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Football Transfers Explained: A Really Simple Guide to How Players Move Between Teams
In 2021, Romelo Lukaku returned to Chelsea in a £97.5 million transfer deal (Image Credit: canno7, Bigstockphoto)
Football matches are ultimately won and lost on the pitch but there is no denying that off-field decisions have a huge impact on the success a team can ultimately enjoy. The right moves in the transfer market, for example, can end up sparking drastic improvements while a handful of poor signings can see a team head the wrong way down the table. Football transfers play such a pivotal part in footballing success that every summer, at least, there is usually a debate as to who 'won the window'.
Given the amount of focus on transfers, there is always a lot of pressure on clubs to pick up the right players… and at the right price. All season long you will find stories of clubs being interested in certain players, some with substance, others not so much. Among all the many stories, you are likely to stumble across a lot of terms and phrases that tend to crop up when talking about completed or potential transfers.
Although the world of transfers can, therefore, be confusing to someone relatively new to football, this comprehensive guide will take you through everything there is to know, from free transfers to agent fees.
A Simple Overview of Transfers
Harry Kane (Image Credit: Cosmin Iftode, Bigstockphoto)
Before we head into looking at some of the transfer-related terminology, it is worth going over what a standard transfer entails. To give you an example, let us say Manchester United want to sign Harry Kane from Tottenham. Kane has two years left on his contract with the Londoners so there is no possibility of United grabbing him on a free transfer (which we discuss later). Due to this, the Red Devils must agree on a fee with Spurs in order to acquire the striker. If they cannot agree on a fee, no deal can take place.
'Tapping Up'
Officially speaking, a fee needs to be agreed upon before United can start offering what is known as 'personal terms' to Kane. This will include things such as a salary, a signing-on fee, performance-related bonuses and so on. In reality, clubs are not so patient and in most cases, they will be in contact with a player via their agent to discuss personal terms prior to any price being agreed upon. Technically, this is known as 'tapping up' but it is something that almost always occurs without punishment.
Players Do Not Receive a Cut
Back to the Harry Kane transfer though and let us say that after weeks of negotiations Spurs and United agree on a £90m fee for the forward. United may agree to hand over this £90m in one large payment but in most cases transfer fees, especially larger ones, are paid in instalments. One possible arrangement could be that United pay £30m upfront followed by two more £30m payments over the next two seasons. No matter the payment structure, the money is always paid by the buying club and is sent to the selling club. Players themselves do not receive a cut of the transfer fee.
Negotiating a Payment Plan
Assuming the two clubs successfully negotiate a payment plan, the deal can proceed provided the player is still keen. It is usually the case that the player in question is indeed keen on the move, as buying clubs have a good sense if a player is interested before transfer negotiations take place. That said, a player is perfectly entitled to decide whether they want to stay put and not move clubs. If this happens, there is nothing the selling club can do as any transfer requires signing off by the player in question. This is why it can be hard for clubs to sell players on very expensive contracts as there may be no interested buyers willing to match the player's current salary. Some players are willing to sacrifice pay for more playing time but some are not.
Types of Transfer
Giovani Lo Celso (Image Credit: Cosmin Iftode, Bigstockphoto)
Many transfers work like in the example above, where the selling and buying clubs agree on a price for a player still under contract. In most cases, the player would switch teams as soon as the paperwork is complete, although in some cases transfers will be postponed to the following summer. This is not the only way to sign a player, however, as you will find out below.
Loan with Obligation to Buy
In a standard loan move, a player will move to another team on a temporary basis, either for a few months or a full season. There may be an optional buy fee placed into the arrangement but if no deal is struck the player will simply return to their parent club when the loan agreement expires. A loan with an obligation to buy, however, is effectively the same as a transfer, only that it delays the payment by a season and can reduce the actual transfer fee paid.
This is a common way of exchanging players in Italian football and it has its advantages. For one, the transfer fee only becomes payable at the end of the loan deal, effectively delaying the first payment by a year. This can be useful for a club's accounting if they want to delay the outgoing, perhaps to comply with FFP (Financial Fair Play) regulations. Also, in some deals clubs will pay a loan fee covering the first season, and this will be deducted from the actual transfer fee. Rather than a £40m upfront transfer, the buying club might pay a £4m season-long loan fee and have a £36m requirement to buy. The benefit of this is mainly for the selling club, if there is a sell-on bonus present, it reduces the amount they need to pay the player's former club.
Tottenham's signature of Giovani Lo Celso from Real Betis was a clear attempt to reduce the money owed to PSG, who had a 25% sell-on clause with the Spanish side. Spurs initially paid a vastly inflated £15m loan fee for the Argentine followed by a £27.3m transfer fee later on. This meant PSG getting 25% of £27.3m rather than the £42.3m transfer fee. Naturally, the Parisians objected to this trickery and took it to the Court of Arbitration for Sport, but no verdict has been made at the time of writing.
It should be noted that some loan deals with an obligation to buy only become obligations if certain criteria are met. One fairly standard example would be there is an obligation to buy if the player makes 20 appearances for a club during the loan move. If they meet this threshold then a transfer, at a pre-agreed price, will take place.
Free Transfer
Robert Lewandowski (Image Credit: Cosmin Iftode, Bigstockphoto)
A free transfer is rarely truly free given the other costs involved but it does mean there is no transfer fee payable. Usually this occurs when a player has run down their contract with their current club and then signs for a new side. Given they are no longer under contract, there is no club to pay a transfer fee to. This is why teams often become nervous when a big star has one year left on their current deal. If they do not end up signing a new contract, a potentially valuable player will be able to leave for free at the end of the season.
When a player is planning on running down their contract, interested clubs do not have to wait for the expiration date to make the player an offer. When a player, aged 23 or older, has less than six months left on their existing contract, they are free to negotiate deals with other teams. Should they strike a deal, they will then move clubs when their current agreement is up. There have been many big free transfers over the years, Robert Lewandowski to Bayern, Paul Pogba to Juventus and Sol Campbell to Arsenal being some of the most prolific examples.
Say a player runs down their contract but has been unable to agree to a deal with a new side, they become what is known as a 'free agent' or 'unattached'. Free agents can negotiate a deal with any team they like, at any time of the season. It gives them plenty of freedom as they cannot be held hostage by a club demanding a huge transfer fee in order to sell.
Release Clause
Rather than negotiating a transfer fee, if a player has a release clause in their contract, the buying club can simply agree to pay this fee and that removes the need for all negotiation. The fact that Man City signed Haaland for a relatively low transfer fee was because the Norwegian had a £51.1m release clause in his contract. With City agreeing to pay this, this means that Dortmund were contractually obliged to accept the bid and allow their striker to negotiate terms with City.
Release clauses are a common part of player contracts across the globe but in Spain they are compulsory. This has led to some astronomical figures though, such as the reported €1bn release clause Real Madrid put in Vinicius Junior's contract. It follows the rules but the fee is so high it ensures the clause will never actually be triggered.
Swap Deals
Swap deals are rumoured to be in the pipeline far more than they actually happen but you do see them occur now and again. A basic swap deal will see two players permanently swap clubs with no money exchanged. More often though the player valuations are different so one side will send over money in addition to their player. Perhaps the most famous example of this is when Barcelona swapped Samiel Eto'o and €46m for Zlatan Ibrahimovic of Inter Milan.
Typically, swap deals will involve one player from each club but it is possible that the deal involves three or more players instead. Although this is rare, in 2009 Inter picked up both Diego Milito and Thiago Motto from Genoa who, in return, sent four players (Robert Acquafresca, Francesco Bolzoni, Riccardo Meggiorini and Ivan Fatic) the opposite way. Nobody quite does transfers like the Italians.
Fees & Bonuses
Timo Werner, Chelsea (Image Credit: Voffka, Bigstockphoto)
Although the transfer fee paid is always the headline story, there are other costs and financial clauses involved in many transfers.
Agent Fees
Being a football agent can be a very lucrative job if you have the right clients. In 2021, fees paid to agents totalled $500.8m and this was despite a reduction in overall transfer spending. Typically, it is the buying club that will find itself responsible for giving the agent their owed fee for brokering the deal. This can come in the form of a fixed price amount, or the commission payment can be a percentage of the transfer fee and/or player contract.
In most transfers, agents are only taking a relatively small chunk, say 10% of the transfer fee. In many of the big headline moves though, they can end up earning a lot more than this, making deals seem far more expensive than they initially appear. In the summer of 2022 when Man City paid £51.1m to sign Haaland from Dortmund, for such a hot prospect this appeared to be a relative bargain. In addition to this though City paid an agent fee payment of £34m that was split between the head of Haaland's agency, Rafaela Pimenta, and his father.
Sell On Fee
When one club sells a player to another, it is common they will negotiate what is known as a sell-on clause, sometimes at the expense of lowering the overall transfer fee. To give you a real-life example, when Liverpool sold Taiwo Awoniyi to Union Berlin, they negotiated a 10% sell-on clause. This meant, if and when Union sold on the striker, Liverpool would receive 10% of the transfer fee. So, when the Nigerian international signed for Nottingham Forest in the summer of 2022 in a £17m deal, Liverpool received £1.7m of the transfer. This fee is owed by the selling club and is not an additional fee the buying club has to pay.
Sell-on bonuses can be particularly huge for less financially mighty clubs who have a hot prospect pinched from them. When Willem II sold Frankie de Jong to Ajax, they did so for a symbolic €1 fee but far more importantly a 10% sell-on bonus. So, when the midfielder later secured a move to Barcelona, this meant €7.5m went to them. Bearing in mind the club has never spent more than €2m on a player before, this was a huge sum to receive.
Performance Related Bonuses
A transfer fee often does not simply involve a flat fee paid upfront and that is it. In many cases, you may have a sell-on clause, mentioned above, or a variety of bonuses or 'add-ons'. Transfer fee add-ons have the potential to increase the fee that the buying club has to pay, but only if certain criteria are met. When a transfer fee is reported in the press, the headline price will typically include the maximum value of the deal, so the guaranteed transfer price plus all potential add-ons, regardless of how realistic they may be.
If you click on the story though you will typically see a breakdown of the deal. In the case of Darwin Nunez's move to Liverpool in 2022, the '£85m deal' actually included a £64.1m guaranteed fee with the remaining £21m linked to performance-related add-ons. Reports stated that one of the add-ons would be triggered when Nunez made 10 appearances for the Merseyside club, so a very easy one to meet.
While it is common for some add-ons to have a low bar like this, that will be met 99% of the time, other add-ons can be much harder to fulfil and some are never met. There could be a much larger appearance requirement or for an attacking player there may be several goal milestones they need to hit. Add-ons can also be linked to team rather than player performance, so a sum of £x could be payable should the buying club gain promotion within the next two years (providing the player is still at the club).
Signing On Fee
When a player signs for a new club, not only might they end up getting a more lucrative contract with a bigger weekly salary and greater bonuses, but often they will receive a signing-on fee. This is a one-off payment paid directly to the player, by the buying club, upon completion of the transfer. Sought-after players that sign for a new club on a free transfer are in a particularly good position to negotiate a big signing-on fee, due to the absence of a transfer fee.
When a transfer fee has been paid, the signing-on fee will tend to be a much smaller figure but this does not mean it is simply spare change. When Chelsea signed Timo Werner in 2020 in a £53m deal, they paid the German striker a £10m signing-on bonus, making it a considerably more expensive transfer than it initially seemed.
Undisclosed Fee
With some transfers, the fee paid is not revealed to the public and you will simply see 'undisclosed fee' instead. This happens when the two clubs involved in the exchange simply agree for the figure to remain private. The main motivation for pushing for this secrecy is that either the buying club are worried they will be criticised for over-paying or the selling club will be accused of selling too low/making a big loss. Journalists will typically do some digging around in such cases though and sometimes they will get wind of what the actual figure was, or was close to.
Posted in Uncategorized Tagged Explained, Football, Guide, Move, Players, Simple, Teams, Transfers
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The Acura RDX is getting the orange paint from the orange NSX
The Thermal Orange PMC Edition is hand-built at its NSX plant, making it the most interesting RDX ever built—did we mention it's orange?
Sep 22, 2020 • Last Updated 1 year ago • 1 minute read
2021 RDX Receives PMC Edition Treatment, Finished in Stunning Thermal Orange Pearl Paint Photo by Acura
Acura is very proud of its NSX, its highly advanced supercar that shook the world when it was revitalized for a second generation, and now Acura is hoping to shake the world again by offering one of the NSX's colours on its RDX SUV.
Acura is calling the very special RDX the "PMC Edition," which stands for the Performance Manufacturing Center where the TLX PMC and MDX PMC are made alongside the NSX.
In addition to the special paint colour, the RDX will also receive a whole bunch of special Gloss Black stuff, such as black 20-inch split-five-spoke wheels, lug nuts, roof panel with panoramic moonroof, door handles, Diamond Pentagon grille with body-colour grille surround, and auto-dimming door mirrors. The dual exhaust has also been painted in a black chrome.
On the inside, the RDX PMC has Ebony Milano leather sport seats with black Ultrasuede inserts and orange stitching to match the wild exterior, as well as a leather-wrapped steering wheel with A-Spec badge and orange stitching and premium floormats with the same badge and stitching.
The powertrain has not been modified one bit, which must mean Acura got it right the first time.
All of this combined makes this the most interesting RDX ever built. However, if you want one, you're going to have to hurry into an Acura dealer pretty soon, because only 360 are going to be built, and each one will be specially numbered. Canadian pricing has not been announced, but in the U.S. it will cost in the "low $50,000s."

