the capital ships must suffer in having to provide such large drafts, and in devoting so much time and attention to their training, will at least in part be compensated by the leavening which these ships will gradually get of men who have had some experience of work in the Danger zone and the more variable and often less pleasant weather conditions round the British Isles.
The immediate emergency is being met in this way, but it is realised that training and sending out drafts from the Battle Fleet at the present rate cannot go on for an unlimited time without very seriously compromising its efficiency. Though the present situation is considered to demand such a policy, a time may come when the Fleet may be required for more active co-operation and its readiness cannot therefore be indefinitely sacrificed.
It is possible that in the future, if the contemplated increase in the Merchant Navy and Auxiliary Vessels, together with the requirements for new construction, continue to make large demands on the Fleet for trained men, the solution will be found by reducing the present 2nd. Squadron (pre-Dreadnoughts) to the level of a purely Training squadron similar to the 1st., for the exclusive training of deck hands. This would free the Dreadnought ships from having to sustain an impossible proportion of the burden of training, and would place them more on a footing with our own ships in this respect, in as much as they could assist the training squadrons to a predetermined amount, having regard to the maintenance of War efficiency.
The problem of training in the U.S. Navy presents difficulties with which we do not have to contend to quite the same extent. Expansion in their Navy has been very sudden and very great. There has been an immediate and urgent call for a large number of trained men for auxiliary purposes. The patrol vessels, ex-German merchant ships, and the building programme has given and will continue to give them an ever increasing navy, for which there has been no provision made in men; no Naval Reserves to draw from, and no adequate training establishments other than the Active Fleet.
RANGEFINDERS. (6) I have had long conversations with Lieutenant [Henry A.] Orr, of the "Vestal", repair ship, who is considered the greatest expert on Rangefinders in the U.S. Navy.
He informed me that the "Tension wire" system of suspension for the inner tube adopted by Bausch and Lomb is much superior to Barr and Stroud's system, as even considerable distortions of the outer tube do not affect the optical parts.
He states also that the Bausch and Lomb "Internal Adjuster" is much more accurate than that fitted by Barr and Stroud which he considers a poor one. In the Bausch and Lomb design the rays of light thrown on to the "Adjuster" are not at right angles to the longer axis of the Rangefinder, as they purport to be in the Barr and Stroud instrument, and coincidence is obtained by taking readings of the Adjuster, the rays coming in at an angle to the right and left respectively of the plane normal to the longer axis of the instrument. This is done by revolving the optical parts of the adjuster and thus eliminating errors caused by distortion of prism faces, caused by heat and imperfect grinding of prism faces, etc.
Lieutenant Orr is fully conversant with the latest Barr and Stroud Rangefinders. He informed me that there were some 70 of these instruments in the U.S. Navy up to 15 feet base, but that the Bausch and Lomb are considered so much superior that inall Dreadnoughts the Barr and Stroud Instruments are not mounted but kept in store as a reserve. He considers that the purely optical parts of the Barr and Stroud rangefinders are of a very high standard.
Lieutenant Orr is stationed in the repair ship "Vestal" in which excellent rangefinder repair shops are fitted up. He is responsible for the repair and upkeep of all rangefinders in the Fleet, the ships of which he frequently visits to correct or to anticipate any rangefinder troubles which may arise, and to give advice. His special knowledge is further made use of to assist Ship's Officers by his taking classes of Rangefinder operators through special courses, this forming a regular part of his duties and of the training of Rangefinder operators in the Fleet.
TELEPHONES. (7) The efficiency of Ship and Control Telephones has recently been the subject of much controversy in the U.S. Navy. Telephones and head attachments are fitted and used more extensively than with us, the voice pipes for control purposes being, generally speaking, regarded as an alternation only.
Appended is a very interesting report on the subject of telephones by Lieutenant Commander (now Commander) Hepburn of the "South Carolina", sent in after the practices of the Spring of 1916. I have talked with him and he impressed me strongly with having a very complete knowledge of the subject. Action has been taken on the strength of his report and in accordance with his suggestions, two ships including his own have been fitted with experimental installations. These I have seen and tried, and they certainly have justified his contentions, being very clear and far superior to anything I have previously used, either in our own or the U.S. Navy.
SEARCHLIGHTS. (8) The present standard Navy Search-Light is a 36" projector, the efficiency of which would appear to be about on a par with our own 24" twin projectors. Iris diaphrams for shutting out the after glow from the carbons when the light is switched off are universally fitted. The present service projector is not considered satisfactory and two different types of lights are now on trial in several ships, both of which seem far superior to the Service pattern light. These are respectively the Beck and Sperry searchlights.4 Both are on very much the same principle, except that in the Beck Light the carbon cooling medium used is alcohol, whereas in the Sperry the same result is obtained by an induced current of air.
