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A Mystery Seismic Wave Just Swept Earth—but Scientists Can't Work Out Why
earth, Earthquakes, Researches 7:09 PM
Seismic signals originating off the coast of the small French island of Mayott were detected at seismology station ranging from Chile to New Zealand
Scientists are at a loss to explain a strange seismic event that shook the planet on November 11 and was picked up by earthquake sensors stationed across the globe.
While the cause of this mysterious disturbance remains unknown, it's somehow linked to an ongoing seismic swarm that's been rumbling the archipelago of Mayotte in the Indian Ocean for several months – but just what these unusual tremors ultimately signify remains unclear.
"I don't think I've seen anything like it," seismologist Göran Ekström from Columbia University told National Geographic about the November 11 anomaly.
Almost exactly half a year before this strange signal turned up, seismologists were surprised by another kind of abnormal seismic activity in the same vicinity: a swarm of hundreds of small and frequent earthquakes originating about 50 kilometres (31 miles) off the east coast of Mayotte.
The network of islands and islets, located roughly halfway between Africa and Madagascar, is governed by France, but is also claimed by the island nation of Comoros.
On the morning of May 10, this region was rocked by a quake that turned up without warning, and which didn't come alone – being followed by a series of hundreds of tremors that have yet to disappear.
The most dramatic of these – a 5.8 magnitude event on May 15 – was the largest quake ever recorded in the Comoros basin, and while the swarm has generally lessened in intensity since, a 5.1 magnitude resurgence just this week served as a not-so-subtle reminder that this earthly turbulence isn't over.
While earthquake swarms sound alarming, they're not necessarily dangerous events.
In this case, a preliminary analysis of the seismic swarm by researchers at the École normale supérieure in Paris suggests the tremors can't be accounted for by tectonic movement alone, meaning volcanic activity in the region must also be involved.
Which brings us to November 11.
Less than three weeks ago – during the swarm, but on a day when no swarm tremors were actually detected – scientists registered something else: a strange, long, and flat vibration that hummed consistently, without the spiky fluctuations that are a signature of usual quake activity.
Assuming epicenters just east of Mayotte, high-frequency (lower trace) arrivals at SBV correspond well to P & S from at least 3 sources resembling tectonic earthquakes, & the long period wave train (upper trace) correspond to the set of Rayleigh surface waves from these sources. pic.twitter.com/zOvAPFxonW
— Anthony Lomax 🌍🇪🇺 (@ALomaxNet) November 11, 2018
Instead, this "atypical very low frequency signal" – to quote France's Bureau de Recherches Géologiques (BRGM) – repeated in a wave about every 17 seconds, lasting for about 20 minutes in total.
"There are a lot things we don't know," research engineer Nicolas Taillefer, the head of BRGM's seismic and volcanic risk unit, told National Geographic.
If the hypothesis turns out to be correct, nobody can say for sure what might happen, but the modelling indicates Mayotte may keep moving as long as the swarm persists.
As for whether we'll encounter the mysterious signal again, nobody knows.
"These observations therefore back up the hypothesis of a combination of tectonic and volcanic effects accounting for a geological phenomenon involving a seismic sequence and a volcanic phenomenon," the BRGM explains.
"This hypothesis will need to be confirmed by future scientific studies."
Seismic signals originating off the coast of the small French island of Mayott were detected at seismology station ranging from Chile to ...
Blood-sucking Flies Have Been Spreading Malaria for 100 Million Years
Pictured is a black fly preserved in amber. Credit: Oregon State University
Mosquitoes, Other Blood-sucking Flies Have Been Spreading Malaria for Up to 100 Million Years
The microorganisms that cause malaria, leishmaniasis and a variety of other illnesses today can be traced back at least to the time of dinosaurs, a study of amber-preserved blood-sucking insects and ticks show.
In addition to demonstrating the antiquity of vectors and their long-term association with parasitic microorganisms, the findings are remarkable for several reasons.
First, bloodsuckers like mosquitoes, fleas, sand flies, ticks and biting midges aren't frequently found in amber, and rarer yet is evidence of any microorganisms they might have been carrying.
But a review by entomologist George Poinar of Oregon State University showed that amber from five regions around the world contained hematophagous arthropods carrying preserved, identifiable pathogens and parasites.
"Feeding on vertebrate blood evolved as an efficient way for certain insects and acarines to get protein for growth and reproduction," said Poinar, professor emeritus in the College of Science and an international expert on plant and animal life forms found preserved in amber. "It's likely that primitive mosquitoes and other arthropod vectors were present back in the Jurassic and were even transmitting pathogens at that period. This would have resulted in widely dispersed diseases, many of which were probably fatal to vertebrates when they first appeared."
Poinar looked at bloodsucking insects and ticks encased in Dominican, Mexican, Baltic, Canadian and Burmese amber dating back from 15 million to 100 million years.
Among the vectors were mosquitoes, sand flies, biting midges, bat flies, black flies, fleas, kissing bugs and ticks. They carry a cornucopia of microorganisms that today cause diseases such as filariasis, sleeping sickness, river blindness, typhus, Lyme disease and, perhaps most significantly, malaria.
Malaria remains a relentless public health concern, with multiple nations reporting increases in infections for 2018. In Venezuela alone, Poinar notes, more than 650,000 new cases of malaria have been reported this year.
"Numerous malaria species parasitize vertebrates today, and we now know that over the past 100 million years, malaria was being vectored by mosquitoes, biting midges, bat flies and ticks," Poinar said. "Obtaining fossil records of pathogens carried by biting arthropods establishes a timeline when and where various diseases appeared and how they could have affected the survival, extinction and distribution of vertebrates over time."
Poinar stresses, however, that while his research shows what parasites and pathogens specific bloodsuckers were transmitting at particular periods and locations in the past, "these fossils are not old enough to tell us when and how associations between vectors, pathogens and vertebrates originated."
Poinar believes that the microorganisms first infected blood-sucking arthropods and only after equilibria had been reached between them were the microorganisms then vectored to vertebrates.
"That topic has been and will continue to be under discussion for years to come," he said.
The above story is based on Materials provided by Oregon State University. Original written by Steve Lundeberg.
Pictured is a black fly preserved in amber. Credit: Oregon State University Mosquitoes, Other Blood-sucking Flies Have Been Spreadi...
Huge Quake Edges New Zealand Islands Closer Together
Major active fault zones of New Zealand showing variation in displacement vector along the Pacific–Indo-Australian plate boundary
Huge 2016 Quake Left New Zealand Islands Edging Closer Together
A destructive earthquake that struck New Zealand two years ago has left its two main islands edging towards each other, and one city sinking, according to scientists.
But the margins are minimal with the gap between the North and South islands narrowing a mere 35 centimetres (13 and a half inches), while Nelson at the top of the South Island has sunk by up to 20 millimetres.
The magnitude 7.8 earthquake on November 14 initially pushed the two islands several metres closer and the unsettled fault lines have since nudged the southern landmass further north.
However, the gap from Cape Campbell, where the main rupture ended in the South Island, and the New Zealand capital Wellington at the bottom of the North Island is still more than 50 kilometres.
At least 25 fault lines ruptured in the 2016 quake, which earthquake geologist Rob Langridge from the government's geoscience research organisation GNS Science said made it one of the most complex earthquakes observed anywhere in the world.
Fellow GNS scientist Sigrun Hreinsdottir told the Stuff website on Friday that the sheer number of faults made it difficult to distinguish which was responsible for the post-quake creep.
"In reality we are having all this creeping going on and the question is, which (fault) is the dominant factor?"
Nelson, at the top of the South Island had fractionally slumped.
"The whole area is going down maybe 10 to 20 millimetres. It's not a huge amount but it is observable at our sites," she said.
GNS principal scientist, Kevin Berryman, said all earthquakes of 7.5 and above are very complex but it was "certainly unusual" for 25 faults to rupture simultaneously.
The Kaikoura earthquake struck just after midnight and raced north from the middle of the South Island towards Cook Strait covering 170 kilometres in about 74 seconds.
New Zealand lies in the collision zone between the Indo-Australian and Pacific tectonic plates, part of the Pacific Basin Ring of Fire, and experiences more than 15,000 earthquakes a year although only 100–150 are strong enough to be felt.
The above post is reprinted from Agence France-Presse.
Major active fault zones of New Zealand showing variation in displacement vector along the Pacific–Indo-Australian plate boundary H...
Scientists Discover Giant Impact Crater Under Greenland Ice
Earth History, Meteorite 10:15 PM
Map of the bedrock topography beneath the ice sheet and the ice-free land surrounding the Hiawatha impact crater. Credit: The Natural History Museum of Denmark
An international team lead by researchers from the Centre for GeoGenetics at the Natural History Museum of Denmark, University of Copenhagen have discovered a 31-km wide meteorite impact crater buried beneath the ice-sheet in the northern Greenland.
This is the first time that a crater of any size has been found under one of Earth's continental ice sheets. The researchers worked for last three years to verify their discovery, initially made in the 2015. The research is described in a new study just published in the internationally recognized journal Science Advances.
The crater measures more than 31 km in diameter, corresponding to an area bigger than Paris, and placing it among the 25 largest impact craters on Earth. The crater formed when a kilometre-wide iron meteorite smashed into northern Greenland, but has since been hidden under nearly a kilometre of ice.