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaCommonCrawl


The Speeding Object application detects objects that pass too quickly over two user defined lines. Simply draw two lines, select the approximate distance between them, and the accepted speed limit in that area, and the application will alarm when it is exceeded. This is useful both in collecting general speed metrics for a specific location and for apprehending specific drivers who routinely exceed the safe posted limit.


text:
using Synology.Classes;
using Synology.DownloadStation.Task.Parameters;
using Synology.DownloadStation.Task.Results;
using Synology.Utilities;
using System.Collections.Generic;
using Synology.Attributes;
using Synology.Parameters;
using System.Threading.Tasks;
using System;
using System.Linq;

namespace Synology.DownloadStation.Task
{
    [Request("Task")]
    internal class TaskRequest : DownloadStationRequest, ITaskRequest
    {
        public TaskRequest(IDownloadStationApi api) : base(api)
        {
        }

        [RequestMethod("list")]
        public async Task<ResultData<ITaskListResult>> ListAsync(TaskListParameters parameters)
        {
            return ResultData<ITaskListResult>.From(await this.GetDataAsync<TaskListResult>(new SynologyRequestParameters(this)
            {
                Additional = parameters
            }));
        }

        [RequestMethod("getinfo")]
        public async Task<ResultData<IEnumerable<ITaskResult>>> InfoAsync(TaskInfoParameters parameters)
        {
            var res = await this.GetDataAsync<IEnumerable<TaskResult>>(new SynologyRequestParameters(this)
            {
                Additional = parameters
            });

            return new ResultData<IEnumerable<ITaskResult>>
            {
                Data = res.Data.Cast<ITaskResult>(),
                Error = res.Error,
                Success = res.Success
            };
        }

        [RequestMethod("create")]
        public async Task<ResultData> CreateAsync(TaskCreateParameters parameters)
        {
            return await this.GetDataAsync(new SynologyRequestParameters(this)
            {
                Version = 3,
                Additional = parameters
            });
        }

        [RequestMethod("delete")]
        public async Task<ResultData<IEnumerable<ITaskMinimalResult>>> DeleteAsync(TaskDeleteParameters parameters)
        {
            var res = await this.GetDataAsync<IEnumerable<TaskMinimalResult>>(new SynologyRequestParameters(this)
            {
                Additional = parameters
            });

            return new ResultData<IEnumerable<ITaskMinimalResult>>
            {
                Data = res.Data.Cast<ITaskMinimalResult>(),
                Error = res.Error,
                Success = res.Success
            };
        }

        [RequestMethod("pause")]
        public async Task<ResultData<IEnumerable<ITaskMinimalResult>>> PauseAsync(params string[] ids)
        {
            var additionalParams = new[] {
                new QueryStringParameter("id", ids)
            };

            var res = await this.GetDataAsync<IEnumerable<TaskMinimalResult>>(new SynologyRequestParameters(this)
            {
                Additional = additionalParams
            });

            return new ResultData<IEnumerable<ITaskMinimalResult>>
            {
                Data = res.Data.Cast<ITaskMinimalResult>(),
                Error = res.Error,
                Success = res.Success
            };
        }

        [RequestMethod("resume")]
        public async Task<ResultData<IEnumerable<ITaskMinimalResult>>> ResumeAsync(params string[] ids)
        {
            var additionalParams = new[] {
                new QueryStringParameter("id", ids),
            };

            var res = await this.GetDataAsync<IEnumerable<TaskMinimalResult>>(new SynologyRequestParameters(this)
            {
                Additional = additionalParams
            });

            return new ResultData<IEnumerable<ITaskMinimalResult>>
            {
                Data = res.Data.Cast<ITaskMinimalResult>(),
                Error = res.Error,
                Success = res.Success
            };
        }

        [RequestMethod("edit")]
        public async Task<ResultData<IEnumerable<ITaskMinimalResult>>> EditAsync(TaskEditParameters parameters)
        {
            var res = await this.GetDataAsync<IEnumerable<TaskMinimalResult>>(new SynologyRequestParameters(this)
            {
                Additional = parameters
            });

            return new ResultData<IEnumerable<ITaskMinimalResult>>
            {
                Data = res.Data.Cast<ITaskMinimalResult>(),
                Error = res.Error,
                Success = res.Success
            };
        }
    }
}

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaGithub


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Leaders in Lending | Ep. 81: Cultivating innovation as a traditional bank
October 27, 2022 by Upstart
Innovation is not just about adoption of technology, it's also a change in mindset. Especially for some traditional banks that have been operating for over a decade, this mindset shift in the lending space usually involves influencing multiple stakeholders at a financial institution, from the credit, risk and regulatory sides of the business. So, how can stakeholders influence the risk averse and push for innovation, especially in today's difficult economic climate?
Our guest today, Leisa Kinnin, SVP, Lending Product Manager at UMB Bank, helped to launch a downpayment assistance program that provides help to qualified borrowers who cannot meet the high upfront costs of purchasing a home. Kinnin has spent her entire career in lending and knows this team effort requires institutional process changes to meet the tech changes she sees in the industry.
How traditional banks can leverage fintechs for digital experiences
Traditional banks won't survive the digital transformation in the banking industry unless they can adapt.
Kinnin explained, "We tend to think that we need to engineer a technology to fit our existing process, instead of realizing that you're going to have to evolve your process if you truly want to evolve your customer delivery of the product or delivery of the stellar customer experience."
January 25, 2023 – by Upstart
Leaders in Lending | Ep. 94: Supporting small businesses as a CDFI and MDI
How U.S. Bank's innovation team gets a read on the future for ideas to incubate
Leaders in Lending | Ep. 93: Credit unions driving racial equity


Leeds based ambient production duo ag. (not a typo) have released their debut single Warped Minds. For fans of the electronic style of Bonobo and Four Tet, ag. is comprised of Ross Quinn and Andrew Goddard who have each achieved considerable success retrospectively in their dj endeavours worldwide. Simultaneously comforting and melancholic, Warped Minds is about the need to return home to family when there is nowhere else to go. With the current economic climate and lack of prospects for young people, this track is sure to ring familiar bells for many.
Whilst the echoing vocals bring a reverberating sense of longing, the 4/4 beat adds grit and an edge of resilience to the atmospheric swells of synth. Speaking about the inspiration for the single, the pair said it came from, "our own experience of living in London under the strain of money and not being around what you know, we count ourselves lucky we have a safe haven, which we can call home. Both coming from rural parts of the UK we find escaping from the city even for a day can help alter your mind back from the warped state filled with stress and anxiety." Offering just the right amount of chill for a post-3am track, Warped Minds proves these newcomers are not to be overlooked.
Warped Minds is the first track to be released from their upcoming EP Servia, due to be released in September and in it they have marked a space for themselves in the forward thinking scene of electronic music. Having already gained recognition from BBC Introducing, this single is sure to be followed by a stream of intelligent tunes that give us all the feels and they will be supporting Scott Quinn at The Camden Assembly on September 5th.
ag. have more exciting live music news coming soon so we're keeping our eyes peeled for more from this impressive duo.