The Beck Light, though a very good one, is not suitable for general Naval Service as the liquid cooling medium prohibits high elevation, and necessitates great care in the manipulation of the light.
The Sperry Light on the other hand has so far given the most excellent results, and it appears probable that it will shortly be accepted for general Naval service.
The special features and advantages of the Sperry Light are:-
(a) Small diameter core carbons of very high grade material, and impregnated with special powerful light-producing materials.
(b) Very deep crater formed in positive carbon and filled with superheated vapour from special materials with which carbon is impregnated and which greatly increases the light producing qualities of the incandescent carbon arc.
(c) Great increase in specific brightness per unit area of the light source, due to (a) and (b).
(d) Automatically revolving positive carbon to maintain crater uniform and central.
(e) Both carbons automatically fed through their respective holders.
(f) Distance between carbon holders small and constant owing to method of feeding carbons as set forth in (e).
(g) Both carbons are cooled by ducts from a small motor blower at the bottom of the lamp, thus maintaining low and constant resistance in carbons.
(h) Two speed automatic feed which ensures arc being struck rapidly when switched on in case carbons are far apart. These speeds are entirely automatic, being dependent on arc resistance.
(i) Automatic shutter which completely shuts off the After glow of the carbons when light is switched off, rendered feasible by small and constant distance apart of carbon holders.
(j) Thermostat arc regulator.
At recent government trials the relative efficience of the Sperry L<H>ight intensity 36" projector and the Naval Service 36" light was as follows:-
Sperry Light illuminated target up to 9000 yards.
Naval Service light illuminated target up to 3500 yards.
The light stands the shock of the heaviest gun fire well and is not put out. It is about equal to other types in its capabilities when pointed into a high wind with the front glass off.
SPERRY'S SHIP STABILIZER.(9) Th<is>adaptation of the principles of the gyroscope is an invention of Mr. Sperry's which he has been working on for many years and which it would seem has now passed from the realms of experiment to that of practical utility. The efficiency of the installation has been tried in several small ships and a considerable number of yachts up to 1500 tons are now fitted with it. The War has delayed the extension of the principle to big ships, the transport Henderson of 10000 tons being the only large ship in which the stabilizer has at present been fitted and even in this ship,the necessity for expediting her departure for service has made it impossible up to the present to complete the equipxxment for trial. The apparatus is to be installed in the Dreadnought ships now building for the U.S. Navy. The complete installation weighs about 1% of the displacement, but this is only approximate as the actual weight of the gyro wheel depends on a multiple of three factors, metacentric height, period and displacement. The practical difficulties of casting limit the size of an individual gyro wheel. Thus the largest sets of gear which it is at present contemplated building are for the new U.S. Battleships, which will each have 4 sets, each set having a 60 ton wheel. These battleships are of over 30000 tons and having a large metacentric height (5 feet) require heavy installations. The whole apparatus is very compact and for a given weight takes up much less space than might be imagined.
It is claimed that the strong and accurately fitting casing over the wheel entirely removes the danger which might otherwise result from the escape of the rapidly revolving gyro wheel, due to a fractured axle.
The wheel revolves in a partial vacuum and is water cooled, and every detail tending towards mechanical perfection has been thought out and incorporated in the design. The motor used for driving the gyro is an alternating one of a very compact type and carrying no brushes.
In large installations, owing to the tendency of the Main gyro to lag, a small and sensitive Control gyro with motor and suitable gearing is used as the "Precessing Unit" of the main gyro, thus automatically ensuring its instant response to the smallest movements of the ship. The installation can be placed anywhere in the ship; presents no mechanical difficulties in fitting up, and does not require bulkheads, stiffenings or attachments of any abnormal strength to carry it.
Mr. Sperry claims that with the special electrical and automatic control board which he has recently perfected it will be possible to:-
(1) Reduce any roll to approximately zero or to the desired amplitude.
(2) Reduce a small but uneven motion to zero or to a regular one of the desired amplitude.
(3) When there is no motion, to induce a roll of the desired amplitude.
This is accomplished by the automatic reversal of the direction of "Precession" of the Main gyro. The possible advantages of the above for Director firing are obvious. The amount of roll which can be induced is small and could not become dangerous as it is directly dependent on the power of the small "Precessing unit".
Attached are some diagrams of Rolling and Stabalizing [i.e., Stabilizing] experiments which have been carried out.
I have the honour to be,
Your obedient Servant,
Richard Down.
Source Note: TDS, UK-KeNA, Adm. 137/656.
Footnote 1: See: Down Report, 27 June 1917.
Footnote 2: Oswyn A. R. Murray.
Footnote 3: For more on the Sperry Gyroscope Company, see: Down Report, 27 June 1917.