"The crater is exceptionally well-preserved, and that is surprising, because glacier ice is an incredibly efficient erosive agent that would have quickly removed traces of the impact. But that means the crater must be rather young from a geological perspective. So far, it has not been possible to date the crater directly, but its condition strongly suggests that it formed after ice began to cover Greenland, so younger than 3 million years old and possibly as recently as 12,000 years ago -- toward the end of the last ice age" says Professor Kurt H. Kjær from the Center for GeoGenetics at the Natural History Museum of Denmark.
Giant circular depression
The crater was first discovered in July 2015 as the researchers inspected a new map of the topography beneath Greenland's ice-sheet. They noticed an enormous, but previously undetected circular depression under Hiawatha Glacier, sitting at the very edge of the ice sheet in northern Greenland.
"We immediately knew this was something special but at the same time it became clear that it would be difficult to confirm the origin of the depression," says Professor Kjær.
In the courtyard at the Geological Museum in Copenhagen just outside the windows of the Center for GeoGenetics sits a 20-tonne iron meteorite found in North Greenland not far from the Hiawatha Glacier.
"It was therefore not such a leap to infer that the depression could be a previously undescribed meterorite crater, but initially we lacked the evidence," reflects Associate Professor Nicolaj K. Larsen from Aarhus University.
The crucial evidence
Their suspicion that the giant depression was a meteorite crater was reinforced when the team sent a German research plane from the Alfred Wegener Institute to fly over the Hiawatha Glacier and map the crater and the overlying ice with a new powerful ice radar. Joseph MacGregor, a glaciologist at NASA, who participated in the study and is an expert in ice radar measurements adds:
"Previous radar measurements of Hiawatha Glacier were part of a long-term NASA effort to map Greenland's changing ice cover. What we really needed to test our hypothesis was a dense and focused radar survey there. Our colleagues at the Alfred Wegener Institute and University of Kansas did exactly that with a next-generation radar system that exceeded all expectations and imaged the depression in stunning detail. A distinctly circular rim, central uplift, disturbed and undisturbed ice layering, and basal debris. It's all there."
In the summers of 2016 and 2017, the research team returned to the site to map tectonic structures in the rock near the foot of the glacier and collect samples of sediments washed out from the depression through a meltwater channel.
"Some of the quartz sand washed from the crater had planar deformation features indicative of a violent impact, and this is conclusive evidence that the depression beneath the Hiawatha Glacier is a meteorite crater, " says Professor Larsen.
The consequences of the impact on the Earth's climate and life
Earlier studies have shown that large impacts can profoundly affect Earth's climate, with major consequences for life on Earth at the time. It is therefore very resonable to ask when and how and this meteorite impact at the Hiawatha Glacier affected the planet.
"The next step in the investigation will be to confidently date the impact. This will be a challenge, because it will probably require recovering material that melted during the impact from the bottom of the structure, but this is crucial if we are to understand how the Hiawatha impact affected life on Earth," concludes Professor Kjær.
The above story is based on Materials provided by Faculty of Science - University of Copenhagen.
Map of the bedrock topography beneath the ice sheet and the ice-free land surrounding the Hiawatha impact crater. Credit: The Natural His...
Chlorastrolite: Michigan's Striking State Gemstone
gemstones, USA 9:46 PM
Photo: Adam Johnson
Isle Royale has long been famous as the home of chlorastrolite, known informally in rock-collecting and lapidary circles as "Isle Royale greenstone." Cholorastrolite is a variety of pumpellyite: Ca2(Mg,Fe)Al2(SiO4)(Si2O7)(OH)2·H2O.
In 1972 the governor of Michigan signed a bill designating chlorastrolite as the official state gem. We often hear, "I thought Petoskey Stone was the State Stone?!" The answer is, Petoskey Stone is the State Stone, and Greenstone is the State GEMstone."
Formed after hot lava flows settled and hardened about 1 billion years ago. Chlorastrolite, meaning "green star stone," occurs as amygdules or cavity fillings in certain of the lava flows on Isle Royale. When the water and wave action has worn away the basalt, they are found as beach pebbles and granules in loose sediments., generally greenish in color. When polished, either by wave action on the beaches or artificially, the "greenstones" generally exhibit a distinctive and attractive mosaic or segmented pattern, sometimes referred to as "turtleback".
Isle Royale Greenstone, the mineral, can be found in a belt of greenstone, the rock. Greenstone Ridge, one of the earth's largest and thickest lava flows, is up to 800 feet thick and extends deep under Lake Superior in a continuous flow that reappears 50 miles later on the Keweenaw Peninsula in Michigan.
In Isle Royale National Park, the gemstone that bears its name can be found encased in the basalt (hardened volcanic rock) on the island, or if weathered out of the basalt, can be found as pea-sized pebbles on the shore.
The polished stones also commonly are chatoyant - the property of having a luster resembling the changing luster of the eye of a cat. Chatoyancy is probably best known in the gemstone called tiger eye and is a property of translucent material that contains fibrous structures capable of' scattering light. The grouping together of bundles of such fibers produces the mosaic pattern of the "greenstones."
Chlorastrolite (Isle Royale Greenstone).
Photo: Piscator629/reddit
Greenstones have a hardness of 5-6 and are very well suited for all varieties of jewelry. Polishing is tricky, as some stones have quartz or calcite centers, are hollow, and the most important consideration is the rapidly changing cell and color pattern as a stone is sanded to shape.
Soft chlorite inclusions on some of the mainland gemstones are a problem which can ruin a great pattern. The toughness of this stone allows for cutting and polishing of all types of cabachon shapes, calibrated or freeform, and is a great material for inlays.
It is found in the Keweenaw Peninsula of the Upper Peninsula of Michigan and Isle Royale in Lake Superior. Isle Royale is a National Park, and so it is illegal to collect specimens there. so the Keweenaw Peninsula is your best bet for hunting down this Michigan treasure.
Chlorastrolite. Photo: Jeff Kopsi
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Photo: Adam Johnson Isle Royale has long been famous as the home of chlorastrolite, known informally in rock-collecting and lapida...
Discovery of High Geothermal Heat at South Pole
Antarctic, earth, Geothermal 7:39 PM
Graphic shows how the Twin Otter aircraft uses aerial radar to map the ice sheet and bed. Credit: Tom Jordan
Scientists have discovered an area near the South Pole where the base of the Antarctic Ice Sheet is melting unexpectedly quickly. Using radar to look through three km of ice, the team found that some of the ice – covering an area that's twice the size of Greater London – appeared to be missing. The results are published this week in the journal Scientific Reports.
This new study explains how an unusual amount of geothermal heat has melted, and continues to melt, the base of the ice, resulting in the ice sheet layers above sagging downwards.
The team believes the heat source is a combination of unusually radioactive rocks, and hot water coming from deep under the ground. This heat melts the base of the ice sheet, producing melt-water which drains away beneath the ice sheet filling subglacial lakes downstream. The presence of this extra water may help lubricate the fast flowing ice in this area.
Lead author Dr. Tom Jordan from British Antarctic Survey (BAS) says:
"The process of melting we observe has probably been going on for thousands or maybe even millions of years and isn't directly contributing to ice sheet change. However, in the future the extra water at the ice sheet bed may make this region more sensitive to external factors such as climate change."
The study collected data using a BAS aircraft as part of the PolarGAP project. This international project, funded by the European Space Agency, with researchers from Norway, Denmark and the UK, aimed to fill the gap in satellite gravity data around South Pole. Critically for this study, scientists also collected radar data revealing the thickness, structure and conditions at the base of the ice sheet.
Dr. Jordan continues:
"This was a really exciting project, exploring one of the last totally un-surveyed regions on our planet. Our results were quite unexpected, as many people thought this region of Antarctica was made of ancient and cold rocks, which had little impact on the ice sheet above. We show that even in the ancient continental interior, the underlying geology can have a significant impact on the ice."
Co-author Dr. René Forsberg from the Technical University of Denmark says:
"This was a great example of how nations working together can explore the most challenging regions on our planet. In particular, we thank the US Antarctic program for their great hospitality at South Pole station, and British Antarctic Survey for their incredible logistical efficiency. It is also an example of how a project – originally designed to augment satellite data for the European Space Agency, could produce completely unexpected scientific results."
The study was published in the journal Scientific Reports.
Graphic shows how the Twin Otter aircraft uses aerial radar to map the ice sheet and bed. Credit: Tom Jordan Scientists have discover...
Scientists to Track the Reaction of Crystals to the Electric Field
Crystal, Researches 7:20 PM
The international scientific team developed a new method for measuring the response of crystals on the electric field. Credit: Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University
The international scientific team developed a new method for measuring the response of crystals on the electric field.
The international scientific team, which included the researchers and alumni of Peter the Great St. Petersburg Polytechnic University (SPbPU) developed a new method for measuring the response of crystals on the electric field.
According to the international scientific group (the team that unites scientists from China, Israel, England, and Russia), this method will help to implement new and improve existing functional materials.
"The study is dedicated to crystalline materials (ferroelectric), which are used in a variety of devices from sonars for submarines to elements of ultrasonic diagnostic devices", said researcher of the Swiss-Norwegian Beam Lines at ESRF and the "Physical electronics" department of SPbPU Dmitry Chernyshov. He stressed that improving the properties of such materials is an extremely important scientific task.
The scientist said that detailed three-dimensional scattering maps were collected during the synchrotron experiments at the ESRF. These maps carry detailed information about the structure of the crystal and its response to the electric field. Next, a mathematical method was invented for extracting the relevant information from such maps.