Tom Boonen was given a memorable send-off in Antwerp this morning ahead of what is his final ever Tour of Flanders.
Boonen, who retires after Paris-Roubaix next Sunday, was treated to a Flemish rendition of the 'Viking Thunderclap' made famous by Icelandic fans and players at the UEFA 2016 European Football Championships last summer.
It happened as he rode up to the signing on podium in Antwerp before today's 101st edition of the race, which Boonen has won a record equalling three times.
Other tributes to Boonen today include this mosaic held aloft by fans to create a portrait of the hugely popular Quick Step Floors rider.


Gary Neville has branded Wayne Rooney's tackle on Stewart Downing as 'stupid' after the Manchester United captain was sent off on Saturday.
The striker was shown a straight red card - his first for United since 2009 - after he kicked out at the West Ham winger at Old Trafford, where his side won 2-1.
Rooney later apologised to his team-mates and Neville, who played for United between 1992 and 2011, has said the England international can have no complaints.
'Rooney can have no arguments whatsoever,' he said on Sky Sports.
'You do want to break play up but the mistake Rooney makes is the height of the contact.
Sportsmail columnist Jamie Carragher echoed Neville's comments.
Like our Manchester United Facebook page.


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personal
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I host my personal page here


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First Of The Old Masters: Cimabue
Whenever you talk about the Old Masters, common folk would at times guess who are you talking about. Art students would be able to name a few off their heads, including the 4 best during the Renaissance: Michelangelo, Leonardo Da Vinci, Raphael, and Donatello. Senior students would probably be able to recite everyone, even the more older ones, very easily. One of those older artist is Cimabue. More commonly known as Cenni di Peppi (or Bencivieni di Pepo in old Italian, Benuvento di Giuseppe in modern Italian), he is very well-known for the frescos he did for the Church.
He is the oldest and, thus, first among the Old Masters, according to an account by Giorgio Vasari, though there is no evidence that exist today to support his claim. "The first light to the art of painting," he called him. Even so, some people accept this account and would name him "The Father of Italian Painting."
Little is known about his life, except a few hints here and there and the accounts written by Vasari. There are plenty of people who would ignore Vasari's account because of the uncertainty of his sources. Historian Clara Erskine Clement claims that the Cimabui family were nobles, and that Giovanni (Cimabue) was allowed to be a painter by his family. He was a genius and painted with passion. With his skill he became one of the starting points of the Renaissance. It is said that he was influenced by another painter, Coppo di Marcovaldo, a Florentine Italian painter. But after that he was able to create his own style.
He's know to have lived in Rome in 1272. There's only one known work that was attributed to Cimabue that has survived: that of the St John mosaic located in the Pisa Cathedral. He's also attributed to other religious paintings, one of which are the Upper Church of S.Francesco fresco, in Assisi. These paintings show the Four Evangelists, the Life of Virgin Mary, the Apocalypse and the Crucifixion, and the Lives of St Paul and St Peter. The frescos were preserved poorly, damaged by the earthquake in 1997, but much of it remains and were restored later. These frescoes are a testament to his skill when using the architectural space he's provided. Another work attributed to him that showed his skill was the S. Trinita Madonna, an altarpiece and is considered one of the best paintings of the Madonna and Child. The S.Croce Crucifixion is another work attributed to him. This, too, was damaged at one time, in the floods of 1966, to be exact. It was fully restored later on.
And there are other works that were attributed to him, but the credibility of those claims will remain a bit questionable. At the time artists rarely sign their works due to the persecution of the Church and the iconoclasts so its hard at times to find the masters of unsigned works.
Even with the persecution, Cimabue became one of the beacon that signaled the beginning of Italian painting and the Italian Renaissance. He left a legacy to future artists and was even referred to in Dante's Purgatorio.
He's successful as an artist though, and had taught many artists after him. One of them was the genius Giotto Di Bondone, an Early Renaissance painter and architect. He was also known to have been a generous man, being kind to lepers and beggars, and loves cats. It was even said that, at one time, he had 33 cats in his care.
In 1302, Cimabue passed away. He is laid to rest in the Church of Santa Maria del Fiore. On his tomb it was inscribed: "Cimabue thought himself master of the field of painting. While living, he was so. Now he holds his place among the stars of heaven."
Featured and 1st image by see filename or category (scan) [Public domain], via Wikimedia Commons
2nd image by Cimabue [GFDL (http://www.gnu.org/copyleft/fdl.html), CC-BY-SA-3.0 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/) or CC BY 2.5 (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/2.5)], via Wikimedia Commons
1774 0 Art, Paintings Editor Cimabue, Italian Renaissance, Old Masters
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Entertain the little ones with fun, silly and amazing magic!
Marc Lemezma believes that magic is for everyone!
With his amazing magic shows for children 3 years and above, he brings fun and laughter to children's birthday parties. Also he entertains at schools, fayres, holiday parks, Christmas parties and club events. In fact all kinds of special occasions throughout Kent and the South East.
Because Marc offers a rare combination of magical talent, being able to entertain adults as well as children, he is the perfect entertainer for family events.
His friendly alter ego Marli The Magician performs at children's parties as well as at family functions, meaning he is a great add on to your grown up party!
He offers a comedy magic show, balloon modelling and even party games which means your child's party can be a real success.
At your wedding, family party or BBQ, Marc can mix close-up magic to astound the adults with his comedy show. This means that the children and everyone can have some magic to enjoy!
. Because he is the busiest Children's Entertainer in the South East, Marc (or should we say Marli!) knows the magical secret to engaging children. This means he knows how to keep them thoroughly entertained.
By using a combination of fun comedy, music, balloon modelling, silliness and of course magic – Marli's shows are always tremendous fun. This makes them suitable for all ages to watch and enjoy.
Marli's Perfect Party Package is the ideal show for childrens birthday parties and other events. For example, Christmas/Easter parties for your family or social club. This show combines a magic show, balloon modelling and party games into two fun-packed hours. There's even a short break in the middle when the children can enjoy party food or a snack and drink.
Marli the Magician performs magic all over Kent and the UK. For a children's entertainer in East Sussex, Surrey, London or anywhere in the UK call 07904 262138 for pricing and availability.


In this program, Anthony Santen talks about why marriages fail when both the men and women start the relationship in 'perceived advantage' over the other. This advantage often translates into a 'mommy-ship' rather than relationship. The man begins to view his partner as a mother – authoritarian figure, and the woman begins to view her partner as a son – inadequate. This is exacerbated when the couple has children and the parents 'cheat' on their marriage by directing their love energy towards their children instead of each other. The passion wanes and the intimacy disappears.
Anthony Santen provides marriage counseling, individual counseling, divorce prevention, life coaching and training from Toronto, Canada. His main focus is on Divorce Prevention through counseling with the couple and individually. He is the creator of the Path Within® Program and a faculty member with the National Guild of Hypnotists. He teaches in the methods of facilitating change and mind/body connection to audiences from all over the world.