Footnote 4: Prior to the war, the U.S. Navy had consulted with German inventor Heinrich Beck for his highly-regarded searchlights. Sperry was contracted to convert the Navy's searchlights to Beck's design, but instead developed his own version of the high-intensity searchlight, which was found to be superior to Beck's in a series of trials conducted by the Army Coast Artillery Board in 1916. https://www.fi.edu/case-files/elmer-a-sperry-searchlight, accessed 12 February 2019.
Commodore Guy R. Gaunt, British Naval Attaché at Washington, to British Admiralty, 7/1/1917
Commodore Guy R. Gaunt, British Naval Attaché at Washington, to First Sea Lord Admiral Sir John R. Jellicoe, 7/1/1917
Captain Arthur de K. L. May, Assistant Chief of the Naval Staff, to Vice Admiral Montague E. Browning, Commander-in-Chief, North America and West Indies Station, 7/1/1917
Memorandum from Sir Colville A. R. Barclay, Chargé d'Affaires of the Embassy of Great Britain in Washington, D. C., 7/1/1917
Draft Proposal for the Inter-Allied Munitions Council, 7/2/1917
Vice Admiral William S. Sims, Commander, United States Naval Forces Operating in European Waters, to Captain Richard H. Jackson, American Naval Representative to Paris, 7/2/1917
Vice Admiral William S. Sims, Commander, United States Naval Forces Operating in European Waters, to Officers Under His Command, 7/2/1917
Captain William V. Pratt, Assistant Chief of Naval Operations, to Vice Admiral William S. Sims, Commander, United States Naval Forces Operating in European Waters, 7/2/1917
President Woodrow Wilson to Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels, 7/2/1917
Vice Admiral William S. Sims, Commander, United States Naval Forces in Europe, to Captain William V. Pratt, Assistant Chief of Naval Operations, 7/3/1917
Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels to Secretary of State Robert M. Lansing, 7/3/1917
Vice Admiral William S. Sims, Commander, United States Naval Forces Operating in Europe, to Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels, 7/3/1917
Secretary of War Newton D. Baker to Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels, 7/3/1917
Commodore Guy R. Gaunt, British Naval Attaché at Washington, to Admiral William S. Benson, Chief of Naval Operations, 7/4/1917
Rear Admiral Albert Gleaves, Commander, Convoy Operations in the Atlantic, to Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels, 7/4/1917
First Sea Lord Admiral Sir John R. Jellicoe to Commodore Guy R. Gaunt, British Naval Attaché at Washington, 7/4/1917
President Woodrow Wilson to Vice Admiral William S. Sims, Commander, United States Naval Forces Operating in European Waters, 7/4/1917
Lieutenant Commander John H. Boesch, Commander, Orion, to the Office of the Chief of Naval Operations, 7/4/1917
Commander Joel R. Poinsett Pringle, Chief of Staff, Destroyer Flotillas, Queenstown, to Vice Admiral William S. Sims, Commander, United States Naval Forces Operating in European Waters, 7/4/1917
Vice Admiral William S. Sims, Commander, United States Naval Forces Operating in European Waters, to Commander Powers Symington, Commander, USS Tacoma, 7/4/1917
Vice Admiral William S. Sims, Commander, United States Naval Forces Operating in European Waters, to Captain Richard H. Jackson, American Naval Representative to the Ministry of Marine, 7/5/1917
Vice Admiral William S. Sims, Commander, United States Naval Forces Operating in European Waters, to Lieutenant Commander Joseph F. Daniels, U.S.S. Melville, 7/5/1917
Vice Admiral William S. Sims, Commander, United States Naval Forces Operating in European Waters, to Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels., 7/5/1917
Memorandum from Captain William W. Fisher, Director, Anti-Submarine Warfare, 7/5/1917
Commodore Guy R. Gaunt, British Naval Attaché at Washington, to Secretary of the Admiralty Sir William Graham Greene, 7/5/1917
Rear Admiral Albert Gleaves, Commander, Convoy Operations in the Atlantic, to Vice Admiral William S. Sims, Commander, United States Forces Operating in European Waters, 7/5/1917
Commodore Guy R. Gaunt, British Naval Attaché at Washington, to Vice Admiral William S. Sims, Commander, United States Naval Forces Operating in European Waters., 7/5/1917
Alfred C. W. Harmsworth, First Viscount Northcliffe, to Imperial War Cabinet, 7/5/1917
United States Ambassador to the United Kingdom Walter Hines Page to Secretary of State Robert Lansing, 7/5/1917
Vice Admiral Sir Lewis Bayly, Commander, Southern Ireland, to Vice Admiral William S. Sims, Commander, United States Naval Forces Operating in European Waters, 7/6/1917
Lieutenant Commander Thomas A. Kittinger, Commander, Coarsair, to Captain William B. Fletcher, Force Commander, Special Patrol Squadron, 7/6/1917
Vice Admiral William S. Sims, Commander, United States Naval Forces Operating in European Waters, to Captain William V. Pratt, Assistant Chief of Naval Operations, 7/6/1917
Lieutenant Kenneth Whiting, Commander, First Aeronautic Detachment, to Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels, 7/7/1917