The crystals under study were placed in a special cell for the application of electric field, the cell was developed by the alumni of St. Petersburg Polytechnic University Tikhon Vergentiev as part of his PhD project during his internship at the ESRF.
As Dmitry Chernyshov explained that the structure of crystals can be described in different spatial scales. It is possible to describe the structure at the atomic level or at the level of large blocks of the atomic structure (domains, boundaries between domains, structural defects). When the external conditions change (temperature, pressure, etc.), all components of the structure react differently. The research team studied the response of the material to the electric field, which appears in its atomic and domain structures.
"In the framework of one experiment we were able to see how the different levels of the structural hierarchy react to external influences: if we measure and describe the response of individual components of a complex system, as well as their interaction, it is going to be possible to rationally control the structure and properties of such materials", mentioned Dmitry Chernyshov.
The authors of the study expect that the obtained results will be required by a wide range of specialists: it will help chemists to tune the chemical composition and crystal structure, and materials scientists will use new tools for manipulating the large blocks of structure, domains (domain engineering). According to scientists, this will lead to the improvement of the properties of materials used in ultrasonic diagnostic devices.
The above story is based on materials provided by the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility (ESRF).
The international scientific team developed a new method for measuring the response of crystals on the electric field. Credit: Peter the ...
Dinosaur Eggs Came in Many Colors—just Like Birds'
dinosaur, evolution 6:54 PM
A neosauropod egg, Western Argentina. Photo: Lucas Fiorelli
A new study says the colors found in modern birds' eggs did not evolve independently, as previously thought, but evolved instead from dinosaurs.
According to researchers at Yale, the American Museum of Natural History, and the University of Bonn, birds inherited their egg color from non-avian dinosaur ancestors that laid eggs in fully or partially open nests. The researchers' findings appear Oct. 31 in the online edition of the journal Nature.
"This completely changes our understanding of how egg colors evolved," said the study's lead author, Yale paleontologist Jasmina Wiemann. "For two centuries, ornithologists assumed that egg color appeared in modern birds' eggs multiple times, independently."
The egg colors of birds reflect characteristic preferences in nesting environments and brooding behaviors. Modern birds use only two pigments, red and blue, to create all of the various egg colors, spots, and speckles.
Wiemann and her colleagues analyzed 18 fossil dinosaur eggshell samples from around the world, using non-destructive laser microspectroscopy to test for the presence of the two eggshell pigments. They found them in eggshells belonging to Eumaniraptoran dinosaurs, which include small, carnivorous dinosaurs such as Velociraptor.
"We infer that egg color co-evolved with open nesting habits in dinosaurs," Wiemann said. "Once dinosaurs started to build open nests, exposure of the eggs to visually hunting predators and even nesting parasites favored the evolution of camouflaging egg colors, and individually recognizable patterns of spots and speckles."
Co-author Mark Norell, the Macaulay Curator of Paleontology at the American Museum of Natural History, noted that "Colored eggs have been considered a unique bird characteristic for over a century. Like feathers and wishbones, we now know that egg color evolved in their dinosaur predecessors long before birds appeared."
David Varricchio, who studies dinosaur reproduction and brooding at Montana State University in Bozeman, says that because the authors used a novel technique, others will want to test its veracity. But, he says, the fact that we are even beginning to discuss the color of eggs more than 66 million years old is "pretty dang amazing."
Wiemann plans to increase the dinosaur sample size to see whether she can pin down exactly where and when within the carnivorous theropod group of dinosaurs (which also includes birds) colored eggshells first evolved, and what color came first. Given the analytical methods from other scientific disciplines now available for work on fossils, "It's an amazing time to be a paleontologist," she says.
The above story is based on Materials provided by Yale University. Original written by Jim Shelton.
A neosauropod egg, Western Argentina. Photo: Lucas Fiorelli A new study says the colors found in modern birds' eggs did not evolv...
Geoscientists Discover an Overlooked Source for Earth's Water
Geology, NASA, water 7:41 PM
This view of Earth's horizon was taken by an Expedition 7 crew member onboard the International Space Station, using a wide-angle lens while the Station was over the Pacific Ocean.
Earth's water may have originated from both asteroidal material and gas left over from the formation of the Sun, according to new research. The new finding could give scientists important insights about the development of other planets and their potential to support life.
In a new study in the Journal of Geophysical Research: Planets, a journal of the American Geophysical Union, researchers propose a new theory to address the long-standing mystery of where Earth's water came from and how it got here.
The new study challenges widely-accepted ideas about hydrogen in Earth's water by suggesting the element partially came from clouds of dust and gas remaining after the Sun's formation, called the solar nebula.
To identify sources of water on Earth, scientists have searched for sources of hydrogen rather than oxygen, because the latter component of water is much more abundant in the solar system.
Many scientists have historically supported a theory that all of Earth's water came from asteroids because of similarities between ocean water and water found on asteroids. The ratio of deuterium, a heavier hydrogen isotope, to normal hydrogen serves as a unique chemical signature of water sources. In the case of Earth's oceans, the deuterium-to-hydrogen ratio is close to what is found in asteroids.
But the ocean may not be telling the entire story of Earth's hydrogen, according to the study's authors.
"It's a bit of a blind spot in the community," said Steven Desch, a professor of astrophysics in the School of Earth and Space Exploration at Arizona State University in Tempe, Arizona and co-author of the new study, led by Peter Buseck, Regents' Professor in the School of Earth and Space Exploration and School of Molecular Sciences at Arizona State University. "When people measure the [deuterium-to-hydrogen] ratio in ocean water and they see that it is pretty close to what we see in asteroids, it was always easy to believe it all came from asteroids."
More recent research suggests hydrogen in Earth's oceans does not represent hydrogen throughout the entire planet, the study's authors said. Samples of hydrogen from deep inside the Earth, close to the boundary between the core and mantle, have notably less deuterium, indicating this hydrogen may not have come from asteroids. Noble gases helium and neon, with isotopic signatures inherited from the solar nebula, have also been found in the Earth's mantle.
In the new study, researchers developed a new theoretical model of Earth's formation to explain these differences between hydrogen in Earth's oceans and at the core-mantle boundary as well as the presence of noble gases deep inside the planet.
Modeling Earth's beginning
According to their new model, several billion years ago, large waterlogged asteroids began developing into planets while the solar nebula still swirled around the Sun. These asteroids, known as planetary embryos, collided and grew rapidly. Eventually, a collision introduced enough energy to melt the surface of the largest embryo into an ocean of magma. This largest embryo would eventually become Earth.
Gases from the solar nebula, including hydrogen and noble gases, were drawn in by the large, magma-covered embryo to form an early atmosphere. Nebular hydrogen, which contains less deuterium and is lighter than asteroidal hydrogen, dissolved into the molten iron of the magma ocean.
Through a process called isotopic fractionation, hydrogen was pulled towards the young Earth's center. Hydrogen, which is attracted to iron, was delivered to the core by the metal, while much of the heavier isotope, deuterium, remained in the magma which eventually cooled and became the mantle, according to the study's authors. Impacts from smaller embryos and other objects then continued to add water and overall mass until Earth reached its final size.
This new model would leave Earth with noble gases deep inside its mantle and a lower deuterium-to-hydrogen ratio in its core than in its mantle and oceans.
The authors used the model to estimate how much hydrogen came from each source. They concluded most was asteroidal in origin, but some of Earth's water did come from the solar nebula.
"For every 100 molecules of Earth's water, there are one or two coming from solar nebula," said Jun Wu, assistant research professor in the School of Molecular Sciences and School of Earth and Space Exploration at Arizona State University and lead author of the study.
An insightful model
The study also offers scientists new perspectives about the development of other planets and their potential to support life, the authors said. Earth-like planets in other solar systems may not all have access to asteroids loaded with water. The new study suggests these exoplanets could have obtained water through their system's own solar nebula.
"This model suggests that the inevitable formation of water would likely occur on any sufficiently large rocky exoplanets in extrasolar systems," Wu said. "I think this is very exciting."
Anat Shahar, a geochemist at the Carnegie Institution for Science, who was not involved with the study, noted the hydrogen fractionation factor, which describes how the deuterium-to-hydrogen ratio changes when the element dissolves in iron, is currently unknown and difficult to measure. For the new study, this property of hydrogen had to be estimated.
The new model, which fits in well with current research, could be tested once experiments reveal the hydrogen fractionation factor, Shahar said.
"This paper is a very creative alternative to what is an old problem," Shahar said. "The authors have done a good job of estimating what these different fractionation factors would be without having the experiments."
The above story is based on Materials provided by American Geophysical Union.
This view of Earth's horizon was taken by an Expedition 7 crew member onboard the International Space Station, using a wide-angle len...
The Lithosphere: Revolutionising Earth Tectonics
Global shape index derived from GOCE satellite gravity data. Dome-ridge features characterise Earth's oceans while valley to bowl features prevail over continents. Several deep blue areas on the map reveal different cratons -some of the oldest cores of the continents, e.g. in Canada, Greenland, Africa and Antarctica. Credit: British Antarctic Survey
The new study shows a view of Earth's continental crust and upper mantle, an important aspect of Earth tectonics which was not previously achievable using global seismic models.
Scientists from Germany's Kiel University and British Antarctic Survey (BAS) have used data from the European Space Agency (ESA), Gravity field and steady-state Ocean Circulation Explorer (GOCE) mission to unveil key geological features of the Earth's lithosphere – the rigid outer layer that includes the crust and the upper mantle.