At Space Healthcare we can create strong, tooth-coloured dental crowns that don't contain any metal, using technologically advanced materials like alumina- or zirconia-based ceramics. Crowns made from these materials can look fantastic and mimic all the characteristics of a natural tooth. For the very best results, all-ceramic crowns are the treatment of choice.
Well into the second half of the 20th century, crowns placed on teeth towards the back of the mouth were always made out of gold, and those on front teeth were made from a fairly weak ceramic called feldspathic porcelain. These solutions were the best available, given the technology and materials science of the time.
Gold was a convenient solution for restoring back teeth, as it's undeniably a very strong material, but aesthetically the results were not pleasing. For front teeth, the feldspathic porcelains available at the time looked good, but were not particularly strong and had an unfortunate tendency to break –usually when least expected, and inevitably at the most socially awkward moment!
A significant advance came in the 1960′s through the efforts of researchers in the UK : it became possible to fuse porcelain to a metal inner layer, so that the crown was tooth-coloured, but had the reinforcement of metal inside. Unfortunately, early versions of this type of crown suffered with fairly poor appearance, as disguising the metal beneath the surface layers of porcelain was difficult to achieve.
These porcelain fused to metal crowns (PFMs) are still used at both the front and the back of the mouth but, as dental technology has improved, it is now possible to achieve much more aesthetically pleasing results.
Ceramic advanced crowns are a state-of -the art dental solution. By using exceptionally strong types of ceramic material it's now possible to construct life-like crowns which do not need a metal inner layer to give them strength. The resulting crown has a level of translucency and opalescence like a natural tooth, so we can create crowns to complement and enhance your smile rather than just looking like crowns!
Several types of ceramic advanced crowns are available. Rather than using a single type, at Space Healthcare we use the ceramic most suitable for your particular circumstances.
Some crowns have an inner layer of extremely tough ceramic, such as alumina or zirconia, together with an outer porcelain layer to give superb aesthetics; Procera ® and Lava® are well-respected brands that can give excellent results.
One of the most exciting materials which can now be used for advanced crowns is lithium disilicate. This material is actually termed a glass-ceramic, and at Space Healthcare we use IPS e.max ®. This material can now be used to make beautiful crowns that are resilient and attractive at the same time. A winning combination!
For creating crowns in areas where the greatest strength is needed (usually on your back teeth) we can use an immensely strong all-zirconia ceramic. This really is a superb material –not only is it strong, but it also looks great too.
The amount of tooth preparation required for this type of crown is less than other tooth-coloured all-ceramic crowns, and this has the advantage of preserving more of your tooth tissue.
Dentine is the middle layer of the tooth, underneath the enamel.
A dentine bonded crown is a very thin, ceramic-only crown, which is bonded to the dentine and acts very much like an artificial enamel layer.
Dentine bonded crowns are often made from feldspathic porcelain, which is not intrinsically a strong material. However, they gain their strength from the very strong bond to the underlying tooth that can be created using the latest, highly advanced dental bonding technology.
As well as being strong, they can be very attractive and natural in appearance and they have the added bonus that, because they are so thin, less preparation of the underlying tooth is required than with other types of ceramic crown.
Dentine bonded crowns are not suitable for every situation and so it is vital that you have a detailed dental consultation first to understand if they are the right option for you.
At Space Healthcare our experienced dental team will be happy to discuss dentine bonded crowns with you as part of your dental consultation.
For many years this type of crown has been the most common tooth-coloured crown provided in the UK. A combination of a strong metal core surrounded by an outer layer of tooth-coloured porcelain allows a crown that is strong but also fairly aesthetic.
Many different types of porcelain fused to metal crown exist, from crowns where the metal is a grey, non-precious alloy, to crowns where the metal is a precious, yellow gold alloy. These yellow gold containing crowns can be made to appear warmer and more natural as the yellow gold alloy imparts a similar tone to the yellow dentine inside a natural tooth.
Porcelain bonded to metal crowns offer true value for money. Less expensive crowns using grey, non-precious metal alloy cannot hope to achieve the high levels of aesthetics required for the crown to truly blend in with the natural teeth and to enhance the smile.
At Space Healthcare we offer porcelain bonded to metal crowns constructed to the highest standards to surpass your expectations.
Gold crowns are used mainly on your molar teeth, for the simple reason that they are not tooth-coloured. Gold alloys used in dentistry are extremely strong and long-lasting and as a result gold crowns can last for a very long time.
The amount of tooth preparation required for a gold crown is less than for all but the most advanced tooth-coloured all-ceramic crowns, and this has the advantage of preserving more of your tooth tissue.
Gold crowns are very gentle and non-abrasive to your other teeth and may be the best option for you if you have a very strong bite or a grinding habit (bruxism or parafunction).
At Space Healthcare we offer gold crowns as one of our comprehensive range of crown alternatives. In some situations gold is the best option and it's certainly true that many dentists have selected gold for their own crowns on their back teeth. At your detailed dental consultation we will discuss all the options with you so that you can make an informed decision on the best choice for you.
This special type of gold crown has the advantage of not covering the outer portion of the tooth so that the natural enamel can be left in place.
For areas visible in your smile this can give you the advantages of a tooth-coloured outer portion of your tooth with the strength and long term stability of gold for the biting surface and the rest of the tooth.
Arrange your dental visit today!


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Question: Fort Lauderdale Airport To Hollywood Beach?
1 How do I get from Fort Lauderdale Airport to Hollywood Beach?
2 Is there a shuttle from Fort Lauderdale Airport to South Beach?
3 How much is an Uber ride from Fort Lauderdale to Miami?
4 Is Uber available at Fort Lauderdale Airport?
5 Is there a shuttle from Miami airport to Fort Lauderdale Airport?
6 Is it cheaper to fly into Fort Lauderdale or Miami?
7 How much is uber from Fort Lauderdale to South Beach?
8 How do I get from Ft Lauderdale airport to South Beach?
9 What is the cheapest way to get from Fort Lauderdale to Miami?
10 Is Uber cheaper than taxi in Miami?
11 How much is a taxi from Fort Lauderdale to Miami?
12 How long is the drive from Ft Lauderdale to Miami?
13 How much is an uber from West Palm Beach to Fort Lauderdale Airport?
14 Where is the uber pickup at Fort Lauderdale Airport?
15 How much does Uber cost in Fort Lauderdale?
How do I get from Fort Lauderdale Airport to Hollywood Beach?
The best way to get from Fort Lauderdale–Hollywood International Airport (FLL) to Hollywood Beach Tower by Capital Vacations without a car is to line 01 bus and line 04 bus which takes 1h 14m and costs $4 – $6.
Is there a shuttle from Fort Lauderdale Airport to South Beach?
We have been providing this exclusive service to both tourists and local residents since 1986 with our fleet of 150 vehicles.
Sample shared ride rates from FLL
Miami's South Beach $21.00
* See representative or contact us for additional rates. Some luggage restrictions apply.
You might be interested: Readers ask: How Much To Tip Airport Shuttle Service?
How much is an Uber ride from Fort Lauderdale to Miami?
Ride sharing apps are cheaper and more convenient than traditional cabs and can take you from Fort Lauderdale to Miami or any other Florida destination. The average cost of a ride from Fort Lauderdale Airport to Miami is $40-$54 dollars on Uber & $40-$45 dollars on Lyft.
Is Uber available at Fort Lauderdale Airport?
Uber users at Fort Lauderdale Airport will meet their drivers at designated pickup areas (which are located BETWEEN FLL's terminals). Drivers may only pickup riders in these areas (technically referred to as Commercial Passenger Vehicle Areas).
Is there a shuttle from Miami airport to Fort Lauderdale Airport?
The bus company Red Coach provides direct service from Miami Airport to Fort Lauderdale Airport, and the travel time is just as fast as taking a car but at a fraction of the price. It's a great option for balancing out costs with time if you can coordinate the bus schedule with your arrival.
Is it cheaper to fly into Fort Lauderdale or Miami?
It may be cheaper to fly into Fort Lauderdale (FLL), but it should be noted that it can cost quite a bit more and take much longer to travel between the airport and Miami Beach. There is a free shuttle from the terminals to the Tri-Rail station and a one-way ticket to Miami costs $3.75 per person.
How much is uber from Fort Lauderdale to South Beach?
Initial charge
Metered fare $36.05
Safe Ride Fee $2.20
You might be interested: Quick Answer: What Airport Is Pvg?
How do I get from Ft Lauderdale airport to South Beach?
You can always take a bus from South Beach to MIA, then the Tri-Rail to FLL and then a bus into town if you're looking to be frugal. It is cheap, but as we mentioned before, it will take a long time.
What is the cheapest way to get from Fort Lauderdale to Miami?
The best and cheapest would be Tri-rail which is about $4.00 to Miami Airport. Followed by Uber being 2nd cheapest from Fort Lauderdale to Miami being around $30-$35 dollars. From Fort Lauderdale airport you can take the Tri-Rail shuttle at Terminal 1.
Is Uber cheaper than taxi in Miami?
It will cost up to 50 percent less than Uber POOL and up to 75 percent less than UberX. There will be no minimum fare, and the usual booking fee will be built into the upfront Express fare. Uber currently charges $0.10 per minute and $0.81 per mile in South Florida.
How much is a taxi from Fort Lauderdale to Miami?
Taxis / Shuttles
From FLL, you can expect to pay $15-$25 to Fort Lauderdale by taxi, $12 to Port Everglades for cruise ship embarkation, and $67-$72 for the 30-mile trip to Miami.
How long is the drive from Ft Lauderdale to Miami?
How long is the drive from Fort Lauderdale, FL to Miami, FL? The total driving time is 36 minutes. Your trip begins in Fort Lauderdale, Florida. It ends in Miami, Florida.
How much is an uber from West Palm Beach to Fort Lauderdale Airport?
Total Fare: ~ 147.22 $
You might be interested: Readers ask: How Early To Be At The Airport?
Distance between West Palm Beach and Fort Lauderdale-Hollywood International Airport is approx. 49.8 miles (80.15 km) with 57 min travel time.
Where is the uber pickup at Fort Lauderdale Airport?
Picking up your rider
Once you accept a trip request, the pickup location at the airport is located on the Arrivals level. All riders must be picked up at on the arrivals level, on the innermost curb either between Terminals 1 & 2, or between Terminals 3 & 4 (see map below).
How much does Uber cost in Fort Lauderdale?
Uber fares in Ft Lauderdale start at $6.05. Lyft fares in Ft Lauderdale start at $3.85.
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Khin Antal (Vajka, 1884. április 18. – Budapest, 1973. november 26.) tanár, tudományos kutató, muzeológus, az egykori somorjai múzeum alapítója.

Élete
1908-ban a Budapesti Tudományegyetemen szerzett középiskolai tanári oklevelet. Tanárként működött Znióváralján, Stubnyafürdőn, Somorján, Pozsonyban és Léván a tanítóképzőben igazgatóként (1940-1945). 1913-ban nyelvészeti kutatásokat folytatott Vajkán. 1927–1929 között megszervezte a somorjai Csallóközi Múzeumot és ennek igazgatója lett egészen 1940-ig. 1931-ben levelet küldött Masaryk Csehszlovákia alapító elnökének.

1945 után Budapestre költözött, a Magyar Mezőgazdasági Múzeum külső, majd főmunkatársaként dolgozott nyugdíjazásáig. A csallóközi népszokásokkal, művészettörténeti emlékekkel, regevilággal és halászélettel foglalkozó cikkei a pozsonyi Híradó című lapban, a Szülőföldünk (Pozsony) évfolyamaiban, a Csallóközi Hírlapban és hazai szakfolyóiratokban jelentek meg.