Vice Admiral William S. Sims, Commander, United States Naval Forces Operating in European Waters, to Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels 7/7/1917
Vice Admiral William S. Sims, Commander, United States Naval Forces Operating in European Waters, to Bureau of Steam Engineering, 7/7/1917
Rear Admiral Roger Welles, Director of Naval Intelligence, to Captain William D. MacDougall, United States Naval Attaché at London, 7/8/1917
Admiral William S. Benson, Chief of Naval Operations, to José Martí, Chief of Staff, Cuban Army, and President, Cuban Mission, 7/9/1917
Captain William R. Hall, Director, Intelligence Division, to Imperial War Cabinet, 7/9/1917
Lieutenant Commander Joseph F. Daniels to Vice Admiral William S. Sims, Commander, United States Naval Forces Operating in European Waters, 7/10/1917
Vice Admiral William S. Sims, Commander, United States Naval Forces Operating in European Waters, to Commander Joel R. Poinsett Pringle, Chief of Staff, Destroyer Flotillas, 7/10/1917
VIce Admiral Sir Lewis Bayly, Commander, Southern Ireland to Vice Admiral William S. Sims, Commander, United States Naval Forces Operating in European Waters, 7/10/1917
Admiral William S. Benson, Chief of Naval Operations, Memorandum for Ship Owners, 7/10/1917
Lieutenant Fred M. Perkins, Destroyer Force Engineer Officer, to Vice Admiral William S. Sims, United States Naval Forces Operating in European Waters, 7/10/1917
Raymond B. Fosdick, Chairman, Commission on Training Camp Activities, to Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels, 7/10/1917
Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels to General José Martí, Chief of Staff, Cuban Army, and President of Cuban Mission, 7/11/1917
Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels, Memorandum to Naval Departments, 7/11/1917
Captain Edwin A. Anderson, Commander, Squadron Three, Patrol Force, to Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels, 7/11/1917
Vice Admiral Sir Lewis Bayly, Commander, Southern Ireland, to Vice Admiral William S. Sims, Commander, United States Naval Forces Operating in European Waters., 7/12/1917
Captain Richard H. Jackson, American Naval Representative to the Ministry of Marine, to Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels, 7/12/1917
Captain William B. Fletcher, Commander, United States Patrol Squadron, Patrol Instructions, 7/12/1917
United States Ambassador to the United Kingdom Walter Hines Page to Secretary of State Robert Lansing, 7/13/1917
Captain Benton Decker, United States Naval Attaché at Madrid, to Office of Naval Intelligence, 7/13/1917
British Foreign Office to British Ambassador to the United States Sir Cecil Spring Rice, 7/14/1917
Lieutenant Arthur S. Carpender, Commander, Fanning, to Vice Admiral William S. Sims, Commander, United States Naval Forces Operating in European Waters, 7/15/1917
Commander Joel R. Poinsett Pringle, Chief of Staff, Destroyer Flotillass, to Vice Admiral William S. Sims, Commander, United States Naval Forces Operating in European Waters, 7/15/1917
Lieutenant Norman Wilkinson, to Rear Admiral Clement Greatorex, Director of Naval Equipment 7/16/1917
Vice Admiral William S. Sims, Commander, United States Naval Forces Operating in European Waters, to Captain Benton C. Decker, United States Naval Attaché at Madrid, 7/17/1917
Commander William R. Sayles, United States Naval Attaché at Paris, to Vice Admiral William S. Sims, Commander, United States Naval Forces Operating in European Waters, 7/17/1917
Report on the Sinking of Florence Creadick, 7/17/1917
Vice Admiral William S. Sims, Commander, United States Naval Forces Operating in European Waters, to Vice Admiral Lewis Bayly, Commander, Southern Ireland, 7/18/1917
Vice Admiral William S. Sims, Commander, United States Naval Forces Operating in European Waters, to Captain William B. Fletcher, Force Commander, United States Patrol Squadron, 7/18/1917
Assistant Secretary of the Navy Franklin D. Roosevelt to Vice Admiral William S. Sims, Commander, United States Naval Forces Operating in European Waters, 7/20/1917
Rear Admiral Albert Gleaves, Commander, Convoy Operations in the Atlantic, to Vice Admiral Henry T. Mayo, Commander, Atlantic Fleet, 7/20/1917
British Admiralty to Commodore Guy R. Gaunt, British Naval Attaché at Washington, 7/21/1917
Admiral William S. Benson, Chief of Naval Operation, to Rear Admiral Albert G. Winterhalter, Commander, Asiatic Fleet, 7/24/1917
Third Assistant Secretary of State Breckinridge Long, "What the Navy Has Done Since the War Began", 7/24/1917
Memorandum from Commander Edward McCauley, Jr., Acting Director, Office of Naval Intelligence, 7/25/1917
Ministry of Marine to Captain Richard H. Jackson, American Naval Representative to the Ministry of Marine, 7/25/1917
Rear Admiral Samuel McGowan, Paymaster General, Intra-Bureau Order No. 201, 7/26/1917
Secretary of War Newton D. Baker to Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels, 7/26/1917