Published this week in the journal Scientific Reports the study is a step forward in the quest to image the structure and setting of different continents using satellite gravity data, including Antarctica, the least understood piece of the whole plate tectonic puzzle. Satellite gravity provides a new tool to link the remote and ice-covered continent with the rest of the Earth. This improves our understanding of Antarctica's deep structure, which is particularly important, as the properties of its lithosphere can also influence the overlying ice sheets.
OCE measures differences in horizontal and vertical components of the gravity field – known as gradients. These gradients can be complex to interpret and so the authors combined these to produce simpler 'curvature images' that reveal large-scale tectonic features of the Earth more clearly.
Lead author, Prof. Jörg Ebbing from the Kiel University said: "Our new satellite gravity gradient images improve our knowledge of Earth's deep structure. The satellite gravity data can be combined with seismological data to produce more consistent images of the crust and upper mantle in 3-D. This is crucial to understanding how plate tectonics and deep mantle dynamics interact."
Why is it important to study the lithosphere?
Dr. Fausto Ferraccioli, Science Leader of Geology and Geophysics at the British Antarctic Survey and co-author of the study, said, "Satellite gravity is revolutionizing our ability to study the lithosphere of the entire Earth, including its least understood continent, Antarctica.
In East Antarctica, for example, we now begin to see a more complex mosaic of ancient lithosphere provinces. GOCE shows us fundamental similarities but also unexpected differences between its lithosphere and other continents, to which it was joined until 160 million years ago."
The new study presents a view of the Earth's continental crust and upper mantle not previously achievable using global seismic models alone. The authors noted that, despite their similar seismic characteristics, there are contrasts in the gravity signatures for ancient parts of the lithosphere (known as cratons), indicating differences in their deep structure and composition. These features are important. Because they form the oldest cores of the lithosphere, they hold key records of Earth's early history.
The above story is based on materials provided by British Antarctic Survey.
Global shape index derived from GOCE satellite gravity data. Dome-ridge features characterise Earth's oceans while valley to bowl feature...
New 12-Ton Jurassic dinosaur Was the Largest to Walk the Earth
Jurassic dinosaur fossils seen at the Dinosaur National Monument. The newly-discovered dinosaur is believed to be from the Jurassic period, approximately 200 million years ago. (MIKE LYVERS/GETTY IMAGES)
The newly discovered species was massive but walked with a cat-like crouch.
A new species of a giant dinosaur has been found in South Africa's Free State Province. The plant-eating dinosaur, named Ledumahadi mafube, weighed 12 tonnes and stood about four metres high at the hips. Ledumahadi mafube was the largest land animal alive on Earth when it lived, nearly 200 million years ago. It was roughly double the size of a large African elephant.
A team of international scientists, led by University of the Witwatersrand (Wits) palaeontologist Professor Jonah Choiniere, described the new species in the journal Current Biology.
The dinosaur's name is Sesotho for "a giant thunderclap at dawn" (Sesotho is one of South Africa's 11 official languages and an indigenous language in the area where the dinosaur was found).
"The name reflects the great size of the animal as well as the fact that its lineage appeared at the origins of sauropod dinosaurs," said Choiniere. "It honours both the recent and ancient heritage of southern Africa."
Ledumahadi mafube is one of the closest relatives of sauropod dinosaurs. Sauropods, weighing up to 60 tonnes, include well-known species like Brontosaurus. All sauropods ate plants and stood on four legs, with a posture like modern elephants. Ledumahadi evolved its giant size independently from sauropods, and although it stood on four legs, its forelimbs would have been more crouched. This caused the scientific team to consider Ledumahadi an evolutionary "experiment" with giant body size.
Ledumahadi's fossil tells a fascinating story not only of its individual life history, but also the geographic history of where it lived, and of the evolutionary history of sauropod dinosaurs.
"The first thing that struck me about this animal is the incredible robustness of the limb bones," says lead author, Dr Blair McPhee. "It was of similar size to the gigantic sauropod dinosaurs, but whereas the arms and legs of those animals are typically quite slender, Ledumahadi's are incredibly thick. To me this indicated that the path towards gigantism in sauropodomorphs was far from straightforward, and that the way that these animals solved the usual problems of life, such as eating and moving, was much more dynamic within the group than previously thought."
The research team developed a new method, using measurements from the "arms" and "legs" to show that Ledumahadi walked on all fours, like the later sauropod dinosaurs, but unlike many other members of its own group alive at its time such as Massospondylus. The team also showed that many earlier relatives of sauropods stood on all fours, that this body posture evolved more than once, and that it appeared earlier than scientists previously thought.
Ledumahadi mafube is the first of the giant sauropodomorphs of the Jurassic.
"Many giant dinosaurs walked on four legs but had ancestors that walked on two legs. Scientists want to know about this evolutionary change, but amazingly, no-one came up with a simple method to tell how each dinosaur walked, until now," says Dr Roger Benson.
By analysing the fossil's bone tissue through osteohistological analysis, Dr Jennifer Botha-Brink from the South African National Museum in Bloemfontein established the animal's age.
"We can tell by looking at the fossilised bone microstructure that the animal grew rapidly to adulthood. Closely-spaced, annually deposited growth rings at the periphery show that the growth rate had decreased substantially by the time it died," says Botha-Brink. This indicates that the animal had reached adulthood.
"It was also interesting to see that the bone tissues display aspects of both basal sauropodomorphs and the more derived sauropods, showing that Ledumahadi represents a transitional stage between these two major groups of dinosaurs."
Ledumahadi lived in the area around Clarens in South Africa's Free State Province. This is currently a scenic mountainous area, but looked much different at that time, with a flat, semi-arid landscape and shallow, intermittently dry streambeds.
"We can tell from the properties of the sedimentary rock layers in which the bone fossils are preserved that 200 million years ago most of South Africa looked a lot more like the current region around Musina in the Limpopo Province of South Africa, or South Africa's central Karoo," says Dr Emese Bordy.
Ledumahadi is closely related to other gigantic dinosaurs from Argentina that lived at a similar time, which reinforces that the supercontinent of Pangaea was still assembled in the Early Jurassic. "It shows how easily dinosaurs could have walked from Johannesburg to Buenos Aires at that time," says Choiniere.
South Africa's Minister of Science and Technology Mmamoloko Kubayi-Ngubane says the discovery of this dinosaur underscores just how important South African palaeontology is to the world.
"Not only does our country hold the Cradle of Humankind, but we also have fossils that help us understand the rise of the gigantic dinosaurs. This is another example of South Africa taking the high road and making scientific breakthroughs of international significance on the basis of its geographic advantage, as it does in astronomy, marine and polar research, indigenous knowledge, and biodiversity," says Kubayi-Ngubane.
The research team behind Ledumahadi includes South African-based palaeoscientists, Dr Emese Bordy and Dr Jennifer Botha-Brink, from the University of Cape Town and the South African National Museum in Bloemfontein, respectively.
The project also had a strong international component with the collaboration of Professor Roger BJ Benson of Oxford University and Dr Blair McPhee, currently residing in Brazil.
"South Africa employs some of the world's top palaeontologists and it was a privilege to be able to build a working group with them and leading researchers in the UK," says Choiniere, who recently emigrated from the USA to South Africa. "Dinosaurs didn't observe international boundaries and it's important that our research groups don't either."
The above story is based on materials provided by University of the Witwatersrand.
Jurassic dinosaur fossils seen at the Dinosaur National Monument. The newly-discovered dinosaur is believed to be from the Jurassic perio...
First Fossil Lungs Found in Dinosaur-Era Bird
Archaeorhynchus spathula was a beaked, feathered bird that lived 120 million years ago. A new fossil discovery suggests it had a respiratory system similar to that of modern birds. (Wang et al./PNAS)
Ancient organs rarely fossilize, so paleontologists were stunned to find the incredibly well-preserved remains of a lung that belonged to bird from the dinosaur age.
For the very first time, researchers have come across the fossilized remains of an ancient set of proto-bird lungs. Not only is this unbelievably rare 120 million-year-old artifact a gorgeous sight to behold, it's now also helping palaeontologists piece together how modern birds evolved the gift of flight.
A new study, published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Science, has detailed the discovery of the first known fossilized lungs belonging to an early bird ancestor, Archaeorhynchus spathula, a pigeon-sized beast from the early Cretaceous period.
Much to their surprise, the lungs share many of the key features of the hyper-efficient respiratory system found in modern birds, something that's never been found before in early bird and dinosaur lineages.
Fossilized organs are a gold mine for palaeontologists, however, as you can imagine, they are also incredibly rare. This beautifully preserved individual met its fate some 120 million years ago, alongside dinosaurs during the Early Cretaceous period, after an unfortunate run-in with a volcano in what is now modern-day China.
Fortunately for us, a freak set of circumstances allowed some of its lung tissue to become fossilized. No one can be certain how, but University of South Florida palaeontologist Ryan Carney, a feathered dinosaur expert, told National Geographic it could have been caused by the poor proto-bird inhaling a gust of volcanic ash.
Researchers were originally attracted to the fossil by its carbonized feathers. However, the use of scanning electron microscopy picked up on a strange speckly white material in the chest not previously seen in any other fossil. A deeper analysis suggested that this was perhaps lung tissue – and very interesting lung tissue indeed.
Since beating your wings for flight requires a hell of a lot of oxygen, modern birds have developed lung structures that allow for extremely efficient respiration thanks to unidirectional airflow in the lungs, supplementary air sacs, and divided lung tissue with an enormous surface area to diffuse oxygen across. The lungs of A. spathula appeared to show signs of this specialization, namely an extremely subdivided lung structure that helps to dramatically up the surface area.