Emléke
Somorján a Városi Honismereti Ház épületének falán emléktábla

Művei
1913 Alangyár. Magyar nyelv 9. köt. 10, 468.
1928 Csallóközi muzeum. Pozsony
1930 Vyzy na velkom Žitnom ostrove a ich lovenie. Časopis Muzeálnej slovenskej spoločnosti XXII.
1932 Csallóközi legényavatás. Ethnographia XLIII, 19-24.
1934 Magyar Írás 1934. június
1935 A farsangi dőrék (Adalék Csallóköz néprajzához). Magyar Figyelő III április/1, 91-94.
1937 Olvasókönyv a magyar tanítási nyelvű elemi iskolák 4-5. évfolyama számára. Praha-Prešov
1941 Lucaszékek Csallóközben. Ethnographia LII, 59-61.
1948 A csallóközi halászélet. Halászat 2 (47)/5, 68-71.
1948 A csallóközi halászélet II. Szerszámjárás. Halászat 2 (47)/4, 57-58.
1948 A kishalászat szerszámjárása. Halászat 2 (47)/6, 87-88.
1948 A kishalászat szerszámjárása. Halászat 2 (47)/8-9, 125-127.
1948 A rekeszvörse, a vejsze és a barok (Csallóközi halászélet – A kishalászat szerszámjárása). Halászat 2 (47)/10-12, 168-170.
1954 A magyar viza története. Halászat 1/5, 13.
1954 A Sió halászeszközei. Halászat 1/9, 13.
1957 A magyar vizák története. Mezőgazdasági Múzeum Füzetei 2. Budapest
1959 Új halászati kiállítás a Mezőgazdasági Múzeumban. Halászat 6/8, 147.
Somorja legrégibb képe és a rajta levő históriás ének. In: Somorja... 140-143.

Jegyzetek

Források
A (cseh)szlovákiai magyarok lexikona 1918-tól

Reprezentačný lexikón Slovenska a Podkarp. Rusi. 1936, 154, 421.
Fogarassy László: K. A. nekrológ. Irodalmi Szemle, 1974
Vörösmarty Géza 1984: Száz esztendeje született Khín Antal, a Csallóköz kutatója. Honismeret 12/4, 16-17.
Selmeczi Kovács Attila 1997: Khín Antal és a vizahalászat. Honismeret 25/3, 73-76.
Presinszky Lajos 2000: Felső-csallóközi arcképcsarnok. Somorja, 78-85.
Pichlerová, Magda – Tomčíková, Katarína 2001: Archeologické nálezy zo Žitného ostrova – Zbierka Antala Khína. Zborník SNM 95 – Archeológia 11, 111-134.
Lelkes Vince 2013: Csallóközi lenyomatok – Emberek, történetek a sajtó tükrében. Dióspatony, 69-70.
Ďurkovič Éva 2019: Somorja kora vaskori emlékanyaga - Khin Antal gyűjteménye Somorjáról és környékéről. Spravodaj múzea - Múzeumi Híradó XXIV, 80-101.

Magyar néprajzkutatók
Szlovákiai magyar muzeológusok
Szlovákiai magyar pedagógusok
Somorjaiak
A Magyar Mezőgazdasági Múzeum munkatársai
1884-ben született személyek
1973-ban elhunyt személyek

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaWikipedia


Have you noticed how you can never really describe your dreams? The more you concentrate, the harder it is to pin down the details. Little wisps of plot escape — the most interesting parts slip away. Is that enough build-up to tell you I'm not sure I can capture Slaughtermatic in a review?
In any event, there's your warning.
Slaughtermatic is an experiment on paper. Not since John Sladek has a writer had so much fun playing with words. (If Sladek isn't a familiar name to you, you've missed out on one of the best satirist in SF. Rectify that, right away.) Aylett twists definitions and toys with everyday expressions, to add meanings that would never occur to the average, sane person.
When his characters speak, nothing that comes out of their mouths won't surprise readers. Good guys, bad guys — they're all gangster-savants. Warped philosophy and scrambled clichés mix with the infrequent coherent snippet to form a bizarre, hoodlum language like James Cagney never dreamed of. That fits, because this is a civilisation from those nightmares you can't believe come out of your own brain.
Slaughtermatic is a tale of a (hopefully) far future where crime is an art and being a victim makes a citizen the police's primary target. No need to worry about witnesses, either; they're doomed, too. These aren't crooked cops; they're Gordian knots of corruption and insanity.
All in all, it's a hoot. Many of the best lines are laugh-out-loud funny, or groan-and-roll-your-eyes bad. And both kinds are good.
That's the upside. Slaughtermatic is a mess. A chaotic, confusing tangle of virtual and fictional reality that, at times, is impossible to decipher. At times, it's easiest to let the prose wash over you and wait for understanding to catch up. Sometimes it doesn't, but by the last page the overall picture is clear enough, and the lasting impression is a positive one. Just don't insist on comprehending everything at once. Or every little word. Look for the big picture.
Aylett is a virtual unknown in North America. If you want more of his work, you may have to travel the Net to his homeland in England. If you don't mind waiting, Slaughtermatic is certain to be the first of many novels available on this side of the Atlantic.
Go ahead. Slaughtermatic is a workout for the brain, but you'll feel better for it. Just remember: the big picture.


Happy Style Friday! I hope all you slayed your week and lets talk about slaying in sheer and floral print shall we? For this cool and spring outfit I'm wearing a sleeveless high-low sheer shirt paired with green floral print jeans and white pumps. Be prepared to see me in a lot of floral print this spring-what can I say, I'm obsessed with flowers. I love this top because it is so versatile and not too revealing. Are you a fan of sheer tops? I hope this inspires you and keep reading for all the deets.
Very elegant! You look amazing!


text:
classdef tokens
    %
    %   Class:
    %   json.tokens
    %
    %   Public Functions
    %   ----------------
    %   json.tokens.load
    %   json.tokens.parse

    properties
    end

    methods (Static)
        function root = load(file_path,varargin)
            %x Load tokens from file
            %
            %   root = json.tokens.load(file_path,varargin)
            %
            %   Options are described in json.load
            %
            %   See Also
            %   --------
            %   json.load

            root = json.tokens.getRootToken(file_path,varargin{:});
        end
        function root = parse(input_string,varargin)
            %x Parse tokens from file
            %
            %   root = json.tokens.parse(file_path,varargin)
            %
            %   Optional Inputs
            %   ---------------
            %   Documented in json.tokens.load

            %TODO: Starting token needs to be an opening object or array
            %If this happens, we might have a file path
            %encountered with json.parse(file_path) which is incorrect
            %- should be json.load(file_path)
            %
            %   In other words, look for the first non-space and
            %   if it is not { or [, then most likely we need to call
            %   json.load(input) instead

            root = json.tokens.getRootToken(input_string,varargin{:},'raw_string',true);
        end
    end

    methods (Static, Hidden)
        function root = getRootToken(file_path__or__string,varargin)
            %
            %   obj = json.tokens(file_path,varargin)
            %
            %   This function should be called from the load and parse
            %   functions.
            %
            %   Optional Inputs
            %   ---------------
            %   Documented in json.tokens.load
            %
            %   See Also:
            %   ---------
            %   json.load
            %   json.parse

            mex_result = turtle_json_mex(file_path__or__string,varargin{:});

            if mex_result.types(1) == 1
                root = json.objs.token.object('root','root',1,mex_result);
            elseif mex_result.types(1) == 2
                root = json.objs.token.array('root','root',1,mex_result);
            else
                error('Unexpected parent object')
            end
        end

    end

end


Circular textured earrings available in two thicknesses of metal. Pictured in polished sterling silver with a pin textured satin finish on the reverse, featuring butterfly scroll backs.
Please select options available from dropdown menu below. If you would like an alternative metal colour or finish please get in contact for an order made to your specification.


Our June Dinner Date Evening represents the perfect opportunity to soak up the atmosphere of our glorious Georgian Manor house and try some of the wonderful food and drink that Gosfield Hall has to offer.
The house is open from 6.00pm for you to wander at your leisure, visit bedrooms you have not yet seen, take in the gorgeous Queens Gallery again or stroll around the grounds of the house.
The bar is then open from 6.30pm for you to grab and drink and then sit and relax in our stunning library before dinner.


text:
Q: Need help with self study on surds give x in the form A $ \sqrt B$ + C
$(\sqrt 3x) = 3$
can someone show me how to solve this please?