Vice Admiral Williams S. Sims, Commander, United States Naval Forces Operating in European Waters, to Anne Hitchcock Sims, 7/26/1917
Secretary of the Navy Josephus Daniels to Captain Samuel S. Robinson, Commander, Submarine Force, Atlantic Fleet, 7/26/1917
Lieutenant Commander Charles K. Belknap, Jr., Office of the Chief of Naval Operations, to Vice Admiral William S. Sims, Commander, United States Naval Forces Operating in European Waters, 7/26/1917
Rear Admiral Albert Gleaves, Commander, Convoy Operations in the Atlantic Ocean, to Admiral William S. Benson, Chief of Naval Operations, 7/27/1917
State Department to United States Ambassador to the United Kingdom Walter Hines Page, 7/30/1917
Lieutenant Commander Theodore G. Ellyson to Helen Ellyson, 7/30/1917
Commander Thomas A. Kearney, Acting Chief, Bureau of Ordnance, to Admiral William S. Benson, Chief of Naval Operations, 7/30/1917
Vice Admiral William S. Sims, Commander, United States Naval Forces Operating in European Waters, to Vice Admiral Ferdinand de Bon, Chief of Staff, Ministry of Marine, 7/30/1917
Vice Admiral William S. Sims, Commander, United States Naval Forces Operating in European Waters to Commander Joel R. Poinsett Pringle, 7/31/1917
Acting Secretary of State Frank Polk to United States Ambassador to the United Kingdom Walter Hines Page, 7/31/1917
Captain William B. Fletcher, Commander, Special Patrol Squadrons, Patrol Instructions, 7/31/1917
Vestal, New York
Additional Resources for July 1917


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You are here: Home / Newsroom / About CIUS Center / Recent Events / U.S.-China Educational Exchanges: 40 Years of Engagement in Higher Edu...
U.S.-China Educational Exchanges:
40 Years of Engagement in Higher Education
Dialogue, Engagement Key to Global Security and Prosperity
US Higher Education Leaders Discuss US-China Educational Exchanges, hosted by the Confucius Institute U.S. Center and the US-China Strong Foundation
It has been 40 years since the historic "opening" of China to the West, and much has been accomplished. Five scholars met with members of the media and higher education on Tuesday to discuss the future of US-China Educational Exchanges at the National Press Club, hosted by the Confucius Institute U.S. Center and the US-China Strong Foundation.
For media inquiries, contact Gao Qing at press@ciuscenter.org
View Event Press Release View Confucius Institutes in the U.S. Fact Sheet
Confucius Institute U.S. Center and US-China Strong Foundation
VP for Government Affairs, Arizona State University Former U.S. Representative
(R – AZ 1st & 5th Districts)
Winston Langley
Professor of Foreign Affairs, Former Provost and Vice Chancellor for Academic Affairs, the University of Massachusetts – Boston
Harvey Perlman
Professor of Law, Former Chancellor, University of Nebraska-Lincoln
Madelyn Ross
Associate Director of China Studies and Executive Director of SAIS China, Johns Hopkins University School of Advanced International Studies
John Holden (Moderator),
CEO, US-China Strong Foundation
Responding to the question of the importance of US-China educational exchanges, Madelyn Ross reminded the audience, "Education has been at the leading edge of US-China relations." Former US Representative (R-AZ) Matt Salmon affirmed that the US-China relationship is "the single most important bilateral relationship in the world today."
A major element contributing to the dialogue about educational exchanges has been the establishment of Confucius Institutes in the US. Confucius Institutes provide educational programs dedicated to teaching Mandarin and facilitating awareness and understanding of Chinese culture. Winston Langley and Harvey Perlman recognized the value Confucius Institutes bring to the US. Perlman, former Chancellor of the University of Nebraska, said the University's connection with a Chinese partner university through the Confucius Institute helped fuel economic development in the Nebraska agriculture industry.
Concerns about Confucius Institutes have been raised recently in the media. When asked about this issue, the panelists indicated that greater dissemination of information about the work of the Institutes would help dispel any confusion and misinformation. Salmon noted that the Arizona State University Confucius Institute has been instrumental in securing grant funding from the US Department of Defense for a program to address a shortage of Americans with professional-level knowledge of a language deemed critical to national security, noting it would be unlikely for the DoD to approve such funding if it perceived the Confucius Institute as a threat.
Jonathon Marek, a Georgetown University School of Foreign Service student and Confucius Institute beneficiary spoke at the event and concurred, adding, "The ultimate value of Sino-American academic exchanges is that we get to understand each other better, irrespective of national differences. Exchanges […] help build the US-China relationship by forging deep ties between American and Chinese students."