Despite these adaptations, it is fairly unlikely that Archaeopteryx was capable of sustained powered flight, although it might have been able to manage a short flutter. Nevertheless, the researchers argue that this early hint of lung adaptation perhaps gave rise to the fundamental features of birds that allowed the modern bird to develop sustained fight and helped their ancestors make it out alive from the age of the dinosaurs.
The study was published in the journal PNAS.
Archaeorhynchus spathula was a beaked, feathered bird that lived 120 million years ago. A new fossil discovery suggests it had a respirat...
Deepest High-temperature Hydrothermal Vents Discovered in Pacific Ocean
earth, ocean 8:17 PM
Hydrothermal Vent Chimeny. Photo: NOAA Ship Okeanos Explorer
In spring 2015, MBARI researchers discovered a large, previously unknown field of hydrothermal vents in the Gulf of California, about 150 kilometers (100 miles) east of La Paz, Mexico. Lying more than 3,800 meters (12,500 feet) below the surface, the Pescadero Basin vents are the deepest high-temperature hydrothermal vents ever observed in or around the Pacific Ocean.
They are also the only vents in the Pacific known to emit superheated fluids rich in both carbonate minerals and hydrocarbons. The vents have been colonized by dense communities of tubeworms and other animals unlike any other known vent communities in the in the eastern Pacific.
Like another vent field in the Gulf that MBARI discovered in 2012, the Pescadero Basin vents were initially identified in high-resolution sonar data collected by an autonomous underwater vehicle (AUV). MBARI's yellow, torpedo-shaped seafloor-mapping AUV spent two days flying about 50 meters above the bottom of the Basin, using sound beams to map the depth and shape of the seafloor.
The AUV team, led by MBARI engineer David Caress, pored over the detailed bathymetric map they created from the AUV data and saw a number of mounds and spires rising up from the seafloor. Data from the AUV also showed slightly warmer water over some of the spires, which implied that they might be active hydrothermal-vent chimneys.
A team of geologists led by David Clague then used a tethered underwater robot, the remotely operated vehicle (ROV) Doc Ricketts, to dive down to the seafloor, fly around the vents, and collect video and samples of rocks and hot water spewing from the chimneys.
Reflecting on the discovery, Clague commented, 'Before the AUV survey of Pescadero Basin, all we knew was that this area was really deep and filled with sediment. I was hoping to find a few outcrops of lava on the seafloor. But we got lucky. The vent field was right on the edge of our survey area, along a fault at the western edge of the basin.'
The AUV and ROV dives showed that the new field extends for at least 400 meters (one quarter mile) along this fault. Within this area the researchers found at least three active hydrothermal chimneys up to 12 meters (40 feet) tall, as well as dozens of low mounds that are most likely collapsed chimneys.
After his ROV dive, Clague noted, 'This site was not at all what I was expecting.' For one thing, the fragments of chimneys that the ROV brought back to the surface were quite different from those collected at other vents in the area. The Pescadero chimneys consisted entirely of light-colored carbonate minerals instead of the dark sulfide minerals that are abundant in hydrothermal chimneys elsewhere in the Gulf.
The Pescadero Basin is only the second place in the world where carbonate chimneys (instead of ones made primarily of sulfides) have been found in the deep sea. The other known location is the 'Lost City' vent field in the middle of the Atlantic Ocean, at a spot on the Mid-Atlantic Ridge.
The geologists also noticed that their rock samples smelled like diesel. They hypothesize that hot hydrothermal fluids migrating upward through the thick sediments of the Pescadero Basin 'cook' organic matter in the sediment, converting it into petroleum-like hydrocarbons -- a process that has been observed at several other vents in the Pacific. Hydrocarbons may provide nutrition for the unusual microbes that thrive at these vents.
After Clague's initial ROV dive, MBARI biologist Robert Vrijenhoek made three follow-up dives in the Pescadero Basin. His goal was to determine how and why animal communities at the Pescadero vents differed from those at other vent fields in the Gulf. Clague's and Vrijenhoek's dives revealed at least three different types of hydrothermal vents in the southern Gulf of California -- black smokers, carbonate chimneys, and hydrothermal seeps. Each environment supports its own unique animal community.
Black smokers form in active volcanic areas. One such area is on the Alarcón Rise, about 160 kilometers (100 miles) south of the Pescadero Basin, where MBARI researchers discovered several hydrothermal fields in 2012. On the Alarcón Rise, massive, dark-colored sulfide chimneys rise more than 37 meters (120 feet) above the lava-covered seafloor.
These chimneys gush extremely hot fluids (over 350 degrees Celsius, 660 degrees Fahrenheit) rich in heavy metals and sulfides. When the superheated fluids come in contact with near-freezing seawater, these minerals precipitate, forming dark, smoke-like plumes of particles. The 'black smoker' chimneys are often colonized by giant tubeworms in the genus Riftia, which grow over two meters (six feet) long, as well as limpets, crabs, squat lobsters, and Alvinella palmworms.
In contrast, the carbonate chimneys in the Pescadero Basin emerge from a flat, muddy seafloor, and are smaller and more delicate than black smokers. They emit fluids that are slightly cooler (250-290 degrees Celsius) and do not form dark, smoke-like plumes. The Pescadero Basin fluids are, however, rich in oil-like hydrocarbons that form dark, oily crusts on the light colored carbonate chimneys. They also support a very different group of animals, including dense colonies of tubeworms in the genus Oasisia.
In the third type of vent environment, 'hydrothermal seeps,' much cooler (less than 30-60 degrees Celsius) water trickles out of lava flows interleaved with seafloor mud. These seeps support an entirely different community of animals, including anemones, tubeworms in the genera Lamellibrachia and Escarpia, and broad, white mats of bacteria. In contrast to the Pescadero and Alarcón vents, each of which hosted a single species of deep-sea clams, the seeps support at least four different types of clams.
One thing that all of these communities have in common is that the dominant tubeworms and clams host specialized intracellular bacteria (symbionts) that allow these animals to exploit potentially toxic chemicals in the vent fluids as sources of nutrition. Vrijenhoek and his collaborators are trying to figure out if the different vent communities in the Gulf are controlled by differences in water depth, geochemistry, symbiotic bacteria, or perhaps other unanticipated factors.
The discovery of the Pescadero Basin hydrothermal field is just the latest example of how MBARI's extensive use of underwater robotics has accelerated the pace of scientific discovery in the deep sea. As Vrijenhoek noted, 'In the 1990s, following the discovery of plumes of warm water over the Mid-Atlantic Ridge, researchers from four countries searched for seven years to find what eventually became known as the 'rainbow vent field.' They were limited by inaccurate and imprecise bathymetric maps. This spring it took us only two days to do the same thing in the Pescadero Basin, using MBARI's high-precision seafloor-mapping AUV.'
The above story is based on Materials provided by Monterey Bay Aquarium Research Institute.
Hydrothermal Vent Chimeny. Photo: NOAA Ship Okeanos Explorer In spring 2015, MBARI researchers discovered a large, previously unknown...
Ancient Crystals Shed Light on Earth's Earliest History
Earth History, Geochemistry 8:03 PM
Zonal crystal of zircon. Photo: Petr Hykš
To geologists, Earth's early history is somewhat of a black box. Volcanoes, magma seas, and meteorite impacts defined our planet's surface from its formation, 4.6 billion years ago, until the earliest rock record appeared roughly 600 million years later.
Hardly any original material survived this dynamic period, known as the Hadean Eon, so scientists have little recourse to test their theories.
Preston Cloud initially proposed the Hadean eon in 1972. He suggested that the first 600 million years of Earth's history would have been a time of hellish conditions with abundant volcanism. Surface conditions were unlikely to have allowed for the preservation of a rock record, much less the rise of life.
Near Sole Survivors
Zircon crystals, which are dense and relatively robust against all sorts of weathering processes, are among the few fragments that survived this violent period.
"That's why, throughout the world, the oldest minerals that have ever been found are almost exclusively zircons," explains Ben Byerly, a geochemist and postdoctoral researcher at UC Santa Barbara, and lead author of a paper on the discovery, which appears in Geology.
Byerly has spent over a decade studying the geology of the Barberton greenstone belt deposit in the Barberton Mountains. Not only is this deposit incredibly old, but its rocks are relatively unaltered compared to many other rocks of similar age, which means many of their characteristics are really well preserved, Byerly says.
Researchers collected samples from sedimentary layers and separated small grains of zircon from the rest of the rock. Zircons naturally contain uranium impurities, which scientists can use to date a crystal's formation.
Since uranium decays into lead at a well-known rate, the researchers simply needed to determine the concentration of lead built up within the crystal to determine how long ago it formed.
What's more, the scientists can be sure that all the lead in the crystal came from radioactive decay because zircons naturally reject lead during their formation.
While running routine analyses on one sedimentary layer, Byerly and colleagues realized that several of the zircons in the sample dated to the Hadean eon. After redoubling their efforts, the team found 11 zircon grains that formed more than 4 billion years ago.
"This is only the second place on Earth where so many ancient crystals have been found," Byerly says.
Most of the zircons, though, formed 3.4 billion years ago, and not just in the South African deposit. Hadean material in Australia also contains a preponderance of zircons of this age. "So this 3.4 billion-year-old event is potentially something global," Byerly says.