A:    (√3x) = 3
=> 3x^2 = 9     {Squaring both sides}
=> x^2 = 9/3
=> x^2 = 3
=> x = +√3 or -√3 {as square of a positive or negative number will be a positive no. so using the converse of this fact ie square root of a number may be positive or may be negative but not both.}

Now, the Answer will be x = √3 as this satisfies the equation (√3x) = 3 when x value is substituted as √3.

redpajama_set_name: RedPajamaStackExchange


text:
Invasion by Ligustrum lucidum (Oleaceae) in NW Argentina: early stage characteristics in different habitat types Roxana Aragón 1,2 * and Martha Groom 1,3
Received 09-II-2001. Corrected 26-IX-2002. Accepted 15-IX-2002. Abstract
Currently biological invasions are considered one of the world's most serious conservation problems. Ligustrum lucidum is the most abundant exotic tree in secondary forest patches of montane forests of NW Argentina. We studied the determinants of success of the early stages of its life cycle in distinct habitat types, with the hope of identifying vulnerabilities that could be exploited to control the invasion. Seed arrival, germination, seedling recruitment and survival, and sapling growth were studied in edges, gaps and forest interior. Seed arrival was also assessed under perches and in open fields. Germination was studied in forest and grass-land patches. L. lucidum seedling survival and sapling growth were compared with the most abundant native species survival and growth. Seed arrival was strongly seasonal with a peak in mid-August. Seed rain did not differ significantly among habitat types, however there was a tendency for edges to receive more seeds when only dispersed seeds were considered. Perches strongly enhanced seed arrival; more than 40 times the number of seeds were dispersed beneath citrus plants (i.e. perches) than found in paired open areas. In the forest, seeds in gaps and edges had higher germination rates, but there was no difference in seedling survival. Fruits under closed canopy exhibited the lowest germination. Germination and survival were low in open areas. Neither seedling recruitment nor sapling growth differed between gaps and forest interior. L. lucidum saplings grew significantly more than saplings of the most common native species, and also showed higher seedling survival. L. lucidum is a prolific fruit producer, is capable of germinating and surviving in a broad range of forest environments, it is relatively shade tolerant and has higher survival and faster growth rate in comprison to the most common native species. All these characteristics highlight its potency as a successful invader, and point to few vulnerabilities that could be targets of control measures.
Key words: Biological invasions, exotic species, secondary forest, montane forest, gaps, forest edges, Ligustrum lucidum
Invasive species and their capacity to transform natural ecosystems have long caught the attention of ecologists (e.g., Elton 1958). Although the invasion process is not in itself unnatural, the rate at which species reach new habitats has clearly increased during the 20 th century (Lodge 1993). The movements of organisms beyond their natural range can have several consequences, from slightly changing the species composition to causing species extinction or affecting ecosystem function (Vitousek and Walker 1989, Kareiva 1996, Parker and Reichard 1997). Ecologists have tried to identify characteristics which are common to invasive species (Baker 1974, Crawley 1986, Binggeli 1996) mainly with the hope of finding rules that may improve our predictive ability, and ultimately guide us towards practices that would reduce the risk of invasions. In the face of this current concern, studies about life history characteristics of invaders and how they vary in different habitats have gained importance for theoretical and practical purposes (D' Antonio 1993, Rejmánek and Richardson 1996).
Many invasive species show high seed production, effective dispersal, no special environmental requirements for germination or flowering, rapid seedling growth and high interspecific competitive ability (Baker 1974, Rejmánek and Richardson 1996, Vilá and D'Antonio 1998). In general, early life history characteristics appear to play an important role in determining the outcome of an invasion (Harper 1977, Drake et al. 1989). In addition, invasive species are also often associated with disturbances (Hobbs 1989, D' Antonio and Vitousek 1992). Canopy gaps and edges represent common disturbances in forest ecosystems. Canopy gaps influence germination, seedling recruitment, sapling growth, flowering and fruiting patterns (Collins and Pickett 1988, Denslow et al. 1990, Pacheco and Grau 1997, Van der Meer et al. 1998) and represent opportunities for colonizing species to reach and establish in a mature community (Brokaw 1985, Grau 1999). Edges constitute a substantial portion of forest environments (Chen and Frankling 1992, William-Linera 1993), especially in secondary patches that are often isolated in a matrix of agricultural fields or other developed areas. The success of an exotic species can be tied to its ability to colonize these different habitat types.
Several protected areas in Argentina are beset with infestations of exotic species making exotic control a critical management priority (Di Pietri 1992, Grau and Aragón 2000). More specifically, in the protected areas of the NW (mainly neotropical forests) there are several records of the presence of exotics but no information about these species is circulated among the general public or protected area managers (Grau and Aragón 2000). Understanding more about the biology of potential invaders and their habitat requirements represents a first step in designing management strategies by allowing us to determine what issues are likely to act as obstacles to conservation.
In this paper, we examine the invasion of secondary forest patches in NW Argentina by an exotic tree, Ligustrum lucidum (W. T. Aiton, 1810) (Oleaceae). L. lucidum is an evergreen tree native to Asia that is considered invasive in Australia, New Zealand and riparian forests of SE Argentina (Montaldo 1993, Cronk and Fuller 1995). Ligustrum robustum (Blume, 1850) and Ligustrum sinense (Lour., 1790) are cited as highly invasive in other subtropical and tropical areas (Cronk and Fuller 1995). Secondary forest patches are an important component of the Neotropical Mountain forest of NW Argentina, and they comprise the boundaries of many protected areas (Grau et al.1997).
The aim of this study was to describe L. lucidum performance in early stages of its life cycle in different habitats. Our main questions were: (1) Is there any particular stage in which L. lucidum is especially vulnerable?, (2) Is L. lucidum success equal in different habitat types?, and (3) What is the relative performance of L. lucidum and native species?. The underlying goal of this work was to identify some vulnerabilities that may be useful in controlling the invasion by L. lucidum.
Study area: The study was conducted in the lower montane forest of Sierra de San Javier 27º30' S, 65º40' W), Tucumán, Argentina. The vegetation corresponds to the phytogeographic province of the Argentinean "Yungas" (Cabrera 1976) and is considered the sourthern end of the Neotropical Montane forests along the eastern slope of the Andes. The study sites were located within the boundaries of Parque Biológico Sierra de San Javier (PBSSJ), a protected area of 14 000 ha located 15 km west of San Miguel de Tucumán, the capital of the province. Mean annual temperature is 18 o C, and average rainfall ranges from 969 to 1 448 mm with most precipitation falling during the summer (Hunzinger 1997).
The project was carried out in secondary forest patches between 600 to 700 m, close to the boundaries of PBSSJ. The vast majority of this area was deforested during the earlymid 1900's, and planted with citrus orchards and annual crops. After the creation of PBSSJ these lands were abandoned and are now in different stages of recovery (Grau et al. 1997).
We used an observational and an experimental approach to study the characteristics of L. lucidum in different stages of its life cycle in different habitats. Seed arrival, germination and seedling survival were studied in edges, canopy gaps and forest interior. Seed arrival was also assessed under perches (i.e., citrus plants) and in open areas. In addition, we created canopy gaps by cutting down adult L. lucidum trees and naturally occurring seedling recruitment and sapling growth were studied in these gaps and under intact canopy.
Seed arrival
To examine temporal and spatial patterns of seed rain, we used fruit traps placed in each habitat type. Traps were checked biweekly from June to September 1998, and on each occasion, seeds were counted and classified as either Dispersed Seeds or Fallen Fruits. L. lucidum dispersed seeds are easily distinguished from fallen fruits because birds digest the exocarp and part of the pulp. In addition, dispersed seeds are often found in clumps. We considered both fallen fruits and dispersed seeds because even though germination success from intact fruits is low (Burrows and Kohen 1986, R. Aragón, unpublished), given the masive fruit production of L. lucidum, fallen fruits may account for a significant number of established seedlings. Bird consumption is important because it potentially affects germination (i.e. removing of the exocarp) (Burrows and Kohen 1986) and allows dispersal to new sites.
We used a randomized complete block design with forest interior, edges and gaps as treatments. A block (i.e. replicate) consisted of three transects, one transect in each habitat type (i.e. forest interior, edges and gaps) and with four traps per transect as subsamples. The transects within each block were no more than 10 m apart. We worked with 10 replicates (i.e. blocks) and a total of 120 traps (10 blocks x 3 treatments x 4 traps). Seed traps (0.50 x 0.50 m plastic mesh plots) in each transect were approximately 3 m apart from each other. Seeds gathered in the four traps per transect were summed. To avoid the bias that could occur if distance to seed sources affected the treatments differentially we took two precautions. We placed all our replicates in forest patches where L. lucidum was very abundant (approximately 300 individuals per ha) and we used a block design (i.e. transects that represented each treatment within each block were separated for a maximum of 10 m).
To assess the role of perches in seed arrival, we worked in an abandoned citrus orchard distinguishing two treatments: open areas and under citrus plants (i.e., perches). Traps were placed in a paired design beneath citrus plants and in nearby open areas (not more than 5 m apart). Trap area was 1 m 2 with 10 replicates per treatment. Traps were checked weekly from June to September 1998 and the number of dispersed seeds was counted. Given that traps under citrus plants and in open areas within each replicate were placed only 5 m apart, we considered that distance to seed sources could seldom affect seed arrival in the two treatments differently.
Analysis: The seasonal pattern of seed arrival in each habitat type was analyzed through a repeated measures ANOVA. Seed counts were considered repeated measurements of habitats and the difference among treatments (i.e., habitat types) was tested as the linear and quadratic terms of the interaction between treatments and time (i.e., testing if the treatments had the same slopes). In these analyses we considered first the total seed arrival (the sum of fallen fruits and dispersed seeds) and then, only the dispersed seeds.
The overall seed arrival to each habitat type was compared by performing a two-way ANOVA by permutations. The randomization version of ANOVA involves calculating an F statistic from the observed data and recording what percentage of times this is exceeded by values obtained from randomized data (Manly 1997). P- values were determined based on 10 000 permutations. Due to variance heterogeneity, a two-sample t-test for unequal variances was used for the comparisons among citrus and open areas. In both cases, we used square root transformed seed counts.
Germination and survival
L. lucidum germination and survival was assessed by a field experiment in an old growth forest patch. We considered the same three situations as in the seed rain section above: forest interior, edges and gaps, with five replicates of each. In June 1998, L. lucidum fruits were collected directly from trees and were peeled manually. They were kept at room temperature for no more than a week until the trial started. In each of the five replicates, 100 seeds were placed directly on the soil in two groups of 50 seeds surrounded by a wire mesh to avoid wash out. In the forest interior, we included a treatment of fallen fruits (without removing the exocarp) in addition to the seeds, summing a total of four groups in each replicate of this treatment.
Germination and survival were recorded every 7 to 10 days from July 1998 to January 1999 and seedlings were marked as they emerged. Germination was defined as the first sign of the white root tip visible outside the endocarp. Survival of seedlings was monitored for six months. Here, survival was computed as the ratio of the number of seedlings present in a given plot at the end of the experiment and the number of seeds that germinated in that plot.
At the same time and in a similar fashion, we performed germination trials in open fields or grasslands. In each of the 8 replicates, we set up four plots with 50 seeds each, and in two treatments (two plots per treatment): areas of bare ground (i.e., "disturbated" areas where we periodically removed litter and ground vegetation) and areas with intact cover. Seeds that germinated were recorded every 7-10 days from July through December 1998.
Analysis: Randomization tests were used to compare germination and survival among treatments within forest (two-way ANOVA by permutations) or open field trials (two sample randomization test). In both cases, homogeneity of variance was checked. Due to an early lost of replicates in the grassland sites we were able to compute survival based on only three replicates and no statistical test was performed to compare forest vs. open field trials.
Change in canopy cover: An experimental approach
Higher light environments have been cited as a primary cause of changes in seedlings and saplings growth rate in forest environments (Brokaw 1985, Van der Meer et al. 1998). To see how canopy openings affect L. lucidum survival and growth, we created canopy gaps by cutting adult L. lucidum trees. Gaps sizes were similar to the naturally occurring gaps in secondary forest patches of this area (i.e., between 10 to 20 m in their longest axis) (Grau 1999).
Saplings and trees were tagged and measured at the beginning of the experiment and one year later in five gaps and five 10 x 10 m paired plots under intact canopy cover. Diameter at breast height (DBH) was measured in all woody saplings and trees taller than 2 m. Diameter at 5 cm from the base was measured in saplings taller than 0.10 m and smaller than 2 m. We also established two 1 x 1 m subplots in every gap and closed-canopy plot where we recorded spontaneous seedling recruitment monthly over one year. Total recruitment was defined as the number of individuals of each species recorded over one year period. Survival was computed in the same way as in Germination and survival above.
Analysis: We compared L. lucidum saplings with the three most abundant native species: Allophyllus edulis (Radfk., 1890), Cupania vernalis (Cambess., 1825) and Piper tucumanum (C.DC., 1898) and saplings were assigned to three diameter-height categories. These categories were chosen based on the main strata in these forests. Below-understory saplings (< 1 m in height, < 1 cm diameter) were found under the Psychotria carthagenensis (Jacq., 1790) stratum, which is the main species that forms the understory. Saplings that were 1 to 4 m in height were part of the under-story (between 1 and 2 cm in diameter), and saplings (from 2 to < 10 cm in diameter) and trees taller than 4 m constituted the subcanopy and canopy strata. In the case of L. lucidum , the two first diameter classes were pooled for the analysis.
Differences between treatments were tested using an Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) with the log of the ratio [(diameter of the second year)/ (diameter of the first year)] as a response variable and log (diameter of the first year) as a covariate. In all cases, residual normality was checked. Using also the log of the ratio of the two diameters as a response variable we tested for differences between species through a splitplot analysis with treatment (gaps and close canopy plots) as the whole plot factor and species (A. edulis, C. vernalis, P. tucumanun and L. lucidum) as the subplot factor.
We compared the recruitment of the most abundant species in gaps and under closed canopy using a two-sample randomization test (Manly 1997), checking first for equality of variances. After 5 000 permutations P-values were determined as the percentage of random differences that were equal or larger than the observed difference. The total number of seedlings that were recorded per replicate over one year was used as the response variable. Only the species that had more than 10 records were included in the analysis (C. vernalis, P. tucumanun, L. lucidum, L. sinense, P. carthagenensis, and Myrsine laetevirens). First, we compared the total number of seedlings in gaps and closed canopy for these six species combined, and then we considered each species separately.