About the Confucius Institute U.S. Center
The Confucius Institute U.S. Center is a (501)(c)(3) nonprofit organization whose mission is to support the teaching and learning of Chinese language and culture in the United States and to foster educational and academic exchanges between China and the United States. The Center serves to support the joint U.S.-China educational programs of the more than 100 Confucius Institutes in the U.S. and to coordinate regional educational initiatives. The Center's mission is aligned with policy initiatives of the United States government that promote Chinese language education and cross-cultural understanding.
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Utah Legislature Recognizes Enormous Contributions of Confucius Institutes New TV Series on Building U.S.-China Education Bridges


Will Tasha and Tiger JK Get Lost In the Mix?
First of all, two awesome things about two amazing people. Both are real honest-to-God hip-hop artists. Both are real honest-to-God hip-hop artists not from YGE. Now, no worries, I'm not tearing down any artists, YG fans – there's genuine excitement on my end to see two noteworthy artists truly come back after working hard on new material.
Tasha (T, or Yoon Mi Rae) has always been a continual source of fascination for me – her background as a multiracial youth and the difficulties she faced are well known – but she has never turned away from talking about or referencing it in her music ('Black Happiness').
Tiger JK similarly drew on his own experiences with racism and discrimination during his time in the U.S. during the 1992 L.A. Riots as inspiration for his music, drawing on important social issues and diverse musical styles to change the hip-hop scene as Korea knew it.
It's been four years since T's last album and it's great to see these two inspiring artists putting in so much passion and world-consciousness into T's upcoming album. According to reports, these two even worked in the studio during Chosuk, demonstrating their dedication to their music.
My only concern is that, despite their unopposed labels as "Legends", they don't have million-member fan groups and endless calendars, posters and stickers of themselves, like the rest of the idol groups scheduled to return this fall. I sincerely hope they delay their comeback by a few months. It would kill me to see them to belost under the glut of hot pants and dyed hair as a stampede of girl groups take the stage. I suppose their songs and albums will do well even without the super-commercial marketing push but there is a part of me that believes they merit just as much attention as groups like Super Junior have earned and perhaps are more deserving of it.


Welcome to Madera County Food Bank | Thank You Sponsors and Participants!
Thank you Sponsors & Participants for helping raise $15,000!
We would like to thank all the sponsors and participants that made it out for the Second Wind 5K this year, making the event a huge success by raising $15,000!! We look forward and are excited to see the 5K grow and get better each year!
Click below to scroll through some pictures taken at the race.


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Sugarcane Industry Applauds Passage of Senate Farm Bill
"America's sugarcane farmers and employees that operate our mills and refineries are thankful that the Senate approved its version of the farm bill with a strong 86 to 11 vote," stated Ryan Weston, the CEO of the Florida Sugar Cane League and Washington Representative for the Rio Grande Valley Sugar Growers. "Senator Nelson and Senator Rubio worked hard to fend off amendments that would have attacked current U.S. sugar policy"...(read more)
FSCL Welcomes Back Sugar Cane Growers Cooperative
The Florida Sugar Cane League announced today that the Sugar Cane Growers Cooperative of Florida, based in Belle Glade, FL, is once again represented by the industry trade association. This move ensures that the three major sugarcane companies in Florida - along with their independent growers - are fully united under the banner of the Florida Sugar Cane League as debate over no-cost American sugar policy takes place in Congress...(read more)
Hurricane Harvey Recovery Update
Our Texas sugarcane farmers and mill employees appreciate the calls and emails of support they received before and after Hurricane Harvey made landfall. Our cane fields and mill didn't face the brunt of this storm but many family members and friends were not so fortunate. The Rio Grande Valley Sugar Growers and Florida Sugar Cane League Members, Florida Crystals and U.S. Sugar, have already procured several truckloads of water...(read more)
Sugarcane growers applaud Senate vote on Lighthizer
"The sugarcane farmers in America's fields, and the employees in our mills and refineries are thrilled that the Senate approved Robert Lighthizer yesterday as the United States Trade Representative," stated Ryan Weston, the CEO of the Florida Sugar Cane League and Washington Representative for the Rio Grande Valley Sugar Growers. "Lighthizer brings decades of experience to the position and is a strong proponent of enforcing trade laws."...(read more)
Congressman Kika de la Garza passes away
American agriculture lost a true champion with the passing of Congressman Kika de la Garza. The former Chairman of the U.S. House of Representatives Committee on Agriculture was a leader not only for South Texas but for U.S. agriculture producers...(read more)
Florida Sugar Cane League Hosts Agriculture Leaders
On Monday, January 30th, the Florida Sugar Cane League was excited to host the leaders of important U.S. farm and agricultural organizations for a tour of sugarcane farming, milling and refining operations. The tour originated in Miami where the American Sugarbeet Growers Association was holding its annual meeting.. .(read more)
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A new report from the Government Accountability Office (GAO), Actions Needed to Improve Oversight of Indirect Costs for Research, finds that the National Science Foundation (NSF) "does not consistently take steps to ensure it pays no more than its fair share of indirect costs." Indirect costs, also referred to as facilities and administrative (F&A) costs, represent the portion of NSF awards that cover operational costs, such as maintenance, rent, and utilities. The report notes that while NSF has produced guidance for setting indirect cost rates, it is not implemented consistently. The report makes recommendations to ensure NSF staff follow its guidance more reliably, better document the process of setting indirect cost rates, and maintain consistency with the guidance set by other federal agencies. In a letter responding to the report (Appendix I), NSF concurred with GAO's recommendations and outlined the steps it will take to implement them. The complete report and a highlights page are available on GAO's website.