Volcanoes and Meteorites
Earth's early history is replete with active volcanism and heavy bombardment by meteorites. Both of these processes could have contributed to the formation of zircons, and increased activity may be responsible for the high number of crystals that formed 3.4 billion years ago.
Researchers have already found evidence of about 10 enormous meteorite impacts associated with other sedimentary layers in the Barberton greenstone belt, from 3.5 to 3.2 billion years ago.
Models suggest each impact could have boiled away dozens to hundreds of meters of ocean water and vaporized vast swaths of the planet's surface. Several of these meteorites would have outclassed the rock that killed off the non-avian dinosaurs.
"Potentially, the very largest ones could have completely sterilized the Earth," Byerly says.
Lava Flows
Understanding the conditions of early Earth revolves around deciphering in what kind of rocks these zircons formed. Analyzing the isotopes and trace elements in the zircons, as well as other mineral grains in the formation, will provide scientists with more insights in this regard.
Byerly and his mentor Matt Jackson, a professor of earth science at UC Santa Barbara, are developing methods to measure minute quantities of strontium, neodymium and lead for isotopic analyses. They are currently focused on minerals from the Earth's crust and mantle, including 3.3 billion-year-old lava flows from the Barberton greenstone belt.
"By studying these really old rocks, and especially by studying these really old zircons, we can help to answer questions like when did plate tectonics start? And when did the first continents form?" Byerly says.
The above story is based on materials provided by Vanderbilt University.
Zonal crystal of zircon. Photo: Petr Hykš To geologists, Earth's early history is somewhat of a black box. Volcanoes, magma seas, ...
5,655-carat Emerald With 'Golden Green Hue' Discovered
famous, gemstones 6:48 PM
The 5,655-carat Lion Emerald Credit: Gemfields
A giant and extremely rare emerald worth an estimated £2 million ($2,549,954) has been discovered at a mine in Zambia. The gemstone is a whopping 5,655 carats.
Geologist Debapriya Rakshit and experienced miner Richard Kapeta uncovered the impressive 5,655-carat emerald inside the largest open-pit mine in Kagem, which is partially owned by Gemfields — a London-based mining company. The gemstones inside the mine reportedly formed hundreds of millions of years ago.
The 5,655-carat Zambian emerald crystal has "remarkable clarity and a perfectly balanced golden green hue," Gemfields described in a Monday news release.
It was spotted on Oct. 2 in the eastern part of the Kagem mine, where a team of miners has found luck in the past few months.
"This area of the mine has proven to be particularly fertile in recent months with the Kagem team recovering several significant crystals there, but none with the combined size, color and clarity of the Lion Emerald," the mining company said.
Elena Basaglia, a Gemfields gemmologist, called the discovery an "important find" for the emerald world.
"We are experiencing strikingly increased demand for high-quality Zambian emeralds from the major brands, particularly in Europe, all of whom admire the rich color and unique transparency of our gems — qualities that make them unique among emeralds," Basaglia said in an online statement. "It's difficult to estimate how many individual gems will be cut from Inkalamu, but the cutting expertise of Gemfields' auction partners will mean that this gemstone will make its mark in the history books of exceptional gemstones."
Gemfields named the huge rock the "Inkalamu," which translates to "lion" in the local Bemba language, to honor its 3-year partnership with non-profits the Niassa Carnivore Project and Zambian Carnivore Program.
"These partners work tirelessly to smooth the relationship between Africa's carnivores and local communities across vast, remote and challenging areas. The health of carnivores, is widely regarded as a good indicator of the health of the wider eco-system due to carnivores' status at the top of the local food chain," Gemfields said.
"We expect a number of large, fine-quality cut emeralds to be borne of the Inkalamu crystal," Adrian Banks, managing director for product and sales at Gemfields, said in a statement.
"These important pieces are what return value to the buyer, and there might be hundreds of offcuts that are fashioned into smaller gems, cabochons and beads, but the key lies in recovering the fine quality pieces. Given this emerald is such a rare find, it is also perfectly conceivable that the buyer will choose to purchase it as an investment."
The above post is reprinted from Gemfields.
The 5,655-carat Lion Emerald Credit: Gemfields A giant and extremely rare emerald worth an estimated £2 million ($2,549,954) has been...


The Reflections program at the Sitka Center for Art and Ecology is a 200 year-long project devoted to exhibiting place-based creative responses to the rich and varied landscapes in which Sitka is embedded. We invite each resident who chooses to participate in the program to submit a response to one or more specific Reflections sites within these landscapes, four in the Salmon River Estuary, two in the Cascade Head Experimental Forest. These responses will become part of a collective body of work in an online archive. The collection seeks to record shifting societal and cultural views of the environment, new ideas in art theory and technique, changes in the sites' physical appearance, and the artists' unique backgrounds and viewpoints.
Each year Sitka Center for Art and Ecology invites or selects 22 artists, writers, musicians and environmental scientists (6 at a time) to spend up to 3.5 months working on individual research projects. Interaction between participants is encouraged but not required. Collaboration happens informally.
Relationship with core science, education, cultural programs at the site: The focus on the sciences at Sitka has been sporadic over the years. Whereas educational programs in art and writing have been integrated program elements since the 1970s, the attention to science workshops and science residencies has come and gone several times over our 40-year history. Nevertheless, every artist resident is given a tour of our surrounding ecological sites including the experimental forest, the estuary restoration, the nature conservancy preserve, and the Westwind stewardship group's property. These tours are intended to orient the artists to our local environment and often provides inspiration for work that happens during their time at Sitka.
Sitka also has a 4.5 month workshop program that brings in 1000 people. These workshops focus primarily on art subjects, but with an undercurrent of ecology woven into the experience.


I am THEM is a series of short films that explores the pivotal turning points for three different women. In the first film, a woman reveals the role she played in an assisted suicide. In the second film, a different woman in order to have a trusting relationship reveals that she was sexually abused, and in the third, a woman with cancer decides that rather than focusing her energy on trying to "beat" the disease, she will choose to be empowered living with it.


We are delighted that the 212 Eco House will be part of the Bristol Doors Open Day on 10th September.
Room212.will be open on the day from 10am – 4pm. Mosaic artist Toni Burrows will be running the shop. She will be bringing along her incredibly popular mosaic fox to display in the Eco House garden along with a couple of new ones not yet seen by the public. Do pop in and have a chat with her and look at all the wonderful art by Bristol artists.


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Welcome to J.P. Morgan |Sweden
J.P. Morgan About Us Company History
With a legacy dating back to 1799, we have a history of demonstrating leadership during times of both economic growth and financial instability.
At J.P. Morgan, we have been helping our clients to do first-class business for more than 200 years. Throughout that period, we have taken a long-term approach to client solutions – providing committed, innovative and consistent advice and execution to our clients at all times. We look forward to providing our clients with first-class service over the next 200 years.
As a firm, we have a history of showing leadership, especially during times of financial crisis. We continue to build on that legacy. From our earliest days, we have contributed to business, society and world affairs. Our actions have always been driven by the desire to do the right thing for today and tomorrow.
Key Moments in J.P. Morgan History
J.P. Morgan celebrates the 90th anniversary of the firm's presence in China.
J.P. Morgan Cazenove becomes a wholly-owned part of J.P. Morgan, having originally operated as a joint venture between J.P. Morgan and the U.K. investment bank Cazenove.
JPMorgan Chase & Co. acquires The Bear Stearns Companies Inc., strengthening its capabilities across a broad range of businesses, including prime brokerage, cash clearing and energy trading globally.
J.P. Morgan merges with The Chase Manhattan Corporation and is named JPMorgan Chase and Co. Four years later, the company merges with Bank One, creating a global financial services leader.
The firm jointly leads the first "century" bond for a sovereign borrower – a 100-year, $100 million issue for the People's Republic of China.
J.P. Morgan plays an active role in the negotiations with Mexico to restructure nearly $50 billion in medium- and long-term commercial bank debt. A first in the market, the new bonds become known as Brady Bonds.
J.P. Morgan ranks among Fortune's 50 Best Companies for Minorities. The firm is regularly recognized as a leading employer of women, minorities, and LGBT employees.
Predecessor firm Hambrecht & Quist (H&Q) takes Apple Computer public.
Chase opens a representative office in Moscow, the first Russian presence for a U.S. bank since the 1920s; Chase also becomes the first U.S. correspondent to the Bank of China since the 1949 Chinese revolution.
The firm launches Euroclear, a system for the orderly settlement of transactions in Eurobonds.
Chase National Bank merges with The Bank of the Manhattan Company to form Chase Manhattan Bank.
Two Ohio institutions merge to form City National Bank & Trust, a predecessor of Bank One.
Guaranty Trust Company, a predecessor firm of J.P. Morgan, pioneers the concept of American Depositary Receipts (ADRs), which enables Americans to invest in foreign securities directly on U.S. exchanges.
J.P. Morgan arranges the biggest foreign loan in history – a $500 million Anglo/French loan.
During the financial panic of 1907, J. Pierpont Morgan saves several trust companies and a leading brokerage house from insolvency, bails out New York City, and rescues the New York Stock Exchange.
J.P. Morgan is central to the creation of U.S. Steel, GE and AT&T.
J.P. Morgan & Co. was appointed as fiscal agent for the newly independent Republic of Panama in 1903 and was subsequently selected by the U.S. Treasury Secretary to arrange the transfer of $40 million from the U.S. government to the French Panama Canal Co. This was the largest real estate deal at the time.