Seedling survival was measured as the ratio between the number of seedlings that were present at the end of the experiment and the total number of seedlings that emerged. We performed a two-sample randomization test as with recruitment above. Analyses were done with SAS 6.12 and RT- 2.0.
L. lucidum seed rain was strongly seasonal with a peak in mid-August (Fig. 1a, date 5). Averaging over time, there was no difference in seed arrival (defined as the number of fallen fruits plus the number of dispersed seeds) among treatments (F= 2.45, p=0.11, d.f.= 2, 18). Only the quadratic component showed a statistically significant relationship between seed arrival and time (F= 19.52, p=0.0003, d.f.= 1, 18). Averaging over treatments, there was a significant difference between biweekly intervals considered (F=6.15, p=0.005, d.f.= 2, 6), with the maximum seed arrival in August. The total seed arrival (i.e., the sum of the seeds collected in each habitat type throughout the fruiting season) did not differ significantly among habitat types either (p=0.20, ANOVA by permutations), but showed a significant difference among replicates (i.e., blocks) (p=0.01, ANOVA by permutations). Some traps consistently received more seeds throughout the entire fruiting period.
Seeds that showed signs of having been carried by birds were taken as a measure of dispersal to each habitat type. The overall quantity of dispersed seeds (defined as the average number of dispersed seeds collected per date in the three habitat types) was mainly driven by seed arrival to edges, and also showed a peak in mid-August (Fig. 1b, date 5). The average seed arrival changed over the fruiting season (F= 3.10, p=0.007, d.f.= 6, 108; Table 1). During mid-August an average of 24 seeds were recorded in each replicate (1 m2 ) in edges, in comparison to 6.3 and 8.4 seeds under close canopy and gaps respectively. The quadratic component of the seed dispersal response curve was significantly different from 0 (Time [quadratic] F=11.31 p= 0.003, d.f.= 9, 18; Table 1), but the pattern of seed dispersal did not differ among habitat types (F=0.27 p=0.76, d.f.= 2, 18, for the interaction between the linear component and treatment and F=1.92 p=0.17, d.f.= 2, 18, for quadratic* treatment interaction; Table 1).
When considering the overall seed dispersal (i.e., the total number of seeds collected in each habitat type throughout the entire fruiting season) edges showed a slight tendency to receive more seeds in comparison to gaps and closed canopy habitats (p=0.08, ANOVA by permutations). As when fruits were considered, there was a large variation between replicates (p=0.007 ANOVA by permutations).
More than 40 times the number of seeds were dispersed beneath citrus plants than were found in paired open areas (t=3.84 p=0.003) (Fig. 2). This difference between treatments was maintained through the fruiting season and seed arrival showed a peak in the last week of July.
In both the forest sites and the open fields, seeds placed in the plots did not start to germinate until September. Five of the open field plots were vandalized during the course of the experiment, and although no statistical test was performed, germination of L. lucidum seeds seemed lower in open fields than in the forest sites (13 and 43% respectively). The germination that did occur in open fields showed no difference between areas with bare ground and areas with intact cover (p=0.24, permutation test). Many seeds in the open field experiment were removed or damaged as soon as they were placed in the field. Many of them also showed signs of desiccation, and there were no seeds remaining after the trial ended.
Percentage of germination in the forest trial was highly variable in different replicates and treatments, ranging from 8 to 75%. Germination differed among treatments (p= 0.05, permutation test), with gaps and edges having the greatest values. Fruits under closed canopy exhibited the lowest germination (Fig. 3). The survival of seedlings was similar between the different treatments with a slight tendency for gaps to have lower survival (p=0.08, permutation test). Mean seedling survival per treatment (i.e., averaging over the replicates) ranged from 60 to 98%.
As stated above many grassland (i.e., open fields) plots were lost during the course of the experiment and survival data were taken only from three plots. In these plots only 10 to 20% of the seedlings survived until the end of the trial (January 1999). Although no statistical test was performed, percentage of survival in these few plots was lower in grasslands than in the forest trial.
Change in canopy cover
Sapling growth: Only in three cases saplings grew significantly more in gaps: C. vernalis below understory saplings, A. edulis understory saplings, and P. tucumanun below understory saplings (F= 4.80, p=0.03, d.f.= 1, 7, F= 4.94, p=0.05, d.f .= 1, 3, F=5.67, p= 0.02, d.f.= 1, 22, respectively) (Table 2). Treatments had no effect in any of the L. lucidum diameter-height categories (F=0.01, p=0.97, d.f.= 1, 1 for the below understory/understory category and F= 2.71, p=0.15, d.f.=1, 6 for the above understory category) (Table 2). Change in diameter over one year was different among the species (F for species [subplot factor]= 4.77, p=0.006). L. lucidum and P. tucumanum had higher diameter growth rates in comparison to A. edulis and C. vernalis (Table 3).
Seedling recruitment and survival: The total number of seedlings that naturally emerged over one year, did not differ between gaps and under closed canopy. However, there was a marginal tendency towards finding more seedlings in gaps (p=0.08, permutation test).
There was no difference in seedling recruitment when considering each species separately, only P. carthagenensis, showed a slight tendency to have more seedlings in gaps (p=0.11, permutation test). L. lucidum seedlings recruited equally in gaps and under closed canopy (p=0.43, permutation test). Survival of all the six focal species combined did not differ between treatments (p=0.34, permutation test). L. lucidum was the only species that showed higher seedling survival in gaps (p=0.03, permutation test). Average survival of L. lucidum seedlings appeared to be higher than the average for the rest of the species (0.874 [canopy] and 0.940 [gaps] for L. lucidum vs. 0.543 [canopy] and 0.522 [gaps] for the remaining five species combined, respectively).
Many aspects of the biology of L. lucidum make it a good invader in these secondary forest patches. L. lucidum is capable of germinating and surviving in a broad range of forest habitats. Its seedlings and saplings can grow satisfactorily regardless of light conditions. It also showed higher survival and growth rate in comparison to some of the most common species in this area. Like other successful exotic woody species it is bird dispersed (Binggeli 1996), and is consumed by the most abundant birds in the area (Aragón 2000). In addition, it is able to germinate from both fallen fruits and dispersed seeds. Although germination from fallen fruits is low, given its profuse seed production, fallen fruits may play an important role in L. lucidum permanence in a given patch. Its frequent consumption by birds and its ability to germinate from intact fruits high-light L. lucidum capacity of recruitment in new or already colonized patches. All these attributes reveal its potential as a invader, already successful in this area and certainly dangerous in similar communities.
Many studies found that seed rain is more abundant in forest edges and gaps (e.g. Blake and Hoppes 1986, Herrera et al. 1994), mainly as a result of the foraging behavior of the dispersers. Although we found no statistical difference in seed arrival among habitat types, there was a tendency for edges to receive more seeds when only dispersed seeds were considered. The most abundant local dispersers in this area (Turdus rufiventris and Thraupis sayaca) are generalized frugivores (R. Aragón, unpublished), and although data about their pattern of habitat use are only anecdotal, we would expect them to use forest edges frequently. At the same time, we expect that these species' foraging patterns would be highly influenced by plant cover, and more precisely, by the presence of perches. Seed shadow generated by avian dispersers is context-dependent (Herrera et al. 1994), and even in sites a couple of meters apart, the vertical structure (cover and composition) can be quite variable and this can affect seed shadow. Two of the three replicates that consistently received more seeds were close together and shared similar vegetation structure. Despite all our replicates were located in patches where L. lucidum was dominant, it is possible that slight changes in plant cover or the presence of L. lucidum or other species fruiting trees (e.g. P. carthagenensi s) close to a particular seed trap, could have influenced foraging behavior, and therefore, seed shadow. All these factors can affect seed arrival and determine how many seeds are dropped in a given square meter (Stiles 1980, Sargent 1990, Pacheco and Grau 1997). This highlights the importance of seed dispersal in determining the spatial pattern of seed rain. Due to this high variability in seed rain (dispersed seeds) even within the same habitat type is possible that the sampling effort was insufficient to detect differences across habitats.
Perches play a significant role in bird dispersed species (McDonnel and Stiles 1983, Read and Hill 1983, Sallabanks 1992). Not only plants, but also fences and posts, can serve as perches for birds, and in turn can affect the pattern of seed rain (Read and Hill 1983). In this case, seed arrival was much more frequent under citrus plants than in open areas. Before the creation of this protected area, citrus plantations were one of the most common land uses in the piedmont of Sierra de San Javier. When citrus orchards were abandoned, land owners simply stopped cleaning the area, but did not actively remove their fruit trees unless they planted it with another crop. Many patches that are now colonized by L. lucidum were citrus orchards (Grau et al. 1997, Grau and Aragón 2000). The spatial distribution of seedlings that are clumped around old citrus plants or stumps in abandoned orchards is consistent with dispersal occurring primarily underneath perches (McDonnel and Stiles 1983, Sallabanks 1992). The scarcity of perches may delay colonization by L. lucidum until the first shrubs and trees get established.
In addition to limits imposed by poor seed dispersal, the establishment of L. lucidum in open fields is constrained by low germination success and high seedling mortality. Grasslands are a more hostile environment due to enhanced seed predation (mainly by rodents and birds), higher evapotranspiration rates, and greater variability in both temperature and moisture conditions (Uhl et al. 1988, Manson and Stiles 1998). Colonization by Myrica faya in open sites in Hawaii is reduced due to its inability to germinate and survive, as well as by the lack of seed dispersal to this kind of habitat (Vitousek and Walker 1989). This may be also the case in the first stages of colonization of open fields by L. lucidum. However, the invasibility of open sites may change after a few shrubs and trees that attract dispersers and provide protection have established.
Tree fall gaps seem to provide good intermediate conditions in terms of moisture and light for seed germination; however this did not have a clear effect on L. lucidum seedling establishment and survival. Seed dispersal into gaps may be subject to enhanced seed predation and seedling mortality, which could balance the effect of an increase in growth and sapling survival (Schupp 1988). In the case of L. lucidum a trend was clear for higher seed germination in gaps but not for seedling survival. Seedling survival was lower in gaps in our six-month trial (i.e. survival experiment in natural gaps), but higher when considering the results of the one-year experiment. This seems to indicate that seedling mortality (mainly due to desiccation and herbivory) may be higher in gaps in the early stages of establishment, but after seedlings survive the dry season (first months of both experiments), overall survival is higher in gaps. Although no measurements were taken, seedlings in gaps seemed larger than seedlings under close canopy.
Saplings grew equally well in a wide range of light availability from closed canopy sites to edges. This makes L. lucidum less dependent on disturbances such as tree fall gaps. L. lucidum saplings are abundant under its own canopy, and given that it is an evergreen tree, the understory is quite shaded all year. In contrast, some subcanopy species (i.e., C. vernalis and A. edulis) may depend on gaps for their survival and growth. Sapling growth rate of native canopy species and L. lucidum could not be compared due to the small sample of canopy species. L. lucidum saplings have a diameter growth rate similar to P. tucumanun, an understory small tree. Other species of the genus Piper have been cited as fast growing species that respond to gaps (Marquis 1988, Denslow et al. 1990). L. lucidum growth rate is higher than rates of the subcanopy natives, C. vernalis and A. edulis. This may also represent an advantage, especially in low light conditions existing within L. lucidum patches.
In summary, this detailed analysis reveals many attributes that can explain the success of L. lucidum as an invader. L. lucidum has a prolific fruit production, it is consumed by the most common species of birds in the area (Aragón 2000). L. lucidum establishes and survives in a wide range of conditions, although it appears to be a poor colonizer of the first stages of succession in open habitats. It may recruit better into areas with some canopy cover, both because its principle dispersers prefer areas with perches, and because the conditions for germination are more favorable. L. lucidum is relatively shade tolerant and has a fast growth rate even in the dark L. lucidum understory. In addition, L. lucidum grows more rapidly than most of the native species, and thus may outcompete natives once it has become established in a plot.
Given the many advantages to L. lucidum as an invader, control of this invasion may only be possible at early stages in the invasion process. The control of invasive species is usually economically restrictive and ecologically infeasible when they are already widespread in an area (Simberloff 1997). The eradication of L. lucidum from patches when it is already dominant is extremely difficult (Little 1982), however control of its establishment in new patches may be feasible. The highest priority should be given to discouraging its cultivation as landscape plants in houses or roadsides to avoid colonization of new areas and actively eradicating any trees that could serve as seed sources. Unfortunately, these results point to few vulnerabilities that could be targets of control measures.
This research was supported by CONICET and Sigma Xi fellowships. We are indebted to P. Vaquera, K. Buzza and A. Novillo for field assistance. D. Dickey, J. Gilliam, C. Brownie, T. Wentworth and R. Grau all provided critical comments on the study design, analysis and early versions of the manuscript.
Las invasiones biológicas son consideradas actualmente uno de los problemas de conservación más serios. Ligustrum lucidum es el árbol exótico mas abundante en los bosques secundarios del NO de Argentina. Estudiamos llegada de semillas, germinación, reclutamiento y crecimiento de renovales en claros, bordes e interior del bosque La llegada de semillas también se estudió bajo perchas y en sitios abiertos. La supervivencia y el crecimiento de renovales de L. lucidum fueron comparados con los de las especies nativas mas abundantes. El arribo de semillas fue estacional y los bordes mostraron una tendencia a recibir mas semillas dispersadas. La presencia de perchas aumentó la llegada de semillas. Dentro del bosque, las semillas germinaron mas en claros y bordes, pero no hubo diferencia en sobrevivencia. La germinación y la supervivencia fue baja en sitios abiertos. El reclutamiento y crecimiento de renovales no difirió entre claros e interior del bosque. Los renovales de L. lucidum crecieron mas que los renovales de las especies nativas mas comunes. L. lucidum se establece y sobrevive en un amplio rango de condiciones, es relativamente tolerante a la sombra y tiene una rápida tasa de crecimiento. Estas características indican su capacidad invasora, y señalan escasas vulnerabilidades que puedan ser usadas para su control.
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1. Dept. of Zoology, PO Box 7617, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695-7617 and LIEY. CC 34, 4107 Yerba Buena, Tucumán, Argentina.
2. Present address: IFEVA, Departamento de Ecología, Facultad de Agronomía, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Av. San Martín 4453, 1417 Buenos Aires, Argentina; aragon@ifeva.edu.ar
3. Present address: Dept. of Zoology, P.O. Box 351800, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195-1800.