There are three types of higher schools in the United Kingdom: universities, university colleges and colleges of further and higher education.
Universities can be divided into old and new.
Old universities do not provide education on the vocational level, even though they conduct accredited courses of studies for academic degrees. Qualifications regarding specific professions and the required entitlements are more and more often awarded as a result of passing specific exams carried by or accredited by professional bodies.
The new universities are these, which were established after 1992, on the basis of the newly adopted Act on Further and Higher Education.
To the university colleges belong these institutions, which offer short-term studies. After graduation from such universities the students are awarded an academic degree. Some of the colleges offer programmes for the higher academic degrees.
The colleges, which belong to the category colleges of further education offer some of the programs on the level of the higher education.
In the UK studies below the first academic level are available. After completion of such studies, graduates are awarded a certificate or a diploma. Certificate is awarded after one year of stationary studies, which are equal to the first year of studies towards the first academic level. Diplomas are awarded after two years of studies, which are equal to the first two years of studies. Higher National Certificates are the diplomas awarded by Edexcel (an examination board) after completion of two-year studies, where the certificates are awarded to the graduates of non-stationary studies, and diplomas to the graduates of stationary studies.
The studies leading to the awarding of the first academic degree usually last three years, but in some areas, such as medicine, veterinary and dentistry, they last much longer. Foreign languages studies require also additional one year of work in the country of the language or one-year studies in that country.
The universities are free to adopt names for the awarded academic degrees. The most popular ones include: Bachelor of Arts (BA) and Bachelor of Science (BSc).
The holders of the Bachelor degree are offered specialist or vocational post-graduate studies, which last usually a year. The graduates are awarded a certificate or a diploma.
Higher academic degrees (post-graduate) are awarded after completing additional studies or individual research. They may be composed of both these elements. At the post-graduate level there are two types of degrees: Masters Degree and PhD. The universities may also award higher honour diplomas to the excelling students.
The Master degree requires at least one year (usually two) of stationary studies. Oxford and Cambridge universities are an exception their Master of Arts degree is a sign of maturity, not additional academic achievements. Graduates of these universities may, apply to receive the Master of Arts Degree after paying the fee, without the need to undertake further studies. The application may be submitted within 7 years from matriculation (Oxford) or 6 years (Cambridge).
Doctoral degrees are awarded for an extensive study, called a doctoral thesis, on the basis of the publications from the given area of research. Regardless of the area, the title awarded is the PhD (Doctor of Philosophy), with the exception of a few specialist areas, such as music, where the title Doctor of Musical Arts (AmusD) is awarded.


The kind-hearted folk of Norwich and surrounding areas have once again stepped into the breach to make Christmas Day a special occasion for the homeless and those on their own.
More than 300 guests are expected to enjoy Christmas Day at St Andrew's Hall in Norwich, with a hot meal, entertainment and a warm welcome.
This year will be the 19th that the Open Christmas volunteer team has organised the event.
Meals and transport are provided free of charge, guests are welcome to stay all day or come and go as they please, and no booking is required.
Open Christmas is run by a growing team of committed volunteers who help with food preparation, hall decoration, transport, entertainment, greeting guests and the many other tasks which need doing.
Chapelfield shopping centre in Norwich is helping out at this year's event, but marketing manager Sheridan Smith said they were still discussing the details.
She said: "Last year we had Santa in the centre and asked Chapelfield customers to visit him and donate gifts to the homeless rather than receiving gifts themselves.
Donations of food, clothing, equipment, decorations and money come from individuals, church groups, local companies, schools, City College Norwich and retailers.
Entertainment can include carol singing, an organ recital, a quiz, bingo, country dancing, folk singers and solo artists.
Norwich Open Christmas runs from 11am to 5pm on Christmas Day in St Andrew's Hall.
Are you doing anything to help the homeless this Christmas? Call reporter David Bale on 01603 772427 or email david.bale2@archant.co.uk.