J.P. Morgan creates the world's first billion-dollar corporation by buying out industrialist Andrew Carnegie and combining some 33 companies to create United States Steel.
J. Pierpont Morgan, Sr. becomes senior partner. The New York firm is renamed J.P. Morgan & Co.
J.P. Morgan is primary financier of U.S. railroads.
J. Pierpont Morgan and Philadelphia banker Anthony Drexel form a private merchant banking partnership in New York called Drexel, Morgan & Co. This is the earliest partnership that evolves into J.P. Morgan.
The Waterbury Bank opens, a predecessor of the Chase Manhattan Bank.
The Chemical Bank is established.
The Manhattan Company, the firm's earliest predecessor institution, is chartered.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


"Exploring the applications of various valuation methods for Australian coastal climate adaptation", National Climate Change Adaptation Research Facility ($80,000), with Professor Stefan Trück and Dr Supriya Mathews.
"Early-Warning Systems and Managing Systemic Risks using Real-Time Financial and Business Conditions Indicators", Centre for International Finance and Regulation Research Grant, 2012 – 2014 ($537,000), with Professor Jeffrey Sheen and Professor Stefan Trück.
"Development of an Operational Risk Capital Model", Research Grant funded by the Commonwealth Bank of Australia and Macquarie University, Jan 2012 - Dec 2012 (AUD $99,000), with Professor Piet de Jong and Professor Stefan Trück.
"Modelling optimal adaptation strategies in response to climate change by local governments", Macquarie University New Staff Grant ($19,910), Jan 2010 - Dec 2010.
Postdoctoral Fellowship at the Faculty of Business and Economics, Macquarie University.
Dr Truong's research interest is focused on risk quantification and investment analysis. He has experience in quantifying catatrosphic risk introduced by climate change, operational risk faced by banks and systematic risk in the financial and economic system. He has published in the area of real option analysis for irrigation sector and long run policy analysis for irrigation water management. Dr Truong has also conducted research with the Commonwealth Bank of Australia in the area of operational risk and the Asian Development Bank in systemic risk.
Truong, C., Trück, S. and Mathew S. (2017). Managing Risks from Climate Impacted Hazards - The Value of Investment Flexibility under Uncertainty. European Journal of Operational Research (A* ABDC List, Impact factor = 3.297) (*).
Truong, C. and Trück, S., 2017. Discounting the distant future - Data on Australian discount rates estimated by a stochastic interest rate model. Data in Brief, 11, pp.127-130 (*).
Truong, C. and Trück, S. (2016). It's not now or never: Implications of Investment Timing and Risk Aversion on Climate Adaptation to Extreme Events, European Journal of Operational Research (A* ABDC List, Impact factor = 3.297) (*).
Truong, C. and Trück, S. (2016). The principal-agent problem in coastal development: response to Mills et al. Conservation Biology (Impact factor = 4.27) (*).
Truong, C.H. (2014). A Two Factor Model for Water Prices and Its Implications for Evaluating Real Options and Other Water Price Derivatives, Canadian Journal of Agricultural Economics (A ABDC List, Impact factor = 1.29) (*).
Truong, C.H. and Drynan R. (2013). Capacity sharing enhances efficiency in water markets involving storage, Agricultural Water Management (Impact factor = 2.60) (*).
Truong, C.H. (2012). An analysis of Storage Capacity Reallocation Impacts on the Irrigation Sector, Environmental and Resource Economics 51, pp.141-159 (A ABDC List, Impact factor = 1.67) (*).
Truong, C.H. and Trück, S. (2010). Evaluation of Investment Options Mitigating Catastrophic Losses under the Impacts of Climate Change, Environmental Economics 1, pp.111-117 (*).
Handika, R., Truong, C., Trueck, S., and Weron, R. (2014). Modelling price spikes in electricity markets - the impact of load, weather and capacity. In M. Prokopczuk (Ed) Energy Pricing Models: Recent Advances, New York: Palgrave Macmillan.
Last Updated: 2018-01-24 22:40:32 by Angela Chow.


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Welcome to Mashamshire Tennis Club
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LEAGUE TENNIS 2019
After missing promotion to Division 4 by the slenderest of margins last season, this one proved very different indeed. For long periods of the campaign our place in the league was in jeopardy as we were finding it difficult to beat team we had beaten previously with more or less the same personnel!
Wetherby walked away with the title, not only gaining maximum points but also only losing a few sets. By the time of the last 3 matches, our survival was in the balance, but some splendid performances at Knaresborough and Racquets saw us gain maximum points and finish comfortably above the relegation zone.
New for 2019 – a singles ladder for both men and women (please ask a committee member for details)
VALE OF MOWBRAY MEN'S DOUBLES LEAGUE – 2019
Five teams participated in this year's event, a reduction on previous years. As a result a schedule of home and away matches was introduced, and this seemed to be popular with most of the teams.
After completion of the league matches the top 2 teams, Mashamshire and Harrogate (a team comprised of a mixture of Harlow and Starbeck members) met in the final, which was held at our courts on the afternoon of Sunday 29th July just ahead of some heavy and blustery showers.
The match started with the first and second pairs both playing their opposite numbers in 2 very closely fought matches. Neil Hutchinson and Tom Johnson securing a particularly good result in beating Colin Leftley and Andy Guise the number one paring from Harrogate 6-3, 6-3. On the other court Simon Kitching and Frank Kucera got off to a slow start and lost the first set 6-2 to the Harrogate second pairing of Andrew Carrick and John Berger. However, they reacted positively to that scoreline and went on to level the rubber by taking the second set 6-3. Thus at the end of the first round rubbers the match score was 3 sets to 1 to Mashamshire.
For the second round the pairs swapped. Simon and Frank now faced the big hitting of Colin and Andy, which proved to be too much in a close first set, which went to Harrogate by 6-3. However, once again their resilience came through and they fought hard to win what turned out to be a decisive second set 6-3. On the other court Neil and Tom were facing the net rushing style of play of Andrew and John and lost an early break to go 2-0 down. They then recovered and eventually managed to take the first set 6-4. At 3-2 up in the second the rubber ended due to illness and was therefore declared to be drawn at one set each. Thankfully after a sit down a full recovery was made.
At the end of all this the match result was 5 sets to 3 in favour of Mashamshire. An excellent result for us and the continuation of our fine form in this competition. We've appeared in each of the last 3 finals, winning 2, a pretty good run of form for our relatively small club and one we hope to enhance further in 2020.
As always we must thank our Team Captain David Miller, not only for organising our own team's participation in the competition, but also for organising the league and making sure, where possible, that teams fulfilled their fixtures. This league is the only opportunity we have for competitive Men's Doubles in the area and as such it's something that most clubs look forward to playing in.
FUN DOUBLES COMPETITION 2019
This competition has been the foundation of the club's internal competition for a number of years. For 2019 we attracted a record (for many, many years) entry of 18 players. The format of the competition requires that players are drawn randomly into pairs and then each pair plays all other pairs in matches consisting of 4 games. Pairings change during each of these matches and individuals total up the number of games they won in each match. Thus after all pairs have played one another the lady, gentleman or intermediate with the most points is classified as the winner in their particular category.
After the recent wet and windy weather it was a delight to see warm sunny skies return to Masham and the weather remained warm and sunny for the whole afternoon.
The high player numbers and the warm sunny weather gave the event a special summery feeling and it was very apparent that everyone was thoroughly enjoying the day. This is of course the aim of the competition, so it was pleasing to note that amongst the fine display of tennis, there was a good smattering of banter and the more than occasional sound of people having fun. It was also true to say that there was some fine tennis on display, and it is almost certainly true that the Adult and Intermediate Coaching sessions (April to July) have been of considerable benefit to some of the participants.
As always competition within the various different events was keen. The Ladies event attracted the highest score of the day and also a new name on the trophy. The event was won, with a magnificent score of 23 by Norma Johnson, who was rightly pleased to have won this event for the very first time, and by a comfortable margin. The Ladies Runner Up was Lara Theakston, who always performs strongly in this and every other event. Norma can be seen collecting her trophy from our Chairman Tom Johnson.
T he Men's event was a close run thing between 3 players, Simon Kitching, David Butterworth and Frank Kucera. With one match (each) still to play the result could have gone either way. In the end Simon was the winner with 22 points and thus he retained the cup for a very commendable third year (he shared the trophy in 2017 with 2 other players). The runner up was David Butterworth just one point behind on 21 points. The men can be seen collecting their trophies from our Chairman Tom Johnson.
T he one disappointment on the day was the lack of Intermediate entry players. Nonetheless our one entrant Hamish Klemz (fresh from a successful round of O' Level results – congratulations) played very well throughout the afternoon and scored a very creditable 19 points to retain the trophy for the second year. Hamish can be seen collecting his trophy from our Chairman Tom Johnson.
Thanks go to all those who took part in the event, and all those who made it happen. Especially worthy of a mention here is Tessa Klemz (mother of Hamish) who came along simply to watch her son play and was persuaded to undertake the difficult and onerous (not really!) task of keeping everyone on court playing and accurately recording the scores. Thank you Tessa.
If you would like to take part in this really fun event in the future, watch out for details of the 2020 event early next year.
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The Russian channel 'Rossiya K' broadcasts a dancing contest called 'The Big Ballet' featuring pairs from various theatres from all over the country, and in which you are the head of the jury. How important is the competitive spirit in ballet?