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'Queen Sugar' Appoints New Showrunner
Queen Sugar just scored a storytelling gem with Monica Macer, their newly appointed showrunner for season two.
Ava DuVernay, who took on the executive producer and directorial role that lead to the riveting success of season one, is set to begin directing A Wrinkle in Time.
But, no worries, the show is good hands as Macer was the creative mind behind series such as NBC's Nashville, Vh1's The Breaks (co-executive producer), Fox's Prison Break and ABC's Lost.
"I am delighted that Monica is joining the Queen Sugar family, adding her unique voice and creative vision to the Bordelon siblings' journey," DuVernay told Deadline.com. "We are fortunate to be able to include Monica as we prepare for all the great things to come in the next season."
Queen Sugar scored the highest-rated two-night premiere in OWN's history, when it made it's September debut.
With stellar performances from Kofi Siriboe, Rutina Wesley, and Dawn-Lyen Gardner among supporting cast members, the story of the Bordelon's lives and struggles to keep up the family business after their father's passing, not only touches the heart but introduced a more in-depth look at the history of Black farmers and their battle with estate taxes.
While season one is still gaining love and applause nationwide, we're already looking to see what season two will deliver!
Queen Sugar airs Wednesday nights on OWN, 10/9 cst.
TagsAva DuVernayKofi SiriboeQueen Sugarslideshow
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