Our Bucket Elevators are designed to provide a reliable performance and maintain the quality of your commodities. We offer a wide rage of models, options and accessories to ensure a bucket elevator that works best for your application. Our elevators are found across North America, moving a wide variety of materials including grain, fertilizer, seed, sand and even cement.


Winter classes start the week of January 2nd! Click on the 2018 Winter Schedule for more information about classes and how to register!
When can I sign up for a Strong Senior Class in Onalaska, Mindoro and St. Joseph's Ridge? Registration for these locations starts Monday, December 4th. Registration prior to these dates is not allowed.
When can I sign up for a Strong Senior Class in La Crosse? La Crosse locations can start registering Monday, December11th. Registration prior to these dates is not allowed.
How do I register? To register, call the Nutrition Division of the La Crosse County Health Department at (608)785-9853. Leave your name, phone number and state the class you would like to sign up for including time and location. Someone from the Health Department will call to confirm your class time as soon as possible. This could take a few days, pending the number of calls.
How much are classes? Classes are $20 per person for each 11 week session. Payments are non-refundable. **Mail or drop off your payment to LCHD (La Crosse County Health Department) – Strong Seniors at 300 4th Street N, La Crosse, WI 54601.
How many times a week do classes meet? It is recommended to strength train 2-3 times per week in order to see benefits. We offer two, hour-long classes each week. At this time, only participants who are able to commit to two classes per week are encouraged to register.


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Q: An issue with implementing Push Notification for ios using Rocket Chat React Native I am trying to implement Push Notification with the ios app, as I tested the .pem file its ok and I am able to send push notification but as I am unable to get the push notification from rocket chat app. In fact, I don't find any guide on how to activate push notification with rocket chat.
Here are the steps I followed.
Here are my rocket chat push settings :here
here
by following these instructions:
https://github.com/raix/push/blob/v3.x/docs/IOS.md
Let me know where i'm wrong

A: I'm not sure, but I think  that you need to disable gateway. From Rocket.Chat documentation:

    Go to "Administration", then "Push"
    Set the Enable Gateway to False, then you will use your own
    Rocket.Chat as gateway instead of the https://rocket.chat server
    Restart server

 Now you should be able to Send a test message.
Make sure that you have logged in to  the server once, and then closed
the app. You should see a test notification after you pressed the
send button.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


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Home Blogs 3 More Signings Arsenal Need To Make To Challenge In All Competitions
3 More Signings Arsenal Need To Make To Challenge In All Competitions
Kevin Woodley
Wow. This is a tasty transfer window so far, very exciting, very weird. And there's a long way to go, there's more on the way, there has to be, things haven't been this calm and ruthless since, well, um… The count so far is four, and all very good additions. We're in a much better shape, with depth everywhere, and with the majority of our transfer budget still in tact, thanks to some savvy business on Arsenal's part. Wenger's so chilled about everything. I love it. Things are going to be good next year, there's a great buzz around the club. Bringing in Chambers and shipping out Jenkinson, loan or permanent, shows a change in mentality with the club. Arsene is taking no prisoners this summer. Here's hoping he goes one, no, three further. I want seem him really bite down now and finish the window with a bang, preferably Pogba/Carvalho shaped.
1. Matija Nastasic
Arteta and Flamini are not powerhouses, they can't keep up when top teams storm out of the blocks and hit seven in a row. There's an enormous, Vieira-sized, gap in the team. Fill it. Then we're really talking about a team that can do great things. POGBA. With capital letters. That boy is the present and future. He's a monster of a player already, and at a measly 21 years of age that's scary. Break the bank, do anything to get him, anything. If he's available then Arsenal have to be in the mix for him. He's too good. He'd turn the team into something special. If not Pogba, then go for someone similar, albeit not as good, yet more available: William Carvalho of Sporting Lisbon. Haven't seen any of him, only that everyone who talks about him talks very highly, and there's a general buzz around the boy. Carvalho is imposing, he'd be superb for us. We really do need a player of that type. We have all the other ingredients, (bar maybe a top, top striker) yet we go into every season with the same hole; there's no midfield general. That's what this Arsenal team is crying out for. If not him, then stop messing around, and snap up Khedira, who's playing up like a faulty light. On a tiny side not, it's odd that we haven't gone for Schneiderlin, rather than risk missing out on a defensive midfielder altogether. But then Arsenal is still Arsenal, and Arsene is still Arsene, so maybe it's not that odd. Read about the other players suggested by clicking below.
Previous articleWhy Chambers Is Worth The £16million Investment
Next articleArsenal Step Up Efforts To Sign £30million Midfielder
Player Ratings: QPR 1-2 Arsenal
Evaluating Arsenal's Poor Record Against The Top Clubs
Report: Wenger To Discuss £45m Transfer With Striker's Agent