I never saw the show as a competition. More likely this is a chance for the young dancers to hear the opinion of a high-profile jury about their performances and the choice of the repertoire. We are very soft in our judgments, so there are no winners or losers, as any outcome would have a positive effect on the contestants' future careers.
You had to commute frequently between Moscow and St. Petersburg to take part in the filming. Did you have any hesitation about joining the show?
I am not a big fan of reality TV. However, I was assured that the programme would be made to the highest standards, nothing would be sacrificed in favor of higher TV ratings and the jury would make their own decisions. This is why I consented to take part and later didn't regret it, as I really hope that the programme will encourage the audience's interest in classical arts.
What lessons from the past given by famous dancers would you like to revisit?
During my career I only took part in one competition – the Prix de Lausanne when I was 17 and I wasn't given the opportunity to hear the jury's opinion. However I had always had by my side the most renowned tutors from the Vaganovskoe Ballet School and trainers from the Mariinky Theatre. Looking back, I remember being criticized a lot, and that criticism has not always been constructive. However, it didn't stop me from developing and improving, making me even more determined to follow my own path.
Do you think any of the show's contestants have a real chance of becoming a world-class dancer?
Of course. Theatres did their best to send their young talents and some of the contestants we auditioned, say for example Sergey Polunin, have already presented themselves on stage at the Bolshoy Theatre. However, at this point it is difficult to make any predictions, as the future depends on factors such as their theatre, their workload and roles, whether or not they manage to avoid serious injury, as well as the dancer's personal circumstances.
At the Vaganovskoe Ballet School, from which you graduated, you were taught not just how to dance but also how to maintain a certain demeanor. Are there similar schools abroad?
Yes, there are a few very strong schools- the French, the English and the Cuban. However, the Russian one is the most well-known: their bold mannerisms, their moves, their traditions – all this make Russian dancers stand out. This is why every big international ballet company always invites Russian dancers.
Some critics and spectators argue that classical ballets should not be performed again and again as they become boring and can no longer attract the public. What is your view?
I think that the classical ballets should definitely be respected, but alongside them we should develop contemporary choreography. Bad productions are boring no matter whether they are classical or modern. The aim is to give our audience a spectacle full of passion and to fulfill their expectation of a miracle.
Ballet is constantly evolving with technical demands on the rise, akin to sport or a circus. More and more ballet is associated with toned muscles rather that purely grace. Do you agree?
I am for the good technique to complement the spirit of the dance. However, I often see young performers, in an effort to impress the audience, get carried away by the technical side, forgetting about the purpose of the role, choreography and the style. But where toned muscles do not contradict the aesthetic of the dance, I can only appreciate the beauty of such physiques. In fact, it is more upsetting to see a dancer who does not stay in shape.
Apart from ballet, you did many other projects, such as appearing in Rustam Hamdamov's movie 'Brilliants' and modeling for Patrick Demarchelier. What are your reasons for doing this?
Cinema and photography are close to ballet as art forms, which is why I never even thought of rejecting such offers. Also, I appreciate working with such talented people and creating something together.
Which choreographers do you admire?
Pina Bausch, Jiří Kylián, William Forsythe, Mats Ek. Strangely enough, these choreographers, due to their genius, actually slowed the development of ballet. It is very tempting to copy them, yet this stopped artists from creating their own vision.
How long do you nurture your own projects, such as 'The Dialogs' series? Which choreographers do you want to work with in the future?
This really takes a long time, usually one to two years. In 'The Dialogs', I dance the ballet 'Errand into the Maze', directed by the famous American dancer and choreographer Martha Gram in 1947, I will be the first to present Gram's works to a Russian audience. But there are exceptions – for example, the choreographer John Neumeier, with whom we cooperated for many years, had created the one-act ballet 'The Dialogue' especially for me just two months before its premier in Mariinsky. At the moment, I don't want to share my future projects as they are still in the discussion stage. All I can say is that there is a lot going on.
Would you like to become a director yourself?
I am not a choreographer and never had a desire to become one. However, often during the rehearsals, I make my contribution by trying various types of dance.
2 > Last year Diana Vishneva celebrated twenty years on the stage of Mariinsky Theatre and Bolshoy theatres.


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so hold my hand, consign me not to darkness
Mumford & Sons played two new songs last night to a fervently enthusiastic crowd at their sold-out Denver show. One song, tentatively titled "Broken Crown," was just written yesterday at soundcheck here in Colorado. You know, I was probably doing something like eating an apple at my desk at the same time they were out composing potent new songs like these — just, you know, at soundcheck.
The other new one, "Below My Feet," is a slow-building piano-based shot of redemption, and was written in Melbourne this summer during their Australian tour. Both are compelling.
–apologies for the few spots of fuzzy loud audio–
Everything I wrote after I saw them in Telluride in June still holds true about their live show last night. What supernovas.
Setlist from last night posted over at Fuel/Friends Facebook page.
Tagged with concerts, mumford and sons.
[...] http://www.fuelfriendsblog.com/2010/10/28/so-hold-my-hand-consign-me-not-to-darkness/ [...]
yesyesyes : Darling, I'm damned if I know — October 28, 2010 @ 11:38 am
I'm just super happy when I can finish my lunch during my lunch break, and these guys are pounding out new jams? Not that I didn't know I was in the wrong business, but really this just drives it home.
Love both of these. I need to catch them soon.
Adam — October 28, 2010 @ 1:57 pm
"Broken Crown" uses lyrics from their song "To Darkness" that they released on an iTunes Live from the London Festival '09. Both are very good and I can't thank you enough for sharing this video.
Katie — October 28, 2010 @ 2:38 pm
[...] This post was mentioned on Twitter by Room 125 Productions, Eversilences. Eversilences said: so hold my hand, consign me not to darkness: Mumford & Sons played two new songs last night to a ferv… http://bit.ly/cXhUzq (fuelfriends) [...]
Tweets that mention so hold my hand, consign me not to darkness | Fuel/Friends Music Blog -- Topsy.com — October 28, 2010 @ 5:32 pm
How I envy you that experience! I live near London and I haven't yet managed to see these guys live. Thank you so much for sharing!
Aniki — October 29, 2010 @ 2:56 am
Thanks for the videos! But please don't make me sign into facebook to view content.
Allison — October 30, 2010 @ 7:40 am
Hmmm… Interesting that they decided to scrap 'To Darkness' as a song, as Katie noted above. A studio version was actually released as the b-side to 'Little Lion Man'. Bart digs the horns but prefers the original at this point. He's excited to see them in two weeks! Thanks for the preview, HB!
Bart Wang — October 30, 2010 @ 10:39 am
Broken Crown was also performed as To Darkness/Kripa with the Indian folk band the Dharohar Project! It's so good!
Archaic Revival — May 17, 2011 @ 11:27 am


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Calling about some sort of coalition for the police department. Very pushy when I said I didn't have time he kept talking insisting it wouldn't take long. I finally had to hang up on him.
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Who Is Patty Breton, Why was Playboy Model Patty Breton Arrested? Charges Explained
Who Is Patty Breton, Why was Playboy Model Patty Breton Arrested? Charges Explained: The cases of disturbances in the flights are constantly increasing and hundreds of people are charged with these crimes. Many of them landed themselves in the prison and some have to pay the heavy fine for that. Not only the common people but sometimes popular faces have also faced charges for causing a disturbance in the flights. In this lineup, Patty Breton, an ex-Playboy model, and the protagonist of "Baywatch" faced the accusation of beginning a fight onboard a Delta Airlines flight that landed in Atlanta, wounding passengers and crew members. The entire incident is viewed in the footage below, in which she instructs an older male passenger to "mask up" and not only this, she slapped him too. Follow More Update On Olasmediatv.com
Who Is Patty Breton?
Patty Breton is an ex-model and actress who has come up in movies including "Baywatch" (released in the year 1989), "Playboy: Cheerleaders" (released in the year 1997), and "Married…With Children" (released in the year 1987). She was also sentenced to spitting and striking on a passenger who brawled her analogy on a Delta flight from Tampa to Georgia on 23rd December 2021.
Why was Playboy Model Patty Breton Arrested?
Though Patricia Cornwall, the lady in this narrative, is NOT the author, Patricia Cornwell, whose last name is spelled differently. The records of the Federal court give her name as Patricia Yannet Cornwall. On Facebook, she goes by the name Patty Cornwall. According to the records of the Federal court, she is alleged of evoking the name of civil rights icon Rosa Parks.
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In the video footage, a lady recognized as Cornwall by the records of the court is watched exchanging altercations with an older male passenger. During their heated conversation, her mask is down. She is instructed to put her mask on by the flight attendant. As per the video footage, the man also called her a b**ch, and in this retaliation, she punched him in the face. The man get furious and said, "You are going to prison as soon as we get to Atlanta." The man claimed she spit on him.
Patty Breton Charges
As per the documents of the court, Patrica Yannet Cornwall, a lady thought to be Patty Breton, could be charged with a likely violation of Title 18, United States Code, Section 13 (a) (4). Patrica Yannet Cornwall assaulted R.S.M in the US' special aircraft jurisdiction by beating, striking, or wounding him.
Patty Breton Age
The age Patty Breton comes up to be in her mid- 20s based on her photos. Her actual age and birthdate have not been disclosed at present. In California, she has been recognized as a real sales associate.
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I was getting ready for a photoshoot today and had to test out the lighting. Stephanie, being the best friend she is, joyfully stepped in front of the camera to help me get it right. I love her smile and radiant spirit, even in the impromptu moments.